Buddhism

Buddhadharma redirects here. For the magazine, see known as Buddhists.[web 1][5]
Buddhadharma: The Practitioners Quarterly.
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path
to liberation, the importance and canonicity of vari-
ous teachings and scriptures, and especially their respec-
tive practices.[6][7] Practices of Buddhism include taking
refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, study
of scriptures, observance of moral precepts, renunciation
of craving and attachment, the practice of meditation
(including calm and insight), the cultivation of wisdom,
loving-kindness and compassion, the Mahayana practice
of bodhicitta and the Vajrayana practices of generation
stage and completion stage.
In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the
sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the
Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way),
thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suering and
rebirth.[8] Theravada has a widespread following in Sri
Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land,
Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai),
is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Ma-
hayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva
path,[9] a state wherein one remains in the cycle of re-
birth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana,
a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be
viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana.
Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teach-
ings of eighth century India,[11] is practiced in regions sur-
rounding the Himalayas, Mongolia[12] and Kalmykia.[13]
Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow
body.[14]

Standing Buddha statue at the Tokyo National Museum. One of

the earliest known representations of the Buddha, 1st2nd cen-
tury CE.
Buddhism (pronunciation: /bdzm/ or
/budzm/)[1][2] is an Indian religion[3][4] and dharma
that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and
spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed
to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in Ancient India
sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from
where it spread through much of Asia, whereafter it
declined in India during the middle ages. Two major
extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized
by scholars: Theravada (Pali: The School of the
Elders) and Mahayana (Sanskrit: The Great Vehicle).
Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over
500 million followers or 7% of the global population,
1 Life of the Buddha
Main articles: Gautama Buddha and ramaa
Buddhism is an religion attributed to the teachings of
Buddha.[15][16] The details of Buddhas life are mentioned
in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his so-
cial background and life details are dicult to prove, the
precise dates uncertain.[17][note 1]
The evidence of the early texts suggests that he was
born as Siddhrtha Gautama in Lumbini and grew up in
Kapilavasthu,[note 2] a town in the plains region of mod-
ern Nepal-India border, and that he spent his life in
what is now modern Bihar[note 3] and Uttar Pradesh.[25][17]
Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a

1
2 2
The Great Departure, relic depicting Gautama leaving home,
rst or second century (Muse Guimet).
king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and
he was born in Lumbini gardens.[26] However, scholars
such as Richard Gombrich consider this a dubious claim
because a combination of evidence suggests he was born
in the Shakyas community one that later gave him
the title Shakyamuni, and the Shakya community was
governed by a small oligarchy or republic-like council
where there were no ranks but where seniority mattered
instead.[27][note 4] Some of the stories about Buddha, his
life, his teachings, and claims about the society he grew
up in may have been invented and interpolated at a later
time into the Buddhist texts.[30][31]
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, where the Buddha gave his rst
sermon. It was built by Ashoka.
Early Buddhist canonical texts and early biographies of
Buddha state that Gautama studied under Vedic teach-
ers, such as Alara Kalama (Sanskrit: Arada Kalama)
and Uddaka Ramaputta (Sanskrit: Udraka Ramaputra),
learning meditation and ancient philosophies, particu-
larly the concept of nothingness, emptiness from the
former, and what is neither seen nor unseen from the
latter.[32][33][note 5]
Buddha was moved by the innate suering of human-
ity. He meditated on this alone for an extended pe-
riod of time, in various ways including asceticism, on
the nature of suering and means to overcome suer- The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths.
ing. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus re- manuscript. Nalanda, Bihar, India.
BUDDHIST CONCEPTS
Buddha statue depicting Parinirvana (Mahaparinirvana Temple,
Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh, India).
ligiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of
Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia.
He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists
call the Middle Way (Skt. madhyam-pratipad),[36] a
path of spiritual practice to end suering (dukkha) from
rebirths in Sasra.[37] As an enlightened being (Skt.
samyaksabuddha), he attracted followers and founded
a Sangha (monastic order).[38] Now, as the Buddha, he
spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma he had
discovered, and died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar,
India.[39][20]
Buddhas teachings were propagated by his follow-
ers, which in the last centuries of the 1st millen-
nium BCE became over 18 Buddhist sub-schools of
thought, each with its own basket of texts containing
dierent interpretations and authentic teachings of the
Buddha;[40][41][42] these over time evolved into many tra-
ditions of which the more well known and widespread in
the modern era are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana
Buddhism.[43][44][note 6]
2 Buddhist concepts
Main article: Glossary of Buddhism
2.1 Dukkha
Main articles: Dukkha and Four Noble Truths
Dukkha is a central concept of Buddhism and part of
Sanskrit
2.2 Rebirth 3

its Four Noble Truths doctrine, and a central character-

istic of life in this world. It can be translated as inca-
pable of satisfying,[web 2] the unsatisfactory nature and
the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena";
painful.[47][48] Dukkha is most commonly translated as
suering, which is an incorrect translation, since it
refers not to literal suering, but to the ultimately unsat-
isfactory nature of temporary states and things, including
pleasant but temporary experiences.[49][note 7]
The Four Truths express the basic orientation of
Buddhism: we crave and cling to impermanent
states and things, which is dukkha,[51] incapable of
satisfying[web 2] and painful.[47][48] This keeps us caught
in sasra, the endless cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
and dying again.[note 8] But there is a way to liberation
from this endless cycle[57] to the state of nirvana, namely
following the Noble Eightfold Path. [note 9]
The truth of dukkha is the basic insight that life in
this mundane world, with its clinging and craving
to impermanent states and things"[47] is dukkha, and
unsatisfactory.[52][64][web 3] We expect happiness from
states and things which are impermanent, and therefore
cannot attain real happiness.
Dukkha arises when we crave (Pali: tanha) and cling to
Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the Wheel of
these changing phenomena. The clinging and craving
Life with its six realms
produces karma, which ties us to samsara, the round of
death and rebirth.[69][web 7][note 10] Craving includes kama-
tanha, craving for sense-pleasures; bhava-tanha, craving
to continue the cycle of life and death, including rebirth; 2.2 Rebirth
and vibhava-tanha, craving to not experience the world
and painful feelings.[69][70][71]
2.2.1 Sasra
Dukkha ceases, or can be conned,[72] when craving
and clinging cease or are conned. This also means
that no more karma is being produced, and rebirth Main article: Sasra (Buddhism)
ends.[note 11] Cessation is nirvana, blowing out, and
peace of mind.[74][75][76] Sasra means wandering or world, with the conno-
By following the Buddhist path to moksha, liberation, [59] tation of cyclic, circuitous change.[85][86] It refers to the
one starts to disengage from craving and clinging to im- theory of rebirth and cyclicality of all life, matter, exis-
permanent states and things. The term path is usually tence, a fundamental assumption [86][87]
of Buddhism, as with
taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but other ver- all major Indian religions. Samsara in Buddhism is
sions of the path can also be found in the Nikayas. [77] considered to be dukkha, unsatisfactory and painful,[88]
The Theravada tradition regards insight into the four perpetuated by[86][89][90] desire and avidya (ignorance), and the re-
truths as liberating in itself.[66] sulting karma.

In Buddhism, dukkha is one of the three marks of exis-
tence, along with impermanence and anatt (non-self).[78]
Buddhism, like other major Indian religions, asserts that
everything is impermanent (anicca), but, unlike them,
also asserts that there is no permanent self or soul in living
beings (anatt).[79][80][81] The ignorance or misperception
(avijj) that anything is permanent or that there is self in
any being is considered a wrong understanding, and the
primary source of clinging and dukkha.[82][83][84]
The theory of rebirths, and realms in which these re-
births can occur, is extensively developed in Buddhism, in
particular Tibetan Buddhism with its wheel of existence
(Bhavacakra) doctrine.[88] Liberation from this cycle of
existence, Nirvana, has been the foundation and the most
important historical justication of Buddhism.[91][92]
The later Buddhist texts assert that rebirth can occur in
six realms of existence, namely three good realms (heav-
enly, demi-god, human) and three evil realms (animal,
hungry ghosts, hellish).[note 12] Samsara ends if a person
attains nirvana, the blowing out of the desires and the
gaining of true insight into impermanence and non-self
reality.[94][95][96]
4 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS

2.2.2 Rebirth mals are believed to be driven by impulse, they prey

on each other and suer.[108]

4. Manusya (human beings): one of the realms of re-

birth in which attaining Nirvana is possible; A re-
birth in this realm is therefore considered as fortu-
nate and an opportunity to end the endless Samsara
and associated Dukkha.[109][110]

5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demi-

gods, demons, titans, or anti-gods; recognized in
Theravada tradition as part of heavenly realm;[111]

6. Devas including Brahms: variously translated as

gods, deities, angels, or heavenly beings. Vast ma-
Gautamas cremation site, Ramabhar Stupa in Kushinagar, Uttar jority of Buddhist lay people have historically pur-
Pradesh, India sued Buddhist rituals and practices motivated with
rebirth into Deva realm.[109][112][113] </ref>
Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)
In East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, rebirth is not in-
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a stantaneous, and there is an intermediate state (Tibetan
succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of "bardo") between one life and the next.[114][115] The or-
sentient life, each running from conception to death.[97] thodox Theravada position rejects the wait, and asserts
In Buddhist thought, this rebirth does not involve any that rebirth of a being is immediate.[114] However there
soul, because of its doctrine of anatt (Sanskrit: antman, are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon
no-self doctrine) which rejects the concepts of a perma- that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha
nent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the
in Hinduism and Christianity.[98] According to Buddhism next.[116][117]
there ultimately is no such thing as a self in any being or
any essence in any thing.[99]
2.2.3 Karma
The Buddhist traditions have traditionally disagreed on
what it is in a person that is reborn, as well as how quickly
Main article: Karma in Buddhism
the rebirth occurs after each death.[100][101] Some Bud-
dhist traditions assert that no self doctrine means that
there is no perduring self, but there is avacya (inexpress- In Buddhism, Karma (from Sanskrit: action, work)
ible) self which migrates from one life to another.[100] The drives sasrathe endless cycle of suering and re-
majority of Buddhist traditions, in contrast, assert that birth for each being. Good, skilful deeds (Pali: kusala)
vijna (a persons consciousness) though evolving, ex- and bad, unskilful deed (Pli: akusala) produce seeds
ists as a continuum and is the mechanistic basis of what in the unconscious receptacle (laya) that mature later
undergoes rebirth, rebecoming and redeath.[52][100] The either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.[118][119] The
rebirth depends on the merit or demerit gained by ones existence of Karma is a core belief in Buddhism, as with
karma, as well as those accrued on ones behalf by a fam- all major Indian religions, it implies neither fatalism nor
ily member.[note 13] that everything that happens to a person is caused by
Karma.[120][note 15]
Each rebirth takes place within one of ve realms ac-
cording to Theravadins, or six according to other schools A central aspect of Buddhist theory of karma is that in-
heavenly, demi-gods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts tent (cetan) matters and is essential to bring about a con-
and hellish.[103][104][note 14] sequence or phala fruit or vipka result.[121][note 16]
However, good or bad karma accumulates even if there
is no physical action, and just having ill or good thoughts
1. Naraka: beings believed in Buddhism who suer in
create karmic seeds; thus, actions of body, speech or
one of many Narakas (Hells);
mind all lead to karmic seeds.[120] In the Buddhist tradi-
2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, tions, life aspects aected by the law of karma in past
but invisible; an important variety is the hungry and current births of a being include form of rebirth,
ghost;[107] realm of rebirth, social class, character and major cir-
cumstances of a lifetime.[120][125][126] It operates like the
3. Tiryag (animals): existence as an animal along with laws of physics, without external intervention, on every
humans; this realm is traditionally thought in Bud- being in all six realms of existence including human be-
dhism to be similar to a hellish realm, because ani- ings and gods.[120][127]

