1

2
3
4
5
Forces > affecting the earth crust > divided into two
categories on the basis of source of origin :
Exogenetic forces : by external forces originating within
earths atmosphere.
Endogenetic forces : by internal forces within the earth.

6
Action of exogenetic forces results in Endogenic forces
wearing down (degradation) of continuously elevate or
relef/elevation and filling up build up parts of the
(aggradation) of basins/depressions, earths surface
on the eearth surface.
Are mainly LAND WEARING forces Are mainly LAND BUILDING
forces

Endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stress and

chemical actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in
the configuration of the surface of the earth > k/a GEOMORPHIC
PROCESSES
EXOGENIC FORCES > weathering, mass movement,
erosion, deposition
ENDOGENIC FORCES > diastrophism and volcanism (+
earthquakes) 7
GEOMORPHIC AGENT > Any exogenic element of nature > like water,
ice, wind > capable of acquiring and transporting earth materials can
be called Geomorphic Agent.
Agent is a mobile medium > like running water, moving ice masses,
wind, waves and currents > which removes, transport and deposit
earth material.

Gravity > besides being a directional force activating all down slope
movements > also causes stresses in the earth material.
w/o gravity and gradient > there will be no mobility > no erosion.
> is the force that switches on > the movement of all the surface
material on earth.

8
9
Diastrophism
Diastrophism is the general term applied to slow bending,
folding, warping and fracturing.

Wrap == make or become bent or twisted out of shape, typically

from the action of heat or damp; make abnormal; distort.

All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the

earths crust come under diastrophism.
They include:
orogenic processes involving mountain building through
severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the
earths crust;
epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large
parts of the earths crust;
earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements;
plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates. 10
Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas
epeirogeny is continental building process.

Through the processes of orogeny,

epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
faulting and fracturing of the crust.

All these processes cause pressure, volume and

temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce
metamorphism of rocks.

11
Diastrophi Divide into : Vertical and horizontal movements
c forces
Vertical k/a epeirogenic Continent making movements
movement movements
Two types : Upward> causes emergence of
1)Upward continents/part of coastal areas
2)downward (gulf of kachchha > 24kms long
land area has emerged to a height
of several kms > k/a ALLAH-BUND)

Downward > submergence

Horizonal k/a Orogenic Mountain building movements

movement movements
Two types : FOLDING & FAULTING
1)Compressional forces
2) Tensional forces
12
Uplift
Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and
fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidences of uplift.

Raised beaches, some of them elevated as much as 15 m to 30 m

above the present sea level, occur at several places along
the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Thirunelveli coasts.
Several places which were on the sea
some centuries ago are now a few
miles inland. For example,
Coringa near the mouth of the
Godavari,
Kaveripattinam in the
Kaveri delta and
Korkai on the coast of Thirunelveli,
were all flourishing sea ports about
1,000 to 2,000 years ago.
13
Subsidence
Submerged forests and valleys as well as buildings are evidences of
subsidence.
In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an
earthquake.
The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan coast
by submergence of the intervening land.
On the east side of Bombay island, trees have
been found embedded in mud about 4 m below
low water mark. A similar submerged forest has
also been noticed on the Thirunelveli coast in
Tamil Nadu.
A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait is very shallow and has been submerged in
geologically recent times.
A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai (Madras) is submerged in the sea. 14
15
The 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake > The earthquake caused an area of
subsidence to that formed the Sindri Lake and a local zone of uplift to the north
about 80 km long, 6 km wide and 6 m high that dammed the Puram river. This
natural dam was known as the Allah Bund ("Dam of God").

Tectonic setting
The Kutch District of modern-day Gujarat lies about 400 km from the plate
boundary between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, but the current
tectonics is still governed by the effects of the continuing continental
collision along this boundary. During the break-up of Gondwana in the Jurassic,
this area was affected by rifting with a roughly west-east trend. During the
collision with Eurasia the area has undergone shortening, involving both
reactivation of the original rift faults and development of new low-angle thrust
faults. The related folding has formed a series of ranges, particularly in central
Kutch. The focal mechanism of most earthquakes is consistent with reverse
faulting on reactivated rift faults. The 2001 Gujarat earthquake was
caused by movement on a previously unknown south-dipping fault, trending
parallel to the inferred rift structures.

16
Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements

Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements

act tangentially to the earth surface, as in plate tectonics.

Tensions produces fissures (since this type of force acts

away from a point in two directions) and compression
produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a
point from two or more directions). In the landforms so
produced, the structurally identifiable units are difficult to
recognise.
In general, diastrophic forces
which have uplifted lands have
predominated over forces
which have lowered them.
17
 due to Compressional forces , the rock strata
get folded
Up folded rock beds called Anticlines
Down folded rock strata are called Synclines
18
Symmetrical fold Equal from both the sides Jura mtns. > switz
Asymetrical fold One limb steeper than the
other
Monoclinal fold One limb vertical Great dividing rang
> australia
Isoclinal fold Two limbs are parallel Kalachinta mtn >
paki
Over fold Axial plane > virtually Pir panjal range
horizontal
Recubent fold Axial plane > horizontal/sub-
horizontal
Over thrust / Large scale tectonic over fold PIR PANJAL
NAPPE > detaching itself from the KASHMIR VALLEY
so called ZONE OF ROOTS
FAN FOLDS Minor several synclines + Syncliorium
anticlines anticlinorium 19
20
Singbhum > anticlinorium > chhotanagpur
potwar synclinorium > pakistan 21
22
Cracks, fractures, faulting
Formed due to combined
effect of both
Compressional and
tensional forces
But tensional forces play
significant role
23
Fults >
are fractures in earths crust
along which displacement has
occurred bcoz of tension and
compression.

Areas of crustal movement >

k/a Fault Zones

at the movement of fracture

the fault line shifts and a sharp
release of energy occurs called
as EARTHQUAKE.

24
25
Normal Due to stress Rock blocks displaced in opposite
faults directions and one of the blocks
moves downward
Surface gets stretched
Reverse Due to Rock blocks move towards each other
faults compressional and one of the rock block over-rides
force the other
Shortening of the crust
Thurst faults Due to During reverse fault, the faulted area
compressional gets compressed
force Typically, have low dip angles
Lateral fault Compression Displaced horizontally
(garhwal and uttarkashi region of
himalayas)
Step-fault Series of In suuch a way that the slopes of all
normal faults the fault planes are in same direction
(rhine valley in europe) 26
27
28
Producers of earthquake.
Economic impo. > petroleum deposits found in porous
sedimentary rocks > that have been faulted against impervious
shale beds.
So ? Areas of faulted sedimentary strata are favorite areas of oil
exploration.
Also give rise to underground
ground water table along fault
planes > result into springs >
hot or cold.
May also give rise to waterfalls
Difficult to build roads and
railways > thus create
topographic barrier.
29
 Along with Volcanoes

Step-fault

30
 Rift valley
Due to tension Narmada, Tapi
Middle portion goes down valley

Horst mountain
Due to tension
Middle portion goes up
Ramp valley
Brahmputra
valley Due to compression
Sides go up

Satpura range Block mountain

Due to compression
Sides go down 31
Rift valley
Represents a trough, depression or basin between two crustal
parts.
Formed due to displacement of crustal parts and subsidence of
middle portion between two normal faults.
Due to tensional force > formed due to movement of rock blocks
in two opposite directions.

In German > rift valley callled GRABEN > a narrow block dropped
down btwn two normal faults.

The dead sea(jordan )

Death valley- california
Narmada tapi valley

32
33
Horst mountain

When the two sides of blocks remain at their place

but the middle block rises along the fault planes.
Due to compression
Eg. Hartz mountain in Germany.

34
Ramp valley
When the middle portion btwn
two fault remains at its place
but the two sides rise upwards
Due to compressional forces
Eg. Brahmputra valley

Block mountains
When the middle portion remains
as it is and the two sides move
downwards
Eg. Satpura range
Sierra nevada USA
Salt range in pakistan

35
36
An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that occurs
from faulting, tilting or warping and resulting erosion and
separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations.

Usually escarpment is used interchangeably with scarp. But

some sources differentiate the two terms,
escarpment refers to the margin
where
between two landforms, while scarp is
synonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The surface of
the steep slope is called a scarp face.

37
38
39
1
2
 in order to make convenience of systemic studies >
The landforms have been divided into
THREE ORDERs of RELIEF.
These classify landscapes by scale , from enormous
ocean basins and continents down to local hills , valley etc.

first
order relief
Second order relief
Third order relief

3
First order relief :
Broadest category
Include
1. CONTINENTAL
PLATFORMS and
2. OCEAN BASINS.

CONTINENTAL PLATFORMS:
ARE THE MASSES OF CRUST
THAT EXIST ABOVE OR NEAR
SEA-LEVEL, INCLUDING THE
UNDER-SEA CONTINENTAL
SHELVES ALONG THE COASTLINE.

OCEAN BASINS :
ARE ENTIRELY BELOW THE SEA-
LEEVEL. 4
5
6
SECOND ORDER RELIEF
Include > mountain,
plateaus, plains and
lowlands.

Eg. Himalayas, Alps,

Rockies, Andes, Tibetan
Plt., Antolia Plt. (Turkey),
Indo-Gangetic plain,
siberian lowlands.

In ocean basins >

continental slopes, abyssal
plains, MOR, submarine
canyons, and trenches. 7
THIRD ORDER RELIEF
PEAKS
CLIFFS
VALLEY
HILLS
GORGES
SAND DUNES
CAVES
BEACHES

These features are identified

as local landscapes.

