Diagenetic Process and Their Effect

on Reservoir Quality in Miocene

Carbonate Reservoir, Offshore,
Sarawak, Malaysia

Hammad Tariq Janjuhah, Ahmed Mohammad Ahmed Salim,

Deva Parsed Ghosh and Ali Wahid

Abstract The carbonate platforms form one of the genetic gas reservoirs in the
subsurface in Central Luconia, offshore, Sarawak, Malaysia. A detailed investiga-
tion of available core and thin sections revealed that different diagenetic parameters
influence the reservoir quality in Central Luconia. Marine diagenesis, dissolution,
and burial are the three main diagenetic environments that have affected the car-
bonate rocks in Central Luconia. Micrite envelop, cementation, fracture, com-
paction, and dissolution are the dominant diagenetic parameters which are identied
in the current eld of study. Among all the observed diagenetic features, dissolution
feature was formed as a result of subaerial exposure during the meteoric diagenesis
and contribute to porosity enhancement and reservoir quality. The compaction and
cementation (calcite and dolomite) have a negative impact on the reservoir
behavior. Based on the observed qualitative porosity types and their quantitative
distribution in Well A of Central Luconia, the porosity in Central Luconia is a
combination of depositional, diagenetic and fracturing. The diagenetic porosity is
the far more dominant types of porosity, and the carbonate reservoir in Central
Luconia is the type of diagenetic reservoirs.

Keywords Diagenetic processes
Porosity types
Reservoir quality

H.T. Janjuhah (&)

South East Asia Carbonate Research Laboratory, Department of Geosciences,
University Technology PETRONAS, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: Hammadtariq013@gmail.com
A.M.A. Salim
A. Wahid
Department of Geosciences, University Technology PETRONAS,
32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: mohamed.salim@petronas.com.my
A. Wahid
e-mail: aliwahid@live.com
D.P. Ghosh
Centre for Seismic Imaging, Department of Geosciences, University Technology
PETRONAS, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: drdeva@petronas.com.my

Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 545

M. Awang et al. (eds.), ICIPEG 2016,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3650-7_48
546 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

1 Introduction

Central Luconia is found to be a prolic gas exploration target for many oil
companies since it was proven to contain numerous amount of hydrocarbon. These
carbonates in Central Luconia are economically signicant, containing 65 trillion
cubic feet of gas in place with minor contribution of oil [1, 2]. In addition, more
than 120 carbonate buildups still remain undrilled.
In order to have a good understanding of the carbonate rocks at reservoir scales,
the rst step is to understand them at the pore scale. Carbonate rocks are very
complex to predict the porosity and permeability. Porosity in carbonate rock is
distributed into three genetic categories, chronologically the rst step during
deposition, then diagenesis (Vuggy, Moldic, etc.), and later on due to compaction
(fracture porosity). In order to predict the reservoir quality, it is necessary to
understand the origin of porosity and its effect on reservoir properties. However, the
diagenesis and the effect of diagenetic processes on reservoir properties in Central
Luconia carbonate rock were still missing prior to the present study. The objective
of this study is to highlight the different diagenetic processes which affect the
carbonate rock in Central Luconia and different porosity types with quantitative
distribution to determine the reservoir quality.

2 Regional Geology

Central Luconia is one of the biggest gas provinces in Sarawak basin, offshore NW
Borneo (Fig. 1). It is dominated by the large development of middle Miocene to
recent carbonate [3]. The west Baram line to the west distinguished the Central
Luconia from Baram delta [4], and to the south is the Balingian Province that
extended into Central Luconia (Fig. 1).
Several geologic provinces surrounded by Central Luconia have been identied
based on their structural and stratigraphic pattern. Central Luconia is flanked by
deep basins on the west, north, and east sides, respectively [3]. Basement-involved
extensional tectonics, strike-slip, and wrench tectonic structures are represented in
the different parts of Central Luconia basin [4, 5].
The southern part of Central Luconia during the Oligocene to Early Miocene
was dened as a coastal plain to inner neritic setting [4, 6, 7], whereas inner and
outer neritic was described for the northern part of Central Luconia. The extensional
forces during the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene time divided the Central
Luconia into several half graben and graben structures heading SSWNNE orien-
tation, which are the products of normal faults [8, 9]. The normal fault negatively
impacted the carbonate growth in Central Luconia. During the Middle Miocene
time, the dextural strick-slip fault deformation dominantly representing the exten-
sional setting and these dextral stick-slip faults affected the internal stratigraphy or
the growth of carbonate platform that grew on the heights of fault-bounded.
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 547