A notable aspect of the karma theory in Buddhism is
merit transfer.[128][129] A person accumulates merit not
only through intentions and ethical living, but also is
able to gain merit from others by exchanging goods and
services, such as through dna (charity to monks or
nuns).[130] Further, a person can transfer ones own good
karma to living family members and ancestors.[129][note 17]
2.3 Liberation
Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, India, where Gautama Bud- traditions, and in the Tibetan traditions visualizations of
dha attained nirvana under the Bodhi Tree (left)
Main articles: Moksha and Nirvana (Buddhism)
Nirvana (nibbna) has been the primary and the sote-
riological goal of the Buddhist path for monastic life,
since the time of the Buddha.[59][133][134] The term path
is usually taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but
other versions of the path can also be found in the
Nikayas.[note 18] For example, in some Pali Canons, the
Buddha explains that the cultivation of the noble eightfold
path by a learner monk leads to the development of two
further paths of the Arhats, which are right knowledge
or insight (samm-a), and right liberation or release
(samm-vimutti).[135][136]
Nirvana literally means blowing out, quenching,
becoming extinguished.[137][138] In early Buddhist
texts, it is the state of restraint and self-control that 3.1.1 Middle Way
leads to the blowing out and the ending of the
cycles of suerings associated with rebirths and Main article: Middle Way
redeaths.[139][140][141] Many later Buddhist texts describe
5
nirvana as identical with Anatta with complete Empti-
ness, Nothingness.[142][143][144][note 19] In some texts, the
state is described with greater detail, such as passing
through the gate of Emptiness (sunyata) realizing
that there is no soul or self in any living being, then
passing through the gate of signlessness (animitta)
realizing that nirvana cannot be perceived, and nally
passing through the gate of wishlessness (apranihita)
realizing that nirvana is the state of not even wishing for
nirvana.[133][146][note 20]
The nirvana state has been described in Buddhist
texts partly in a manner similar to other Indian re-
ligions, as the state of complete liberation, enlight-
enment, highest happiness, bliss, fearlessness, free-
dom, permanence, non-dependent origination, unfath-
omable, indescribable.[148][149] It has also been de-
scribed in part dierently, as a state of spiritual re-
lease marked by emptiness and realization of non-
Self.[150][151][152][note 21]
While Buddhism considers the liberation from Sasra
as the ultimate spiritual goal, in traditional practice, the
primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists has been
to seek and accumulate merit through good deeds, dona-
tions to monks and various Buddhist rituals in order to
gain better rebirths rather than nirvana.[155][109][note 22]
3 Bhavana (practice, cultivation)
Basic practices include sila (ethics), samadhi (meditation,
dhyana) and prajna (wisdom), as described in the Noble
Eightfold Path. An important additional practice is a kind
and compassionate attitude toward every living being and
the world. Devotion is also important in some Buddhist
deities and mandalas are important. The value of textual
study is regarded dierently in the various Buddhist tra-
ditions. It is central to Theravada and highly important to
Tibetan Buddhism, while the Zen tradition takes an am-
biguous stance.
3.1 The Buddhist path
While the Noble Eightfold Path is best-known in the west,
a wide variety of practices and stages have been used and
described in the Buddhist traditions. Even in the Ther-
avada canon, the Pali-suttas, various often irreconcilable
sequences can be found. According to Carol Anderson,
the Theravada-canon lacks an overriding and compre-
hensive structure of the path to nibbana.[156]
6 3 BHAVANA (PRACTICE, CULTIVATION)

An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice visions, as follows:[167][168][169]

is the Middle Way (madhyamapratipad). It was a
part of Buddhas rst sermon, where he presented
the Noble Eightfold Path that was a 'middle way' 3.1.3 Mahayana
between the extremes of asceticism and hedonistic
sense pleasures.[157][158] In Buddhism, states Harvey,
the doctrine of dependent arising (conditioned aris-
ing, prattyasamutpda) to explain rebirth is viewed
as the 'middle way' between the doctrines that a be-
ing has a permanent soul involved in rebirth (eter-
nalism) and death is nal and there is no rebirth
(annihilationism).[159][160]

3.1.2 Theravada

Dna or charitable giving to monks is a virtue in Buddhism, lead-

ing to merit accumulation and better rebirths.[179]

Six paramitas Mahyna Buddhism is based princi-

pally upon the path of a Bodhisattva.[180] A Bodhisattva
refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood.[181]
The term Mahyna was originally a synonym for Bod-
hisattvayna or Bodhisattva Vehicle.[182][183][184]
In the earliest texts of Mahayana Buddhism, the path
of a bodhisattva was to awaken the bodhicitta.[185] Be-
tween 1st and 3rd century CE, this tradition introduced
the Ten Bhumi doctrine, which means ten levels or stages
of awakening.[185] This development was followed by the
acceptance that it is impossible to achieve Buddhahood
in one (current) lifetime, and the best goal is not nirvana
for oneself, but Buddhahood after climbing through the
ten levels during multiple rebirths.[186] Mahayana schol-
ars then outlined an elaborate path, for monks and laypeo-
ple, and the path includes the vow to help teach Buddhist
The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path
knowledge to other beings, so as to help them cross sam-
sara and liberate themselves, once one reaches the Bud-
dhahood in a future rebirth.[180] One part of this path are
Noble Eightfold Path Main articles: Noble Eightfold the Pramit (perfections, to cross over), derived from
Path and Buddhist Paths to liberation the Jatakas tales of Buddhas numerous rebirths.[187][188]
The Mahayana texts are inconsistent in their discussion of
The Noble Eightfold Path, or Eightfold Path of the No- the Paramitas, and some texts include lists of two, others
ble Ones, consists of a set of eight interconnected factors four, six, ten and fty two.[189][190][191] The six paramitas
or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the have been most studied, and these are:[187][191][192]
cessation of dukkha.[161] These eight factors are: Right
View (or Right Understanding), Right Intention (or Right 1. Dna pramit: perfection of giving; primarily
Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, to monks, nuns and the Buddhist monastic estab-
Right Eort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentra- lishment dependent on the alms and gifts of the
tion. lay householders, in return for generating religious
This Eightfold Path is the fourth of the Buddhas Four merit;[193] some texts recommend ritually transfer-
Noble Truths, and asserts the path to the cessation ring the merit so accumulated for better rebirth to
of dukkha (suering, pain, unsatisfactoriness). [162][163] someone else
The path teaches that the way of the enlightened ones 2. la pramit : perfection of morality; it outlines
stopped their craving, clinging and karmic accumula- ethical behaviour for both the laity and the Ma-
tions, and thus ended their endless cycles of rebirth and hayana monastic community; this list is similar to
suering.[164][165][166] la in the Eightfold Path (i.e. Right Speech, Right
The Noble Eightfold Path is grouped into three basic di- Action, Right Livelihood)[194]
3.3 la Buddhist ethics 7

3. Knti pramit : perfection of patience, willingness

to endure hardship

4. Vrya pramit : perfection of vigour; this is similar

to Right Eort in the Eightfold Path[194]

5. Dhyna pramit : perfection of meditation; this is

similar to Right Concentration in the Eightfold Path

6. Praj pramit : perfection of insight (wisdom),

awakening to the characteristics of existence such as
karma, rebirths, impermanence, no-self, dependent
origination and emptiness;[191][195] this is complete
acceptance of the Buddha teaching, then conviction,
followed by ultimate realization that dharmas are
non-arising.[187]

In Mahayana Sutras that include ten Paramitas, the ad-

ditional four perfections are skillful means, vow, power
and knowledge.[190] The most discussed Paramita and
the highest rated perfection in Mahayana texts is the
Prajna-paramita, or the perfection of insight.[190]
This insight in the Mahayana tradition, states Shhei
Ichimura, has been the insight of non-duality or the ab-
sence of reality in all things.[196][197]

3.2 Refuge in the Three Jewels

Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and
Traditionally, the rst step in most Buddhist schools re- triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhra.
quires taking Three Refuges, also called the Three Jew-
els (Sanskrit: triratna, Pali: tiratana) as the founda-
3.3 la Buddhist ethics
tion of ones religious practice.[198] Pali texts employ
the Brahmanical motif of the triple refuge, found in the Main article: Buddhist ethics
Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 and Chandogya Upan- la (Sanskrit) or sla (Pli) is the concept of moral
ishad 2.22.34.[199] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds virtues, that is the second group and an integral part of
a fourth refuge, in the lama. The three refuges are the Noble Eightfold Path.[170] It consists of right speech,
believed by Buddhists to be protective and a form of right action and right livelihood.[170]
reverence.[198]
la appear as ethical precepts for both lay and ordained
The Three Jewels are:[200] Buddhist devotees. It includes the Five Precepts for
laypeople, Eight or Ten Precepts for monastic life, as well
The Buddha, the Gotama, the Blessed One, the as rules of Dhamma (Vinaya or Patimokkha) adopted by
Awakened with true knowledge a monastery.[201][202]