8
9
 MOUNTAINS (Parvat-nirmaan)

OROGENY : period of mountain building.

OROGENESIS : is the process of mountain building,
leading to formation of the intensely deformed
Second belts which constitute mountain ranges.
order
relief Types of mountain

Fold Block Residual Volcanic

mountains mountains mountains mountains

10
Fold mountains (Ged-parvat)
Mountains created due to convergent
boundaries of both
1) O-C (Rockies, Andes)
2) C-C (Himalayas, Alps)
Compressive forces of plates
Youngest mountains on earth Rockies,
Andes, Alps, Atlas, Ural & Himalayas
Charac. > ruggedness of relief
(in contrast to smooth and
rounded contours of residual
mtn which have been
subjected to weathering agents)
True mountains
11
 Characteristics of Fold mountains
1)Extensive mountain chain
3) Great heights
4) Formed along unstable parts of the earth
5) Sedimentary deposits of marine origin (C-C)

12
Phases of mountain building
Pull of descending
limb of convection
current
great pressure of
compressive force
exerted by the
convection cells

13
 Geo-syncline
(bhoo-nimna-valank)

Elongated, narrow
depression on
continental margins
Here sediments from
both land and ocean
accumulate
Under intense
pressure, sediments
of geo-syncline
folded
14
C-C collision
Sediments from
continental crusts
of both plates +
geo-syncline folded
Because of
sediments of geo-
syncline marine
origin

15
Fold mountains of the world

16
 List of mountains to locate
1) Alaska range 9) Hindukush
2) Rockies 10) Kirthar range
3) Andes 11) Kunlun Shan
4) Atlas mountains 12) Urals mountains
5) Pyrenees 13) Appalachian
6) Caucasus mountains
7) Taurus 14) Great Dividing Range
8) Elburz and Zagros

17
 Importance of mountain building process
understanding of the origin and evolution of earths
crust.
At the time of the formation of the earth crust, first
basaltic crust of ocean > breaking and melting > a
lighter continental crust developed.
collide with one another = a larger land mass.
The joints = fold-mountains.
climatic barrier
Lumbering industries
Pastures (switz.)
Swift streams >
hydro-electric power
18
 Block mountains formation

= khand-parvat
a/k/a Horst mountain
Due to the forces of tension
Upstanding parts of the ground between two faults or
on the either side of rift valley or a graben.
E.g. Sierra Nevada, California
19
 Rift valley
Due to tension Narmada, Tapi
Middle portion goes down valley

Horst mountain
Due to tension
Middle portion goes up
Ramp valley
Brahmputra
valley Due to compression
Sides go up

Satpura range Block mountain

Due to compression
Sides go down 20
 Example of block mountains
Europe
India

Rhine valley formed due to

submergence of its middle part 21
 Residual mountains
an area of highland remains standing after rivers and
other agents have weathered the surface >
a/k/a mountains of denudation

Term can also be applied to

the mountain ridges asso.
with dissected plateaus.

22
Volcanic mountains

23
Mountains Second order relief
Generally height more than 1000mts
Height less than 1000mts > Hills
Highest point of a mountain or a hill > Peak
Mountain ranges A sys of mountains and hills having several
ridges, peaks and valleys formed in a
particular period and spread in narrow belt.
Mountain chain Consists of several parallel, long and narrow
mountain ranges of different periods.
Mountain system Different mountain ranges of same period
Mountain groups Diferent mountain system of different
periods
Cordillera Consists of several mountain groups &
systems.
Western part of North america , along the
pacific coast. 24
 Plateaus
Meaning:
Table land, upland, higher than surrounding
areas
At least one side steep slope standing
straight well above the neighboring surface
and whose upper part is extensive and
almost flat.

Raised land during

mountains building process
Eroded mountains
Eroded due to glaciers
Deposition from lava, wind
25
 Types of plateaus

Dome
Intermontane piedmont continental volcanic
shaped

Surrounded by hills and

mountains from all the sides.
Most extensive > Tibetan
plateau
Surrounded by kunlun range
in the north and himalaya in
the south

26
Piedmont plateaux
Formed at the foothill of extensive mountains.
Which is surrounded by mountain range on one side and
by plain or ocean on the other side
Appalachian mountains USA
Patagonian plt.

27
28
Dome shaped plateaux

formed when the landmass is uplifted

in such a manner that middle portion is
raised and sides are rounded.
Chhota nagpur (JH)

29
Continental plateaux

very extensive plateau

Generally away from the mountainous areas
but are surrounded by oceanic coasts or
plains.
These plateaux are formed either due to the
upliftment or extensive spreading of lava on
the earth surface.
a/k/a Sheild

Siberian sheild
Baltic sheild
Laurentian or canadian sheild
Brazilian shield

30
31
 Volcanic plateaux
A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic activity.
There are two main types: lava plateaus and pyroclastic plateaus.

Lava plateaus
are formed by highly fluid
(runny) basaltic lava during numerous
successive eruptions through numerous
vents without violent explosions (quiet
eruptions).
Multiple successive and extensive lava
flows cover the original landscape to
eventually form a plateau
Deccan plateau

32
Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus
are produced by massive pyroclastic flows and they are
underlain by pyroclastic rocks.
Examples include Shirasu-Daichi which covers almost all of
Southern Kysh, Japan[3] and the North Island Volcanic
Plateau in New Zealand.

Pyroclastic
rocks or pyroclastics (= fire-
broken) are clastic
rocks composed solely or
primarily of volcanic materials.
Where the volcanic material has
been transported and reworked
through mechanical action, such
as by wind or water, these rocks
are termed volcaniclastic 33
34
Intermontane Bolivia plateau
plateau Tibetan plateau
Columbia plateau
Colorado plateau
Anatolia Plt. (Turkey)
Piedmont Border plateau > border
plateaus mountain ranges
Continental Deccan plateau
plateau Katanga plateau
Ozark plateau (USA)
Ethiopian highland
Glacial Grahwal plateau
plateau Laurentian plt. (Canada)
Lava plateau Columbia-snake plt (USA)
Deccan Plateau
Shan plateau (Myanmar) 35
Katanga Plateau
Continental plateau
Origin of River Congo
and Zambezi
Dense equatorial forest
Known for resources
- Gold, diamonds, Copper

36
 Plains
Plains > second order relief
Flat areas with low height
Due to very gentle slope of plains, the speed of rivers gets
reduced.

Best for human habitation

Most populated areas of the world alluvial plains of
rivers

37
1) Diastrophic plains Types of Plains
Due to folding in the outer
margins of the geosynclines,
the intermediary parts are
left unfolded and
sometimes, develops in the
form of plains
Ex. Hungarian plain b/w
Carpathian and dynamic
alps ranges

38
2) Peneplains
When after, continues erosion, rivers
attain their base level, the entire area is
converted into peneplain.
Charac by convexo-concave residual and
isolated hills between the plain k/a
Monadnocks which project above the
general surface.
monadnock
Arravali
Upper Mississippi basin

39
3) Glacial plains
Plains of canada, USA, Finland
Originated by glacial process.

4) Karst plains
Plateau composed of massive limestone are
subjected to chemical weathering and erosion
by ground water > transformed into surface of
very low relief = karst plains
Karst plains of yugoslavia near adriatic sea

40
5)Alluvial plains
Formed due to the deposition of alluvial soil brought by rivers
Very fertile
High density population
Ganga-brahmputra plains
Nile plains
Yangtze plains
Danube plains
Mississippi plains

41
6) Loess plains
Formed due to the deposition of
sand and clay brought by the
winds.
Lack in layers but are highly
porous.
Very fertile
China
Turkmenistan

7) Lava plains
Due to deposition of lava
High mineral availability
Deccan trap
Java island of indonesia

42
Mountains

Plateaus

Plains

43
1
2
3
Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a direct result of stress induced in
earth materials due to various forces that come into existence due to
suns heat.
Exogenetic Movements
Force applied per unit area is called stress.
Stress is produced in solid by pushing or pulling.

Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear

stresses (separating forces). It is this stress that breaks rocks and other
earth materials.
Earth materials become subjected to molecular stresses caused due to
temperature changes.

Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains.

Thus, the basic reason that leads to weathering, erosion and deposition is
development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements
that control various processes by inducing stress in earth materials. 4
All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general
term, denudation.
denude= to strip off or to uncover. Denudation

Weathering, mass wasting/movements,

erosion and transportation are included in denudation.
Denudation mainly NCERT
depends on rock type
and its structure that
includes
folds, faults, orientation and
inclination of beds,
presence or absence of joints,
bedding planes,
hardness or softness of
constituent minerals,
chemical susceptibility of
mineral constituents;
the permeability or
impermeability etc. 5
Weathering
Weathering is action of > elements of weather and climate > over
earth materials.
There are a number of processes > within weathering > which act
either individually or together > to affect the earth materials > in
order to reduce them to fragmental state.
Weathering is defined as
mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks
through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.

Weathering( khavaan)
is the physical disintegration or chemical alteration
of rocks at or near the Earths surface.
Erosion (ghasaaran)
is the physical removal and transportation of
weathered material by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
6
7
As very little or no motion of materials takes place in
weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.

Climate is of particular
importance. Not only
weathering processes differ
from climate to climate, but
also the depth of the
weathering mantle.

