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Educational Leadership
Lecture Notes: Professor William Allan Kritsonis
Learning Module 1
b) Beliefs held about schools and society, educational goals, school management, authority,
and organizational arrangements are modifiers of behavior.
c) A value system which arranges beliefs and preferences in some systematic way affects
his or her decision-making behavior.
a) The importance of linking administration and ethics is evidenced by the fact that schools
are basically human organizations.
b) Forces in the human system- needs, wants, aspirations, hopes and beliefs of teachers,
students and administrators are modifiers of administrative behavior and educational
decision-making.
a) These are the broader political and cultural components of the school as exemplifies in
the schools interaction with its community historically and presently.
b) Considers the schools legal entity in a broader matrix of regional, state, and federal
government, and its vulnerability as a public organization responsive to public demands
from a variety of pressure groups.
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Learning Module 2
6) Bureaucratic expectations stress loyalty to the school, its administration and trustees.
Professional expectations stress loyalty to the profession and students.
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a) Extreme differences in teaching, talent, and power trends keep tension constant.
b) Deciding what the public interest is a decision the school administrator must make based
upon identifiable value systems.
d) Public interest issue is very important. School administrators should seek input
from various sectors:
Citizen committees
Teacher committees
Teacher associations
a) Optimism allows the administrator to give direction and stimulus to the development of
meaningful educational programs which serve the public interest.
b) A faith in learning
c) A commitment to adulthood
Organizational Values
- Technical skills
- Human skills
- Conceptual skills
1) TECHNICAL SKILLS
The ability to use knowledge, methods and techniques to perform specific tasks.
The mechanics associated with writing a lesson plan, developing a study unit,
equipping a learning-resource center, purchasing, preparing a meeting agenda,
filling out reports, etc, are examples of technical skills.
2) HUMAN SKILLS
Refer to ones ability and judgment in working with and through people.
3) CONCEPTUAL SKILLS
Refer to the supervisors ability to view the school, the system, and the
educational program as a whole.
- humane organization
- articulating a humane administrative- supervisory system
- developing a humane educational program
Summary
Though each of the skill levels is universally present in administrative and supervisory
positions, conceptual skills are emphasized more by administrators and technical skills
more by supervisory personnel, who are for the most part concerned with the day-to-
day work of the school.
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Sales
Bases of Power of Office College Liberal Arts Insurance
Agencies
Learning Module 3
Theory X
2) People must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened in order to make them work.
3) The average human being prefers to be directed, wished to avoid responsibility and has
relatively little ambition.
Theory Y
1) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
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2) People can exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which
they are committed.
3) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility.
(McGregors Theory X and Y)
1) Close supervision
2) One-way communication
1) Two-way communication
4) Greater decentralization
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5. Assume that everyone will have the same ultimate managerial objectives and will identify
with them no matter where they are in the organization or in the hierarchy.
6. Eupsychian economics must assume good will among all the members of the organization
rather than rivalry or jealousy.
8. We must assume that they people in the Eupsychian plants (schools) are not fixated at the
safety-need level.
10. Assume that everyone can enjoy good team work, friendship, good group spirit, good
harmony, good belongingness, and group love.
14. Assume that everyone prefers to feel important, needed, useful, successful, proud,
respected, rather than unimportant, interchangeable, anonymous, wasted, unused,
expendable, disrespected.
15. Assume that everyone prefers or perhaps even needs to love his boss (rather than to hate
him) and that everyone prefers to respect his boss (rather than to disrespect him)
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16. Eupsychian management assumes everyone prefers to be a prime mover rather than a
passive helper.
17. Assume a tendency to improve things... to put things right, make things better, to do
things better.
18. Assume that growth occurs through delight and through boredom.
19. Assume preference for being a whole person and not a part, not a thing, or an implement,
or tool, or hand.
20. Assume the preference for working rather than being idle.
21. Assume the preference for personhood, uniqueness as a person, identity (in contrast to
being anonymous or interchangeable)
23. We must assume that everyone likes to be justly and fairly appreciated, preferably in
public.
24. Assume that everyone but especially the more developed person refers responsibility to
dependency and passivity most of the time.