The Dharma, the precepts, the practice, the Four 3.3.1 Precepts
Truths, the Eightfold Path
The ve precepts (panca-sila) are moral behavioural and
The Sangha, order of monks, the community of ritual guidelines for lay devotee in Buddhism, while those
Buddhas disciples following a monastic life have rules of conduct (pa-
timokkha).[203] The ve precepts apply to both male and
[201][204]
Reciting the three refuges is considered in Buddhism not female devotee, and these are:
as a place to hide, rather a thought that puries, uplifts
and strengthens.[200] 1. Abstain from killing (Ahimsa);
8 3 BHAVANA (PRACTICE, CULTIVATION)

from sangha follows any instance of killing, engaging

in sexual intercourse, theft or false claims about ones
knowledge.[207] Temporary expulsion follows a lesser
oence.[207] The sanctions vary by the monastic frater-
nity (nikaya).[208]
The precepts for monks in many Buddhist fraternities
are eight (asta shila) or ten (das shila). Four of these
are same as for the lay devotee: no killing, no stealing,
no lying, and no intoxicants.[209] The other four precepts
are:[210][209][note 23]

1. No sexual activity;

2. Abstain from eating at wrong time (e.g. only eat

solid food before 12 noon);

3. Abstain from jewelry, perfume, adornment, enter-

tainment;

4. Abstain from sleeping on high beds;[note 24]

Some sangha add two more precepts: abstain from danc-

ing and singing, abstain from accepting money. In ad-
dition to these precepts, Buddhist monasteries have hun-
dreds of rules of dhamma conduct, which are a part of its
patimokkha.[211][note 25]

3.3.2 Vinaya

Statue of Gautama Buddha, rst century CE, Gandhara, present-

day Pakistan. (Guimet Museum)

2. Abstain from stealing;

3. Abstain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct;
4. Abstain from lying;
5. Abstain from intoxicants.

These precepts are not commandments and transgres-

sions did not invite religious sanctions, but their power
has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences Monks performing a ceremony in Hangzhou, China
and their impact in afterlife during rebirth.[205] Killing in
Buddhist belief leads to rebirth in the hellish realm, and
Vinaya is the specic code of conduct for a sangha of
for a longer time in more severe conditions if the mur- monks or nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of
der victim was a monk.[205] Adultery, similarly, invites 227 oences including 75 rules of decorum for monks,
a rebirth as prostitute or in hell, depending on whether along with penalties for transgression, in the Theravadin
the partner was unmarried or married.[205] Saving animalstradition.[213] The precise content of the Vinaya Pitaka
from slaughter for meat, is believed to be a way to acquire
(scriptures on the Vinaya) diers in dierent schools and
merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been tradition, and dierent monasteries set their own stan-
voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture throughdards on its implementation. The list of pattimokkha is re-
the associated belief in karma and rebirth.[206] cited every fortnight in a ritual gathering of all monks.[213]
The monastic life in Buddhism have additional precepts Buddhist text with vinaya rules for monasteries have been
as part of patimokkha, and unlike lay people, transgres- traced in all Buddhist traditions, with the oldest surviving
sions by monks do invite sanctions.[207] Full expulsion being the ancient Chinese translations.[214]
3.5 Dhyana meditation 9

Monastic communities in the Buddhist tradition, cut nor-
mal social ties to family and community, and live as is-
lands unto themselves.[215] Within a monastic fraternity,
a sangha has its own rules.[215] A monk abides by these
institutionalized rules, and living life as the vinaya pre-
scribes it is not merely a means, but very nearly the end
in itself.[215] Transgressions by a monk on Sangha vinaya
rules invites enforcement, which can include temporary
or permanent expulsion.[216]
3.5
2. Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas, where-after liber-
ating insight is attained;
3. Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas and the four Arupa
Jhanas, where-after liberating insight is attained;
4. Liberating insight itself suces.
Dhyana meditation

3.4 Meditation and insight

Bhikkhus in Thailand

Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Samadhi, Samatha,

and Rupajhana

A wide range of meditation practices has developed in the

Buddhist traditions, but meditation primarily refers to
the practice of dhyana c.q. jhana. It is a practice in which
the attention of the mind is rst narrowed to the focus
on one specic object, such as the breath, a concrete ob-
Statue of the Buddha in meditation position, Haw Phra Kaew, ject, or a specic thought, mental image or mantra. After
Vientiane, Laos this initial focussing of the mind, the focus is coupled to
mindfulness, maintaining a calm mind while being aware
See also: Yoga
of ones surroundings.[222] The practice of dhyana aids
in maintaining a calm mind, and avoiding disturbance of
The Buddhist tradition has incorporated two traditions re- this calm mind by mindfulness of disturbing thoughts and
garding the use of dhyna (meditation, Pali jhna).[217] feelings.[223][note 28]
There is a tradition that stresses attaining praj (in-
sight, bodhi, kensh, vipassana) as the means to awak-
ening and liberation. But it has also incorporated the 3.5.1 Origins
yogic tradition, as reected in the use of jhana, which
is rejected in other sutras as not resulting in the nal The earliest evidence of yogis and their meditative
result of liberation.[139][217][218][note 26] Schmithausen dis- tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the Kein
cerns three possible roads to liberation as described in hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda.[224] While evidence sug-
the suttas,[220] to which Vetter adds the sole practice of gests meditation was practiced in the centuries preceding
dhyana itself, which he sees as the original liberating the Buddha,[225] the meditative methodologies described
practice":[221][note 27] in the Buddhist texts are some of the earliest among
texts that have survived into the modern era.[226][227]
1. The four Rupa Jhanas themselves constituted the These methodologies likely incorporate what existed be-
core liberating practice of early buddhism, c.q. the fore the Buddha as well as those rst developed within
Buddha;[221][note 27] Buddhism.[228][note 29]
10 3 BHAVANA (PRACTICE, CULTIVATION)

According to Bronkhorst, the Four Dhyanas was a Bud-
dhist invention.[232] Bronkhorst notes that the Buddhist
canon has a mass of contradictory statements, little is
known about their relative chronology, and there can
be no doubt that the canon including the older parts,
the Sutra and Vinaya Pitaka was composed over a long
period of time.[233] Meditative practices were incorpo-
rated from other sramanic movements;[217] the Buddhist
texts describe Buddha learnt the practice of the formless
dhyana from Brahmanical practices, in the Nikayas as-
cribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta.[234][235]
The Buddhist canon also describes and criticizes al-
ternative dhyana practices, which likely mean the pre-
existing mainstream meditation practices of Jainism and
Hinduism.[236]
Buddha added a new focus and interpretation, partic-
ularly through the Four Dhyanas methodology,[237] in
which mindfulness is maintained.[238][222] Further, the
focus of meditation and the underlying theory of lib-
eration guiding the meditation has been dierent in
Buddhism.[225][239][240] For example, states Bronkhorst,
the verse 4.4.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with its
become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring, con-
centrated, one sees soul in oneself is most probably a
meditative state.[241] The Buddhist discussion of medi-
tation is without the concept of soul and the discussion 3.5.3 The Brahma-vihara
criticizes both the ascetic meditation of Jainism and the
real self, soul meditation of Hinduism.[242]
The arupa-jhanas (formless realm meditation) are also
four, which are entered by those who have mastered the
rupa-jhanas (Arhats).[244][245] The rst formless dhyana
gets to innite space without form or colour or shape,
the second to innity of perception base of the in-
nite space, the third formless dhyana transcends object-
subject perception base, while the fourth is where he
dwells in nothing-at-all where there are no feelings, no
ideas, nor are there non-ideas, unto total cessation.[245]
The four rupa-dhyanas in Buddhist practice leads to re-
birth in successfully better rupa Brahma heavenly realms,
while arupa-dhyanas into arupa heavens.[246][247]
Richard Gombrich notes that the sequence of the four
rupa-jhanas describes two dierent cognitive states.
The rst two describe a narrowing of attention, while
in the third and fourth jhana attention is expanded
again.[248][note 31][249] Alexander Wynne further explains
that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood.[250] Ac-
cording to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of
awareness, such as sati, sampajno, and upekkh, are mis-
translated or understood as particular factors of medita-
tive states,[250] whereas they refer to a particular way of
perceiving the sense objects.[250][note 32][note 33]

3.5.2 Four rupa-jhna and four arupa-jhna

For Nirvana, Buddhist texts teach various meditation

methodologies, of which rupa-jhana (four meditations
in the realm of form) and arupa-jhana (four meditations
in the formless realm) have been the most studied.[243]
These are described in the Pali Canon as trance-like states
in the world of desirelessness.[244] The four dhyanas un-
der rupa-jhanas are:[244]

1. First dhyana: detach from all sensory desires Statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat, Phitsanulok,
Thailand
and sinful states that are a source of unwhole-
some karma. Success here is described in Bud-
Main article: Brahmavihara
dhist texts as leading to discursive thinking, de-
liberation, detachment, sukha (pleasure) and priti
(rapture).[243][note 30] The four immeasurables or four abodes, also called
Brahma-viharas, are virtues or directions for meditation
2. Second dhyana: cease deliberation and all discursive in Buddhist traditions, which helps a person be reborn
thoughts.[244] Success leads to one-pointed thinking, in the heavenly (Brahma) realm.[252][253][254] These are
serenity, pleasure and rapture.[243] traditionally believed to be a characteristic of the deity
Brahma and the heavenly abode he resides in.[255]
3. Third dhyana: lose feeling of rapture. Success leads
to equanimity, mindfulness and pleasure, without The four Brahma-vihara are:
rapture.[243]
1. Loving-kindness (Pli: mett, Sanskrit: maitr ) is
4. Fourth dhyana: cease all eects, lose all happiness active good will towards all;[253][256]
and sadness. Success in the fourth meditation stage
leads to pure equanimity and mindfulness, without 2. Compassion (Pli and Sanskrit: karu) results
any pleasure or pain.[243][244] from metta, it is identifying the suering of others
3.6 Praj insight 11

