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Modules 2,3 / Topic 3

SHEAR STRENGTH: THE CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF SOIL

3.1 Introduction
The strength of a material in any mode is the highest or ultimate value of stress it can
sustain or resist in that mode. The basic modes occurring are tension, compression, shear
and torsion. The characteristic strength of concrete is its compressive strength, and that
of steel its tensile strength. The characteristic strength of soil, however, is its shear
strength. Concrete also has tensile strength even though very minor and shear
strength. In the same way steel has compressive strength of comparable magnitude as
the tensile strength, and a shear strength of nearly half that value (Kurian, 2005: Sec.
7.4.3). In the case of soil also small cylindrical samples can be extracted and tested in
compression under an all round pressure (as in the triaxial test) or without it (as in the
unconfined compression test). The strengths so obtained are known to be functions of
the shear strength of the soil. Soil, however, has negligible strength in tension.

The fact that a body of soil can stay in a slope (Fig.3.1a) is because it possesses shear
strength.Since water has no shear strength, the surface of a still body of water must
always remain horizontal (Fig.3.1b).

The pressure exerted by soil on a retaining wall (see Topic 4) is a function of its shear
strength. Since water has no shear strength, the pressure exerted by water on a weir or
dam is higher, notwithstanding its lesser unit weight typically double the earth pressure.
In fact herein lies the essence of the stabilizing action of drilling mud on the sides of cuts
as in boreholes and trenches (Topic 44).

The bearing capacity of a foundation, such as a footing, which transmits loads from
the superstructure on to the soil below, is also a function of the shear strength of the soil.
The soil, in wedge form, fails in shear (Topic 5) and we use the term shear failure also
for failure in bearing capacity. Since water has no shear strength, it has also no bearing
capacity.

All the above go to prove that shear strength is a fundamental property of a soil on
which depends the pressure exerted by the soil and the pressure borne or resisted by the
soil. In fact, the entire body of Soil Mechanics is built on the basic fact that the
characteristic strength of soil is its shear strength.

3.2 Shear strength parameters

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The shear strength of a soil is derived from two parameters - called shear strength
parameters - which are inherent properties of the soil. They are cohesion (c) and the
angle of internal friction ().

3.2.1 Law of the shear strength of soil

The law for the shear strength of soil was propounded as early as 1773 by Charles
Augustine Coulomb, a French military engineer. (Coulomb is also credited with the
wedge theory of earth pressure-Topic 4.) In fact Coulombs law for shear strength is
considered the first milestone in classical soil mechanics.

In its original form, the law states (see Fig.3.2):

s = c + tan (3.1)

where s is the shear strength (kN/m2),

c is the cohesion (kN/m2),

is the normal stress (kN/m2) and

is the angle of internal friction (degree).

s plots as a straight line against as shown in Fig.3.3. (It is of the same form as y =
mx + c, (see Kurian, 2005: App.E). In the plot c is the y-intercept and is the inclination
of the straight line from the horizontal, if s and are plotted to the same scale.

When we examine Eq.(3.1), it is clear that c is always mobilised, that is, the
contribution of c to s is always available; but the contribution of is mobilised only to
the extent the normal stress is mobilised. (This is the case in all problems involving
mechanical friction). This means, if the normal stress is 0, the contribution of to s is 0
too, even when soil has a positive value for which is a property inherent in it. On the
other hand, if is 0, there is no contribution of to s even if is present. As regards
c, its contribution to s does not depend upon .

Depending upon the predominance of c and , we can have the following extreme
soil types.

c > 0, = 0 ideally cohesive soil,

c = 0, > 0 cohesionless soil.

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The general case of a soil having c > 0, > 0 is called a cohesive soil, because
the term cohesive per se does not rule out the presence of friction. Hence the term
ideally for describing a purely c > 0, = 0 soil. On the other hand the term cohesionless
for the second type does rule out the presence of cohesion.

One may also call the above soils csoil, -soil and c- soil, using the respective
symbols.

Fig.3.3 shows all the cases mentioned above. (In the ccase, since the shear strength
line is parallel to the x-axis, it is independent of . Since the shear strength line in the
- case starts at the origin, c is absent in s.)

3.3. Determination of c and from the direct shear test

The shear box carrying the soil sample is in two halves (Fig.3.4). Under a given normal
stress , the bottom half of the box is moved sideways until the soil fails by shear at the
interface of the two halves. The corresponding failure load is noted and plotted in the
figure (Fig.3.4). The test is repeated at different values of and a straight line is fitted
through the points so obtained. c and are obtained as the y-intercept and the inclination
of the fitted line, as shown.

