Interactions

of Particles with Matter

 Particle Interactions Examples

Ionization: Pair Compton

production: scattering:
Charged
Particle Positron Electron Electron

Nucleus x Electron

Electron

Electron Photon
Charged
Particle Photon Photon

Positron
Electron
Electron
Atom Nucleus
Bethe-Bloch Classical Derivation 2.2 Wechselwirkungen geladener Teilchen mit Materie
Bohr 1913
31

Particle with charge ze and velocity v moves

through a medium with electron density n.

Electrons considered free and initially at rest.

Abbildung 2.3: Kollision eines schweren geladenen Teilchens mit einem H
ullenelek-
Interaction of a heavy charged particle
tron im Medium.
with an electron of an atom inside medium.
Momentum transfer: Kollision sei das schwere Teilchen wegen der sehr viel groeren Masse (M me ) nur
wenig von seiner ursprunglichen Bahn abgewichen, was einer der wichtigen Gr unde
Z Z Z Symmetry!
ist, bei diesen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Elektronen und schwereren einfallenden
dt dx zu unterscheiden.
Teilchen
p? = F? dt = F? dx = pk : gewonnene
F?Es soll nun die vom Elektron averages to zero
Energie u
ber den vom schweren Teilchen
dx u v
bertragenen Kraftsto I = p bestimmt werden.
! ! ! !
Z 1
2I = F dt = e E dt 1
=e
dt
Edx 2= e E
dx
(2.16)
ze2 b 1 ze b x 2ze
dx v
= = Symmetriegrunden nur die zur Teilchentrajektorie
dx aus =
1 (x2 + b2 ) x +b
2 2 vwobei v 2 x E+
b Feldes
nente des elektrischen
2 b 2
ber
u 1
cksichtigt werden
senkrechte Kompo-
bv muss. Zur Berechnung des

"
Integrals E dx verwenden wir den Gaussschen Satz, angewandt auf einen unend-
lich langen Zylinder entlang der Flugbahn des Teilchens:
! !
2ze
More elegant with Gauss law: E 2b dx = 4ze E dx =
b
(2.17)
[infinite cylinder; electron in center] F? = eE?
Z
E? (2 b) dx = 4 (ze) !
Z
E? dx =
2ze
b
woraus folgt:
and then ...
{ Z
p? = e E?Idx
=
2ze2ze
=
2

v bv bv
2
(2.18)
und die gewonnene Energie des Elektrons wird dann zu
I2 2z 2 e4
 vernachlassigt. Dies ist dann gerechtfertigt, falls die Stozeiten vb klein gegenu
ber der
rakteristischen Schwingungsdauer 1 des gebundenenElektrons sind. ist die charakteristi

Frequenz/Energie des gebundenen Elektrons und damit eine Eigenschaft des Bremsmediums. M
spricht von der Stoapproximation (siehe N. Bohr [10]).

Bethe-Bloch Classical Derivation

(II) Summation bei festem b u
ber alle Elektronen eines Materieblocks

L Anzahl der e Bohr 1913

n=Z =
A V olumen

Energy transfer onto single electron "#

for impact parameter b: "!
$%
!!
!! }!
p2
E(b) =
2me
Cylindric barrel
with Ne electrons
Consider cylindric barrel DieNAnzahl
e = n(2b)db
der Elektronendx
im Materiezylindermantel zwischen b und b + db um die Teilchenb
ist
Energy loss per path length dx for Ne = n 2 b db dx .
distance between b and b+db
Derin medium with
Energieverlust electronTeilchens
des geladenen density n: Durchgang durch die Materieschicht der D
beim
dx ist dann
Energy loss! 2z 2 e4
dE = 2 b db n dx .
b2 mv 2
p2 4z 2 e4 4 n z e db 2 4
dE(b) = 2 nb db dx = 2 2 2 nb db dx = dx
2me Summation u 2b alle
ber v m Stoparameter
e liefert uns me v 2 b
dE z 2 e4 bmax
Diverges for b 0; integration only dx
= 4
mv 2
n n
bmin
for relevant range [bmin, bmax]: 2 4 Z bmax
dE 4 n z e db 4 4n n
z 2 24 4
ze e bund bmax
min
= Feld durch
bmax < , da das
2
die
=
anderen Atome = ln
abgeschirmt wird
2 2
ln die Energien der At
Bohr 1913 dx
des Bremsmediums me v sind.bmin b
quantisiert mme ve v bmin
bmax