as ones own;[253][256] In Tibetan Buddhism tradition, mandala are mysti-

cal maps for the visualization process with cosmic
3. Empathetic joy (Pli and Sanskrit: mudit): is the symbolism.[265] There are numerous deities, each with
feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one a mandala, and they are used during initiation cere-
did not contribute to it, it is a form of sympathetic monies and meditation.[265] The mandalas are concentric
joy;[256] geometric shapes symbolizing layers of external world,
4. Equanimity (Pli: upekkh, Sanskrit: upek): is gates and sacred space. The meditation deity is in the
even-mindedness and serenity, treating everyone centre, sometimes surrounded by protective gods and
impartially.[253][256] goddesses.[265] Visualizations with deities and mandalas
in Buddhism is a tradition traceable to ancient times, and
likely well established by the time the 5th-century text
According to Peter Harvey, the Buddhist scriptures
Visuddhimagga was composed.[265][269]
acknowledge that the four Brahmavihara medita-
tion practices did not originate within the Buddhist
tradition.[257][note 34] The Brahmavihara (sometimes as
Brahmaloka), along with the tradition of meditation and
3.5.5 Practice: monks, laity
the above four immeasurables are found in pre-Buddha
and post-Buddha Vedic and Sramanic literature.[259][260]
Aspects of the Brahmavihara practice for rebirths into According to Peter Harvey, whenever Buddhism has been
heavenly realm has been an important part of Buddhist healthy, not only ordained but also more committed lay
meditation tradition.[261][262] people have practiced formal meditation.[270] Loud de-
votional chanting however, adds Harvey, has been the
According to Gombrich, the Buddhist usage of the most prevalent Buddhist practice and considered a form
brahma-vihra originally referred to an awakened state of of meditation that produces energy, joy, lovingkindness
mind, and a concrete attitude toward other beings which and calm, puries mind and benets the chanter.[271]
was equal to living with Brahman here and now. The
later tradition took those descriptions too literal, link- Throughout most of Buddhist history, meditation has
ing them to cosmology and understanding them as liv- been primarily practiced in Buddhist monastic tradition,
ing with Brahman by rebirth in the Brahma-world.[263] and historical evidence suggests that [272][273][274]
serious meditation
According to Gombrich, the Buddha taught that kind- by lay people has been an exception. In re-
ness what Christians tend to call love was a way to cent history, sustained meditation has been pursued by
[275]
salvation.[264] a minority of monks in Buddhist monasteries. West-
ern interest in meditation has led to a revival where an-
cient Buddhist ideas and precepts are adapted to Western
3.5.4 Visualizations: deities, mandalas mores and interpreted liberally, presenting Buddhism as
a meditation-based form of spirituality.[275]

3.6 Praj insight

Main articles: Praj, Bodhi, Kensh, Satori, and

Subitism

Praj (Sanskrit) or pa (Pli) is insight or knowl-

Mandala are used in Buddhism for initiation ceremonies and
visualization.[265]
Idols of deity and icons have been a part of the his-
toric practice, and Buddhist texts such as the 11th-century
Sadanamala, wherein a devotee visualizes and identies
himself or herself with the imagined deity as part of
meditation.[266][267] This has been particularly popular in
Vajrayana meditative traditions, but also found in Ma-
hayana and Theravada traditions, particularly in temples
and with Buddha image.[268]
edge of the true nature of existence. The Buddhist tra-
dition regards ignorance (avidy), a fundamental igno-
rance, misunderstanding or mis-perception of the na-
ture of reality, as one of the basic causes of dukkha and
samsara. By overcoming ignorance or misunderstanding
one is enlightened and liberated. This overcoming in-
cludes awakening to impermanence and non-self nature
of reality,[276][277] and this develops dispassion for the ob-
jects of clinging, and liberates a being from dukkha and
sasra.[278][279][280] Praj is important in all Buddhist
traditions, and is the wisdom about the dharmas, func-
tioning of karma and rebirths, realms of samsara, im-
permanence of everything, no-self in anyone or anything,
and dependent origination.[281]
12
Monks debating at Sera Monastery, Tibet
3.6.1 Origins
The origins of liberating insight is unclear. Buddhist
texts, states Bronkhorst, do not describe it explicitly, and
the content of liberating insight is likely not original to Shwezigon Pagoda near Bagan, Myanmar
Buddhism and was added under the inuence of main-
stream meditation.[282]
Bronkhorst suggests that the conception of what exactly
constituted liberating insight for Buddhists developed
over time. Whereas originally it may not have been spec-
ied as an insight, later on the Four Noble Truths served
as such, to be superseded by pratityasamutpada, and still
later, in the Hinayana schools, by the doctrine of the non-
existence of a substantial self or person.[283]
Other descriptions of this liberating
insight exist in the Buddhist canon: that the
ve Skandhas are impermanent, disagreeable,
and neither the Self nor belonging to oneself";
the contemplation of the arising and disap-
pearance (udayabbaya) of the ve Skandhas";
the realisation of the Skandhas as empty
(rittaka), vain (tucchaka) and without any pith
or substance (asaraka).
Lambert Schmithausen, [284]
In the Pali Canon liberating insight is attained in the
fourth dhyana.[285] However, states Vetter, modern schol-
arship on the Pali Canon has uncovered a whole se-
ries of inconsistencies in the transmission of the Bud-
3 BHAVANA (PRACTICE, CULTIVATION)
dhas word, and there are many conicting versions of
what constitutes higher knowledge and samadhi that leads
to the liberation from rebirth and suering.[286] Even
within the Four Dhyana methodology of meditation, Vet-
ter notes that penetrating abstract truths and penetrat-
ing them successively does not seem possible in a state of
mind which is without contemplation and reection.[287]
According to Vetter, dhyna itself constituted the origi-
nal liberating practice.[221][note 27]
Carol Anderson notes that insight is often depicted in the
Vinaya as the opening of the Dhamma eye, which sets
one on the Buddhist path to liberation.[288]
3.6.2 Theravada
Vipassan Main article: Vipassan
In Theravada Buddhism, but also in Tibetan Buddhism,
two types of meditation Buddhist practices are being fol-
lowed, namely samatha (Pli; Sanskrit: amatha; calm)
and vipassana (insight).[289][290] Samatha is also called
calming meditation, and was adopted into Buddhism
from pre-Buddha Indian traditions. Vipassan medita-
tion was added by Buddha, and refers to insight medita-
tion. Vipassana does not aim at peace and tranquillity,
states Damien Keown, but the generation of penetrating
and critical insight (panna)".[291]
The focus of Vipassana meditation is to continuously
and thoroughly know impermanence of everything (an-
nica), no-Self in anything (anatta) and dukkha teachings
of Buddhism.[292][293]
Contemporary Theravada orthodoxy regards samatha as
a preparation for vipassan, pacifying the mind and
strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work
of insight, which leads to liberation. In contrast, the
Vipassana Movement argues that insight levels can be
discerned without the need for developing samatha fur-
ther due to the risks of going out of course when strong
3.6 Praj insight 13

samatha is developed.[294]

Dependent arising Main articles: Prattyasamutpda

and Twelve Nidnas

Pratityasamutpada, also called dependent arising, or de-

pendent origination, is the Buddhist theory to explain the
nature and relations of being, becoming, existence and
ultimate reality. Buddhism asserts that there is nothing
independent, except the state of nirvana.[295] All physical
and mental states depend on and arise from other pre-
existing states, and in turn from them arise other depen-
dent states while they cease.[296]
The 'dependent arisings have a causal conditioning, and
thus Pratityasamutpada is the Buddhist belief that causal-
ity is the basis of ontology, not a creator God nor the onto-
logical Vedic concept called universal Self (Brahman) nor
any other 'transcendent creative principle'.[297][298] How-
ever, the Buddhist thought does not understand causality
in terms of Newtonian mechanics, rather it understands
it as conditioned arising.[299][300] In Buddhism, dependent
arising is referring to conditions created by a plurality of
causes that necessarily co-originate a phenomenon within
and across lifetimes, such as karma in one life creating
conditions that lead to rebirth in one of realms of exis-
tence for another lifetime.[301][302][303]
The Great Statue of Amitbha in Kamakura, Japan
Buddhism applies the dependent arising theory to ex-
plain origination of endless cycles of dukkha and rebirth,
through its Twelve Nidnas or twelve links doctrine. It the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the
states that because Avidy (ignorance) exists Saskras time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early
(karmic formations) exists, because Saskras exists Buddhism.[307]
therefore Vijna (consciousness) exists, and in a simi-
lar manner it links Nmarpa (sentient body), ayatana
(six senses), Spara (sensory stimulation), Vedan (feel- Mind-only Main articles: Yogachara and Lakvatra
ing), Tah (craving), Updna (grasping), Bhava (be- Stra
coming), Jti (birth), Jarmaraa (old age, death, sorrow,
pain).[304][305] Sarvastivada teachings, which were criticized by
By breaking the circuitous links of Twelve Nidanas, Bud- Ngrjuna, were reformulated by scholars such as
dhism asserts that a liberation from this endless cycles of Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the
rebirth and dukkha can be attained.[306] Yogachara school. While the Mdhyamaka school held
that asserting the existence or non-existence of any
ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents
3.6.3 Mahayana of Yogachara asserted that the mind and only the mind
is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). Not
Emptiness Main articles: nyat and Madhyamaka all Yogacharins asserted that mind was truly existent;
Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not.[web 8]
nyat, or emptiness, is a central concept in These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis,
Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka school, and widely attested form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in
in the Prajpramit sutras. It brings together key the Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta and dependent
origination, to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada
and Sautrntika (extinct non-Mahayana schools). Not Buddha-nature Main article: Buddha-nature
only sentient beings are empty of tman; all phenom-
ena (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally own- Buddha-nature is a concept found in some 1st-
nature or self-nature), and thus without any under- millennium CE Buddhist texts, such as the
lying essence, and empty of being independent; thus Tathgatagarbha stras. This concept has been
14 4 BUDDHIST TEXTS

controversial in Buddhism, but has a following in the obedience to teachers is also important in Theravada and
East Asian Buddhism.[308][309] These Sutras suggest, Zen Buddhism.[324]
states Paul Williams, that 'all sentient beings con-
tain a Tathagata' as their 'essence, core inner nature,
Self'.[310][note 35] The Tathagatagarbha doctrine, at its 4 Buddhist texts
earliest probably appeared about the later part of the
3rd century CE, and it contradicts the Anatta doctrine
(non-Self) in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading
scholars to posit that the Tathagatagarbha Sutras were
written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.[312][313]
However, the Buddhist text Ratnagotravibhga states
that the Self implied in Tathagatagarbha doctrine is
actually not-Self.[314][315]

3.7 Devotion
Main article: Buddhist devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most

Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras

from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.