25. The general assumption is that people will get more pleasure out of loving rather than
they will out of hating.
26. Assume that fairly well-developed people would rather be interested than destroy.
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27. Assume that fairly well-developed people would rather be interested than be bored.
28. We must ultimately assume at the highest theoretical levels of Eupsychian theory, a
preference or a tendency to identify with more and more of the world, or peak experience,
cosmic consciousness.
29. We must assume the defense and growth dialectic for all these positive trends that have
already been listed above.
Learning Module 4
1) Power over money, organization and personnel rests in the hands of the
legislature, school code, and local school board rather than in the hands of
management.
2) Measures of progress toward goals are difficult to devise. What are the school
measures of good citizenship, intellectual enrichment, problem-solving ability,
independent thinking, a desire to learn, economic sufficiency, and effective family
living?
These are contrasted with the reality understood and quantifiable economic objectives
of private organizations.
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4) Tenure laws and civil service laws tend to protect educational workers from the
control of administrators and supervisors.
6) Goals and objectives are often unclear and contradictory. The latent custodial
functions of schools for example, contradict the manifest self-actualization functions.
10) Administrators are expected to accomplish goals in less time than normally
allowed to managers of business firms.
11) A tight coupling exists between means and ends or products and processes.
Schooling is a human activity with human ends.
12) Many objectives are pursued with scarce resources as contrasted with the business
firm, which allocates more resources to fewer, indeed more focused objectives.
Learning Module 5
1) Physical Needs
2) Security Needs
3) Social Needs
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4) Ego Needs
On the job--> Position, title, office size (carpets), parking, and so forth
Off the job--> Money for status symbol (Neighborhood Country Club
Membership
5) Self-Fulfillment Needs
Lower-order needs:
Esteem
Social
Security
(Deficiency oriented)
Higher-order needs:
Self-Actualization/Self-Realization
Autonomy
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Self Improvement
(Growth oriented)
Learning Module 6
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
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Motivation
Salary
Interpersonal relations
Status
Supervision
Working conditions
Job security
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Personal life
HYGIENE
MONEY
HYGIENE SEEKERS
1) Those that have the potential for motivation seeking, but are frustrated by
insensitive and closed administrative, supervisory, and organizational policies
and practices.
2) Those who have the potential for motivation seeking but who elect to channel
this potential into other (nonprofessional or non-school) areas of their lives.
3) Those that do not have the potential for motivation seeking on or off the job.
1) Salary
2) Working conditions
3) Supervision
4) Status
5) Security
6) School policies
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7) Administration
8) Social relationships
2) Motivation seekers are primarily committed to the goals of the school or profession
and work to pursue these goals.
Hygiene seekers are primarily committed to private goals or extraschool goals and
work for rewards from the school which help to pursue or purchase these nonschool
or nonprofessional goals.
3) Motivation seekers show higher, but not unlimited, tolerance for poor hygiene
factors.
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Hygiene seekers display intermittent but chronic dissatisfaction with aspects of the
work environment such as salary, supervision, working conditions, status, security,
administrative policy, and fellow workers.
Satisfaction is short-lived for hygiene seekers when hygiene factors are improved.
Hygiene seekers tend to overreact with dissatisfaction when hygiene factors are not
improved.
Hygiene seekers show little interest in the kid or quality of work they do.
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10) Motivation seekers have positive feelings toward work and life.
Hygiene seekers are prone to cultural noises- i.e., take extreme positions that are
fashionable, superficially espouse management philosophy, act more like top
management than top management does.
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Learning Module 7
SECURITY
Fairness
Grievance Procedure
Protection from parents
Protection from students
Support from administration
Seniority and tenure
Union and association membership
MONETARY
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Salary schedules
Retirement
Sabbatical
Sick leave
Hospitalization
Insurance
Credit union
Social security
Annuity
Mutual fund
WORKING CONDITIONS
SOCIAL
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Work groups
Coffee groups
Social contacts
Professional groups
STATUS
Job definition
Job title
Classroom size and location
Equipment
Student type
Class load
Grade level
Privileges
SUPERVISION
Recruitment
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Selection
Assignment
Orientation
In-service programs
Evaluation programs
Work rules
Communication channels
Committee work
Delegation of authority
Participation
Involvement
Planning
Goal Setting
Freedom to act
Visibility
Accountability
Creative expression
Promotion
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Merit increases
Differentiated responsibility
Leadership role
Committee responsibility
Publications
Innovations
Supervisory responsibility
Problem solving
Aptitudes utilized
1) TASK VARIETY
2)
Building into the teaching position a greater assortment of tasks.