There are three major groups of weathering processes :

(i) chemical; (ii) physical or mechanical; (iii) biological weathering
processes.
Very rarely does any one of these processes ever operate
completely by itself, but quite often a dominance of one process
can be seen. 8
Types of Weathering
I. Mechanical (physical) weathering is the physical disintegration
and reduction in the size of the rocks without changing their
chemical composition.
Examples: exfoliation, frost wedging, salt wedging, temperature changes,
and abrasion

II. Chemical weathering decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens

the rock through chemical processes to form residual materials.
Examples: carbonation, hydration, hydrolosis, oxidation, and solution

III. Biological weathering is the disintegration or decay of rocks

and minerals caused by chemical or physical agents of organisms.
Examples: organic activity from lichen and algae, rock disintegration by
plant or root growth, burrowing and tunneling organisms, and acid
secretion
9
Weathering
1. Chemical Weathering Processes
1. Solution
2. Carbonation
3. Hydration
4. Oxidation and Reduction
2. Biological activity and weathering
3. Physical Weathering Processes
1. Unloading and Expansion
2. Exfoliation Temperature Changes and
Expansion
3. Block Separation
4. Shattering
5. Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
6. Mass Wasting
4. Effects of Weathering
5. Weathering and Erosion
6. Significance of weathering

10
Chemical Weathering Processes Ref. Solution - removal of rock in
solution by acidic rainwater.
A group of weathering processes viz; In particular, limestone is
solution, weathered by rainwater
containing dissolved CO2,
carbonation, (this process is sometimes
hydration, called carbonation).
oxidation and
Hydrolysis - the breakdown
Reduction > act on the rocks to of rock by acidic water to
decompose,dissolve or reduce them to a produce clay and soluble
fine clastic state through chemical salts.
reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil Oxidation - the breakdown
water and other acids. of rock by oxygen and
water, often giving iron-rich
rocks a rusty-coloured
Water and air (oxygen and carbon weathered surface.
dioxide) along with heat must be present
to speed up all chemical reactions.
Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants
and animals increases the quantity of carbon dioxide underground. 11
 Chemical Weathering: Solution
When something is dissolved in water or
Solution occurs when
acids, the water or acid with dissolved
minerals in rock dissolve
contents is called solution. directly into water.
Solution most commonly
On coming in contact with water many occurs on rocks containing
solids disintegrate. carbonates such as limestone.
Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates,
sulphates, and potassium etc. are affected
by this process.

So, these minerals are easily leached out

without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.

12
Minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium
bicarbonate present in limestones are soluble in water containing
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide in
water), and are carried away in water as solution.

Carbon dioxide produced by

decaying organic matter along with
soil water greatly aids in this
reaction.

Common salt (sodium chloride) is

also a rock forming mineral and is
susceptible to this process of
solution. 13
 Chemical Weathering: Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with
minerals and is a common process helping the breaking down of
feldspars and carbonate minerals.

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

and soil air is absorbed by water, to
form carbonic acid that acts as a weak
acid.

Calcium carbonates and magnesium

carbonates are dissolved in carbonic
acid and are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue resulting in
cave formation.

14
 Chemical Weathering: Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water.

Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an

increase in the volume of the material itself or rock.

Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is

more unstable than calcium sulphate. This process is reversible and
long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks
and may lead to their disintegration.

15
 Many clay minerals swell and contract during wetting and drying and
a repetition of this process results in cracking of overlying materials.
Salts in pore spaces > undergo rapid and repeated hydration > and
help in rock fracturing.

The volume
changes in minerals
due to hydration will
also help in physical
weathering through
exfoliation and
granular
disintegration.

Why are clay minerals easily erodible? - NCERT 16

 Chemical Weathering: Oxidation and Reduction
In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a
mineral with oxygen to form oxides (rusting in case
of iron).
[Can we give iron rusting as an example of
oxidation?- NCERT]
Red soils appear red due to the presence of iron
oxides.

Oxidation occurs where there is ready

access to the atmosphere and water.
The minerals most commonly involved
in this process are iron, manganese,
sulphur etc.

Red colour of iron upon oxidation

turns to brown or yellow. 17
When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where
oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of
stagnant water and waterlogged ground.

Red colour of iron

upon reduction
turns to greenish or
bluish grey.

These weathering processes are interrelated. Hydration,

carbonation and oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the
weathering process.
18
Biological activity and weathering
Biological weathering is removal of minerals and ions from the
weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or
movement of organisms.

Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents

etc., help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and
assists in the penetration of moisture and air.

Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and

cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating new contacts
between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.

Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of

humic, carbonic and other acids which enhance decay and
solubility of some elements. 19
Organism Activity
Lichen, Algae
Plant roots Algae utilise mineral
nutrients for growth and
help in concentration of iron
and manganese oxides.
Plant roots exert a
tremendous pressure on the
earth materials mechanically
breaking them apart. 20
Physical Weathering Processes
Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration and
reduction in the size of the rocks without changing their chemical
composition.
Most of the physical
Physical or mechanical weathering weathering processes are
processes depend on some applied caused by thermal
forces like expansion and pressure
1. gravitational forces >such as release.
overburden pressure, load and These processes are small
shearing stress; and slow but can cause great
2. expansion forces due to damage to the rocks because
temperature changes, crystal of continued fatigue the rocks
growth or animal activity; suffer due to repetition of
contraction and expansion.
3. water pressures controlled by
wetting and drying cycles.
21
1. Unloading and Expansion
Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes
vertical pressure release with the result that the upper layers of the
rock expand producing disintegration of rock masses. Fractures will
develop roughly parallel to the ground surface.

In areas of curved ground

surface, arched fractures tend
to produce massive sheets or
exfoliation slabs of rock >
measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in
horizontal extent.
Large, smooth rounded domes called
exfoliation domes result due to this process.
22
2. Temperature Changes and Expansion
With rise in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes
against its neighbour and as temperature falls, a corresponding
contraction takes place.
Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures, this internal
movement among the mineral grains takes place regularly.

This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations

where diurnal temperature changes are drastic.

The surface layers of the rocks tend to

expand more than the rock at depth
and this leads to the formation of stress
within the rock resulting in heaving and
fracturing parallel to the surface.

23
Due to differential heating and
resulting expansion and
contraction of surface layers
and their subsequent exfoliation
from the surface results in
smooth rounded surfaces in
rocks.
In rocks like granites, smooth surfaced
and rounded small to big boulders called
tors form due to such exfoliation.

24
What is the difference between exfoliation domes and exfoliated tors?
Exfoliation domes and tors are formed NCERT
due to physical weathering processes.

>>Exfoliation domes are large and smooth rounded domes formed due to
unloading and expansion of rocks. In this process, overlying rock load is
removed due to continuous erosion and as a result there is a release of
vertical pressure.
Upper layers of the rock expand
producing disintegration of rock
masses, consequently fractures
will develop parallel to the ground
surface. These arched fractures
tend to produce massive sheets or
exfoliation slabs of rock and these
can measure upto 100 or even
1000s of metres in horizontal
extent. 25
>>Exfoliation tor are small to big size boulders which are smooth surfaced
and rounded. These are formed due to temperature changes and
expansion in rocks. In this process, diurnal changes in the temperatures
(esp. in dry climates and high elevations) cause internal movement among
the mineral grains of the superficial layers of rocks.

As a result surface layers of the rock tend

to expand more than the rock at depth
(since the upper portion is exposed more
to heat). This leads to formation of stress
resulting in heaving and fracturing parallel
to the surface. Due to differential heating
and resulting expansion and contraction of
surface layers and their consequent
exfoliation from the surface results in
smooth rounded rocks. Such exfoliation
leads to formation of tors in rocks like
granites.
26
SOME SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING = NCERT

Exfoliation is a result but not a process.

Flaking off of more or less curved
sheets of shells from over rocks or
bedrock results in smooth and rounded
surfaces. Exfoliation can occur due to
expansion and contraction induced by
temperature changes.
Exfoliation domes and tors result due
to unloading and thermal expansion
respectively.

27
3. Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
During the warm season, the water penetrates the pore spaces or
fractures in rocks.
During the cold season, the water freezes into ice and its volume
expands as a result. This exerts tremendous pressure on rock walls to
tear apart even where the rocks are massive.
Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging daily.

Frost weathering occurs due to

growth of ice within pores and
cracks of rocks during repeated
cycles of freezing and melting.

In this process, the rate of

freezing is important. Rapid
freezing of water causes its sudden
expansion and high pressure.
28
4. Salt Weathering
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and
crystallisation. Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium,
potassium and barium have a tendency to expand. High
temperature ranges between 30 and 50oC of surface
temperatures in deserts favour such salt expansion.

Salt crystals in near-surface pores

cause splitting of individual grains
within rocks, which eventually fall
off. This process of falling off of
individual grains may result in
granular disintegration or
granular foliation.

29
 Salt crystallisation is most effective of all salt-weathering processes.
In areas with alternating wetting and drying conditions salt crystal
growth is favoured and the neighbouring grains are pushed aside.

Sodium chloride and

gypsum crystals in desert
areas heave up overlying
layers of materials and with
the result polygonal cracks
develop all over the heaved
surface.

With salt crystal growth,

chalk breaks down most
readily, followed by
limestone, sandstone, shale,
gneiss and granite etc. 30
Block Separation (ref.)
This type of disintegration takes place
in rocks with numerous joints
acquired by mountain-making
pressures or by shrinkage due to
cooling.
This type of disintegration in rocks can
be achieved by comparatively weaker
forces.
Shattering (ref.)
A huge rock may undergo
disintegration along weak zones to
produce highly angular pieces with
sharp corners and edges through
the process of shattering.
31
Mass Wasting (ref.)

Since gravity exerts its force on all

matter, both bedrock and the
products of weathering tend to slide,
roll, flow or creep down all slopes in
different types of earth and rock
movements grouped under the term
mass wasting.

