Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Sulawesi
Michael Geoffrey Audley-Charles

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 1974; v. 4; p. 365-378

doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.004.01.21

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1974 Geological Society of London


SULAWESI
MICHAEL GEOFFREY AUDLEY-CHARLES
Department of Geology, Imperial College,
Prince Consort Road, London S.W.7
CONTENTS
A. General data on the segment
B. Subdivision of the segment
C. Structural relationships of the
Sulawesi Arcs with neighbouring regions
D. References
A. G E N E R A L DATA ON THE SEGMENT
1. T H E S E G M E N T S T U D I E D
The island of Sulawesi--formerly called Celebes--occupies a critical
but very complex position at the junction of the Alpine-Himalayan and
Circum-Pacific chains. It links along strike with both the Philippine
and the Banda orogens, but lies between the Borneo and the West
Irian orogens. The island is one of the most mountainous in the
Indonesian Archipelago and is poorly known geologically, because of
which the present article is largely in essay form.
Segment: the Sulawesi orogen has a strike length, excluding small
Islands, of about 1300 km. The west margin of the belt consists of an arc
open in the south to the south-east, which reverses its direction of
curvature in the north to form an arc open to the north-west. In the
365 south it is separated from the Sunda Shelf by the 2000 m deep
374 Makassar Strait and in the north it is adjacent to the Celebes Sea.
The east margin of the belt abuts against the Banggai and Sula
Islands (part of a stable positive area called the Sula Spur) and, to
376
the south, against the northern part of the Banda Sea. The width
377 of the orogenic belt in Sulawesi, measured between these margins,
varies from 500 km to 270 km, and averages 350 km.
History: the oldest rocks known in Sulawesi are sedimentary rocks
which have been metamorphosed in pre-U. Triassic times. Then, there
seems to have been a period of general uplift and erosion in Sulawesi.
Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic movements commenced during U.
Jurassic and L. Cretaceous times with vertical movements, perhaps
associated with some folding, in the Butung Archipelago and the
South-east and South Arms of Sulawesi. It is possible there were fold
movements at the end of the Triassic in the west of Central Sulawesi
and in parts of the East Arm, but palaeontological control is un-
satisfactory and the rocks have been mapped on a reconnaissance
basis only. The first phase of strong folding began at the end of the
Cretaceous and was completed during the L. Eocene in most parts
of Sulawesi and in the Butung Archipelago (Bemmelen 1949). A
major phase of folding and thrusting of M. Miocene age is reported
from the East Arm, and may also have occurred in Central Sulawesi
and the North Arm. An important phase of folding (locally with
overthrusting) during the late Pliocene is reported throughout Sulawesi
and the Butung Archipelago.
The stratigraphy and structure of Sulawesi are poorly known, for the
density of reconnaissance geological mapping in the island is low.
All published geological maps appear to be based on surveys carried
out before 1942 (see Roy 1961 ; Tectonic Map of Eurasia 1966;
U.S.G.S. 1965). Few topographical maps were available; aerial
photography was not then employed so that many of the published
maps show only the geology of the immediate vicinity of the traverses.
Only three papers dealing with regional geology of parts of Sulawesi
366 SULAWESI

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Figure 1. T h e s t r u c t u r a l z o n e s o f t h e S u l a w e s i o r o g e n i c belt, t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h o s e o f t h e B a n d a A r c s o r o g e n i c belt,

and their relationship with the Sula Spur (shown by coarse dotted ornament).
 SULAWESI 367

appear to have been published since Van Bemmelen's The Geology of the western part of the Salajar-Lucipara Arc) curves through 270
Indonesia of 1949. A further impediment to understanding the structural and has a strike length of 1900 km, or of 1300 km if those arcs of small
history is the often uncertain age of sedimentary, igneous and meta- islands are omitted. The lengths of radii of curvature of the principal
morphic rocks. Many of the published ages of the Cenozoic strata are arcs are 500 km for the 'outer' arcs (East Celebes and Tukangbesi Arcs).
based on foraminifera determined before 1948 and names are In the north the curvature of the arcs is reversed: the radius of the
probably in need of revision to bring them into line with recent work. 'inner' North Celebes Arc is 400 km and that of the 'outer' North
Each of the four arms of Sulawesi appears to have a different Moluccan Arc is 550 km.
geological history, but it has long been recognized that the North Arm,
the western part of the Central region and the South Arm have
fundamental features in common which distinguish them from the 3. S U R F A C E SHAPE OF T H E SULAWESI BELT
South-east and East Arms. IN E L E V A T I O N
The present article has been prepared from a literature review: 30 Highest 5% of the ground: 2000 to 2500 m above sea level. Sulawesi
the writer has not visited Sulawesi. is one of the most mountainous islands of the Indonesian Archipelago.
Most of the highest land is in Central Sulawesi, but all the arms are
2. SHAPE OF T H E O R O G E N IN PLAN mountainous and nearly 40% of the land area is over 500 m above sea
33 The Sulawesi orogenic belt (including the North Celebes Arc and level.
33-4 Plio-Pleistocene raised reef limestones have been reported from
the East Arm at various heights. Bemmelen (1949, p. 151) quoted
heights of 400 m, 500 m, 1000 m, and possibly even 2000 m in the
western part of the East Arm (cf. Loczy 1934). An old alluvial surface
20 to 30 m above the present one occurs on the north coast of the
East Arm and indicates minor subrecent uplift (Koolhoven 1930,
p. 207).
\FS

BORNEO
4. G E O P H Y S I C A L DATA
38 Gravity data are available as a map on a scale of 1:10,000,000 with
a 50 mgl contour interval for the marine areas surrounding Sulawesi
(Kuenen, Umbgrove & Vening Meinesz 1934). A revised isogam map
"*~"*" ~ e'. e e" e" " j " lee e' t. for the whole of Indonesia has since been published (Bruyn 1951).
oe4 oo ee e
It incorporates the gravity data of Vening Meinesz and data from
land based surveys, is on a scale of 1:10,000,000 and has a contour
interval of 25 mgl.
41 There is isostatic inequilibrium over most of Sulawesi and this is
greatest in the East Celebes and North lV[oluccan Arcs. 42-3 As far as
can be judged from available data the general gravity field shows
pronounced concordance with the main tectonic and topographic
trends of Sulawesi.
TIMOR