Fig. 1 Offshore Sarawaks

location and structural map
showing the boundaries of the
carbonate platform of the
Central Luconia Province.
Modied from [3]

3 Materials and Methods

The available core of 492 ft of Well A from Central Luconia is studied in this
research to observe different parameters such as lithology, texture, grain size,
porosity, and allochems. To carry out the petrographic study, 80 thin sections were
prepared from a depth interval of 999910489 ft (Fig. 2). These thin sections
represent different facies and different lithologies based on grain density, different
porosity, and permeability variation with depth (Fig. 2). These thin sections were
stained and studied under the polarized light microscope to identify the different
diagenetic parameters, such as micritic envelop, cementation, dissolution,
mechanical compaction, chemical compaction, and stylolite. In order to classify the
porosity types, the classication by Choquette and Pray [10] was used. The
quantitative distribution of different porosity types was also studied in each selected
thin section (Fig. 3) to understand the quality of the reservoir.

4 Results

4.1 Diagenesis

Petrography reveals a variety of diagenetic features. Detailed accounts of diagenetic

features are presented below.
548 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

Fig. 2 Sedimentological log showing the location of selected thin section based on stratigraphic
position, gamma ray, density, porosity, permeability, and facies types

4.1.1 Micrite Envelopes

Micrite envelopes are the rst diagenetic phase, and it takes place in the marine
diagenesis environment of limestone. Micrite envelopes have original aragonitic
mineralogical composition. Aragonite dissolves in the early phase of diagenesis and
is replaced by calcite. The evidence of the presence of micrite evaporates locally at
the depth of 10036 ft (Fig. 4a) and 10164.3 and 10374 ft (Fig. 4b), forming crusts
around echinoderm plate and some other bioclasts. In the next phase, the aragonite
dissolved into grains containing aragonitic minerals and precipitated as calcite
cement.
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 549

Fig. 3 Quantitative distribution of porosity types in Well A, Central Luconia, Sarawak, Malaysia

In some cases, all the internal structures are destroyed and no internal structures
are observed, but outer structures and morphology of these grains are preserved.
The micrite envelopes affected permeability by lling up the pore spaces (Fig. 4b).
550 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

(a) (b)
Micrite Envelop Micrite Envelop

Bioclasts
with LMC
Survived

Fig. 4 Photo-micrograph representing features of diagenesis. a Diagenetic process of

Echinodermate and bioclasts (1) HMC nature of echinoderm plates leads to neomorphism (2)
Bioclasts with LMC survived at the depth of 10036 ft. b Diagenetic process of Echinodermate at
the depth of 10165 ft, Echinodermplate neomorphosed and fractured during telodiagenesis

4.1.2 Cementation

The cementation of carbonate sediments is always taken into an important diage-

netic process. Based on the petrographic investigation, two types of cements, calcite
and dolomite, occurred in Well A. On a certain occasion, the calcite cementation is
followed by stylolization. Toward the younger/upper part of the Well A, the
appearances of calcite cement become dominant (Fig. 5a). At the depth of 10375 ft,
the dolomitic cement lled up the pore spaces (Fig. 5b). Its crystals are smaller in
size at margins and get larger toward the center of pores as per the available
accommodation spaces.

(a) (b)

Dolomite

Calcite

Fig. 5 Photo-micrograph of microfacies and features of diagenesis. a Calcite cement lling up the
pore spaces at the depth of 10062 ft. b Dolomitization occured, dolomite lling up the pore spaces
and reducing porosity, with sample depth 10375.7 ft
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 551

4.1.3 Mechanical Compaction

The next diagenetic event is mechanical compaction. In the case of thin section
observation, the poorly cemented components are broken down as a result of an
increase of mechanical compaction (Fig. 4a). Mechanical compaction also plays an
important role in enhancing porosity and permeability by forming fractures.

4.1.4 Fracture

Tectonic stresses, overburden pressure, and pre- and post-cementation phase lead to
fractures. Various horizontal and vertical fracture veins are found in the measured
section at different depths (Figs. 5a and 6a). Different phases of fractures, along
with stylolization, have been observed. The development of stylolite in the
organic-rich mud has also been observed at the depth of 10043 ft which disrupts the
fractures growth (Fig. 6b). The investigated sections reveal the enhancement of
effective porosity and permeability due to the occurrence of various phases of
fractures forming interconnectivity. Moreover, the lling of host area creates
additional porosity, which took place in the process of dissolution.

4.1.5 Chemical Compaction

In the last stage of diagenesis, the compaction increases as a result of overburden

pressure or due to tectonic stress. The grain-to-grain contact took place, which is
clearly observed at the depth of 10363.8 ft (Fig. 7a, b). The chemical compaction
results in the reduction of the overall pore throat size and volume as well. The
embayment of one grain into another is also observed.