32
 Significance of weathering
1. Weathering is the first step in
formation of soils.
2. Weathering of rocks and deposits
helps in the enrichment and
concentrations of certain valuable
ores of iron, manganese,
aluminium, copper etc.
3. Weathering helps in soil
enrichment.
4. Without weathering, the
Gold panning = enrichment
concentration of the same valuable gold ore in river
material may not be sufficient and
economically viable to exploit,
process and refine. This is what is
called enrichment. 33
 When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are removed
through chemical or physical leaching by groundwater and
thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable) materials
increases. Without such a weathering taking place, the
concentration of the same valuable material may not be
sufficient and economically viable to exploit, process and refine.
This is what is called enrichment.

5. Weathering processes are responsible

for breaking down the rocks into smaller
fragments and preparing the way for
formation of not only regolith and soils,
but also erosion and mass movements.

6. Biomes and biodiversity is basically a

result of forests (vegetation) and forests
depend upon the depth of weathering
mantles. 34
MASS
MOVEMENTS

35
 These movements transfer the mass of rock
debris down the slopes under the direct
influence of gravity.
Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and
the products of weathering. So, weathering is not a
pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass
movements.
Mass movements are very active over weathered
slopes rather than over unweathered materials.

Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent

like running water, glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate
in the process of mass movements.
That means mass movements do not come under erosion
though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of materials from one
place to another.
36
Materials over the slopes have their own resistance to disturbing
forces and will yield only when force is greater than the shearing
resistance of the materials.

Weak unconsolidated materials, thinly bedded rocks, faults,

steeply dipping beds, vertical cliffs or steep slopes, abundant
precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity of vegetation etc.,
favour mass movements.

37
Several activating causes precede mass movements.
They are :

(i) removal of support from below to materials above through natural

or artificial means;
(ii) increase in gradient and height of slopes;
(iii) overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial
filling;
(iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of
slope materials;
(v) removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces;
(vi) occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery;
(vii) excessive natural seepage;
(viii) Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers
leading to slow outflow of water from under the slopes or river banks;
(ix) Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.
38
1. Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes),
2. flow and
3. slide > are the three forms of movements.

the relationships among

different types of mass
movements, their relative
rates of movement and
moisture limits.

39
40
Mass movements can be grouped under three major classes:
(i) slow movements; (ii) rapid movements; (iii) landslides.

slow Creep
movements solifluction

earth flow
Rapid Mudflow
movements Slump
debris avalanche

Rock slide
landslides Rock fall

41
 Slow Movements

Creep is one type under this

category.
which can occur on moderately
steep, soil covered slopes.
Movement of materials is
extremely slow and
imperceptible except through
extended observation.

Materials involved can be soil or rock debris. Have you ever seen
fence posts, telephone poles lean downslope from their vertical
position and in their linear alignment? > that is due to the creep
effect.
42
 Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of creep can
be identified -

rock creep
soil creep

talus creep

rock-glacier creep 43
Also included in this group is
solifluction which involves > slow
downslope flowing > soil mass or
fine grained rock debris > saturated
or lubricated with water.

This process is quite common in

moist temperate areas where
surface melting of deeply frozen
ground and long continued rain
respectively, occur frequently.
When the upper portions get
saturated and when the lower
parts are impervious to water
percolation, flowing occurs in
the upper parts.
44
Rapid Movements
mostly prevalent in humid climatic regions
and occur over gentle to steep slopes.

Movement of water-saturated clayey or

silty earth materials down low-angle
terraces or hillsides is known as
earthflow.

45
Quite often, the materials
slump making steplike
terraces and leaving arcuate
scarps at their heads and an
accumulation bulge at the toe.

When slopes are steeper, even

the bedrock especially of soft
sedimentary rocks like shale or
deeply weathered igneous rock
may slide downslope.

46
Another type in this category is
mudflow.

In the absence of vegetation

cover and with heavy rainfall,
thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with
water and either
slowly or rapidly flow down
along definite channels. It
looks like a stream of mud
within a valley.
When the mudflows emerge out of channels onto the
piedmont or plains, they can be very destructive engulfing
roads, bridges and houses. 47
 In Andes mountains of South America and
the Rockies mountains of North America,
there are a few volcanoes which erupted
during the last decade and very
devastating mudflows occurred down
their slopes during eruption as well as
after eruption.

Mudflows occur frequently on the

slopes of erupting or recently erupted
volcanoes.

Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments

turn into mud due to heavy rains and
flow down as tongues or streams of
mud causing great destruction to
human habitations.
48
A third type is the debris avalanche,
Which is more characteristic of humid
regions with or without vegetation
cover and occurs in narrow tracks on
steep slopes.
This debris avalanche can be much
faster than the mudflow.
Debris avalanche is similar to snow
avalanche.

49
 slow Creep
movements solifluction

earth flow
Rapid Mudflow
movements Slump
debris avalanche

Rock slide
landslides Rock fall

50
Landslides
known as relatively rapid and
perceptible movements. The
materials involved are relatively dry.

Landslides by Stevie nicks

The size and shape of the detached mass depends on -

1. the nature of discontinuities in the rock,
2. the degree of weathering and
3. the steepness of the slope. 51
Depending upon the type of movement
of materials several types are identified in
this category.

Slump is =
>slipping of
>one or several units of rock debris
>with a backward rotation with
respect to the slope over which the
movement takes place.
Rapid rolling or sliding of earth
debris without backward rotation
of mass is known as debris slide.

Debris fall is nearly a free fall of

earth debris from a vertical or
overhanging face.
52
debris avalanche Debris slide

Debris fall

53
Sliding of individual rock masses
down> bedding, joint or fault
surfaces, > is rockslide.
Over steep slopes, rock sliding is
very fast and destructive.

Rock fall is free falling of rock

blocks over any steep slope
keeping itself away from the slope.
Rock falls occur from the
superficial layers of the rock face,
an occurrence that distinguishes it
from rockslide which affects
materials up to a substantial depth.
54
 Bring out the causes for more frequent landslides in the
Himalayas than in Western Ghats.
Mains 2013 5-marker

In our country, debris avalanche and landslides occur very frequently in

the Himalayas. There are many reasons for this.
One, the Himalayas are tectonically active. They are mostly made up of
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated and semi-consolidated deposits.
The slopes are very steep.
Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamilnadu, Karnataka,
Kerala and the Western Ghats along the west coast are relatively
tectonically stable and are mostly made up of very hard rocks; but, still,
debris avalanches and landslides occur though not as frequently as in
the Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many slopes are steeper with almost
vertical cliffs and escarpments in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris.
Mechanical weathering due to temperature changes and ranges is
pronounced. They receive heavy amounts of rainfall over short periods.
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite frequently in these places along
with landslides and debris avalanches.
55
56
57
58
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris.
By erosion, relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn down.
That means, though weathering aids erosion it is not a pre-
condition for erosion to take place.

Weathering, mass-wasting and erosion are degradational

processes. It is erosion that is largely responsible for continuous
changes that the earths surface is undergoing.

The erosion and transportation of earth materials is brought

about by wind, running water, glaciers, waves and ground water.
Of these the first three agents are controlled by climatic
conditions. Abrasion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic
agents also aids greatly in erosion.
59
The erosion can be defined as application of the
kinetic energy
associated with the agent to the surface of the
land along which it moves.

Kinetic energy > as KE = 1/2 mv2

where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
Hence the energy available to perform work
will depend on the mass of the material and
the velocity with which it is moving.
Obviously then you will find that though the
glaciers move at very low velocities due to
tremendous mass are more effective as the
agents of erosion and wind, being in gaseous
state, are less effective.

gaseous (wind),< liquid (running water) and < solid (glacier). 60

The work of the other two agents of erosion waves
and ground water is not controlled by climate.

In case of waves > it is the location along

the interface of litho and hydro sphere
coastal region that will determine the
work of waves,

whereas the work of ground water is

determined more by the lithological
character of the region.
If the rocks are permeable and soluble
and water is available only then Karst
topography develops

61
Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
The erosional agents loose their velocity and
hence energy on gentler slopes and the materials
carried by them start to settle themselves.

In other words, deposition is not actually the

work of any agent.
The coarser materials get deposited first and finer
ones later. By deposition depressions get filled up.
The same erosional agents viz., running water,
glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as
aggradational or depositional agents also.

62
63
 Pedology is soil science.
Soil and Soil Contents A pedologist is a soil-scientist.

A pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection

of natural bodies on the earths surface containing living
matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants.

Some points from NCERT -

Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the soil becomes too
cold or too dry.
Organic matter increases when leaves fall or grasses die.

64
Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on weathering.

It is this weathering mantle (depth of the weathered material) which is

the basic input for soil to form.
First, the weathered material or transported deposits are colonised
by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like mosses and lichens.
Also, several minor organisms may take shelter within the mantle and
deposits.
The dead remains of organisms and plants help in humus accumulation.
Minor grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will start
growing through seeds brought in by birds and wind. Plant roots
penetrate down, burrowing animals bring up particles, mass of material
becomes porous and sponge like with a capacity to retain water and to
permit the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a complex mixture of
mineral and organic products forms.

65
Soil-forming Factors
Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
(i) parent material;
(ii) topography;
(iii) climate;
(iv) biological activity;
(v) time.
In fact soil forming factors act in union and affect
the action of one another.

Read : about these

factors from XI std NCERT
66
67
 Erosion Large scale transportation of the weathered
materials is termed as erosion.
abrasion (ap-gharsan):
when any agent of erosion moves ahead loaded with sand
pebbles, and fragment of rocks, the rock coming in contact of
these particles are degraded by the friction > process k/a
abrasion.