Main article: Buddhist texts

Buddhism, like all Indian religions, was an oral tradition

Bhatti (devotion) at a Buddhist temple, Tibet. Chanting during in the ancient times.[325] The Buddhas words, the early
Bhatti Puja (devotional worship) is often a part of the Theravada doctrines and concepts, the interpretations were transmit-
Buddhist tradition. ted from one generation to the next by the word of mouth
in monasteries, and not through written texts. The rst
Buddhists.[316] Devotional practices include ritual prayer, Buddhist canonical texts, were likely written down in Sri
prostration, oerings, pilgrimage, and chanting.[317] In
Lanka, about 400 years after the Buddha died.[325] The
Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha texts were part of the Tripitakas, and many versions ap-
is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to
peared thereafter claiming to be the words of the Buddha.
the Lotus Sutra is the main practice. Bhakti (called Bhatti Scholarly Buddhist commentary texts, with named au-
in Pali) has been a common practice in Theravada Bud-
thors, appeared in India, around the 2nd century CE.[325]
dhism, where oerings and group prayers are made to These texts were written in Pali or Sanskrit, sometimes
deities and particularly images of Buddha.[318] According regional languages, as palm-leaf manuscripts, birch bark,
to Karel Werner and other scholars, devotional worship painted scrolls, carved into temple walls, and later on
has been a signicant practice in Theravada Buddhism, paper.[325]
and deep devotion is part of Buddhist traditions starting
from the earliest days.[319][320] Unlike what the Bible is to Christianity and Quran is to
Islam, but like all major ancient Indian religions, there
Guru devotion is a central practice of Tibetan is no consensus among the dierent Buddhist traditions
Buddhism.[321][322] The guru is considered essential as to what constitutes the scriptures or a common canon
and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the enlight- in Buddhism.[325] The general belief among Buddhists is
ened teacher and ritual master in Vajrayana spiritual that the canonical corpus is vast.[326][327][328] This cor-
pursuits.[321][323] pus includes the ancient Sutras organized into Nikayas,
For someone seeking Buddhahood, the guru is the Bud- itself the part of three basket of texts called the Trip-
dha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, wrote the 12th-century itakas.[329] Each Buddhist tradition has its own collec-
Buddhist scholar Sadhanamala.[323] The venerance of and tion of texts, much of which is translation of ancient Pali
4.4 Tibetan texts: listamba Sutra 15

and Sanskrit Buddhist texts of India. The Chinese Bud-

dhist canon, for example, includes 2184 texts in 55 vol-
umes, while the Tibetan canon comprises 1108 texts
all claimed to have been spoken by the Buddha and
another 3461 texts composed by Indian scholars revered
in the Tibetan tradition.[330] The Buddhist textual history
has been vast; over 40,000 manuscripts mostly Buddhist,
some non-Buddhist, were discovered in 1900 in the Dun-
huang Chinese cave alone.[330]

4.1 Pli Tipitaka

Main article: Pli Canon
The Tripiaka Koreana in South Korea, an edition of the Chinese
The Pli Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripiaka, three pitakas), Buddhist canon carved and preserved in over 81,000 wood print-
ing blocks.
which means three baskets, refers to the Vinaya Pitaka,
the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. These con-
stitute the oldest known canonical works of Buddhism.
The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the
for dierent types of persons and dierent levels of spir-
Buddhist monasteries. The Sutta Pitaka contains words
itual understanding.
attributed to the Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka con-
tain expositions and commentaries on the Sutta, and these The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Bud-
vary signicantly between Buddhist schools. dhas deeper, more advanced doctrines, reserved for
those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is
The Pli Tipitaka is the only surviving early Tipitaka. Ac-
explained as being built upon the motivation to liber-
cording to some sources, some early schools of Buddhism
ate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name
had ve or seven pitakas.[331] Much of the material in the
Mahyna (lit., the Great Vehicle). The Theravada school
Canon is not specically Theravadin, but is instead the
does not treat the Mahayana Sutras as authoritative or au-
collection of teachings that this school preserved from the
thentic teachings of the Buddha.[335][336]
early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Pe-
ter Harvey, it contains material at odds with later Ther- Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scrip-
avadin orthodoxy. He states: The Theravadins, then, tures were composed from the 1st century CE onwards:
may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being com-
they do not appear to have tampered with what they al- posed in the period between the beginning of the com-
ready had from an earlier period.[332] mon era and the fth century.[337]

4.2 Theravada texts

In addition to the Pali Canon, the important commen-
tary texts of the Theravada tradition include the 5th-
century Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa of the Mahav-
ihara school. It includes sections on shila (virtues),
samadhi (concentration), panna (wisdom) as well as
Theravada traditions meditation methodology.[333]
4.3 Mahayana sutras
Main article: Mahayana sutras
The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist
scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are
original teachings of the Buddha. Some adherents of
Mahayana accept both the early teachings (including in
this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which was criticized
by Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist
thought)[334] and the Mahayana sutras as authentic teach-
ings of Gautama Buddha, and claim they were designed
4.4 Tibetan texts: listamba Sutra
Many ancient Indian texts have not survived into the
modern era, creating a challenge in establishing the his-
toric commonalities between Theravada and Mahayana.
The texts preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist monaster-
ies, with parallel Chinese translations, have provided a
breakthrough. Among these is the Mahayana text lis-
tamba Sutra which no longer exists in Sanskrit version,
but does in Tibetan and Chinese versions. This Ma-
hayana text contains numerous sections which are re-
markably same as the Theravada Pali Canon and Nikaya
Buddhism.[335][338] The listamba Sutra was cited by
Mahayana scholars such as the 8th-century Yasomitra to
be authoritative.[339] This suggests that Buddhist literature
of dierent traditions shared a common core of Buddhist
texts in the early centuries of its history, until Mahayana
literature diverged about and after the 1st century CE.[335]
16 5 HISTORY

5 History dhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internal-

ized and variously reinterpreted the three Vedic sacri-
Main article: History of Buddhism cial res as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or
Restraint.[353] Buddhist texts also refer to the three Vedic
sacricial res, reinterpreting and explaining them as eth-
ical conduct.[354]
5.1 Historical roots The Sramanic religions challenged and broke with
the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as
Atman (soul, self), Brahman, the nature of after-
life, and they rejected the authority of the Vedas and
Upanishads.[355][356][357] Buddhism was one among sev-
eral Indian religions that did so.[357]

The Buddhist Carpenters Cave at Ellora in Maharashtra, India

Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious

thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the rst
millennium BCE.[340] That was a period, states Abra-
ham Eraly, of great intellectual ferment, when the Upan- Rock-cut Lord Buddha statue at Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle
ishads were composed marking a change in the historical in the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh, India
Vedic religion, as well as the emergence of great Sra-
manic traditions.[341] According to Richard Gombrich,
this was not only a period of intellectual ferment but also
socio-cultural change quite distinct from the early Vedic 5.2 Indian Buddhism
period.[342][note 36]
Main article: History of Buddhism in India
New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the
form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tra-
dition through the ramaa movements.[344][345][346] The The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into
[358]
term ramaa refers to several Indian religious move- ve periods: Early Buddhism (occasionally called
ments parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectar-
religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as ian Buddhism: The period of the early Buddhist schools,
jvika. [347] Early Mahayana Buddhism, later Mahayana Buddhism,
and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Several ramaa movements are known to have existed
in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-
Mahavira), and these inuenced both the stika and
nstika traditions of Indian philosophy.[348] According to
Martin Wilshire, the Sramana tradition evolved in In-
dia over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka
phases, the former being the tradition of individual as-
cetic and latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jain-
ism ultimately emerged from these.[349] Brahmanical and
non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used sev-
eral similar ideas,[350] but the ramaa traditions also
drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and
philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their
own doctrines.[348][351] Brahmanical motifs can be found
in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and Sanchi Stupa
explain Buddhist ideas.[352] For example, prior to Bud-
5.2 Indian Buddhism 17

5.2.1 Pre-sectarian Buddhism and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for
rebirth, but intentions and desire.[379]
Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Another core problem in the study of early Buddhism
is the relation between dhyana and insight.[139][217][218]
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Bud- Schmithausen, states that the four noble truths as lib-
dhism, recognized by nearly all scholars. Its main scrip- erating insight, may be a later addition to texts such as
tures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikyas Majjhima Nikaya 36.[220][380][381]
or Agamas.
According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the Four
Noble Truths became a substitution for prajna, or liber-
[383][384]
Tracing the oldest teachings Information of the old- ating insight, in the suttas in those texts where
est teachings may be obtained by analysis of the old- liberating insight was preceded by the four jhnas.[385]
est texts. One method to obtain information on the The four truths may not have been formulated in earli-
oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest ex- est Buddhism, and did not serve in [386] earliest Buddhism as
tant versions of the Theravadin Pli Canon and other a description of liberating insight. Gotamas teach-
texts. [note 37]
The reliability of these sources, and the pos- ings may have been personal, adjusted to the need of
[385]
sibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter each person.
of dispute.[217][221][361][218] According to Vetter, incon- The three marks of existence Dukkha, Annica, Anatta
sistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to may reect Upanishadic or other inuences. K.R. Nor-
resolve those inconsistencies.[359][note 38] man supposes that these terms were already in use at the
[387]
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by Buddhas time, and were familiar to his hearers. Ac-
scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[364] cording to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path
may initially have been as simple as the term the middle
way.[139] In time, this short description was elaborated,
1. Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and sub- resulting in the description of the eightfold path.[139] Sim-
stantial authenticity of at least a considerable part ilarly nibbna is the common term for the desired goal of
of the Nikayic materials;"[note 39] and Richard Gom- this practice, yet many other terms can be found through-
brich.[365][subnote 3] </ref> out the Nikyas, which are not specied.[388][note 43]
2. Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retriev-
ing the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"[note 40] </ref>
5.2.2 Early Buddhist schools
[note 41]
3. Cautious optimism in this respect.
Johannes Bronkhorst[subnote 6] and Donald Main articles: Early Buddhist schools, Buddhist councils,
Lopez.[subnote 7]
</ref> and Theravada
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirva

Core teachings According to Mitchell, certain basic

teachings appear in many places throughout the early
texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that
Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar
to the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path,
Nirvana, the three marks of existence, the ve aggregates,
dependent origination, karma and rebirth.[369] Yet critical
analysis reveals discrepancies, which point to alternative
possibilities.[370][371][372]
Bruce Matthews notes that there is no cohesive presen-
tation of karma in the Sutta Pitaka,[373] which may mean
that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of
early Buddhist soteriology.[373] Schmithausen has ques-
tioned whether karma already played a role in the the-
ory of rebirth of earliest Buddhism.[374][375][note 42] Ac- Buddha at Xumishan Grottoes, ca. 6th century CE.[389]
cording to Vetter, the Buddha at rst sought the death-
less (amata/amrta), which is concerned with the here (from Sanskrit: highest extinguishment) of Gautama
and now. Only later did he become acquainted with the Buddha, the rst Buddhist council was held. As with
doctrine of rebirth.[377] Bronkhorst disagrees, and con- any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was
cludes that the Buddha introduced a concept of karma done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was
that diered considerably from the commonly held views to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no er-
of his time.[378] According to Bronkhorst, not physical rors occurred in oral transmission. Richard Gombrich
18 5 HISTORY

states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Bud- dhism tradition started in south India (modern Andhra
dhas teaching likely began during Buddhas lifetime, sim-Pradesh), and it is there that Prajnaparamita sutras,
ilar to the First Council, that helped compose Buddhist among the earliest Mahayana sutras,[399][400] developed
scriptures.[390] among the Mahsghika along the Ka River region
[401][402][403][note 45]
The Second Buddhist council resulted in the rst schism about the 1st century BCE.
in the Sangha, probably caused by a group of reformists There is no evidence that Mahayana ever referred to a
called Sthaviras who split from the conservative majority separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather
Mahsghikas.[391] After unsuccessfully trying to mod- that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doc-
ify the Vinaya, a small group of elderly members, i.e. trines, for bodhisattvas.[406] Initially it was known as
sthaviras, broke away from the majority Mahsghika Bodhisattvayna (the Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas).[407]
during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the Paul Williams states that the Mahyna never had nor ever
Sthavira sect.[392] attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination codes
[408]
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which from the early schools of Buddhism. Records writ-
was the Theravada school. Originally, these schisms were ten by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both
caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of Mahyna and non-Mahyna monks could be found in
various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if the same monasteries, with the dierence that Mahayana
not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal dis- monks worshipped gures[409] of Bodhisattvas, while non-
agreements too. [393]
Buddhist monks of dierent fra- Mahayana monks did not.
ternities became distinct schools, stopped doing ocial Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of
Sangha business together, but continued to study each Mahyna comes from early Chinese translations of
others doctrines.[393] Mahyna texts. These Mahayana teachings were rst
propagated into China by Lokakema, the rst translator
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sagha
started to accumulate their own version of Tripiaka (Pali of Mahayana
[note 46]
sutras into Chinese during the 2nd century
CE. Some scholars have traditionally considered
Canons, triple basket of texts).[42][394] In their Tripiaka,
each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya the earliest Mahyna stras to include the very rst ver-
sions of the Prajnaparamita series, along with texts con-
basket (disciplinary code) and added an Abhidharma bas-
ket which were texts on detailed scholastic classica- cerning Akobhya, which were probably composed in the
[411][note 47]
1st century BCE in the south of India.
tion, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.[42][395]
The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Bud-
dhist schools dier signicantly, and these were com- 5.2.4 Late Mahayana Buddhism
posed starting about 3th century BCE and through the
1st millennium CE.[396][note 44][397] Eighteen early Bud- During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism, four
dhist schools are known, each with its own Tripitaka, but major types of thought developed: Madhyamaka, Yo-
only one collection from Sri Lanka has survived, in nearly gachara, Tathagatagarbha, and Buddhist logic as the last
complete state, into the modern era.[398] and most recent.[413] In India, the two main philosophical
schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the
later Yogachara.[414] According to Dan Lusthaus, Mad-
5.2.3 Early Mahayana Buddhism
hyamaka and Yogachara have a great deal in common,
and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.[415]
Main article: Mahayana
There were no great Indian teachers associated with tatha-
Several scholars have suggested that the Mahayana Bud-
gatagarbha thought.[416]

5.2.5 Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism)

Main article: Vajrayana

Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still

in its early stages and has a number of problems that make
research dicult:[417]

1. Vajrayana Buddhism was inuenced by Hinduism,

A Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a Kushan, the fu-
ture buddha Maitreya, Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva
Avalokitevara, and a monk. Secondthird century. Guimet
Museum
and therefore research must include exploring Hin-
duism as well.
2. The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in
any kind of order.
5.3 Spread of Buddhism 19

3. Ritual must be examined as well, not just doctrine.

5.3 Spread of Buddhism

Main article: Timeline of Buddhism
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the

Coin depicting Indo-Greek king Menander, who, according to

Buddhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha, converted to
The spread of Buddhism at the time of emperor Ashoka (260
the Buddhist faith and became an arhat in the 2nd century BCE
218 BCE).
. (British Museum)

time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who was a pub-

lic supporter of the religion. The support of Aoka and
his descendants led to the construction of more stpas This early Buddhist school, active in north-western In-
(Buddhist religious memorials) and to eorts to spread dia, was in all probability founded by a Greek monk by
Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and the name Yonaka Dhammarakkhita, native of Alasanda
into neighbouring lands such as Central Asia, beyond the (which could be either Alexandria of Egypt or Alexandria
Mauryas northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka of the Caucasus, both cities founded by Alexander the
south of India. These two missions, in opposite direc- Great). This school played a critical role in the spread-
tions, would ultimately lead, in the rst case to the spread ing of Buddhism to central Asia and China and eventu-
of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the ally to other parts of the far east. Further, some of the
emergence of Theravda Buddhism and its spread from earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the
Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. Gandharan Buddhist texts, dating from about the 1 st cen-
This period marks the rst known spread of Buddhism tury CE, and connected to the Dharmaguptaka school.
beyond India. According to the edicts of Aoka, emis- These texts are written in the Kharosthi script, a script
saries were sent to various countries west of India that was predominantly used in the Greco-Bactrian and
to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern Indo-Greek kingdoms of northern India and that played
provinces of the neighbouring Seleucid Empire, and even a prominent role in the coinage and inscriptions of their
farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. kings.[422][423][424]
It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether The Theravada school spread south from India in the
or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist 3rd century BCE, to Sri Lanka, later to southeast Asia
missionaries.[418] (Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia
[425]
In central and west Asia, Buddhist inuence grew, and coastal Vietnam).
through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most
Asian trade routes. An example of this is evidenced commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the
in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as Milinda- 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to
panha and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhra. The question.[426][note 48] The rst documented translation ef-
Milindapanha describes a conversation between a Bud- forts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd
dhist monk and 2nd-century BCE Greek king, Menander, century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion
after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the
monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana.[419][420] Some Tarim Basin.[428]
scholars have questioned the Milindapanha version, ex- In the 2nd century CE, Mahayana Sutras spread to China,
pressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just and then to Korea and Japan, and were translated into
favourably disposed to Buddhist monks.[421] Chinese. During the Indian period of Esoteric Bud-
Other examples of the inuence of Greco-Buddhism can dhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread
be seen in the history of the school of Dharmaguptaka. from India to Tibet and Mongolia. Johannes Bronkhorst
20
states that esoteric form was attractive because it allowed
both a secluded monastic community as well as the so-
cial rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings
for the maintenance of a political state during succession
and wars to resist invasion.[429] During the middle ages,
Buddhism slowly declined in India,[430] while it vanished
from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state
religion.[431][432]
6 Schools and traditions
Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Buddhahood
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either
Distribution of major Buddhist traditions
Theravada or Mahayana.[433] This classication is also
used by some scholars[434] and is the one ordinarily used
in the English language.[web 9] An alternative scheme used 6.1 Timeline
by some scholars[note 49] divides Buddhism into the fol-
lowing three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era
Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Young monks in Cambodia
Some scholars[note 50] use other schemes. Buddhists
themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana
(literally lesser or inferior vehicle) is used by Ma-
hayana followers to name the family of early philosoph-
ical schools and traditions from which contemporary
6 SCHOOLS AND TRADITIONS
Theravada emerged, but as the Hinayana term is consid-
ered derogatory, a variety of other terms are used in-
stead, including rvakayna, Nikaya Buddhism, early
Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism and conservative
Buddhism.[436][437]
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosoph-
ical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each
tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and
some comparisons can be drawn between them:[438][439]
Both Theravada and Mahayana traditions accept the
Buddha as the founder, Theravada considers him
unique, but Mahayana considers him one of many
Buddhas
Both accept the Middle way, dependent origination,
the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and
the Three marks of existence
Nirvana is attainable by the monks in Theravada tra-
dition, while Mahayana considers it broadly attain-
able; Arhat state is aimed for in the Theravada, while
Buddhahood is aimed for in the Mahayana
Religious practice consists of meditation for monks
and prayer for laypersons in Theravada, while Ma-
hayana includes prayer, chanting and meditation for
both
Theravada has been a more rationalist, historical
form of Buddhism; while Mahayana has included
more rituals, mysticism and worldly exibility in its
scope.[440]
This is a rough timeline of the development of the dier-
ent schools/traditions:
6.2 Theravada school
Main article: Theravada
The Theravada tradition traces its roots to the words of
the Buddha preserved in the Pali Canon, and considers
itself to be the more orthodox form of Buddhism.[442][443]
Theravada ourished in south India and Sri Lanka in
ancient times, from there it spread for the rst time
into mainland southeast Asia about the 11th century into
its elite urban centres.[444] By the 13th century, Ther-
avada had widely spread into the rural areas of main-
land southeast Asia,[444] displacing Mahayana Buddhism
and some traditions of Hinduism which had arrived in
places such as Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia
6.3 Mahayana traditions 21

A young bhikkhu in Sri Lanka The ideas of the 2nd century scholar Nagarjuna helped shape the
Mahayana traditions.

and Malaysia around mid 1st millennium CE. The later

traditions were well established in south Thailand and Ashoka,[335] through to the dynasty of the Guptas
Java by the 7th century, under the sponsorship of Sriv- (4th to 6th-century). Mahyna monastic foundations
ijaya dynasty.[445][446] The political separation between and centres of learning were established by the Buddhist
Khmer and Sukhothai, led the Sukhothai king to wel- kings, and the Hindu kings of the Gupta dynasty as
come Sri Lankan emissaries, helping them establish the evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to
rst Theravada Buddhist sangha in the 13th century, in India.[450][451] The Gupta dynasty, for example, helped
contrast to the Mahayana tradition of Khmer earlier.[447] establish the famed Nland University in Bihar.[450][452]
Sinhalese Buddhist reformers in the late nineteenth and These monasteries and foundations helped Buddhist
early twentieth centuries portrayed the Pali Canon as the scholarship, as well as studies into non-Buddhist tradi-
original version of scripture.[448] They also emphasized tions and secular subjects such as medicine, host[450][453]
visitors
Theravada being rational and scientic. [448] and spread Buddhism into East and Central Asia.

