Epistle to the Galatians

The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number
of early Christian communities in the Roman province of Galatia in central Anatolia. It is principally
concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law within Early
Christianity. Along with the Epistle to the Romans, it is the most theologically significant of the Pauline
epistles, and has been particularly influential in Protestant thought.

Galatia

Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches in Galatia" (Galatians 1:2), but the location of these churches is a
matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a Celtic
people living in northern Asia Minor, but most agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman
province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained
Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the
"region of Galatia and Phrygia", which lay immediately west of Galatia. The main theme was that the
people of Galatia have turned away from Christ's teachings.

Historical background

The churches of Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe) were founded by Paul himself
(Acts 16:6; Gal 1:8; 4:13, 4:19). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism
(4:8). After Paul's departure, the churches were led astray from Paul's Christ centered teachings by
individuals proposing "another gospel" (which centered around Judaism and salvation through the Mosaic
Law, so-called Legalism (theology)), whom Paul saw as preaching a "different gospel" than that of Jesus
Christ (which was centered around salvation by God's grace and Christ's atonement, not the "works" of the
Mosiac law). (1:6–9). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and
the epistle is Paul's response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.

The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. We do not have a record of their activity, but are left to
reconstruct it from Paul's response. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish
Christians (i.e. Judaizers), who taught that in order for pagans to belong to the people of God, they must be
subject to some or all of the Jewish Law. The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath
observance, and the Mosaic Covenant. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of
Abraham, who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings (Genesis 17), see also
Abrahamic religion. They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps
appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by James the Just.

Paul responds angrily; he relates his conversion and apostolic credentials, his relationship with the
Jerusalem Church, and engages in a debate over the interpretation of the Abraham story.

Authenticity

Virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's writing.

The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are
common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles.
Moreover, Paul's description of the Council of Jerusalem (Gal 2:1–10) gives a different point of view from
the description in Acts 15:2–29, whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck
close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.
The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which
shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of
Christians were Jewish or Jewish proselytes. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.

There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large.

Date and audience

Galatians was presumably written between the late 40s and early 50s.[1]

There are three main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The North Galatian view
holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia.[2] The visit to Jerusalem,
mentioned in Gal 2:1–10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, or Acts 18:22, and it is spoken of as a thing
of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the Council of Jerusalem. The
similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written
at the same time, namely, in the winter of AD 57–58, during Paul's stay in Corinth.[3] This letter to the
Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and
that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same fundamental
doctrines of the gospel.

The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council,
probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his
time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to
Jerusalem as a Christian[4], or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern
Galatia. If it was written to the believers in South Galatia, it would likely have been written in 49.[5]

A third theory[6] is that Galatians 2:1-10 is the visit of Acts 11:30. This theory implies that the epistle was
written before the Council was convened, making it the earliest of Paul's epistles.

Contents

This epistle addresses the question "Was the Mosaic Law binding on Christians?" The epistle is designed to
counter the position that men cannot be justified by faith without the works of the law; see also the Epistle
of James and the Expounding of the Law. After an introductory address (Gal 1:1–10), the apostle discusses
the subjects which had occasioned the epistle.

In Chapter 1 he defends his apostolic authority (1:11–19; 2:1–14). Chapters 2, 3, and 4 show the influence
of the Judaizers in destroying the very essence of the gospel. Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to
stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruit of the Spirit. Chapter 4 then concludes with
a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by 5; 6:1–10 teaching about the right
use of their Christian freedom. For example, it is clear that some took "freedom in Christ" as justification of
antinomianism.

In the conclusion of the epistle (6:11), Paul writes, "Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own
hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the
concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand.
Regarding this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on the epistle, says: "At this point the apostle
takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the
time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to
close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case
he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed
sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his hand-writing may
reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
Galatians also contains a catalogue of vices and virtues, a popular formulation of Christian ethics.

An interesting literary interpretation of this period of Christianity and the character of Paul can be found in
Rudyard Kipling's short story "The Church that was at Antioch". A Roman soldier and follower of
Mithraism discovers the faith on his death bed, after having tried to defuse tension between the Gentile and
Jewish Christians over issues of Mosaic Law such as circumcision and the preparation of food.

Textual criticism

No original of the letter is known to exist. The earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars
today, named P46, dates to approximately the year 200 A.D., approximately 150 years after the original
was presumably drafted. This fragmented papyrus, parts of which are missing, almost certainly contains
errors introduced in the process of being copied from earlier manuscripts.[7] However, through careful
research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual
criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the
original text probably said. [8]

Epistle to the Philippians

The Epistle to the Philippians (or simply Philippians) is a book included in the New Testament of the
Bible. It is a letter from St. Paul to the church of Philippi. It is one of the authentic Pauline epistles, written
c 62.[1]

Authorship

Pauline authorship of Philippians is "universally accepted" (Beare, p. 1) by virtually all Bible scholars,
ancient and modern, with the exception of the kenosis passage in Philippians 2:5-11. According to some
theologians this may have been a Christian hymn that Paul quoted.

Background

The letter was written to the church at Philippi, one of the earliest churches to be founded in Europe. They
were very attached to Paul, just as he was very fond of them. Of all the churches, their contributions (which
Paul gratefully acknowledges) are among the only he accepts. (Acts 20:33-35; 2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2 Thess.
3:8). The generosity of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a
characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable
that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2), though the very first converts were of
all classes (Acts 16); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great
missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor
Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule).

Historical background

The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the needs of Paul; and
on his return Paul sent this letter with him. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his
homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in
the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself
passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site
of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the
apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of
men and women in every age and nation the letter written in while he was under house arrest in Rome, and
carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful
guide along the most rugged paths of life".[2]