Attrition (sani-gharsan) :
when the particles flowing with an agent > get reduced in
their size due to mutual friction > process k/a attrition.

Corrosion (ksharan) :
soluble rocks like limestone, challk are separated by the
action of water > process k/a corrosion.
68
Hydraulic action :
by the action of fast flowing water> carried out by glaciers and
sea-waves > rocks are broken into pieces .

Water pressure :
rocks are eroded by water pressure > carried out by sea-
waves.

Plucking :
by the action of glaciers > dragging of rocks > making them
weak > disintegrate into large fragments.

Deflation :
by wing > removes or blows away the unconsolidated sand >
in arid areas.
69
Agents of gradation

70
 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
The landforms created as a result of degradational action
(erosion) or aggradational work (deposition) of
running water are called fluvial landforms.
The fluvial processes may be
divided into three physical
phases erosion,
transportation and
deposition.

71
Fluvial Erosional
Landforms
Corrasion or abrasion == solid
river load striking against rocks and
wearing them down.(grinding
action)
Hydration == force of running
water wearing down rocks.

Attrition == river load particles striking, colliding against each

other and breaking down in the process.
Downcutting == Erosion in vertical direction (downcutting leads to
valley deepening) or
Lateral erosion == Erosion in horizontal direction, especially the
walls of the stream.
Corrosion == Chemical action that leads to weathering. 72
A drainage basin or catchment area or Terminologies
river basin is an area of land
where surface water from rain, melting
snow, or ice converges to a single point
at a lower elevation, usually the exit of
the basin, where the waters join another
water body, such as
a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland,
sea, or ocean.

73
What Is A Watershed?

A watershed describes an area of land that

contains a common set of streams and
rivers that all drain into a single larger body
of water, such as a larger river, a lake or an
ocean.

For example, the Mississippi River

watershed is an enormous watershed. All
the tributaries to the Mississippi that
collect rainwater eventually drain into the
Mississippi, which eventually drains into
the Gulf of Mexico.
Rainwater that falls on more than
half of the United States subsequently
drains into the Mississippi.
74
The elevated land which separates the
catchment area of two rivers is called
Water-Divide.

For ex. , Arravali hills >

indus basin and ganga basin

75
Running water considered as most imp geomorphic agent in
humid areas which receives heavy rainfall > bringing about the
degradation of the land surface.
NCERT
Two component of running water
1) A sheet > overland flow on general land surface.
2) Linear flow > as streams and rivers in valleys.

Erosional landforms asso. with youthful rivers flowing along the

gradients (dhaal).

The gentler the river channel in gradient or slope, the greater is the
deposition.
When the stream becomes gentler due to continued erosion,
downward cutting becomes less dominant and lateral erosion of
banks increases and as a consequence the hills and valleys are
reduced to plains. 76
River course

Youth

Maturity

Old Age

77
Bronze statue of Lord Shiva
bringing the Goddess Ganga
down to the earth in his
matted hair

78
Youth
-close to their source
-tend to be fast-flowing, high-energy environments with rapid head
ward erosion, despite the hardness of the rock over which they
may flow.
Streams are few with poor integration
Steep-sided V-shaped valleys, waterfalls, and rapids are
characteristic features.
No flood plains or very narrow floodplains.

79
Head ward erosion == Erosion at the
origin of a stream channel, which causes
the origin to move back away from the
direction of the stream flow, and so causes
the stream channel to lengthen.

River cuts its source

Results : lengthening of the river in
the upstream direction

80
Maturity
Mature rivers are lower-energy systems.
Erosion takes place on the outside of bends,
creating looping meanders in the soft
alluvium of the river plain.
Deposition occurs on the inside of bends and on
the river bed.

streams are plenty with good integration.

Still V-shaped valley but deep.
Trunk stream > broad.
Wider flood plains.
Waterfalls and rapids disappear.

81
Old Age
At a rivers mouth , sediment is deposited as the velocity of the river
slows.
As the river becomes shallower more deposition occurs, forming
islands and braiding the main channel into multiple, narrower
channels.

Meandering freely
Levees
Oxbow lakes
As the sediment is laid
down, the actual mouth of
the river moves away from
the source into the sea
or lake, forming a delta.
82
Different landforms carved by a river :
River Valley Formation
The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows
throughout its course is called a river valley.
At different stages of the erosional cycle > the valley acquires different
profiles.

At a young stage, the valley is deep, narrow with steep wall-like

sides and a convex slope.
The erosional action here is characterized by predominantly vertical
downcutting
The profile of valley here is typically V shaped.

Valley start as small and narrow rills > develop in long and wide
gullies > further deepen, widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys
>>> many types of valleys = V-shaped valley , gorge, canyon etc. 83
84
A deep and narrow V shaped valley is also referred to
as gorge(kotar) and
may result due to downcutting erosion and because of
recession(nirgaman = pichhe hath) of a waterfall.

MostHimalayan rivers pass through deep gorges (at times more

than 500 metres deep) before they descend to the plains.

An extended form of gorge is called a The Grand Canyon of the

Colorado river in Arizona (USA).
85
As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes
prominent and the valley floor flattens out. The valley profile now
becomes typically U shaped with a broad base and a concave
slope.

86
 Gorge(kotar) vs. canyon(kotar) NCERT

A gorge deep valley + steep to straight sides.

A canyon steep step-like side slopes and may
be as deep as gorge.

A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as

well as its bottom.
In contrast, the canyon is wider at its top
than at its bottom.

In fact a canyon is a variant of a gorge.

Gorges form in hard rocks

Canyons commonly form in horizontal bedded
sedimentary rocks.
87
Best example of canyon : Map work
GRAND CANYON on the Colorado river of USA

88
GRAND CANYON

89
Waterfalls and rapids
A waterfall is simply the fall of an enormous
volume of water from a great height.
They are mostly seen in youth stage of river.
Relative resistance of rocks,
relative difference in topographic reliefs,
fall in the sea level and related
rejuvenation, earth movements etc. are
responsible for the formation of
waterfalls.
Transitory like any other landforms and
will recede gradually and bring the valley
to below level.
For example,
Jog or Gersoppa falls on Sharavati (a tributary of Cauveri) in
Karnataka. 90
 Pot Holes
The kettle-like small
depressions in the rocky beds
of the river valleys are called
pot holes.

Over the rocky beds of hill-

streams more or less circular
depressions called potholes >
Form bcoz of stream erosion
aided by the abrasion of the
rock fragments.

91
Once a small and shallow depression forms > pebbles and
boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by
flowing water and consequently the depressions grow in
dimensions .

92
 Plunge pools
At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide,
form bcoz of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.
Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls > Plunge
pools.

93
 Terraces
Are surfaces marking old valley floor or floodplains levels.
They may be bedrock surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial
terraces consisting of stream deposits.
are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical
erosion by the stream into its own depositional floodplain.
Terraces may result due to

1- receding water after peak flow

2- change in hydrological regime
due to climatic changes

3- tectonic uplift of land

4- sea level changes in case of
rivers close to the sea
94
95
Paired terraces
They may occur at the same elevation on the either side of the
rivers.

When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and with
none on the other side or one at quite a different elevation on the
other side > non-paired terraces.

Unpaired terraces > typical in areas of slow uplift of land or where

the water column changes are not uniform along the both the
banks.

96
 Gulley is an incised water-worn channel,
Gulleys/Rills which is particularly common in semi-arid
areas.
It is formed when water from overland-flows down a slope,
especially following heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which
merge and enlarge into a gulley.
The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central India and the Chos of
Hoshiarpur in Punjab are examples of gulleys.

97
Map work

98
 Peneplane (Or peneplain = guj.)
The divides btwn drainage basins are
likewise lowered until they are almost
completely flattened leaving finally, a
lowland of faint relief with some resistant
remnants called monadnocks standing
out here and there.

( Monadnocks = avshist tekari )

This type of plain forming as a result of

stream erosion is called a peneplain (an
almost plain).

99
Fluvial Depositional Landforms
The depositional action of a
stream is influenced by stream
velocity and the volume of river
load.
The decrease in stream velocity
reduces the transporting power of
the streams which are forced to
leave some load to settle down.

100
 Alluvial Fans/ Cones
Alluvial fans are formed when streams
flowing from higher levels> break into
foot slope plains of low gradient.

Normally, Very coarse load is carried by

streams flowing over mountain slopes >
too heavy to be carried over gentler
slopes and get dumped and spread as a
broad low to high cone shaped deposit >>
alluvial fan.
Over the fans > streams not confined to their original
channels > forming many channels called distributaries.

In humid areas > low cones with gentle slope

In arid areas > high cones with steep slope. 101
 Deltas
Like alluvial fan > but at the mouth of river.
The load carried by the rivers is dumped
and spread into the sea.
If the load is not carried away far into the
sea or distributed along the coast, it
spreads and accumulates as a low cone.

Unlike alluvial fan > very well sorted with

clear stratification.
Coarsest materials settle out first and the
finer like slits and clays are carried out into
the sea.

As the delta grows > river distributaries

continue to increase in length and delta
continues to build up into the sea. 102
Types > Deltas
Ebbro delta
Esturian type (spain)
Narmada R.
Tapi R.

Nile R.
Ganga R.
Brahmaputra R. Mississippi-Missouri R.
103
 Estuary(nadi-naal / nadi-mukh) Vs. Delta (=guj.)
Estuary is the entrance of the river
into the sea where the river water
may be entering the sea or the tidal
waves may be entering the river;
mouth of the sea.