Figure 2. T h e distribution of the arcs of the Sulawesi orogenic belt a n d B a nda Arcs
orogenic belt. l = O u t e r S u n d a Arc; 2 = I n n e r S u n d a Arc; 3 = O u t e r B a n d a Arc;
4 = I n n e r Banda Arc; 5 = T u k a n g Besi-Buru Arc; 6 = Salajar-Lucipara Arc; 7 = East
i NN,-.'b % - ~ t There are several outstanding features of the gravity field: very
strong negative values are coincident with the marine section of the
North Moluccan Arc; strong positive values coincide with some
deeper parts of the surrounding seas, e.g. Celebes Sea and Banda Sea;
strong positive anomalies are coincident with the marine gulfs which
separate the inner and outer arcs of Sulawesi and the outer arc from
Borneo. Bruyn (1951, p. 605) remarked that 'It is certainly possible to
Gelebes Arc; 8 = Western Celebes Arc; 9 = N o r t h M o l u c c a n Arc; 10 = N o r t h Celebes
Arc; 11 = H a l m a h e r a Arcs. S = Sorong Fault Zone; T A = T a r e r a - A i d o e n a Fault Z o n e ;
recognize on the profiles across Sulawesi the characteristics of a double
T = T a w a e l i a Fault Zone; FS = Fossa Sarasina. arc. Here (i.e. all Sulawesi except the Minahasa section of the North
T h e area of coarse dotted o r n a m e n t represents the Sula Spur. Arm), however, the curvature is reversed so that the Vening Meinesz
368 SULAWESI
minimum is found on the concave side of the arc. No active volcanoes
are present (in the section of reversed curvature). The high positive
values coinciding with the deep water of the Makassar Strait are
comparable with those of the Banda Sea. As soon as the curvature
returns to normal (i.e. the minimum on the convex side of the arc)
active volcanoes reappear, namely Una-Una and those on the North
Arm of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. Here the profiles show the
standard sequence of maximum and minimum axes, troughs and
ridges.'
5. PRESENT-DAY A C T I V I T Y
69 The Sulawesi region is seismically active, and the northern half is
very active. Gutenberg & Richter (1954, pp. 60-61) commented that
seismic activity in the Celebes 'is well above average for the Pacific
belt; intermediate shocks are very numerous and some of them
(notably in northern Celebes) are among the largest known. Deep
shocks are fairly frequent.' Fitch & Molnar (1970) remarked that
'The occurrence of earthquakes between 300 and 500 km depths in
the Banda Sea region is an indication that the lithosphere is continuous
there. This activity may be a consequence of the marked contortion
in the seismic zone.' The difficulty of interpreting important features
of the seismic behaviour of Sulawesi and the Banda Arcs in terms of
regional tectonics was pointed out by Fitch & Molnar: 'A zone of
intense intermediate-depth activity paralleling the northern peninsula
of Celebes forms the southern terminus of the deep-focus activity
beneath the Philippine arc. There are similarities between the con-
figuration of this zone and the seismic zone beneath the Banda Sea.
Both regions have intense activity extending from the surface nearly
vertically to approximately 200 km. Below 200 km activity is less,
and it is along a plane which dips approximately 45 beneath the
respective arcs.' 'East of the Celebes Sea is a complicated seismic
region associated with an island arc paralleling the northern peninsula
of Halmahera. A cross section of the activity in this region shows that
the zone beneath the Celebes Sea dips towards the west while another
zone extending only to intermediate depth dips towards the south-east.
This eastward-dipping zone is very unusual, and its relation to the
tectonics of the region is not apparent to us.' More recently, further
maps of the seismic epicentres have been published (Fitch 1970).
Hatherton & Dickinson (1969) figured seismic isobaths to the north,
south and east of Sulawesi.
6. T I M E R E L A T I O N S
85 The oldest undeformed rocks in Sulawesi are of Quaternary age. They
are mainly raised reef limestones, alluvium and coastal plain deposits,
many of which are highly fossiliferous.
83 The youngest deformed rocks are late Pliocene in age. Throughout
Sulawesi and the archipelagos to the north and south Pliocene rocks
have been folded. Palaeontological evidence is not sufficiently precise
to be certain that these movements did not continue into the Pleistocene
(see Bemmelen 1949, pp. 149-52, 389-436; Vlerk & Dozy 1934).
Before the age of the tectonic events in the Cenozoic rocks of Sulawesi
can be correlated reliably with those in other Cenozoic fold belts the
faunas need to be reviewed in the light of the biostratigraphy of Blow
(1969).
9t-5 Phases of mobility
10. Plio-Pleistocene uplift: Geomorphological evidence for this
event has been reported from all parts of Sulawesi. The process
is probably still continuing.
9. Late Pliocene phase: This was important and widespread. An
unconformity with gentle folds occurs in the East Arm (Kundig
1956; Loczy 1933-4; Umbgrove 1938; Bemmelen 1949), in the
South Arm (Umbgrove 1938), in Central Sulawesi (Witkamp
1940; Vlerk & Dozy 1934), and in the South-east Arm (Umbgrove
1938; Bothe 1927). In the Butung Archipelago Bothe (1927) and
Hetzel (1936) reported strong folding and thrusting of Pliocene
age. The evidence for the age of these tectonic events rests mainly
on the foraminifera determined at that time. It seems likely that
the age of the folding would still be regarded as Pliocene, but in
view of the anomalous directions of movement, the faunas might
profitably be reviewed in the light of Blow's (1969) work. The
movements might range into the Quaternary.
8. Middle Miocene phase: In the East Arm this is the major
orogenic phase (Kundig 1956) and involved strong folding and
thrusting. The presence of an unconformity between U. and L.
Miocene, which may represent M. Miocene uplift, erosion and
possible folding, was reported from the Gorontalo and Minahasa
sections of the North Arm (Koperberg 1929-30; Bemmelen
1949). An unconformity between the Oligo-Miocene and the
'Celebes Molasse', which Umbgrove (1938) regarded as a M.
Miocene Tf2 unconformity, was reported from Central Sulawesi
by Witkamp (1940) and may possibly represent an orogenic
phase there. The report of a transgression in the 'post-Tertiary-f'
(i.e.M. Miocene) in the South-east Arm by Bothe (1927) may be
related to M. Miocene or possibly U. Miocene movements.
Local erosion in M. Miocene time in the Butung Archipelago was
reported by Bothe (1927).
7. Lower Miocene: A n unconformity at the base of the Miocene
Tondo Beds was reported from Butung (Hetzel 1936; Bothe
1927). Umbgrove (1938) reported an unconformity of L. Miocene
(Te4) age from Central Sulawesi and the East Arm, but Kundig
(1956) made no mention of this unconformity in the East Arm.
6. Oligocene: An unconformity at the base of the Oligocene is
reported from Central Sulawesi (Bemmelen 1949). In the northern
part of the South Arm the main phase of folding and thrusting is
said to occur in the Oligocene (Rutten 1927; Bemmelen 1949).
 SULAWESI 369