(a) (b)

Fracture

Stylolite

Fracture
Organic Rich Mud

Fig. 6 Photo-micrograph of fractures. a Dissolution, overburden, or tectonic activity resulting in

fracture at the depth of 10364.8 ft. b Calcied algal mounds with bedding parallel late-stage
fractures and different levels of stylolites lled with organic matter at the depth of 10043 ft
552 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

(a) (b)
G-G Contact G-G Contact

Fig. 7 Photo-micrograph representing grain-to-grain contact. a Representing grain-to-grain

contact at the depth of 10363.8 ft. b Representing the grain-to-grain contact at the same depth
at 10363.8 ft

4.1.6 Stylolite

The stylolites develop as a result of pressure dissolution or chemical compaction.

The formations of stylolites are the product of continuous dissolution of compacted
grains. In the recorded thin sections, the indication of pressure solution seams and
the development of stylolites are observed, which are the indications of chemical
compaction due to the result of tectonic activities or overburden pressure. The
various levels of stylolites are observed in the studied thin sections, ranging from
low-amplitude stylolite (Fig. 6b) to high-amplitude stylolite which is found in
mudstone. However, the stylolites are frequently found throughout the core in this
study.

4.1.7 Dissolution

Dissolution is one of the important diagenetic processes which has a positive impact
on porosity and permeability. The secondary porosity is formed by the mechanism
of dissolution. Vuggy, moldic, and interparticle porosity is generated by the process
of dissolution, as a result of cement dissolution. In Well A, the dissolution formed
vuggy porosity, which is in the form of touching and connected vugs (Fig. 8a).
The size of these vugs reached up to 1 cm. It is variable with a matrix back-
ground. The vuggy porosity enhances the reservoir quality, but some of these pores
have subsequently been lled with cement and have a negative impact on reservoir
quality (Fig. 8b). The meteoric freshwater is the place where dissolution thought to
take place.
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 553

(a) (b)

Fig. 8 Photo-micrograph representing dissolution process. a Dissolution process forming

connected vugs at the depth of 10186 ft and b Vugs formed by the process of dissolution and
later lled with cement at the depth of 10278 ft

4.2 Porosity

The different types of porosity (Fig. 9) are observed in thin sections along with their
quantitative distribution (Fig. 10) in Well A as described below.

4.2.1 Moldic Porosity

The moldic porosity is the dominant porosity type in Well A. The dissolution of
unstable shell fragments results in moldic porosity. The average amount of moldic
porosity in thin sections is up to 40% (Fig. 10). In some samples, the moldic
porosity (Fig. 9a) reduced dramatically by the plugged of calcite cement.

4.2.2 Vuggy Porosity

The vuggy porosity is the second dominant porosity type. The formation of vuggy
porosity is the cause of non-fabric selective dissolution, which is commonly
observed throughout all the selected study samples (Fig. 9c) in the form of either
connected vugs or disconnected vugs as a result of cement. The vuggy porosity
ranges from 20 to 25% (Fig. 10).

4.2.3 Intraparticle Porosity

The intraparticle porosity is the primary and fabric selective. It occurred mostly in
different types of bioclasts (Fig. 9a), such as foraminifera and red algae. The
amount of intraparticle porosity ranges from 15 to 20% (Fig. 10).
554 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

(a) (b)
Intraparticle Porosity

Fracture Porosity

Moldic Porosity

(c) (d)

Interparticle Porosity

Fig. 9 Photo-micrograph representing different types of porosity. a Intraparticle and moldic

porosity at the depth of 10090 ft. b Fracture porosity at the depth of 10250 ft. c Vuggy porosity at
the depth of 10259 ft. d Interparticle porosity at the depth of 10357.7 ft

4.2.4 Interparticle Porosity

The interparticle porosity (Fig. 9d) in the current study is an average amount of
10%.