Delta is the landscape formed by the

deposit of the fine particles carried by
the river in the tail end of the course.
Deltas are formed by the accumulation of sediments borne by the
river. Deltas are commonly seen at estuaries, mainly because it is
towards the end of the journey that the river is usually the most
laden with debris.
104
105
Flood plains

Deposition develops a floodplain just

as erosion makes valleys.
Flood plain is a major landform of
river deposition.

Large sized materials are deposited first when stream channels

breaks into a gentle slope > thus normally, fine sized materials like
sand, silt and clay are carried by relatively slow moving water in
gentler slope in plains and deposited over the bed and when water
spill over the banks during flooding above the bed 106
Active floodplains > a river bed made of river deposits
Inactive floodplains > floodplains above the bank.

Delta plains > flood plains in a delta

107
Natural levees and point bars

Found along the banks of river.

They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along
the banks of rivers, quite often cut into individual mounds.

During flooding as the water spills over the bank, the velocity of
the water comes down and large sized and high specific gravity
materials get dumped in the immediate vicinity of the bank as
ridges.

108
109
The levees are higher nearer the banks
and slope gently away from the river.

The levee deposits are coarser than the

deposits spread by flood waters away
from the river.
When river shift laterally, a series of
natural levees cam form.

110
Point bars
= meander bars

They are found on the convex

side of meanders of large rivers
and are sediments deposited in a
linear fashion by flowing waters along
the bank.

If there are more than one ridge >

narrow elongated depressions are
found between the point bars.

As the river build the point bars on

the convex side, the bank on the
concave side will erode actively. 111
Point bars

112
Meanders visharp

113
In large flood and delta plains >
rivers rarely flow in straight course
> loop like channel patterns
develop > called meanders.

Not a landform but is only a type

of channel pattern.

Bcoz of
1) Propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work
laterally on the banks.
2) Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks
with many irregularities which can be used by water exerting
pressure laterally
3) Coriolis force acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects
the wind. 114
When the gradient of channel
becomes extremely low > water
flows leisurely and start working
laterally.

Irregularities on the banks slowly

get transformed into small
curvature in the banks >
curvature deepens due to
deposition on the inside of the
curve and erosion along the bank
on the outside. !!!!!!

Normally,
Active deposition along the convex
bank and
Undercutting along the concave
bank. 115
Concave bank k/a cut-off bank
Which shows up as a steep
scarp

Convex bank k/a slip-off bank

Presents a long gentle profile.

As meanders grow into deep

loops, the same may get cut-off
due to erosion at the inflection
points and are left as ox-bow
lakes.

116
 Incised or entrenched meanders
Over steep gradients > erosion is concentrated on
the bottom of the stream .

Also, in the case of steep gradient streams,

lateral erosion on the sides of the valleys in
not much when compared to the streams
flowing on low and gentle slope.

Because of active lateral erosion, streams

flowing over gentle slopes > develop
meandering course.
Meanders > common over flood and delta plains where stream
gradients are very gentle.
But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard
rocks !!! Such meanders > incised / entrenched meanders. 117
Meander loops develop over original gentle surfaces in the initial
stages of the development of streams and the same loops get
entrenched into rocks normally due to erosion or slow, continued
uplift of the land over which they start.

Meander loop > Colorado river USA showing

They widen and deepen step-like side slopes > grand canyon
over time and can be
found as deep gorges and
canyons in hard rock
areas.

They give an indication

on the status of original
land surfaces over which
streams have developed.
118
 Braided channels

When river carry coarse materials >

selective deposition of them > causing
formation of a central bar which
diverts the flow towards the bank and
This flow increases lateral erosion on
the banks.

As valley widens > water table is

reduced > more n more materials get
deposited > developing a number of
separate channels of water flow.

119
Deposition + lateral erosion of banks > essential for the
formation of braided pattern.
Or >
When discharge is less and
load is more in the valley >
channels bars and islands of
sand, gravel and pebbles
develop on the floor of the
channel and the water flow
is divided into multiple
threads.

These thread like streams of

water rejoin and subdivide
repeatedly to give a typical
braided pattern.
120
 Running water
Erosional landforms
Depositional landforms
Valley
Alluvial fans
Waterfalls and rapids
Deltas
Gorge and canyon
Flood plains
Pot holes
Natural levees
Plunge pools
Point bars
Terraces
Gulleys/rills
Peneplains
Meanders
(erosional + depositional)
Actually not a landform but a type of channel pattern
121
122
 Karst topography
Ground water
is a landscape formed from
the dissolution of soluble
rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, and gypsum.
It is characterized
by underground
drainage systems
with sinkholes,
caves etc.
-Typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region
in Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.
123
 Karst - Erosional Landforms

The Karst Plateau or the Karst region also

simply known as the Karst, is a
limestone plateau region extending across
the border of southwestern Slovenia and
northeastern Italy. 124
 Karst - Erosional Landforms
Erosional and depositional work of the ground water is not as
fast and important as that of rivers, glaciers and winds.

Prerequisites for the ground water to be effective

1) Rocks of limestone or dolomite
2) Sufficient rainfall
3) Presence of joints in the soluble rocks and
4) Sufficient land structural relief

125
 Sinkholes / swallow holes
Swallow holes =
Small-medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions >
on the surface of lime stones through solution.
Sink holes =
An opening more or less
circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards
the bottom.
(Wiki= sink holes = doline)
Collapse sinks = doline
Solution sinks, solely through solution action > develop in sink holes
> then bottom of a sink hole forms the roof of a void or cave under
ground > may collapse leaving a large hole opening into a cave or
void below.
Term doline > sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks. (NCERT)126
Valley sinks = Uvalas
Sink holes + doline > join together because of slumping of
materials along their margins or due to roof collapse of caves >
long, narrow to wide trenches called > valley sinks or Uvalas form.

Often > the surface run-off simply

goes down sink holes > and flow as
underground water streams and
re-emerge at a distance downstream
through a cave opening.

127
Lapies
Highly corrugated and rough surface of limestone
Gradually , most of the surface of limestone is eaten away by
these pits and trenches > leaving highly irregular surface with
grooves and ridges > lapies.

Lapies > form due to

differential solution
activity along parallel to
sub-parallel joints.
Lapie field may
eventually turn into
somewhat smooth
limestone pavements.

128
 In area > where there are alternating beds of rocks
caves (shale, sandstones, quartzite) with limestone or
dolomite in between > where limestone are dense,
massive and occurring as thick beds cave formation
is prominent .

Water percolates down > through materials or through cracks and

joints > and move horizontally along bedding planes.
Along these bedding planes > limestone dissolves and long and
narrow to wide gaps called > caves > result. 129
Cave normally have an opening through which cave
streams are discharged .
Caves having openings at both the ends are called >
tunnels.

130
Karst - DEPOSITIONAL Landforms
Many deposi. landforms develop
within the limestone caves.
Chief chemical in limestone is
calcium carbonate > easily soluble in
co2 absorbed rain-water (carbonated
water).

This caco3 deposited when the

water carrying it in the solution
evaporates or loses its co2 as it
trickle down over rough rock
surfaces.

131
Stalactites
water keeps on flowing in the caves > columns of dripstone
hanging from the cave ceiling are formed.
They are broad at their bases and taper towards the free ends.

Such hanging columns are called stalactite, while the calcareous

columns of dripstones growing upward from the cave floor are k/a
stalagmite.
Stalagmite
rise up from the floor
Form due to dripping water from
the surface or through the thin
pipe, of stalactite, immediately
below it.
Stalactites + stalagmites eventually
fuse to give rise to columns and
pillars of diff diameters.
( C= upper & G= niche )
132
Karst topography Ground water

Sink holes = doline Valley sinks / Uvalas

133
 Karst topography Ground water Revision
Erosion
Swallow and Sink hole
Collapse sink hole
Valley sink
Lapies
Caves

Deposition
Stalactite
Stalagmite
columns
134
Glacier Landforms

UPSC

135
Glacier
Masses of ice moving as sheets
over the land or as liner flows
down the slopes of mountains in
broad trough like valleys (k/a
mountain or valley glaciers) are
called glaciers.

Continental or piedmont
glacier

If a vast sheet of ice is spread over

the plains at the foot of
mountains.(ice mass spread over
a large area.) 136
r. Bhagirathi is basically fed by maltwaters from under snout
(gaumukh) of the gangotri glacier.

Alkapuri glacier feeds water to Alaknanda river.

Bhagirathi + alaknanda =
ganga (deoprayag)

137
1. Glaciers > move basically
bcoz of force of gravity. 5. As glacier continue to move,
debris gets removed, divides get
2. Erosion by glaciers is lowered and eventually the slope is
tremendous bcoz of reduced to such an extent that
friction caused by sheer glaciers will stop moving leaving
weight of the ice. only mass of low hills and vast
3. The material plucked from outwash plains along with other
the land by glaciers get depositional features.
dragged along the floors
and sides of the valleys and
cause great damage
through abrasion and
plucking.

4. Can reduce high mountains

into low hills and plains.
138
Term - Snow line :
a zone btw permanent and seasonal snow.
It denote that height above which there is a permanentt
snow cover and thus it corresponds to the level where avg.
temp. is always below freezing point even during the warmest
month of the year.
Snow line keeps on changing due to seasonal variations.

As we go from equator to
poles > height of snow line
keeps decreasing and
In the polar region > its
almost equal to the mean sea
level.

139
Ice-cap
Small ice-sheet covering the peaks of
the mountains and form which glaciers
originate.

Ice-sheets
The dome-shaped ice masses
spreading generally over the plateaus .

Ice-bergs
Floating ice masses.