An unconformity at the base of the L. Miocene Tondo Beds of island of Kabaena evidence suggests there was an important
Butung (Bothe 1927) may represent Oligocene movements. The phase of metamorphism (glaucophane facies) penecontemporane-
uncertainty results from the lack of a sufficiently diagnostic ous with these end-Cretaceous orogenic movements in the South-
microfauna. east Arm (Roever 1950, 1953, 1956). A major unconformity
5. End-Cretaceous to Eocene phase: In the South-east Arm a major between the Cretaceous Tobelo Beds and the L. Miocene Tondo
unconformity is present between the Cretaceous and the Neogene Beds is widespread in Butung Archipelago where it is considered
(Eocene and Oligocene rocks are missing) and represents a period to have resulted from a period of folding, uplift and erosion
of strong folding, uplift and erosion (Bothe 1927; Brouwer et al. (Bothe 1927; Hetzel 1936). The local occurrence in Butung of the
1934; Hetzel 1936; Bemmelen 1949). Here and in the nearby Wani Beds of either Eocene or Oligocene age, unconformable on
but folded with the underlying Cretaceous Tobelo Beds, indicates
an important orogenic phase at the end of the Cretaceous,
~__~ I 250km perhaps extending into Eocene or even Oligocene time. In the
South Arm an important unconformity between Cretaceous and
Eocene strata represents a period of folding and erosion; in the
northern part it marks the onset of andesite volcanism (Rutten
1927; Brouwer et al. 1934; Bemmelen 1949). Owing to the lack
of precisely diagnostic faunas there is some doubt about the time
CELEBESSEA
limits of these movements. In the East Arm the actual contact
between the Cretaceous and Eocene has not been observed.
Kundig (1956) thought it probable that there was a depositional
gap between the Cretaceous and the Palaeocene, and that this
interval coincided with the main phase of ophiolitic extrusions.
The rapid change from abyssal facies in the Cretaceous to nerific
facies in the Eocene seems to indicate strong vertical uplift at the
end of the Cretaceous in the East Arm. In the western part of
UNA UNAI$,~ GORONTALOTROUGH
Central Sulawesi an important unconformity resulting from fold
o~::~ movements and erosion separates Cretaceous and basal Tertiary
TOMINI strata (which have locally been determined as Eocene) according
GULF to Witkamp (1940) and Bemmelen (1949, p. 409).
4. Intra-Cretaceous phase: In part of the South Arm a siliceous
o -" "~ facies of probable Cretaceous age is overlain unconformably by a
greywacke-sandstone facies that is also thought to be Cretaceous
on the basis of its stratigraphical position and analogous litho-
NORTHERN logy (Rutten 1927; Brouwer et al. 1934; Bemmelen 1949). If
these facies have been correctly identified as Cretaceous there is
BANDA SEA evidence for a period of folding and erosion in the southern part
of the South Arm during the Cretaceous.
3. Upper Jurassic--Lower Cretaceous phase ?: The Cretaceous
Tobelo Beds in Butung are in contact with the U. Jurassic R u m u
Beds and with other older Mesozoic formations. It is uncertain
oGUNUNGAPI
HAKASSAR( whether this has resulted from tectonic complications or from a
depositional unconformity at the base of the Cretaceous Tobelo
Beds (Hetzel 1936; Bothe 1927; Bemmelen 1949). In the East
Arm there is no unconformity between the Jurassic and Cretaceous
but Kundig (1956) considered that there must have been a phase
of great downwarping during U. Jurassic to L. Cretaceous time,
because of the sudden change in facies from neritic Jurassic to
Figure 3. Location map for the Sulawesi orogenic belt. K.-Z. = Kolonodale zone. The bathyal Cretaceous.
named zones of Central Sulawesi are taken from Van Beramelen (1949). 2. Lower Jurassic phase ?: In the west of the East Arm Loczy
370 SULAWESI

110"E
~,200 Isobaths on approximate centre of
dipping seismic zone, in km
0' (after Hatherton & Dickinson 1969)

.~- Negative ~ Zones of isostatic

Positive J gravity anomalies

Region o f major positive isostatic

gravity anomaly
|
132'E

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e.-'
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i!iiiiiii!i!iiiii!ii
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Z~

t Lk
A TANIMBAR IPs--

v o l c a n o 4 0 ~ ~0 " ~~ - - ]k Active __ ......_ Faults and

f ~ ~ " I o O "iolites postulated submarine
~ ~ M'"~r~ I~ Granitic intrusions ~ Sula Spur
~ 0 ~ ~ - ~ - I~11 Direction of increasing
~- n- - grade of metamorphism ~ Main Islands