4.2.5 Fracture Porosity

Fracture porosity is rarely observed in Well A (Fig 9b). The identied fractures are
open to semilled with calcite cement, but the open fractures are the dominant ones
(Fig. 9b).
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 555

Fig. 10 Quantitative distribution of porosity types in Well A, Central Luconia, Offshore Sarawak,
Malaysia

5 Discussion

In the current study, three diagenetic processes affected the diagenetic alteration,
which are marine diagenesis, dissolution, and burial. Marine environment is the rst
process of diagenetic alteration. The most important marine diagenetic features
include micrite envelopes, microcrystalline, and peloid cements [11]. The presence
of algae activity in the allochems is the result of micritization [12]. The formation of
micrite envelop around the bioclasts takes place by the alteration of bioclastic grain
or below by endolithic algae in a quieter water area [13]. Micritization of allochems
is observed by the presence of algae, which took place in the early stage of dia-
genesis on the seafloor. Micritization process is an early diagenetic process char-
acteristic of the shallow marine setting [12, 14]. Firstly, around the allochems, the
micrite envelops are formed (Fig. 4a, b). Based on this action, the allochems are
replaced by micrite. Since the endolithic algae action is intense, most of the other
allochems and skeletal grains are highly micritized as observed at the depth of
10154.5 (Fig. 11a) and 10165.5 ft (Fig. 11b).
After the deposition of carbonate in Central Luconia, the meteoric diagenesis
affected the formation. Undersaturated meteoric water affected the carbonate rock as a
result of dissolution by forming vuggy porosity at different depths (Figs. 8a and 9c).
The burial diagenetic processes have also affected the carbonate rock.
Compaction, fracture, calcite, and dolomitization are the major burial events. Fitted
fabric and shell breakage (Fig. 4a) are the result of overburden pressure during the
556 H.T. Janjuhah et al.

Fig. 11 Photo-micrograph representing highly micritized skeletal grains. a Randomly oriented,

multiple types of bioclasts with highly micritized grains at the depth of 10154.5 ft. b Bioclasts
with varied textural maturity. Randomly oriented, multiple types of bioclasts with high
micritization at the depth of 10165.5 ft

shallow burial environment. With respect to the increase of burial depth, the
overburden pressure increased and solution seems and stylolites (Fig. 6b) and
fracture (Figs. 4b, 5a, 6a and 9b) are formed. The source of calcite cement which is
dissolved during the formation of stylolite is probably as a result of overburden
pressure.
Calcite and dolomite cement play an important role in decreasing the porosity.
Calcite cement lled in the vugs (Fig. 8b) and decreased the void spaces. The deep
burial stage was associated with extensive neomorphism (Fig. 4a) that had con-
verted the bioclasts, matrix, and mesogenatic cement spars into regionally varying
sized clumsy. These processes sealed all the pores that were present in the rock. The
accurate timing of dolomitization is difcult to determine, but it seems that ne
crystal dolomites are formed early (Fig. 9c) than coarse crystalline dolomites
(Fig. 9d). The rate of dolomitization increases with time.

5.1 Diagenetic Processes and Its Effect on Reservoir Quality

Diagenetic processes were responsible in Central Luconia for the modication of

reservoir quality. Micritization, cementation, compaction, dissolution, and
dolomitization are the more signicant diagenetic processes that influence the
reservoir quality of the Central Luconia carbonate reservoir. The influence of dia-
genetic processes on Central Luconia carbonate rocks is categorized into two
classes which are enhancing porosity and decreasing porosity. Generally, the
reservoir quality is diagenetically controlled [12, 15, 16]. The micritization usually
lls up the pore throats which have an effect on permeability. During burial
compaction, sometimes porosity reduction is prevented due to micritization [15]. In
micritization processes, most of the bioclastic grains are totally micritized by the
Diagenetic Process and Their Effect 557

action of intensive endolithic algae action and caused the formation of micrite
envelop which have negative impact on permeability. The dissolution process plays
an important role in increasing the porosity [17]. Three types of porosity, vuggy,
moldic, and enlarged intergranular, are generated in the process of dissolution [10].
Vuggy porosity (Fig. 9c) and moldic (Fig. 9a) porosity are the results of dissolution
process. Dissolution process has a positive effect on reservoir quality. Fracture
appeared (Fig. 4B, 5a, 6a and 9b) in the study interval as well.
Reservoir quality is highly affected by the most important diagenetic feature
which is cementation [12]. In the studied thin sections, calcite cement has a neg-
ative effect on reservoir quality. Calcite cement replaced bioclasts with minor-to-no
visible porosity.

6 Conclusion

In summary, micritization, cementation, dissolution, compaction, and dolomitiza-

tion are the most important diagenetic processes which affected the Central Luconia
carbonate rock. Among all, cementation, dolomitization, and compaction reduce
porosity, whereas dissolution increases porosity. Although the effect of dissolution
began during meteoric diagenesis in the studied rock and it did not expose for a
long time, it increased porosity but not effectively compared to Persian Gulf.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Sarawak Shell Sdn Bhd and Petronas Sdn
Bhd for providing data and supporting the Ph.D. work. The author also thanks Prof Michael.
C. Poppelreiter and Dr. Mumtaz shah for their skilled help.

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