(breaking down teaching episodes into small parts, assigning them to
specialists.)
2) TASK UNCERTAINTY
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3) SOCIAL INTERACTION
4) TASK SIGNIFICANCE
5) TASK IDENTITY
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Requires that one have a larger view of what the school is about, and that one
sees how his or her part contributes to the larger purpose.
Requires that teachers be given a great deal of discretion over task activities but
held accountable for obtaining results.
7) KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
Learning Module 8
Upward Mobiles
1) Strongly identifies with the school, its goals, its value system, its authority
system, its tradition, or simply its way of doing things.
3) Upward Mobiles exhibit high job satisfaction and see a future for themselves
in the school or district.
Indifferents
4) Indifferents seek security from the school and are attracted to circumstances
which require them to contribute minimally to gain the security.
Ambivalents
1) Ambivalent cannot reject the rewards of power and success their organization
offers them, nor can they perform the necessary roles--- in particular, adopt the
perspective of upward mobiles--- in order to attain power and success.
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3) Ambivalents are doubtful and fearful of authority systems other than merit.
8) Ambivalents have much to offer the school in terms of professional talent and
intellectual commitment, yet they frequently have difficulty with their
organization as they work to make their commitment.
Learning Module 9
Certificates, licenses, and diplomas provide evidence that one has achieved a
minimum level of qualification. Incumbents are appointed rather than elected to
office.
CHESTER BARNARD
Exalts the symbolic functions beyond the level of sustainment (Attitudes and
behavior come to be expected which status incumbents cannot fulfill.)
Disruptive
1) Complexity (specialization)
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2) Centralization
(Hierarchy of authority)
3) Formalization (standardization)
- Proportion of jobs that are codified.
- Range of variation allowed within jobs.
6) Production (effectiveness)
- Number of units produced per year.
- Rate of increase in units per year.
7) Efficiency (cost)
Learning Module 10
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1) REWARD
Subordinates perceive that the administrator can withhold, permit, or
increase rewards.
2) COERCIVE
Subordinates perceive that the administrator can distribute punishment (e.g.
dismissal, undesirable assignments). Coercion could involve physical force.
3) LEGITIMATE
Subordinates perceive that the school administrator, by virtue of position
and status within a duly constitutional hierarchy, has the right to expect what is
expected.
4) REFERENT
Subordinates perceive the school administrator as a desirable and
appropriate human model and want to be perceived reciprocally- thus demands
are accepted.
5) EXPERT
Subordinates perceive the administrator to possess relevant expertise.
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Authority of legitimacy 35
Authority of position 60
Authority of competence 45
Authority of person 15
No source specified 15
Learning Module 11
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The three following stereotypes focus attention on the school administrator in the
performance of the characteristic super-ordinate sub role.
o THE TASKMASTER
o THE SYMPATHIZER
o THE CALCULATOR
1) THE TASKMASTER
a) This is the school administrator who is all business and if necessary at the
expense of need satisfaction.
d) District personnel policies and other procedures clearly outline the behavior of
the taskmaster principle.
e) Conflict between organizational demands against personal needs are easy for
the taskmaster to resolve.
f) District personnel policy relating to leaves; the selection, adoption, and use of
textbooks and other materials; graduation requirements; student behavior;
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administrator, teacher and student leaving school; the use of facilities; and
teacher-student rations clearly outline the behavior for the principle, teacher,
student and parent according to the taskmaster superintendent, supervisor of
instruction, etc.
2) THE SYMPATHIZER
f) Efforts are made to accomplish organizational demands, but not at the expense
of individual concerns.
h) Sympathizers may or may not be handshaking, dont you worry type. Quiet,
dignified people may also be sympathizers.