~ + ~ ~ ~ ) + ~ . . . - - T ---'~ ~ Direction of thrusting

I 250kin II I
! ., I
Figure 4. The regional distribution of seismic and gravity features of the Sulawesi and Banda Arcs orogenic belts and their
relationship to overthrmting, ophiolites, acid plutonics, and recent volcanism.
 SULAWESI
(1933-4) considered that the Triassic rocks were folded prioI to
the deposition of Jurassic strata. Umbgrove (1935) suggested
that in the west of Central Sulawesi there was a phase of folding
after the Triassic, followed by erosion after which marine sedi-
mentation recommenced during the Cretaceous. No rocks of
definitely Triassic age have been reported from western Sulawesi,
however. So although it is possible that there were fold movements
and erosion during the Jurassic in these parts of Sulawesi, it
cannot be regarded as proved.
1. Pre-Upper Triassic uplift and erosion appears to have been
widespread in Sulawesi and Butung. There m a y have been
associated folding but this has not been established. The evidence
for these events has been discussed by Bemmelen (1949).
87-9 The initiation of mobility associated with the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
orogeny could be regarded as the marine transgression near the
beginning of the U. Triassic that appears to be a widespread pheno-
menon in Sulawesi.
81 The oldest rocks deformed for the first time during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
orogeny are fossiliferous Upper Triassic strata reported from the
East Arm by Loczy (1933-4) and Kundig (1956). Loczy (1933-4)
and Kutassy (1934) regarded some rocks in the western part as
Permo-Carboniferous but Hetzel (1935) referred to them as 'very
doubtful Permo-Carboniferous'. In the east of Central Sulawesi,
fossiliferous U. Triassic was reported to be the lowest exposed member
of a continuous succession up into the Cretaceous (Umbgrove 1938).
Fossiliferous U. Triassic Baito Beds in the South-east Arm and the
Einto Beds in Butung (Bothe 1927) are the oldest rocks deformed for
the first time by this orogeny there.
78 Basement rocks: Crystalline schists of pre-U. Triassic age have been
reported from the south-west of the Gorontalo section of the North
Arm (Koperberg 1929, 1930), from the Neck of the North Arm
(Egeler 1947), from the western and eastern parts of Central Sulawesi
(Kundig 1932, Williams 1937; Brouwer 1941; De Roever 1947;
Bemmelen 1949, fig. 171), from the South-east Arm (Dieckmann &
Julius 1925; Koolhoven 1932; Brouwer et al. 1934; Hetzel 1936;
Bemmelen 1949), from Butung (Bothe 1927; Hetzel 1936) and from
K a b a e n a (De Roever 1953). From the South Arm they were described
as pre-Cretaceous crystalline schists (Rutten 1927; Brouwer 1934;
Bemmelen 1949). The age of these basement rocks has been determined
from the unconformable relationship of the unmetamorphosed Meso-
zoic (U. Trias or locally Cretaceous) on the metamorphic basement.
To the east of the Sulawesi orogenic belt very similar basement
rocks to those just described have been reported from the Sula Islands
(pre-Liassic crystalline schists, Brouwer 1921); they are generally
regarded as lateral extensions of the pre-U. Triassic crystalline schists
of the Banggai Islands (Bemmelen 1949; Klompe 1954, 1957; Kundig
1956). There seems to be strong evidence for regarding, as Klompe
(1954) did, the Banggai Islands as belonging to the Sula Spur. They
371
thus lie outside the Sulawesi orogenic belt. To the west of the Sulawesi
orogenic belt basement rocks are not known to crop out within 200 km
of Sulawesi.
8. S T R U C T U R A L R E L A T I O N S
m-17 Two major faults have been recognized. The Tawaelia Graben
zone (Brouwer 1947) strikes N-S in Central Sulawesi and probably
extends north along strike to cut the North Arm and southwards
along the west side of the Bone Gulf, passing just east of Salajar.
The age of commencement of movements along this structure is not
known, but it separates zones 2 and 3 and so seems to be an important
feature related to the evolution of the belt. It appears to have in-
fluenced the distribution of sedimentary facies on either side since the
Cretaceous and it limits the distribution of metamorphic facies. The
extent of its movements are unknown, but it appears to have acted as
a graben during Neogene and probably earlier times. Mylonite
occurs along part of the fault zone where igneous rocks are present.
The other major fault--the Fossa Sarasina--also appears to behave
as a graben in Sulawesi, where it has formed a fault valley. It appears
to strike N N W into the Makassar Strait. It m a y be much younger
than the Tawaelia structure, but its age of initiation is uncertain. The
Fossa Sarasina and other faults in Sulawesi have been discussed
recently by Katili (1970).
9. R E V I E W OF O R O G E N I C D E V E L O P M E N T
132 GEOPHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF OROGENIC STRUCTURE
Fitch (1970) stated that data gathered from shallow focus earth-
quakes from 1961 to 1968 show that thrusting and normal faulting
are the dominant modes of deformation in the Philippines, Sulawesi
and Bands orogenic belts. The conclusion reached by Ritsema &
Veldkamp (1968) that strike-slip faulting is dominant was based on
data that Fitch (1970) claimed was inadequate by modern standards.
Another recent paper is that of Hatherton & Dickinson (1969.)
Mechanism solutions from submarine seismic zones on the convex
sides of the North Celebes and North Moluccan Arcs show evidence
for underthrusting of lithosphere beneath the island arcs. Fitch stated
that there 'is no evidence from focal mechanisms supporting the