3.4. The Mohrs circle

The Mohrs circle provides a graphical means of determining the normal stress and
shear stress on any plane in a 2D biaxial stress situation.

Fig.3.5 shows the cross section of a long rectangular prism of any material subjected
to stresses 1 (vertical) and 3 (lateral). Being a 2D case, the prism is, theoretically,
infinitely long and whatever happens on the cross section shown in the figure is identical
at all parallel cross sections, i.e. in the length direction perpendicular to the plane of the
paper (in this case the monitor screen). 1 and 3 are principal (normal) stresses since
they are unaccompanied by shear stresses on the respective planes. There is no
principal stress 2 on the cross sectional face. i.e. in the length direction, which makes it
a purely biaxial stress situation.

The Mohrs circle is drawn on a plot (Fig. 3.5) with (the normal stress) on the x-axis
and s (the shear stress) on the y-axis. The principal stresses 1 and 3 are plotted on
the x-axis as OB and OA and a circle is drawn (only half the circle is shown) with AB as
diameter. This circle is called the Mohrs circle.
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Our effort is to determine the normal stress n and the shear (tangential) stress t on a
plane inclined at to the horizontal. This is accomplished by drawing a line inclined at
2 from the centre of the Mohrs circle C. The point of intersection of this line with the
circumference of the circle, D gives n and t on the inclined plane as shown. Note that the
same point of intersection D can be obtained by drawing a line from A inclined at . (This
follows from the result that the same arc such as BD subtends at any point on the
circumference half the angle which it subtends at the centre.) One can draw the complete
circle and get the stress picture on all planes with varying from 0 to 1800 . In this respect
point A is called the origin of planes or the pole.

3.4.1 The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory for soils

The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory integrates the Mohrs circle at failure with the shear
strength (Coulomb) line as shown in Fig.3.6. In this figure the 1 is the value of 1 at
failure against the given 3 . It is found that the shear strength line is tangential to this
circle with the point of contact A representing failure. This means, shear failure occurs

on a plane inclined at (45 + ) (Fig. 3.6). The normal and shear stresses acting on the
2
failure plane are marked in the figure. The ratio (s/) has the highest value in this plane,
which earns it the name the plane of maximum obliquity (Gulhati and Datta, 2005, Sec
11.8). It is called so in the sense that the angle will attain the maximum value when
(s/) is the highest. (see figure which shows increasing by increasing s at the same ,
and decreasing at the same s.)

What is, however, interesting is the fact that failure does not occur on the plane of
maximum shear (Point B) which is inclined at 450 . It is easily verified that in this plane:
1 3
s= , which is the radius of the Mohrs circle, and
2
1 +3
= 2
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3.5 Determination of c, from the triaxial shear test

The triaxial test provides facility for failing a small cylindrical soil sample by increasing
1 to failure against a given constant 3 . (In the actual test the sample is subjected to an
allround pressure 3 and the deviator stress is increased till failure occurs (Fig3.7a).) So
1 = 3 + deviator stress at failure. Since the shear strength line is tangential to the
Mohrs circle, if two tests are conducted on two different but identical samples at two
different values of 3 , two Mohrs circles can be drawn. Since the shear strength line
must be tangential to both the circles, a common tangent called Mohrs envelope is
drawn from which c and follow as shown in Fig. 3.7b.

It is necessary for one to clearly appreciate that this is a biaxial case resulting from
axisymmetry. Being axisymmetric, what happens on any diametric plane is the same as
what happens on any other diametric plane, which makes it a purely 2D or biaxial case.
(The corresponding picture in the rectangular prism case (Fig.3.5) was that what happens
on any cross sectional plane is the same as what happens on any other cross sectional
plane all of which are parallel, and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.)

If it is a -soil, since only one shear strength parameter, viz. is to be determined,

one test would suffice. Since c = 0, the Mohrs envelope starts at the origin and must
be tangential to the Mohrs circle (Fig. 3.8).

If it is a c-soil, again one test would be sufficient, and since =0, the tangent must
be horizontal and pass through B (Fig. 3.9) giving c as shown. It is noted in this case that
failure occurs at the 450 plane.

If it is an unconfined compression test (3 = 0) on a c-soil or a predominantly c -soil,

qu
1 = qu (Fig. 3.10) and c = , where qu is the unconfined compressive strength.
2

In the limit, if it is water for which c = = 0, the x-axis itself is the Mohrs envelope
which means the Mohrs circle is a point lying on the x-axis (Fig. 3.11). Since 1 and 3
coincide at this point, 1 = 3 , or pv = ph .