A glacier erodes its valley by two

processor :
1) Plucking (todavu khechi kadhavu)
2) Abrasion (ghasi kadhavu)
140
 Glacier erosional Landforms
Cirque
(Him-gart) (corrie = no ncert)

Most common > in glaciated mountains.

Found at the heads of glacial valleys.
The accumulated ice cuts these cirques
while moving down the mountain tops.
deep long, wide trough or basins with
very steep high walls at its head as well
as sides.

141
Cirque or tarn lakes -

Him-Gart Sarovar
a lake can be seen ghanivaar
within the cirque s after the
glacier disappears.
a/k/s Lochan (no ncert)

142
Horns and Serrated ridges
Glacial horns = Himanadiya Shrung
Horns form through head ward
erosion of the cirque walls.

If 3 or more radiating glaciers cut

head ward until their cirques meet >
high-sharp- pointed and steep sided
peaks called horns form.
Matterhorn > Switzerland
Everest > Himalayas
are in fact horns formed through headwards erosion
of radiating cirques.

143
Artes
The divides between
cirque >side walls or head
walls > get narrow bcoz of
progressive erosion and
turn into
1. serrated or saw-
toothed ridges called
aretes
2. with very sharp crest
and
3. a zigzag outline.

144
G. Valleys = are
Glacial valleys / troughs
1. trough (tarang-gart) like and
2. U-shaped with
3. broad floors and Valleys may contain littered
4. relatively smooth with debris or debris shaped
5. steep sides. moraines with swampy
appearance.

Hanging valley
Valleys of tributary
glaciers which joins
the main valley of
much greater depth.
145
Recalling
Cirque
Cirque lake
Horns
Artes
G. valley

146
 Glacier depositional Landforms
Glacial till
Unassorted coarse and fine
debris dropped by the melting
glaciers > glacial till.
Most of the rocks in the till are
angular in form.

Streams form> by melting ice>

at the bottom, sides or lower
ends of glaciers.

147
Outwash deposits

Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by melt-

water stream is washed down and deposited.
Such glacio-fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.

Unlike till-deposits, the

outwash deposits are
roughly stratified and
assorted.

The rock fragments in

outwash deposits are
somewhat rounded at their
edges.
148
Outwash plain

149
 Outwash Plains
Nacert
Plains at the foot of the glacial
mountains or beyond the limits of
continental ice sheets are covered
with glacio-fluvial deposits in the
form of broad flat alluvial fans which
may join to form outwash plains of
gravel, slit , sand and clay. !!!!

Aapde due to melting of glaciers and

flowing away of the water, the sediments
are spread over a large area. Such plains
are > outwash plains. !

150
Moraines = him-ashmavali
The landform > created by the deposition > of eroded and
transported materials > by the glaciers is called moraines.
These are formed where the glacier melts and gets
converted into water.

151
Moraines are long ridges of
deposits of glacial till.

Terminal moraines >

long ridges of debris deposited at the
end (toe) of the glaciers.
Lateral moraines >
form along the sides> parallel to the
glacial valley.
Lat. Moraines may join a terminal
moraine forming a horse-shoe
shaped ridge.
These moraine owe their origin to glacio-fluvial
waters pushing up materials to the sides of glaciers.
Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave
irregular sheet of till over their valley floors.
Such deposits > ground moraines. 152
The moraine in the centre of the valley flanked by lateral moraines is >
medial moraine.
They are imperfectly formed as compared to lat. Moraines.
Sometimes med. Moraines are indistinguishable from ground moraines.

153
When glaciers melt in summer > the water flows on the surface of
the ice or > seeps down along the margins or even moves through
holes in the ice.
These water accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams
in a channel beneath the ice.
Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the
ground) with ice forming its banks.
Very coarse materials like
boulders and blocks along
with some minor fractions of
rock debris carried into this
stream settle in the valley of
ice beneath the glacier> and
after the ice melts> can be
found as sinuous ridge called
esker.
154
155
Term : Nunatak
The higher peaks surrounded by ice from all sides
> called nunataks.
They look like scattered islands amid extensive ice
masses.
That is why they are also called glacial islands.

156
Term : roche moutonne
They are streamlined>
asymmetrical hillocks, mounds
or hills> having one side
smoothly moulded with gentle
slope (onset / stoss side) and
the steepened side (lee side),>
resembling -
a sheep in lying posture.

157
Erosional landforms Depositional landforms

Cirque Glacier Landforms Glacial till

Horns Revision Outwash deposits/plains
Artes Moraines
Glacial valleys Eskers
Drumlins

158
 Land forms by Sea water

Waves and currents

Waves and
currents Waves
currents

Tarang evam
Dharaye
UPSC Tarang
Tarang evum Dharaye
Dharaye
159
Coastal process > most dynamic > and
hence, most destructive.
Most of the changes along the coast > by
waves.
When waves break > water thrown with
great force onto the shore > sathe sathe >
churning(force to move vigorously) of
sediments on the sea bottom.
Other than the action of waves > coastal landforms depend upon :
1. Configuration of land and sea floor
2. Whether the is advancing(emerging) seaward or retreating
(submerging) landward

Assuming sea level to be constant >

Two types of coast :
1. High-rocky coast (submerged coast)
2. Low-smooth-gently sloping sedimentary coasts(emerged coast)160
 Submerging coast
High-rocky coast
Erosional forms dominate in the
west !

Depositional forms dominate in

the east !
emerging coast
Low smooth gently
sloping sedimentary
coast
Que ? Upsc ?
At which place you can see this ?
= Orissa coast 161
Why does the west coast of India have more ports than the
east coast?
The west coast of our country is a high rocky
retreating coast. Erosional forms dominate in
the west coast. The east coast of India is a low
sedimentary coast. Depositional forms
dominate in the east coast. (=NCERT)

162
Why does the west coast of India have more ports than the
east coast?
a. West coast is coast of submergence (except Malabar Coast) while east
coast is an emergent coast. These imply that sea is deeper in west coast
than sea on east coast. So, west coast has favourable conditions for natural
harbours.
b. West Rivers form estuaries and eastern rivers form delta. Therefore it
becomes difficult for ships to reach the east coast covered with sediments.
c. High Tides hit coast real hard. So coastal erosion, natural ports
d. Continental shelf on east extends up to 500 km into the sea, so, difficult
to develop good ports and harbours. Ships can enter and leave only during
tides. But this does-not mean we cannot have ports in this condition. Some
of the world's well known ports are located on Continental shelves like
London, Singapore, Hong Kong.
e. Historically, British India had trade contacts mainly with the Western
world & Arabs. So, all these might have favoured development of ports on
west coast.
163
 High rocky coasts (unche chhatani tatt)
The hill side drop off sharply into the water.
Shores do not show any depositional landforms initially.
Erosion features dominate.
cliffs
The material fall off > removed from cliffs > break into
smaller fragments > deposited in the offshore.
After thodak period > landforms develop -
Wave-cut platforms
Barrier bars
A spit
A lagoon

164
Low sedimentary coasts (nimna avsaadi tatt)

Here, river extend their length > by forming coastal plains and deltas.
Marshes and swamps > land slopes gently into the water.
Depositional features dominate
Due to depositions > bars > barrier bars > lagoon > swamp > into
coastal plains.

165
Erosional landforms (Ghasaaran-krut Bhumiswarupo)
Wave-cut cliffs and terraces

usually found where erosion is

dominant.
Sea cliffs = steep and may range
from a few mt to 30mt.

At the foot of the cliffs > flat or

gently sloping platform >
covered by rock debris derived
from the cliffs behind.

Such platforms > having avg.

height of waves > called Wave-
cut terraces. 166
(cliff=karaad=bhrugu in hindi)
(terraces= sopaan= vedikaye in hindi)

167
 the lashing of waves against the
base of the cliff and >
The rock debris that gets smashed
against the cliff along with lashing
waves >
create hollows and these hollows
get widened and deepened to form
sea caves.
The roofs of the caves collapsed
and sea-cliffs recede further
inland.

Retreat of cliff > leave some

remnants of rock standing isolated
as small islands = Sea-stacks.
168
169
 all the erosional wave features >
temporary
Eventually coastal hills and cliffs will
disappear bcoz of wave erosion giving rise
to narrow coastal plains and onrush of
deposits over the land > get covered up by
alluvium or sand to form wide beach.

170
Depositional Landforms (nikshipt-bhumiswarupo)
Beach and dunes
where deposition is dominated.
Sediments comes from land >
carried by streams-rivers or wave-
erosion.
Temporary feature, also.
Most of the beaches made up of Bali ..
sand sized-materials.
Shingle beaches = beaches contain
excessively small pebbles and even
cobbles.
Just behind the beach > the sands lifted
and winnowed from the beach surfaces >
will be deposited as SAND DUNES.
Forming long ridges parallel to the
coastline > common on sedimentary
coasts. 171
Bars , barriers and spits
A ridge of sand and
shingle> formed in the sea> in the
off-shore zone >(from the position
of low tide waterline to seaward)
lying approximately parallel to the
coast> is called an off-shore bar.
An off-shore bar > due to further addition of sand >
forms barrier bar.
The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across the mouth of
a river or at the entrance of a bay.
Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up to one end of the bay
when they are called spits.

172
The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of
the bay gradually extend> leaving only a small
opening of the bay into the sea> and the bay
will eventually develop into a lagoon.

Ref. Bar > barrier > spits > lagoon >

coastal plains. (= yaad rakho.)

The lagoons get filled up

gradually by sediment coming
from the land or from the
beach itself (aided by wind)
and a broad and wide coastal
plain may develop replacing a
lagoon. 173
 Land forms by Sea water
Revision
Erosional Depositional
Wave cut cliffs Beach and dunes

Terraces Bars (& Tombolo)

Caves Barriers

Stacks Spits

174
Reference -

Spits are created by deposition.