existence of underthrusting along the eastern end of the Sunda Arc
(i.e. the Banda Arcs) even though a well-developed inclined seismic
zone exists beneath the arc in this region . . . the close approach of
the Australian continent may have disrupted the simple under-
thrusting in the region'. Also 'inclined seismic zones beneath the
(Bands, North Celebes and North Moluccan) arcs show that activity
at deep and intermediate depths is in general confined to narrow
slab-like regions of the upper mantle'. He claimed that seismic
evidence from this region and other inclined seismic zones 'supports
372 SULAWESI
the hypothesis that slabs of lithosphere constituting lateral inhomo-
geneities in the upper mantle beneath island arc structures act as
stress guides'.
On the basis of shallow focus seismic activity, Fitch (1970) defined
boundaries of plates of lithosphere that differ in detail from the plate
boundaries proposed by Le Pichon (1968) largely by the introduction
of the Philippine Sea plate (Fig. 5). Fitch has drawn the tentative
boundary of the Pacific and Asian plates cutting through the East
Arm and North Arm of Sulawesi. This interpretation seems un-
satisfactory to the present writer on the basis of the published accounts
of the geology of these regions.
Figure5. Plates of lithosphere within the Sulawesi and Banda Arcs orogenic belts (from
Fitch 1970). Plate boundaries are defined here by shallow focus seismic activity,
shown by the solid curve and by a peeked line where the boundary is poorly defined.
134 THE OVERALL EVOLUTION OF THE SULAWESl OROGENIC BELT
Pre-Upper Triassic history: The oldest rocks in Sulawesi are pre-U.
Triassic crystalline schists with intrusives. The schists have been
produced by regional metamorphism of mainly sedimentary rocks,
the age of deposition and provenance of which are unknown. The
true age of the pre-U. Triassic metamorphism is not known. Kundig
(1956) and Roever (1956) referred to the crystalline basement rocks
as Palaeozoic or pre-Palaeozoic, but apparently without evidence
other than regional considerations. In the South Arm of Sulawesi the
crystalline schists can only be shown to be pre-Cretaceous in age, but
their metamorphism is likely to have been of the same age as elsewhere.
Possible Permian history: The apparent absence of Permian rocks from
Sulawesi is surprising in view of the extensive Permian marine deposits
in parts of the Banda Arc (Timor and Left). Brouwer (1919) thought
that the crystalline schists in the Lesser Sunda Islands (e.g. Timor)
might, at least in part, be Permian in age on the basis of a reported
gradation between them and fossiliferous rocks in Left. Bemmelen
(1949) doubted the reality of this gradation and postulated tectonic
wedges to explain their association. The field relations in Left need
re-examination.
Syn-orogenic (Triassic-Jurassic) history: L. and M. Triassic strata are not
known in Sulawesi, although their presence was postulated by Loczy
(1933-4). U. Triassic neritic limestones and shales and a paralic
facies occur in zone 4. There may have been a period of erosion in
zones 2 and 3 during the U. Triassic. In zone 4 sedimentation from the
U. Triassic to the L. Cretaceous seems to have been fairly continuous
in shallow marine environments. Relatively gentle fold movements
m a y have occurred locally during this period.
Syn-orogenic (Cretaceous) history: During the Cretaceous there must
have been considerable downwarping of zone 4 for the facies change
rapidly from neritic to bathyal, suggesting a correlation with the
development of the Outer Banda Arc. In zone 2 Cretaceous deposits
appear to belong to two very different facies; one is neritic-paralic,
the other bathyal and similar to that of zone 4. It is possible that
tectonic dislocations, presently unrecognized, m a y account for this
anomalous association. Alternatively, the east and north of zone 2
may have been downwarped to provide a bathyal environment
similar to zone 4, whilst the west of zone 2 remained close to sea level
producing neritic sedimentation. Another possibility is that the bathyal
environment has been mis-identified. Perhaps the calcilutites and
siliceous deposits were laid down in a quiet sea of moderate depth in
which little terrigenous sediment entered, so that deposits similar to
bathyal facies were produced.
Syn-orogenic (late Cretaceous-L. Eocene) history: At the end of the
Cretaceous and possibly extending into Eocene times, there was a
major orogenic phase which resulted in folding and local over-
thrusting. It has been identified in zones 2, 3 and 4, although its effects
appear to vary greatly along the strike of the zone, e.g. it appears not
to have had much influence, beyond possible uplift, in the East Arm
(zone 4). Accompanying this orogenic phase was a major ophiolite
eruption in zone 4. Greenschist metamorphism probably occurred
during this time in zones 2, 3 and 4. In zones 3 and 4 there was also a
glaucophane-schist metamorphism contemporaneous with this phase.
Granodiorite intrusions into zone 2 occurred at this time as well as
volcanic activity during the Eocene. The direction of folding and
thrusting, as well as the development of ophiolites in a belt around the
Sula Spur, seem to indicate the important role that feature was playing
in the evolution of this region. In addition the downwarping of zone 4
and perhaps parts of zones 2 and 3 in a belt around the Sula Spur
suggests a direct comparison with the U. Cretaceous downwarping
of the Outer Banda Arc in front of the Australian shelf. Orogenic
movements were widespread in the Banda Arcs at this time.
 SULAWESI 373