Theravda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka,
Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small por-
tions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has
a growing presence in the west.
6.3 Mahayana traditions
Main article: Mahayana
Mahayana schools consider the Mahayana Sutras as au-
thoritative scriptures and accurate rendering of Buddhas
words.[335] These traditions have been the more liberal
form of Buddhism allowing dierent and new interpreta-
tions that emerged over time.[449]
Mahayana ourished in India from the time of
Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China,
Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of
Vietnam (also commonly referred to as Eastern Bud-
dhism). The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Hi-
malayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in ori-
gin, but is discussed below under the heading of Va-
jrayana (also commonly referred to as Northern Bud-
dhism). There are a variety of strands in Eastern Bud-
dhism, of which the Pure Land school of Mahayana is
the most widely practised today..[454] In most of this area
however, they are fused into a single unied form of Bud-
dhism. In Japan in particular, they form separate denom-
inations with the ve major ones being: Nichiren, pecu-
liar to Japan; Pure Land; Shingon, a form of Vajrayana;
Tendai, and Zen. In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong
to the Chogye school, which is ocially Son (Zen), but
22 7 BUDDHISM TODAY

with substantial elements from other traditions.[455]

6.3.1 Vajrayana traditions

Main article: Vajrayana

The goal and philosophy of the Vajrayna remains

Ginkaku-ji, a Zen temple in Kyoto, Japan

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai

( ) and St ( ), the former greatly favouring the
use in meditation on the koan ( , a meditative riddle
or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the
7th-century Potala Palace in Lhasa valley symbolizes Tibetan latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on
Buddhism and is a UNESCO world heritage site.[456] shikantaza or just sitting.[note 54]
Zen Buddhism is primarily found in Japan, with some
Mahynist, but its methods are seen as far more
presence in South Korea and Vietnam. The scholars of
powerful, so as to lead to Buddhahood in just one
Japanese Soto Zen tradition in recent times have critiqued
lifetime.[457] The practice of using mantras was adopted
the mainstream Japanese Buddhism for dhatu-vada, that
from Hinduism, where they were rst used in the
is assuming things have substantiality, a view they as-
Vedas.[458] Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with
sert to be non-Buddhist and out of tune with the teach-
ritual and meditative practices.[459]
ings of non-Self and conditioned arising, states Peter
Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a Harvey.[467]
result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and
Saivism.[460] The Majusrimulakalpa, which later came
to classied under Kriyatantra, states that mantras taught 7 Buddhism today
in the Saiva, Garuda and Vaisnava tantras will be eective
if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught orig-
Main article: Buddhism by country
inally by Manjushri.[461] The Guhyasiddhi of Padmava-
There is growing worldwide interest in
jra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition,
prescribes acting as a Saiva guru and initiating members
into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas.[462] The
Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Saiva
text Tantrasadbhava, introducing a copying error where
a deity was mistaken for a place.[463]
Tibetan Buddhism preserves the Vajrayana teachings of
eighth century India.[11] In the Tibetan tradition, prac-
tices can include sexual yoga, though only for some very
advanced practitioners.[464]

6.3.2 Zen

Main article: Zen Buryat Buddhist monk in Siberia

Zen Buddhism ( ), pronounced Chn in Chinese, seon
in Korean or zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit
term dhyna, meaning meditation) is a form of Ma-
hayana Buddhism found in China, Korea and Japan. It
lays special emphasis on meditation, and direct discovery
of the Buddha-nature.[449][note 53]
Buddhism.[468][469]
Buddhism has spread across the world, and Buddhist texts
are increasingly translated into local languages. While in
the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progres-
sive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional.
 23

In countries such as Cambodia and Bhutan, it is recog- Buddhists.[web 1]

nized as the state religion and receives government sup- According to a demographic analysis reported by Peter
port. In certain regions such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, Harvey (2013):[477] Mahayana has 360 million adherents;
Buddhist monuments have been targets of violence and Theravada has 150 million adherents; and Vajrayana has
destruction.[470][471] 18,2 million adherents.
According to Johnson and Grim (2013), Buddhism has
grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910, of
which 137 million were in Asia, to 495 million in 2010, of
which 487 million are in Asia.[476] Over 98% of all Bud-
dhists live in the Asia-Pacic and South Asia region.[479]
North America had about 3.9 million Buddhists, Europe
1.3 million, while South America, Africa and the Middle
East had an estimated combined total of about 1 million
[479]
Buddhists in 2010.Buddhas
of Bamiyan, Afghanistan in 1896 (top) and after de- Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan,[480]
struction in 2001 by the Taliban Islamists.[472] Burma,[480] Cambodia,[480] Tibet,[480] Laos,[480]
Mongolia,[480] Sri Lanka[480] and Thailand.[480][481] Large
Modern inuences increasingly lead to new forms of Bud- Buddhist populations live in China (18.2%),[480] Japan
dhism that are diverse and that signicantly depart from (36.2%),[480] Taiwan (35%),[480] Macau (17%),[480]
traditional beliefs and practices.[473] A number of modern North Korea (13.8%),[480] Nepal (10.7%),[480] Vietnam
movements or tendencies in Buddhism emerged during (10%),[480] Singapore (33%),[480] Hong Kong (15%)[480]
the second half of the 20th Century, including the Dalit and South Korea (22.9%).[480]
Buddhist movement,[474][475] Engaged Buddhism, and the After China where nearly half of the worldwide Buddhists
further development of various Western Buddhist tradi- live, the 10 countries with the largest Buddhist population
tions. densities are:[479]
Modern Buddhist movements include Won Buddhism in
Korea, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand and sev-
eral Japanese organizations, such as Shinnyo-en, Rissh 8 See also
Ksei-kai or Soka Gakkai.
Outline of Buddhism
7.1 Demographics Buddhism by country

Buddhism is practiced by an estimated 488 million,[web 1] Buddhism and science

495 million,[476] or 535 million[477] people as of the
Chinese folk religion
2010s, representing 7% to 8% of the worlds total pop-
ulation. Easily confused Buddhist representations
Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thai-
land
Index of Buddhism-related articles
% of population
Buddhist
90-100
Indian religions
80-90
70-80
50-70
30-50
List of books related to Buddhism
15-30
5-15
1-5 List of Buddhist temples
Nonviolence
Percentage of Buddhists by country, according to the Pew Re-
search Center, as of 2010. Criticism of Buddhism

China is the country with the largest population of Bud-

dhists, approximately 244 million or 18.2% of its to-
tal population.[web 1][note 55] They are mostly followers of
Chinese schools of Mahayana, making this the largest
body of Buddhist traditions. Mahayana, also practiced
in broader East Asia, is followed by over half of world
9 Notes
[1] Buddhist texts such as the Jataka tales of the Ther-
avada Buddhist tradition, and early biographies such
as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravdin Mahvastu,
24
the Sarvstivdin Lalitavistara Stra, give dierent ac-
counts about the life of the Buddha, many include
stories of his many rebirths, some add signicant
embellishments.[18][19] Keown and Prebish state, In the
past, modern scholars have generally accepted 486 or
483 BCE for this [Buddhas death], but the consensus
is now that they rest on evidence which is too imsy.[20]
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualied claims about
the historical facts of the Buddhas life. Most accept that
he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do
not consistently accept all of the details contained in his
biographies.[21][22][23][24]
[2] The exact identity of this ancient place is unclear. Please
see Gautama Buddha article for various sites identied.
[3] Bihar is derived from Vihara, which means
monastery).[25]
[4] Other details about Buddha'a background are contested
in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts as-
sert that Buddha described himself as a kshatriya (warrior
class), but states Gombrich, little is known about his father
and there is no proof that his father even knew the term
kshatriya.[28] Mahavira, whose teachings helped establish
another major ancient religion Jainism, is also claimed to
be ksatriya by his early followers. Further, early texts of
both Jainism and Buddhism, suggest they emerged in a pe-
riod of urbanization in ancient India, one with city nobles
and prospering urban centers, states, agricultural surplus,
trade and introduction of money.[29]
[5] Doubts about the historicity of these claims in early Bud-
dhist texts have emerged in modern scholarship because
later Buddhist texts do not mention that Buddha learnt
these concepts from more ancient teachers.[32][34] Accord-
ing to Alexander Wynne, the evidence suggests that Bud-
dha studied under various teachers and they almost cer-
tainly taught him, but the details of his education are
unclear.[32][35]
[6] The Theravada tradition traces its origins as the oldest
tradition holding the Pali Canon as the only authority,
Mahayana tradition revers the Canon but also the deriva-
tive literature that developed in the 1st millennum CE
and its roots are traceable to the 1st century BCE, while
Vajrayana tradition is closer to the Mahayana, includes
Tantra, is the younger of the three and traceable to 1st
millennium CE.[45][46]
[7] As opposite to sukha, pleasure, it is better translated as
pain.[50]
[8] On samsara, rebirth and redeath:
* Paul Williams: All rebirth is due to karma and is imper-
manent. Short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth
one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance
with the completely impersonal causal nature of ones own
karma. The endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is
samsara.[52]
* Buswell and Lopez on rebirth": An English term that
does not have an exact correlate in Buddhist languages,
rendered instead by a range of technical terms, such as the
Sanskrit PUNARJANMAN (lit. birth again) and PUN-
ABHAVAN (lit. re-becoming), and, less commonly,
the related PUNARMRTYU (lit. redeath).[53]
9 NOTES
See also Perry Schmidt-Leukel (2006) pages 3234,[54]
John J. Makransky (1997) p.27.[55] for the use of the term
redeath. The term Agatigati or Agati gati (plus a few
other terms) is generally translated as 'rebirth, redeath';
see any Pali-English dictionary; e.g. pages 9495 of Rhys
Davids & William Stede, where they list ve Sutta exam-
ples with rebirth and re-death sense.[56]
[9] Graham Harvey: Siddhartha Gautama found an end to
rebirth in this world of suering. His teachings, known
as the dharma in Buddhism, can be summarized in the
Four Noble truths.[58] Georey Samuel (2008): The
Four Noble Truths [...] describe the knowledge needed
to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth.[59] See
also [60][61][62][52][63][64][58][65][web 3][web 4]
The Theravada tradition holds that insight into these
four truths is liberating in itself.[66] This is reected in
the Pali canon.[67] According to Donald Lopez, The
Buddha stated in his rst sermon that when he gained
absolute and intuitive knowledge of the four truths, he
achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from
future rebirth.[web 3]
The Maha-parinibbana Sutta also refers to this
liberation.[web 5] Carol Anderson: The second pas-
sage where the four truths appear in the Vinaya-pitaka is
also found in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta (D II 9091).
Here, the Buddha explains that it is by not understanding
the four truths that rebirth continues.[68]
On the meaning of moksha as liberation from rebirth, see
Patrick Olivelle in the Encyclopdia Britannica.[web 6]
[10] This explanation is more common in commentaries on the
Four Noble Truths within the Theravada tradition: e.g.
Ajahn Sucitta (2010); Ajahn Sumedho (ebook); Rahula
(1974); etc.
[11] Ending rebirth:
* Graham Harvey: The Third Noble Truth is nirvana.
The Buddha tells us that an end to suering is possible,
and it is nirvana. Nirvana is a blowing out, just as a can-
dle ame is extinguished in the wind, from our lives in
samsara. It connotes an end to rebirth[58]
* Spiro: The Buddhis message then, as I have said, is
not simply a psychological message, i.e. that desire is
the cause of suering because unsatised desire produces
frustration. It does contain such a message to be sure; but
more importantly it is an eschatological message. Desire
is the cause of suering because desire is the cause of
rebirth; and the extinction of desire leads to deliverance
from suering because it signals release from the Wheel
of Rebirth.[60]
* John J. Makransky: The third noble truth, cessation
(nirodha) or nirvana, represented the ultimate aim of Bud-
dhist practice in the Abhidharma traditions: the state free
from the conditions that created samsara. Nirvana was the
ultimate and nal state attained when the supramundane
yogic path had been completed. It represented salvation
from samsara precisely because it was understood to com-
prise a state of complete freedom from the chain of sam-
saric causes and conditions, i.e., precisely because it was
unconditioned (asamskrta).[62]
* Walpola Rahula: Let us consider a few denitions and
descriptions of Nirvana as found in the original Pali texts
[...] 'It is the complete cessation of that very thirst (tanha),