3.6 The effective stress parameters c' and '

Our discussion so far veered round to total shear strength parameters c and . It is
relevant in respect of saturated soils to investigate the effective stress parameters c and
, taking into account the influence of pore water pressure on the results. At the failure
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plane in a saturated soil the presence of pore water obviously does not contribute to shear
strength simply because water has no shear strength. Therefore frictional failure (slip)
can only occur along the points of grain contact at the failure plane produced by the
effective normal stress and the effective angle of internal friction . It is therefore
reasonable and necessary to rewrite the shar strength equation in terms of the effective
stress parameters as:

s = c+ ' tan ' (3.2)

If the soil in the field is in a saturated state, and if it has facility to drain under load
(consolidation Topic 7), it would be more relevant to relate the long term behaviour of
the soil to its effective stress parameters. (Note that even when water is slowly but
continuously draining under consolidation, the soil remains saturated at all levels of
consolidation. The pore pressure, however, will be negligible at advanced stages of
consolidation (Murthy, 1974: Ch.13).)

3.6.1 Determination of the effective stress parameters

Determination of the effective stress parameters c' and can be achieved by the
same triaxial test if we can either measure pore pressure in the sample during test under
and 3 and 1 , or else, allow the sample to drain under load and then conduct the test.

The former approach is indeed faster where it is possible to conduct the triaxial test
with facility for pore pressure measurement. The total and effective Mohrs circles can be
drawn as shown in Fig. 3.12 from which one can get c , and , .

One cannot predict for certain how different and would be compared to c and
in quantitative terms since it depends on several interacting parameters. A typical result
could be, c < c and > .
Analysis using c and is called total stress analysis and that using c and is called
effective stress analysis. Total stress analysis is more relevant in the short term and
effective stress analysis, in the long term. The short/long term differentiation is on
account of consolidation. While the theory of consolidation can predict quantitatively the
time it takes for a given percentage of consolidation to occur, short/long term behaviours
are not expressed quantitatively in relation to time.

Total and effective stress parameters can be based on undrained (subscript U) or

quick tests and drained (subscript D) tests respectively. The unconfined compression
test is always an undrained or quick test.

Summarising the above, we can state the following terms in mutual association.
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short term behaviour undrained (quick) test total stress analysis

long term behaviour drained (slow) test effective stress analysis

Between total stress (short term) and effective stress (long term) analysis, design must
cater to the more critical of the two states.

The above applies to cohesive soils because of the time-dependent nature of its
behaviour thanks to consolidation, It is not relevant in the case of a cohesionless soil like
sand where, in the field, drainage and therefore consolidation takes place instantaneously
on the application of the load.

3.7 Undraind/drained triaxial tests

The triaxial test provides facility for the drainage of the sample in two phases, 1) after
the application of the all round pressure (3 ), and 2) during the stagewise increase of the
deviator stress until failure occurs. Accordingly we have three types of tests, which are:

1) Undrained test or quick test (UU) in which drainage is not allowed in both the above
phases,

2) Consolidated-undrained test or consolidated-quick test (CU) where the sample is

allowed to consolidate or drain under the all round pressure, but not allowed to drain
during the increase of the deviator stress until failure, and

3) Drained or slow test (DD) in which the sample is allowed to drain both under the all
round pressure and under all the stages of the increase in deviator stress until failure.

The purpose of carrying out a particular test is to simulate the field conditions to the
extent possible. Hence the choice regarding which triaxial test to conduct depends upon
how far the test conforms to the actual drainage conditions of the soil existing in the field
(Murthy, 1974: Ch. 13).

For foundations in clayey soils, UU tests are preferred because, thanks to their very
low permeability, the soil will be in an undrained state during the initial phase of the
application of load,such as from a footing, which can therefore be more critical.

CU tests are used where the soil has undergone consolidation before the application
of any fresh loading. This condition is typical of very fine sand, silt or silty sand with
relatively low permeability.

DD tests are generally conducted in sand where, because of their relatively high
permeability, consolidation occurs rapidly with the application of load which would have
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completed at the end of the loading process. DD tests are therefore slow only in the
case of clayey soils.

In drained tests the sample undergoes reduction in volume due to the exit of pore
water by drainage. On the other hand, in undrained tests, where pore pressures (u) are
measured for the determination of the effective stress parameters, there is no change of
volume accompanying the test (Gulhati and Datta, 2005: Sec.11.4).

P.S.: Referring to Fig. 3.1a, the angle which a natural slope makes with the horizontal
may be called the angle of repose. For a perfectly clean and dry sand or gravel, this angle
is approximately equal to the angle of internal friction of the sand in the loosest state.
This is, however, not the case with other soils.

Reference
Murthy, V. N. S. (1974), Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dhanpat Rai &
Sons, Delhi.