I I

'' ; :" .
~,~ "' " "1- ': ... . . . ~"~ , ",
,, .. ~ : ' . . -~-.:.!,
~'+.:~-~ "-- .. :.. .... . + + + ". - , ; ,-..:
P. . . . . .~, .~,, t~.~.,-,.- .... ".-F .: "" _~.. ~.. "'
~ "l'_Lt---~ '" . .;'1":i --J:~.'.:'~--~'_ "- ,- ' r . I . .... ":

UNA UNA IS.~

..:~- f... GAI

~+ . ~ .. _ _ SULA IS.
/~--,-- ."
+ ar','-_~-- " ~
.~ " .:-

t
, __--
-

i
IOOkm !

Ouat . . . . . y a,,uv,om
~" ~.-.~,.'," :at" Reefs etc

(~i:! "" _ ~ P Palaeogene

. x ~ [ ) f ~'~11 undifferentiated

.!: KABAENA IS.i ~ .B.U~T U N G IS. ~ Intermediate tosuite,

basic

I
including some intrusives
I Q TUKANG PLUTONIC ROCKS
Granite & granodiorite
t 0~ BESI IS. ~
i" SALAJAR IS. ~ ~'~
Basic rocks, including
ophiolites

V 'i" "
Figure 6. Geological sketch m a p of Sulawesi (redrawn from a geological m a p published by the U.S.G.S. 1965). Blank areas in
Sulawesi and the Sula Islands are areas for which no geological maps are known.
374 SULAWESI
Syn-orogenic (M. Eocene-L. Miocene) history: Eocene to Oligocene neritic
deposits, mainly shelf limestone in zones 3 and 4, are thin and often
absent. This m a y be due to a period of uplift and erosion following the
folding and introduction of ophiolites. In zone 2 a paralic facies de-
veloped during Eocene to Oligocene times as well as some lime-
stones. The Eocene volcanic activity continued through Oligocene
and into Miocene times.
During the Oligocene the main orogenic phase of folding and
thrusting occurred in the north of the South Arm (zone 2). There
m a y also have been some fold movements in zone 3 and part of zone 4.
Granodiorites and diorites were intruded into zone 2 during Eocene
to Oligocene times. During the L. Miocene shelf limestones were
widely deposited in Sulawesi, in zones 2, 3 and 4.
Syn-orogenic (M. Miocene) history: The main orogenic phase in part
of zone 4 (East Arm), involving folding and thrusting, occurred at this
time. There is a suggestion of some fold movements at this time in
zone 3 and the north of zone 2. The direction of thrusting was towards
the Sula Spur. The M. Miocene was the time of a major orogenic
phase in the Banda Arcs.
@n-orogenic (U.Miocene-Pliocene) history: A molasse facies was de-
veloped in zones 2, 3 and 4 during this interval, perhaps as a re-
sponse to uplift and erosion following the M. Miocene folding phase.
Very similar behaviour at this time is found in the Banda Arcs.
Locally neritic and littoral depgsits developed in zones 2, 3 and 4 and
in zone 2 volcanoes were again active and important intrusions of
granodiorites occurred.
Syn-orogenic (late Pliocene) history: Towards the end of the Pliocene
there was a widespread period of folding in all parts of Sulawesi
(zones 2, 3 and 4). Thrusts developed in the Butung Archipelago and
the movements appear to be towards the west. This seems to be an
anomalous feature of the regional tectonics and m a y indicate the
waning importance of the southern part of the Sula Spur, perhaps
associated with its subsidence in that region, where the sea is now
more than 4000 m deep. The U. Miocene to Pliocene granodiorite
intrusions of zone 2 may be associated with this orogenic phase.
In zone 2 there was volcanic activity at this time. The late Pliocene
interval also saw a period of folding throughout most of the Banda Arc.
Post-orogenic (Quaternary) history: The Quaternary history of zones 2
and 4 appears to have been one of uplift and erosion, following the late
Pliocene fold movements. The behaviour of zone 3 appears anomalous.
The part of zone 3 in Central Sulawesi seems to have been uplifted and
eroded, as were the Tongian Islands, whilst most of the zone is sub-
marine and m a y have subsided. Zone 1 subsided during the Quater-
nary (Krause (1966). Zone 5 by analogy with zone 1 also possibly
subsided. It seems likely that in general the Quaternary evolution of
the region has emphasized the relief between the marine and non-
marine zones by adjacent processes of uplift and subsidence. Volcanic
activity has occurred during the Quaternary in the nolthern part of
zone 2 and in zone 3 (Una Una).
135 METAMORPHISMIN THE SULAWESI OROGENIG BELT
Metamorphic rocks occur in all the four arms of Sulawesi, in some
small nearby islands such as Kabaena and Butung and in several parts
of Central Sulawesi. The considerable literature on these rocks has
been summarized by Rutten (1927), Brouwer (1947) and Bemmelen
(1949) and the most recent publications are by Egeler (1947, 1948)
and Roever (1947, 1950, 1953 and 1956). The general conclusions
reached by Roever (1953, 1956) are as follows: (1) The oldest phase
of regional metamorphism in Sulawesi occurred before the U. Triassic
and probably produced the epidote-amphibolite facies of Central
Sulawesi (zone 3) and the amphibolite facies of the South-east Arm,
Butung and K a b a e n a (zone 4). This regional metamorphic phase,
which may even be pre-Palaeozoic according to Kundig (1956),
belongs to an orogeny older than the Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogeny.
(2) A younger regional metamorphic phase which produced green-
schists and glaucophane schist facies in zones 3 and 4 is probably of
late Cretaceous or early Eocene age. (3) A phase of strong over-
thrusting in Kabaena (zone 4), which was post-Eocene in age (or
possibly late Eocene or even mid-Eocene, as Kundig (1956) suggested
for the East Arm) produced dynamic metamorphism. This dynamic
metamorphic phase m a y have also occurred contemporaneously in the
North Arm (zone 2) (Brouwer et al. 1934) and in the South-east Arm
(zone 4). According to Kundig (1956) the greenschists and amphi-
bolites in the East Arm (zone 4) were associated with the eruption of
the ophiolites.
B. S U B D I V I S I O N OF THE SEGMENT
The Sulawesi orogenic belt is here divided into five structural zones
delimited somewhat arbitrarily at the 1000 m isobaths. The Banggai
Islands have been included in the Sula Spur, which is regarded as a
separate structural feature.
Zone 1 is wholly submarine, but has distinct northern and southern
parts, the Celebes Sea Basin (Krause 1966) and the Makassar Strait
Fracture. At the south of the Makassar Strait the sea floor shallows
and opposite Makassar the zone may be cut off" or pinch out. If
zone 1 of the Sulawesi orogenic belt connects with zone 1 of the Banda
Arc orogenic belt, then it must do so at 500 m between the Doang-
doang shoals and the coast near Makassar. There is some geophysical
evidence for regarding this broad ridge between the South A r m - -
Paternoster Islands and east J a v a as a structural feature connecting the
Western Celebes Arc with the Inner Sunda Arc of Java. The geo-
logical history and igneous activity of these two regions offer support
for this idea.
Zone 5 (the Foredeep) will be considered next, for like zone 1 it is
wholly marine. Where zone 5 lies on the convex, outer side of the
Banda Arc orogenic belt it is a deep water zone always over 1000 m
 SULAWESI 375

Table 1
ZONES AND E L E M E N T S IN SULAWESI

Zones
1 2 3 4 5
W. Celebes
Celebes Arc and Western Part
Sea N. Celebes Intra-Celebes E. Celebes of
Age andfades of the Elements Basin Arc Arcs Zone Arc Foredeep Sula Spur
Quaternary Volcanics X X
Quaternary Littoral and neritic X X X x not Obi
Quaternary Evidence of subsidence x only Obi
LATE-PLIOCENE OROGENIC PHASE M M M+S
Pliocene Littoral and neritic x x x
Miocene-Pliocene Granodiorite intrusive, x
U. Miocene-Pliocene Molasse x
U. Miocene-Pliocene Paralic
U. Miocene-Pliocene Littoral and neritic x
U. Miocene-Pliocene Volcanics x
MID-MIOCENE OROGENm PHASE W W S+W
Oligo-L. Miocene Volcanics x
Oligo-L. Miocene Neritic x x x
Eocene-Oligocene Granite, granodiorite and x
diorite intrusives
Eocene-Oligocene Neritic x x
Eocene-Oligocene Paralic
Eocene Volcanics
U. Mesozoic-Eocene Glaucophane schists X X
U. Mesozoic-Eocene Greenschists X X
U. CRETACEOus-L.EOCENEOROGENICPHASE S S+W W
U. Cretaceous-L. Eocene Ophiolites x x only in Obi
U. Cretaceous-L. Eocene Granodiorite intrusives
U. Mesozoic Bathyal x x not Obi
U. Mesozoic Neritic x ? in Obi
L. Mesozoic Neritic and paralic x Juras, but no
Trias
UNCONFORMITY BELOWTHE MESOZOIC SUCCESSION x x x
Pre-U. Triassic Basement crystalline schists x x x