3) THE CALCULATOR
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Learning Module 12
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Five assumptions about conflict, interest group, and decision processes which are
central in viewing school as political systems:
2) The organization is fragmented into many power blocs and interest groups,
and it is natural that they will try to influence policy so that their values and
goals are given primary consideration.
3) In all organizations small groups of political elites govern most of the major
decisions.
However this does not mean that one elite group governs everything; the
decisions may be divided up, with different elite groups controlling different
decisions.
Decisions are not simply orders. Officials are not free simply to order decisions;
instead they have to jockey between interest groups, hoping to build viable
compromises among powerful blocs.
5) External interest groups have a great deal of influence over the organization,
and internal groups do not have the power to make policies in a vacuum.
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1. Latent conflict
2) Perceived conflict
3) Felt conflict
4) Manifest conflict
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5) Conflict aftermath
If conflict is suppressed but not resolved, the latent conflict may explode in
a more serious form until rectified or until relationship dissolves.
1) BARGAINING CONFLICT
Conflict among individuals and groups with specific interests who are
competing for scarce resources.
2) BUREAUCRATIC CONFLICT
Conflict between individuals and groups at different levels of the hierarchy
who are competing for scarce resources.
3) SYSTEMS CONFLICT
Conflict between individuals and groups at the same level of the hierarchy.
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5) Rules of the game He who hesitates loses his chance to play at that point,
and he who is uncertain about his recommendation is overpowered by others
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who are surepressures players to come down on one side of a 51-49 issue and
play.
Module 13
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- PYRAMIDAL
- FACTIONAL OR CAUCUS
- COALITIONAL OR POLYLITHIC
- AMORPHOUS
1) Pyramidal structure
Characterized by a single group of individuals who make decisions
3) Coalitional or Polylithic
The nature of issues to be decided determines the interested individuals and
groups who form coalitions that shift and/or disappear over time.
4) Amorphous
Term used to describe the absence of any persistent pattern of individuals
or groups who make/control decisions.
1) A sacred society is one that elicits from or imparts to its members, by means of
sociation, unwillingness and/or inability to respond to the culturally new as the
new is defined by those member in terns of the societys existing culture. (a high
degree of resistance to change)
2) A secular society is one that elicits from or imparts to its members, by means
of sociation, willingness and ability to respond to the culturally new as the new is
defined by those members in terns of the societys existing culture. (a high
degree of readiness and capacity to change)
1) PLACID ENVIRONMENTS
Relatively stable and fundamentally predictable.
Multiple groups and/or organizations of the same kind but not necessarily
desiring the same input or outcome from the school organization.
Not only are the actors changing by so is the script and art form. (demand on the
board focuses turbulence on the administrators)
a) In the long term the quality of community and school interaction will
improve as individuals and groups increase understanding and engage in
reciprocal influence exchanges.
Learning Module 14
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- Administrators behavior
- Development of others
a) Administrators behavior
- There are activities within the immediate work context of the school
administrator which demand action. The school administrator who forever
fails personally to suggest structures for these activities is abdicating the
leader role.
b) Development of others
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The leadership potential in others in the school system in important for three
different reasons:
4) Certain individuals are able to perform one kind of function better than other
individuals.
Since the total organizational performance is related to the extent in witch all of
the functions are performed, the administrator, as leader, must be concerned with
the development of leadership potential in others in the school.
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1) Two essential sets of conditions which must exist in any formalized school
group for existence:
LEADERSHIP: A SYNTHESIS
- LEADER BEHAVIOR
- GROUP TASKS
- SPECIFIC LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS RELATED TO GROUP TASKS
- VARIABLES OF INTERVENTION
a) Leader behavior
b) Group tasks
- Goal achievement refers to those tasks for which the group was formed and
continues to exist.
Schools exist to further the education of their students --- through the teaching of
reading, preparation for life, the learning of occupational skills, and so forth.
Group maintenance refers to those tasks which keep the work group reasonably
cohesive, thus enabling goal achievement.
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Note: Major difficulty with goal achievement and group maintenance dichotomy
is the tendency to consider the former more important and the latter unimportant.