17
Bethe-Bloch Classical Derivation Bohr 1913

Determination of relevant range [bmin, bmax]:

[Arguments: bmin > e, i.e. de Broglie wavelength; bmax < due to screening ...]

h 2~ Use Heisenberg uncertainty principle or

bmin = e = = that electron is located within de Broglie wavelength ...
p me v
" #
v 1
bmax = ; = p Interaction time (b/v) must be much shorter than period
he i 1 2 of the electron (/e) to guarantee relevant energy transfer ...
[adiabatic invariance]

Deviates by factor 2

dE 4z e me c2 4
2 2 2 from QM derivation

= n ln
dx me c 2 2 2~ e

Electron density: n = NAZ/A !!

Effective Ionization potential: I ~ h <e>
dierent approximations discussed in the text. The short dotted lines labeled
illustrate the Barkas eect, the dependence of stopping power on projectile
charge at very low energies [6].
Bethe-Bloch Formula
27.2.2. Stopping power at intermediate energies :
The mean rate of energy loss by moderately relativistic charged heavy particles,
[see e.g. PDG 2010]
M1 /x, is well-described by the Bethe-Bloch equation,
! " # $
dE Z 1 1 2m e c2 2 2
T max ()
= Kz 2 ln 2
. (27.3)
dx A 2 2 I2 2
[]
It describes the mean rate of energy loss in the region 0.1 < < 1000 for
density
intermediate-Z2 materials with an accuracy of a few %. At the lower limit the
K = 4 NA re me c2 = 0.307 MeV g-1 cm2 NA = 6.0221023
projectile velocity becomes comparable to atomic[Avogardo's
electronnumber]
velocities (Sec. 27.2.3),
Tmax = 2mec222/(1 + 2 me/M + (me/M)2)
[Max. energy transfer in single collision] re = e2/40 mec2 = 2.8 fm
February 2, 2010 15:55
[Classical electron radius]
me = 511 keV
z : Charge of incident particle [Electron mass]
M : Mass of incident particle = v/c
[Velocity]
Z : Charge number of medium
= (1-2)-2
A : Atomic mass of medium [Lorentz factor]
Validity:
I : Mean excitation energy of medium .05 < < 500
: Density correction [transv. extension of electric field] M > m
Energy Loss of Electrons

Bethe-Bloch formula needs modification

Incident and target electron have same mass me

Scattering of identical, undistinguishable particles

dE Z 1 m e 2 c2 2 T
= K ln + F ()
dx el. A 2 2I 2

[T: kinetic energy of electron]

Wmax = T

Remark: different energy loss for electrons and positrons at low energy as
positrons are not identical with electrons; different treatment ...
 & '()) *& +$#,))-$./'0"%
Bremsstrahlung
9%&6%3:8;7*6$8%;8'5*8#&<6*78%;8'5*8

!
! Bremsstrahlung
$ % $%# arises
" if particles
!
" &' $ in Coulomb
are accelerated
!
field of nucleus *A
( " !$ # # ! JKL
2
dE z 2Z 2 1 e2 183 E
= 4 N
@ "#$8&6'2"A2*6"'7?74'7<8 E ln /
A BC,---8D*EF
A
dx 40 mc2 Z3
1
m2

i.e. energy loss proportional to 1/m2 main relevance for electrons ...
)" #! ! $%# ... or ultra-relativistic muons
( (' +% " &' $
)* '
Consider electrons:
# #
)" " dE Z2 2 183 *) ,"
)* ," dx
= 4 NA
A
re E ln 1
Z3 " "" % E = E0 e x/X0

dE E A
'dx =
X0
with X0 =
4 NA Z 2 re2 ln 183
1
After passage of one X0 electron has
lost all but (1/e)th of its energy
"
! ! $%# Z3
[i.e. 63%]
( ( ' # +% &' $ 2"$7"'7%#86*#)'58H).<3/I
[Radiation length in g/cm2]