Note: x =present
Principal orogenicphases: S=strong; M=moderate; W=weak.

a n d locally over 4000 m deep. I n the Sulawesi region zone 5 lies on
the concave side of the i n n e r arc, a n d its d i s a p p e a r a n c e from most o f
the Sulawesi orogenic belt m a y be associated with this reversal of
geometry. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the relative positions of zone 5 a n d
the Sula Spur in the N o r t h e r n B a n d a Sea is open to discussion,
however. T h e identification of the deeper w a t e r ( > 1000 m) i m m e d i -
ately west of the H a l m a h e r a Islands as the c o n t i n u a t i o n of zone 5 of
the Sulawesi orogenic belt is one t h a t m i g h t not find general acceptance,
b u t it does seem to o c c u p y the outside of the convex outer arc (of the
N o r t h M o l u c c a n Arc). This region between Sulawesi a n d I r i a n Barat
is geophysically complicated (el. Fitch 1970; H a t h e r t o n & Dickinson
1969) a n d geologically poorly d o c u m e n t e d , so several alternative
tectonic interpretations are possible. A l t h o u g h few epicentres o f
i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d deep focus seismic earthquakes are reported from
this p a r t of zone 5 (of. Fitch 1970), we m a y n o t expect geophysical
a n a l o g y with zone 5 of the B a n d a Arcs, because the n e a r b y deep
Philippine trench a n d the volcanoes of H a l m a h e r a have no equivalents
on the convex side of the zone 5 of the B a n d a Arcs.
Zone 2. T h e western limits of zone 2 are d r a w n a r b i t r a r i l y at the
1000 m isobath, except south of Makassar where (as discussed for
zone 1 above) the limit is taken at the 500 m isobath until n e a r the
t r e n c h in the Flores Sea. F r o m there the margins of zone 2 c o n t i n u e
376 SULAWESI
eastward as part of the Salajar-Lucipara Arc at much greater depths
in the Banda Sea. The inner margin of zone 2 is drawn at the 1000 m
isobath until the Banda Sea. This eastern margin coincides locally
with the submarine fault scarp on the east of the South Arm which
extends from the Tawaelia graben in Central Sulawesi to the east of
Salajar. In the north the margin separates the Sangihe ridge and
islands from the Gorontalo Trough and the Sangihe Trough. The
northern part of zone 2 (Northern Celebes Arc) is characterized by
a line of active volcanoes and a zone of epicentres of intermediate
focus earthquakes.
Zone 3 m a y be called the Intra-Celebes Arcs zone. Mostly it is
submarine and is deeper than 1000 m or even than 9000 m. Two land
areas are involved in this zone, one is the Poso zone of Central Sulawesi
and the other is the Tongian Islands and the volcano of U n a Una.
O n Sulawesi the western margin of the zone is coincident with the
Tawaelia graben and its northern and southern submarine exten-
sions. In the south this zone is continuous with the Intra-Banda Arcs
trough (zone 3 of the Banda Arcs). Zone 3 is coincident with a zone
of positive isostatic gravity anomalies over most of its length in the
Sulawesi belt, but this feature does not continue into zone 3 of the
Banda orogenic belt.
Zone 4 is the East Celebes Arc, which to the south and north
continues with structures called the Tukang Besi Arc and the North
Moluccan Arc respectively. At the southern end the arc is inter-
preted to be continuous along strike with the Outer Banda Arc
(zone 4 of the Banda Arcs orogenic belt. The zone is characterized in
both the Sulawesi and Banda orogenic belts by a strong zone of
negative isostatic gravity anomalies. The seismic isobaths drawn by
Hatherton & Dickinson (1969) suggest important differences between
zone 4 of the Banda Arcs and part of zone 4 of Sulawesi (the South-
east Arm). Their contours suggest, however, that the East Arm of
Sulawesi m a y occupy a similar position to an inclined seismic zone as
that indicated for the Outer Banda Arc.
The Sula Spur: Stille (1945) and Klompe (1954) regarded the Sula
Spur as a detached part of the Australian continent. Kundig (1956)
referred to it as a 'small stable intra-orogenic craton'. Wegener (1966)
interpreted it as a structure due to New Guinea penetrating the region
of the Banda Arcs by the north-west drift of Australia relative to Asia.
Fitch (1970) claimed that seismic evidence suggests the Sula Spur
'currently includes one or more plates of lithosphere'.
The north margin of the western part of the Sula Spur is drawn
at the 1000 m isobath. Klompe (1954), and others later, took this
margin through the middle of Obi so as to exclude the ophiolites. The
present writer follows Kundig (1956) and Fitch (1970) and considers
on the basis of the geological history, the isostatic gravity map and the
shallow focus seismic activity that the northern limit of the Sula Spur
should be drawn north of Obi. Eastward from Obi the northern limit
is here drawn at the north edge of the Obi-Pisau-Kafiau-Batanta
ridge, which on the basis of topography, the isostatic gravity anomaly
m a p and with some support from shallow focus seismic activity
(Fitch 1970), appears to be a more consistent interpretation than that
offered by Klompe (1954).
One problem is the relationship of the possible western extension of
the Sorong Fault zone, to the north edge of the Sula Spur. Visser &
Hermes (1962) suggested the fault extended south of Obi and south
of the Sula Islands. Alternatively it m a y extend south of Obi but
north of the Sula Islands, so that west of Obi it could coincide with the
north limit of the Sula Spur, or it could occur north of Obi separating
that island from the Halmahera Islands; this last interpretation might
account for a line of shallow focus seismicity along the postulated
extension (Fitch 1970). The south margin of the west part of the Spur
presents the greatest problem; the positive isostatic gravity anomaly
extends south into the north of the Banda Sea where the sea floor
drops rapidly to 4000 m south of the Sula Islands. The present writer
follows Klompe (1954) in drawing this south margin around the
southern limit of the gravity anomaly; this seems to accord most
closely with the tectonic behaviour of the East Celebes Arc and the