-Making the group aware of the need for new or different action --- awareness
- Clarifying alternative ends and strategies--- settling on action
- Accepting and initiating a preferred end approach--- implementing
- Monitoring of progress toward the preferred end approach--- processing
- Introducing evaluative data---evaluating
- Concluding group activity on particular end or approach--- concluding
- Making the group aware of its results--- feedback
d) Variables of intervention
1. Stability is prized
- Periods of inaction are welcome, for they resemble equilibrium and satisfy the
need to eliminate uncertainty.
3. Paternalism is encouraged
-People feel safer when they have some notion of what is going on and will pay
for this safety with loyalty.
-In each case educational goals and the welfare of students are displaced by
organizational and administrative needs, goals, and demands.
-School administrators and teachers become defense bound and react to stimuli
primarily in terms of promoting their own safety, security and status.
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NORMATIVE (Proactive)
DESCRIPTVIE (Reactive)
Learning Module 16
ADMINSTRATIVE EFFECTIVENESS FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS
1) THE BELIEF SYSTEM
a) Values and beliefs form a crucial part of educational planning, decision-making, and
implementation.
b) All educational activity needs to be guided by a value system unique to educational
youngsters in a free society.
c) School administrators must examine carefully and evaluate their values and beliefs about
people, education, and administration.
d) School administrators must develop and awareness for the beliefs of others--- including
students, parents, teachers, and the community.
e) It is through the belief system that administrative and educational goals are generated.
2) THE HUMAN SYSTEM
a) The growth and development of the human organization of the human organization
receives primary attention by school administrators interested in administrative
effectiveness.
b) Indeed, if growth is valued in youngsters, the school will need to become a growing
organization for all.
c) Administrators need to support the development of human resources.
3) THE ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM
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Comment:
a) A critical quality of any leader is that he is profoundly convinced that his vision of what
ought to be or could be has a dramatic significance for the lives of those for and with whom
he works.
b) He is caught up with the drama and excitement of what he and his subordinates are doing,
and he communicates and shares them with subordinates.
c) When speaking of educational leaders, we must add the quality of a continuous, lived
experience of learning, in which the educational leader shares with his subordinates his zest
for expanding his own understanding and appreciation of the human epic.
WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus
for the College of Education and Professional Studies. He was honored by the Texas National Association for Multicultural Education as
Professor, Scholar, and Pioneer Publisher for Distinguished Service to Multicultural Research Publishing. The ceremony was held at Texas
A&M University-College Station. He was inducted into the prestigious William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor. He was an
Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Dr. Kritsonis was a
Visiting Scholar at Columbia Universitys Teacher College in New York, and Visiting Scholar in the School of Education at Stanford
University, Palo Alto, California.
In May 2015, Dr. Kritsonis participated in the Think Tank on Global Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. The think tank focused on how to help students develop intercultural awareness, knowledge of global issues, and
multilingualism.
He served on a national think tank appointed by the Secretary of Education in 2012-15 for Providence Rhode Island Schools with
sessions conducted at Brown University in the Annenberg Institute for School Reform. In 2013, he was a nominee for the Outstanding Texas
Educator Award exemplifying the leadership of John Ben Shepperd for public leadership education, ethics, and public service.
He is Founder of National FORUM Journals (Since 1982). Professor Kritsonis is the author of numerous articles as well as author or
coauthor of several books.
He has served as a teacher, principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author,
consultant, editor-in-chief, and publisher. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and teaching in doctoral
and masters programs in educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states,
including successful post-tenure reviews.
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include
Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia,
Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix,
St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora
Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities
across the nation and abroad.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is presently Professor of Educational Leadership at The University of Texas of the Permian Basin in the
College of Education within The University of Texas System. He teaches in the MA Principal and Superintendent Certification and
preparation programs along with assisting to develop a new doctoral program. He earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City,
MEd from Seattle Pacific University, and BA from Central Washington University.
EDUCATION
Ph.D. Educational Administration and Supervision, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1976
M.Ed. Educational Administration and Curriculum, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, 1971
B.A. Social Sciences and General Education, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington , 1969
Post-Doctoral Study
Think Tank on Global Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2015
Visiting Scholar, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. 1987
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