A spit is an extended stretch of

beach material that projects out to
sea and is joined to the mainland at
one end.
Spits are formed where
the prevailing wind
blows at an angle to the
coastline, resulting in
long shore drift.

175
Reference
Looped bar = when spits are formed around an island > called
looped bar.

Connecting bar = either join two headlands or two islands.

Tombolo = when connecting bars connect the mainland with an
island or connect a headland with an island.

176
Lagoons =

Chilka lake
Largest lagoon
Odisha

Pulicat lake
Second largest
At the border of AP
and TN

vembanad lake
Kerala
are lagoons.

177
NCERT-

Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars offer the first buffer or defence
against storm or tsunami by absorbing most of their destructive force.

Then come the barriers, beaches, beach dunes and mangroves, if any,
to absorb the destructive force of storm and tsunami waves.

So, if we do anything which disturbs the sediment budget and the

mangroves along the coast, these coastal forms will get eroded away
leaving human habitations to bear first strike of storm and tsunami
waves.

178
 Hope Island (India) NCERT Map work
Hope Island is a small tadpole shaped Island situated off the coast
of Kakinada, India, in Bay of Bengal.
long sand spit from the sand carried by the waters of Godavari delta.
The area between Kakinada coast and Hope Island is known as Kakinada Bay.

Hope Island protects the city of

Kakinada from the
strong cyclone/tidal waves/tsunamis Kakinada Bay
coming from the Bay of Bengal.
Hope Island acts as a sort of natural
break water and provides
tranquillity to the ships anchored in
Kakinada bay which makes Kakinada
Port one of the safest natural ports
in the Eastern Coast of India.
179
CA2016 >
Vishakhapattanam > worlds first zoo
aided by WB.
Indira Gandhi national park 180
Land forms by wind

181
Wind is one of the two dominant
agents in hot deserts. (by rain )
Winds cause deflation, abrasion
and impact.

Deflation includes lifting and

removal of dust and smaller
particles from the surface of
rocks.
In the transportation process
sand and silt act as effective tools
to abrade the land surface.
The impact is simply sheer force
of momentum which occurs
when sand is blown into or
against a rock surface. It is similar
to sandblasting operation.
182
In fact, many features of deserts owe
their formation to mass wasting and
running water as sheet floods.
Though rain is scarce in deserts, it
comes down torrentially (mushala-
dhaar-varsha) in a short period of Sheet flood
time.
The desert rocks devoid of
vegetation, exposed to mechanical
and chemical weathering processes
due to drastic diurnal temperature
changes, decay faster and the
torrential rains help in removing the
weathered materials easily.
The wind moves fine materials > and
general mass erosion is accomplished
That means, the weathered debris in mainly through sheet floods or sheet
deserts is moved by not only wind wash. >> Stream channels in desert
but also by rain/sheet wash.(que.) areas are broad, smooth and indefinite
and flow for a brief time after rains.
183
 Erosional landforms by wind
Pediments and Pediplains (= guj.)

Gently inclined rocky floors

close to the mountains at
their foot with or without a
thin cover of debris, are
called pediments.

Such rocky floors form

through the erosion of
mountain front through a
combination of lateral
erosion by streams and
sheet flooding. 184
Erosion starts along the steep
margins of the landmass.

Once, pediments are formed

with a steep wash slope >
followed by cliff or free face
above it,>> the steep wash
slope and free face retreat
backwards. This method of
erosion is termed as parallel
retreat of slopes through back
wasting.

185
 So, through parallel
retreat of slopes, the
pediments extend
backwards at the
expense of mountain
front, and gradually, the
mountain gets reduced
leaving an
inselberg(=guj) which is
a remnant of the
mountain.

Thats how the high relief in

desert areas is reduced to low
featureless plains called
pediplains = (pad-sthali). 186
Pediment

Alluvial fan

187
Comparison

188
Reference

189
Playas
Plains are> most prominent landforms
in the deserts.

In basins with mountains and hills

around > the drainage is towards the
centre of the basin > and due to gradual
deposition of sediment from basin
margins, a nearly level plain forms at the
centre of the basin.

In times of sufficient water, this plain is

covered up by a shallow water body.
Such types of shallow lakes are called as
playas where water is retained only for
short duration due to evaporation and
quite often the playas contain good
deposition of salts. 190
The playa plain
covered up by salts
is called alkali flats.

Playa lake > a shallow water

body > good deposition of salts.

191
 (= Spanish
Bajada = the descent)

Gently sloping
depositional plain
between pediments
and playa > called
bajada.
Formed due to
coalescence of several
alluvial fans.

192
Deflation Hollows (apvaahan-polaan) and Caves
Weathered mantle from over
the rocks or bare soil, gets
blown out by persistent
movement of wind currents in
one direction. This process may
create shallow depressions
called deflation hollows.

Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock

surfaces.
The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand
and first shallow depressions called blow outs (vaat-gart)are
created, and
some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called
caves. 193
Reference

194

Qattara
depression
The Qattara Depression >
a depression in the north west
of Egypt > and is part of the Libyan
Desert. It is considered the world's
largest natural sinkhole.
It lies below sea level and is covered
with salt pans, sand dunes and salt
marshes.
Reference
Qattara depression
The Qattara Depression contains
the second lowest point in Africa at
133 metres (436 ft) below sea
level, the lowest being Lake Assal in
Djibouti.
195
Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rocks > in the deserts > easily

susceptible to wind deflation and
abrasion > are worn out quickly >
leaving some remnants of resistant
rocks > polished beautifully in the
shape of mushroom with a slender
stalk and a broad and rounded pear = Chhatrak-khadak
shaped cap above.
Sometimes, the top surface is
broad like a table top ,

and quite often, the remnants stand out

like pedestals.(=pithika / =chhatra-khadak)
196
Zeugen (= guj) (No ncert)

Those areas where horizontal

layers of hard and soft rocks are
found > masses of tabular form
resembling a capped inkpot.

Generally formed in the desert

where alternate freezing and
thaw (baraf nu pani karvu) action
disintegrates the rocks.

197
Yardang (No ncert)
Steep-sided deeply undercut
vertical rock ridges
Separated from one another by
long grooves or corridors.

In those areas where alternate

layers of hard and soft rocks are
in the direction of wind and soft
rocks are eroded rigorously.

198
Inselberg Erosion by wind > rock become flat > residual
scattered small hills > = inselberg.

199
Dreikanter (No ncert)

Rock smoothened due to the

work of sand laden wind having
three- facets > Dreikanter.

200
Mesa (Portuguese and Spanish for table)
is the American English term for
tableland, an elevated area of land with a
flat top and sides that are usually
steep cliffs.
It takes its name from its characteristic
Reference
table-top shape. It may also be called
a table hill, table-topped hill or table
mountain.

The term mesa is used throughout

the United States to describe a flat-
topped mountain or hill.

It is larger than a butte, which

it otherwise resembles closely.
201
202
Stone lattice

When the rocks of varying

composition > appear on
the way of high velocity
wind >> soft parts are
eroded completely and
wind starts blowing
through such eroded
parts.

Rocks start appearing like

a sieve.
Such pitted and fluted
rock surface are called
stone lattice.
203
List the erosional features carved out by Revision
wind action and action of sheet floods.

By sheet floods By wind action

Pediments Deflation hollows

Mushroom , table and

Pediplains pedestal rocks

Bajada inselberg

Stone lattice

( answer is probable > Do verify it. )

204
Depositional Landforms
Wind is a good sorting agent.
Depending upon the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are moved
along the floors.
When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of
grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
So, in depositional landforms made by wind, good sorting of grains
can be found.

205
Sand Dunes
Dry hot deserts are
good places for sand
dune formation.

Obstacles to initiate
dune formation are
equally important. There
can be a great variety of
dune forms.

206
Barchans (= barkhaan)
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
with the points or wings directed away
from wind direction i.e., downwind,
form where the wind direction is
constant and moderate
and where the original surface over
which sand is moving is almost
uniform.

207
Parabolic dunes

Parabolic dunes form when

sandy surfaces are partially
covered with vegetation.

That means parabolic dunes

are reversed barchans with
wind direction being
the same.
Seif = saaif dhuvo
Seif is similar to barchan with a
small difference.
Seif has only one wing or
point. This happens when there
is shift in wind conditions.
The lone wings of seifs can
grow very long and high.
208
Longitudinal dunes
form when supply of sand is
poor and wind direction is
constant.
They appear as long ridges of
considerable length but low in
height.

209
Transverse dunes

are aligned perpendicular to

wind direction.
These dunes form when the
wind direction is constant and
the source of sand is an
elongated feature at right angles
to the wind direction.
They may be very long and low
in height.

When sand is plenty, quite often, the

regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose
their individual characteristics.
Most of the dunes in the deserts shift and
a few of them will get stabilised especially
near human habitations.
210
 Padhaaro ni ..
mahre desh

No ! UPSC aspirant
211
 Shanxi province, china
Loess

Plains > formed by very

fine particles brought by
wind in the outskirts of
desert area.
Loess turn into very
fertile soil when it gets
water.

Most extensive deposits

of loess are found in
North China > which is
brought from Gobi desert.
It is yellow in color due to
oxidation.

212
Revision

Erosion By Erosion By wind Deposition

sheet floods action

Deflation hollows Sand dunes

Pediments
Mushroom , table and barchans
Pediplains pedestal rocks

inselberg Parabolic dunes

Bajada

Stone lattice Transverse dunes

Longitudinal dunes

Loess 213
214