Outer and Inner Banda Arcs, although this hypothesis receives no
support from present seismic activity.
C. S T R U C T U R A L RELATIONSHIPS
OF T H E S U L A W E S I A R C S W I T H
NEIGHBOURING REGIONS
Sulawesi separates four major geological provinces: to the west and
south-west are the Larger Sunda Islands and their shelf, partly
represented by Borneo and J a v a ; to the south and south-east are the
Lesser Sunda Islands which form the Banda Arcs; to the east is the
Vogelkop and Bomberai of Irian Barat (formerly called west New
Guinea); to the north are the Philippines which form part of the
island chains that mark the boundary of the western Pacific. Each
different part of Sulawesi appears to have geological affinity with some
important aspects of one or more of these four major geological
provinces. On the basis of the linear belt of strongly negative gravity
anomalies that characterize the East and South-East Arms of Sulawesi,
the East Celebes Arc has been regarded (Kuenen et al. 1934) as an
extension of the Outer Banda Arc (structural zone 4). It is believed to
continue northwards into the North ~vIoluccan Arc (Visser & Hermes
1962). There is uncertainty about the correlation on gravity data
between Butung at the south of the South-East Arm and Buru because
this part of the Banda Sea does not display the strong negative gravity
values that characterize zone 4 elsewhere. Westerveld (1955) noted
that the submarine floor of this part of zone 4 was marked by a series
of strong ridges and trenches striking NW-SE, which he suggested
probably marked the sites of transverse faults striking in that direction.
The absence of the strong negative gravity values m a y be associated
with such faults. The correlation of the Outer Banda Arc with the
 SULAWESI
East Celebes Arc has also been proposed on the basis of these lands
possessing a Mesozoic (and possibly Palaeozoic) history that dis-
tinguishes t h e m from all the surrounding regions. U m b g r o v e (1938)
a n d Teichert (1939) referred to this zone 4 as the T i m o r - - E a s t
Celebes Geosyncline, a n d Teichert thought it a n extension of the
Westralian Geosyncline of the C a r n a r v o n basin.
T h e South A r m of Sulawesi, together with the Palu zone of the
central region a n d the North Arm, expose granite intrusions a n d
acid extrusives which suggests some affinity between this zone 2 a n d
the larger S u n d a Islands (Borneo, J a v a & Sumatra). I n contrast, in
the East a n d South-East Arms extensive outcrops of ultrabasic a n d
basic igneous rocks predominate, which as Brouwer (1930) observed
are characteristic of the B a n d a Arcs.
T h e North A r m of Sulawesi is usually regarded as a southerly
extension of the chains of island arcs a r o u n d the western Pacific.
T h e Philippine Arc passes south of M i n d a n a o into a s u b m a r i n e ridge
with islands a n d then into the M i n a h a s a portion of the North Arm.
This correlation is based on the strong topographical feature with
a c c o m p a n y i n g chain of active volcanoes (zone 2) which separates the
belt of strong negative gravity anomalies of the North M o l u c c a n Arc
(zone 4) from the strong positive anomalies of the Celebes Sea (zone 1).
T h e structural relationship of the South A r m a n d the western part of
Central Sulawesi (zone 2) to zones 3 a n d 4 is uncertain. T h e south of
zone 2 lacks active volcanoes ( N e u m a n n v a n P a d a n g 1951) a n d strong
gravity anomalies in Sulawesi. T h e acid igneous rocks of this region
have suggested some possible affinity with the Larger S u n d a Islands
to the west a n d south, but Westerveld (1955) proposed that this
region was a n extension of the I n n e r B a n d a Arc. He suggested that the
southern part of the South A r m was part of an arc that connected
Salajar with the B a n d a Islands through a series of s u b m a r i n e ridges
with a few islands such as K o m b a , G u n u n g a p i a n d the L u c i p a r a
Islands. This arc is characterized by weak positive isostatic anomalies
a n d locally in the B a n d a a n d Flores Seas by active volcanoes. At the
present time there seems to be insufficient available geological or
geophysical evidence to support or reject this hypothesis.
Two major strike slip faults, called the Sorong F a u l t zone a n d the
T a r e r a - A i d o e n a Fault zone in Irian Barat by Visser & Hermes (1962),
m a y through their possible westward extension have influenced the
development of the m a j o r arcuate zone of the East Celebes Arc a n d
its extensions into the Philippine and B a n d a Arcs.
Stille (1945) a n d K l o m p e (1954) suggested that the region of the
Sula a n d Banggai Islands where crystalline schists crop out, m a y repre-
sent a detached fragment of the Australian continent. T h e western part
of this Sula Spur is characterized by a strong positive gravity anomaly.
I n Figs. 1, 2 a n d 4 the eastward extension of this Spur is shown to
include the island of O b i a n d a south-eastward extension is suggested
to include Misool a n d part of south-western Bomberai. Stille (1945)
regarded Misool as part of the Sula Spur a n d B e m m e l e n (1949, p. 458)
considered that Misool does not belong to the B a n d a Arcs but is part
377
of what he called the 'foreland belt' that included Sula, O b i a n d western
Bomberai. Visser & Hermes (1962) a n d H e r m e s (1968) considered
that Misool a n d western Bomberai form part of the B a n d a Arc prin-
cipally because they were submerged d u r i n g most of Mesozoic time.
The present author favours the interpretation that regards Misool a n d
western Bomberai as part of the Sula Spur a n d distinct from the B a n d a
Arcs.
Although the definition of the limits a n d correlation between the
various structural zones of Sulawesi and the n e i g h b o u r i n g island arcs
is open to debate, it is generally acknowledged ( U m b g r o v e 1949;
Holmes 1965) that Sulawesi represents the j u n c t i o n of two m a j o r
Tertiary orogenic belts, one is the H i m a l a y a n - I n d o b u r m a n - I n d o n e s i a n
orogenic belt a n d the other a b r a n c h of the Circum-Pacific orogenic
belt.
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