# #
 ( X0 NA / A)
0.4 100 TeV

1 PeV

Bremsstrahlung Critical Energy 0

0 0.25 0.5
10 PeV

0.75 1
y = k/E
Figure 27.11: The normalized bremsstrahlung cross section k dLP M /dk in

lead versus the fractional
Critical energy: dE photon energy
dE y = k/E. The
dE vertical axis has units
of photons per radiation length.= +
dx Tot dx Ion dx Brems
dE dE
(Ec ) = (Ec )
dx Brems dx Ion 200
Copper
X0 = 12.86 g cm2
Approximation: 100 Ec = 19.63 MeV

dE /dx X0 (MeV)
l

ng
70 ta

lu
710 MeV To

ah
EcGas = 50
Rossi:

tr
Z + 0.92 Ionization per X0 E

ss
40 = electron energy

m
s

re
em

tb
610 MeV 30

Br

ac
EcSol/Liq =

Ex
Z + 1.24 Ionization
20

Brems = ionization
Example Copper: 10
2 5 10 20 50 100 200
Ec 610/30 MeV 20 MeV Electron energy (MeV)
Figure 27.12: Two definitions of the critical energy Ec .
Total Energy Loss of Electrons
27. Passage of particles through matter 19

from
PDG 2010 0.20
Positrons
Lead (Z = 82)

Electrons
1.0
0.15
1 dE ( X 01)

(cm2 g1)
Mller Bremsstrahlung
e e
E dx

0.10
Ionization
0.5 Mller (e )
e e

Bhabha (e +) 0.05
e+ e+

Positron
annihilation
e+ 0
1 10 100 1000
e E (MeV)
Bhabha
Figure 27.10: Fractional energy loss per radiation length in lead as a
Fractional energy loss per radiation length in lead
e function of electron or aspositron
a energy.
function of Electron
electron or (positron)
positron scattering is
energy
Annihilation as ionization when the energy loss per collision is below 0.255
considered
MeV, and as Mller (Bhabha) scattering when it is above. Adapted from
 4 27. Passage of particles through matter
Energy Loss Summary Plot for Muons

PDG 2010
+ on Cu
Stopping power [MeV cm2/g]

100

Bethe-Bloch Radiative
Anderson-
Ziegler
Lindhard-
Scharff

Ec
10
Radiative Radiative
Minimum effects losses
ionization reach 1%
Nuclear
losses
Without
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 4 10 5 10 6

0.1 1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100

[MeV/c] [GeV/c] [TeV/c]
Muon momentum
Fig. 27.1: Stopping power (= dE/dx) for positive muons in copper as a
function of = p/M c over nine orders of magnitude in momentum (12 orders
 ed by the tolerance of the healthy tissue around. decreases within a few millimeters to a small value
herefore, it has always been the goal through- which consists of nuclear fragments of the carbon
the 100 years of radiation therapy to increase beam. Through energy variation the dose max-
precision of the irradiation in order the concen- imum can be shifted over the depth of the target
e the dose in the target volume and to reduce volume. Today, in most of the particle therapies
Particle Energy Deposit
dose in the healthy tissue or distribute this } predominantly proton therapies } the necessary
itable dose over a larger tissue area. Using
able collimators like multi-leaf collimators and
nsity-modulated >Bremsstrahlung
3.5: from linear
ron accelerators, radiation
therapy in the last
dE
s has reached a signi"cantly dE
better dose distri-
on and in consequence dx dx min clinical
improved
lts. However, a further increase in precision and
ogical action < 3.5:
is only possible with the use of

icle beams as was postulated by
dE dEWilson [1] in
6. Yet, ion beam therapy dx gotdxstarted rather
ly at Berkeley where the "rst patientsmin
were
ted with protons in 1954, with helium in 1957
with heavy ions } mostly neon } in 1975. From
e, ion beam treatment spread all over the world
Applications:
until today more than 20 000 patients have
n treated successfully } mostly with protons [2].
r hundred and thirty Tumor
patientstherapy
have been treated
neon ions at Berkeley and another 400 with
on, almost allPossibility
of them attoNIRS;
precisely deposit
Chiba, Japan.dose
vard Universityat played
well defined depth by
a pioneering Ebeam
role variation
in the
[see Journal Club]
lopment of proton therapy, treating nearly
third of all patients, while Loma Linda later on