giving it up, renouncing it, emancipation from it, detach-
ment from it.' [...] 'The abandoning and destruction of
craving for these Five Aggregates of Attachment: that is
the cessation of dukkha. [...] 'The Cessation of Continuity
and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana.'"[73]
[12] Earlier Buddhist texts refer to ve realms rather than six
realms; when described as ve realms, the god realm and
demi-god realm constitute a single realm.[93]
[13] This merit gaining may be on the behalf of ones family
members.[100][101][102]
[14] The realms in which a being is reborn are:[105][106][subnote 1]
Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the
uddhvsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only
by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as angmis (non-
returners). Rebirths in the rpyadhtu (formless realms)
can be attained by only those who can meditate on the
arpajhnas, the highest object of meditation.
[15] Diseases and suering indued by the disruptive actions of
other people are examples of non-karma suering.[120]
[16] The emphasis on intent in Buddhism marks its dierence
from the karma theory of Jainism where karma accumu-
lates with or without intent.[122][123] The emphasis on in-
tent is also found in Hinduism, and Buddhism may have
inuenced karma theories of Hinduism.[124]
[17] This Buddhist idea may have roots in the quid-pro-quo ex-
change beliefs of the Hindu Vedic rituals.[131] The karma
merit transfer concept has been controversial, not ac-
cepted in later Jainism and Hinduism traditions, unlike
Buddhism where it was adopted in ancient times and re-
mains a common practice.[128] According to Bruce Re-
ichenbach, the merit transfer idea was generally absent
in early Buddhism and may have emerged with the rise
of Mahayana Buddhism; he adds that while major Hindu
schools such as Yoga, Advaita Vedanta and others do not
believe in merit transfer, some bhakti Hindu traditions
later adopted the idea just like Buddhism.[132]
[18] Another variant, which may be condensed to the eight-
fold or tenfold path, starts with a Tathagatha entering this
world. A layman hears his teachings, decides to leave the
life of a householder, starts living according to the moral
precepts, guards his sense-doors, practices mindfulness
and the four jhanas, gains the three knowledges, under-
stands the Four Noble Truths and destroys the taints, and
perceives that hes liberated.[77]
[19] The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion
of emptiness (shunyata) to Anatta and Nirvana. They
do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: rst, in the
common sense of a monks meditative state of emptiness;
second, with the main sense of Anatta or 'everything in
the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense
of Nirvana or realization of emptiness and thus an end to
rebirth cycles of suering.[145]
[20] Some scholars such as Cousins and Sangharakshita trans-
late apranaihita as aimlessness or directionless-ness.[147]
[21] These descriptions of nirvana in Buddhist texts, states
Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nir-
vana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a state of
25
stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not
non-existent, and it seems impossible to imagine what
awareness devoid of any object would be like.[153][154]
[22] Scholars[112][113] note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has
been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists.
This they attempt through merit accumulation and good
kamma.
[23] all eight precepts are sometimes observed by lay people
on poya full moon, no moon and half moon days on a
lunar calendar believed to be more holier.[209]
[24] This, states Richard Gombrich, means sleep on a mat on
the ground.
[25] The hundreds of rules vary by the sangha; 11th-century
Chinese monastic texts include rules such as only reciting
Buddhas Holy Words alone, not near commonplace peo-
ple; not eating prohibited foods such as meat, sh, cheese,
onions, garlic, animal fat; abstain from anything that can
lead to sensual thoughts; think of all sentient beings as a
newborn baby to develop feelings of compassion, etc.[212]
[26] The problem was famously voiced in 1936 by Louis de La
Vallee Poussin, in his text Musila et Narada: Le Chemin de
Nirvana.[219] See Louis de La Valle Poussin, Musial and
Narad. Translated from the French by Gelongma Migme
Chdrn and Gelong Lodr Sangpo.
[27] On Vetter and dhyana, see, for example, Vetter 1988:
page xxvii: Originally this
["the fourth stage [...] that
state of pure equanimity and
awareness"] may have been
the only ground of an expe-
rience of release.
page xxviii: Incidentally,
this state of pure equanimity
and awareness may also have
been the origin of the method
of discriminating insight.
page xxviiixxix: In order
to solve [...] a very practical
way.
page xxxiii: an older stage
of the same path to salvation
ends in the right samadhi,
[28] Williams refers to Frauwallner (1973) p.155
[29] Many ancient Upanishads of Hinduism describe yoga and
meditation as a means to liberation.[229][230][231]
[30] The state is described in a number of additional character-
istics in dierent Buddhist texts. For example, success in
the First Dhyana leads to a gem-like outer light emanating
from the body, according to Samahitabhumi by Asanga;
the nature of emanating light from ones body changes as
the meditation successfully progresses from the rst to the
fourth Dhyana.[243]
[31] Gombrich: I know this is controversial, but it seems to
me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike
the second.[248]
26
[32] Wynne: Thus the expression sato sampajno in the third
jhna must denote a state of awareness dierent from the
meditative absorption of the second jhna (cetaso ekodib-
hva). It suggests that the subject is doing something dif-
ferent from remaining in a meditative state, i.e., that he
has come out of his absorption and is now once again
aware of objects. The same is true of the word upek(k)h:
it does not denote an abstract 'equanimity', [but] it means
to be aware of something and indierent to it [...] The
third and fourth jhna-s, as it seems to me, describe the
process of directing states of meditative absorption to-
wards the mindful awareness of objects.[251]
[33] According to Gombrich, the later tradition has falsied
the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the
concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the
other and indeed higher element.[248]
[34] The Buddha never claimed that the four immeasurables
were his unique ideas, in a manner similar to cessa-
tion, quieting, nirvana.[258] The Buddhist scripture Digha
Nikaya II.251 asserts the Buddha to be calling the Brah-
mavihara as that practice, and he then contrasts it with
my practice.[258]
[35] Wayman and Wayman have disagreed with this view, and
they state that the Tathagatagarbha is neither self nor sen-
tient being, nor soul, nor personality.[311]
[36] While some scholars suggest that Buddhism may have de-
veloped as a social reform to the Vedic religion, other
scholars such as Gombrich suggest that Buddha should
not be seen as a social reformer, because his concern was
to reform individuals, help them to leave society forever,
not to reform the world... he never preached against social
inequality.[343] The philosophical roots of Buddhism and
related ideologies in ancient India, states Gombrich, was
the spiritual salvation of man.[343]
[37] The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada,
Mulasarvastivada, Mahsaka, Dharmaguptaka and other
schools,[359][360] and the Chinese Agamas and other sur-
viving portions of other early canons.
[38] Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of liber-
ating insight by Lambert Schmithausen,[220] the overview
of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter,[139] the philologi-
cal work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,[362] the tex-
tual studies by Richard Gombrich,[218] and the research on
early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.[363]
[39] Well-known proponents of the rst position are A. K.
Warder[subnote 2]
[40] A proponent of the second position is Ronald
Davidson.[subnote 4]
[41] Well-known proponent of the third position are J.W. de
Jong,[366][subnote 5]
[42] According to Schmithausen, the karma doctrine may
have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology.[376]
[43] Vetter: I am especially thinking here of MN 26
(I p.163,32; 165,15;166,35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram
santivarapadam pariyesamano (searching for that which
is benecial, seeking the unsurpassable, best place of
9 NOTES
peace) and again MN 26 (passim), anuttaramyagakkhe-
mam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe
place, the nirvana). Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has
reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression
in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p, 235), see chapter 2,
footnote 3, Furthermore, satthi (welfare) is important in
e.g. SN 2.12 or 2.17 or Sn 269; and sukha and rati (hap-
piness), in contrast to other places, as used in Sn 439 and
956. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal, im-
mortality) [...] but one could say here that it is a negative
term.[388]
[44] Abhidhamma Pitaka. Encyclopdia Britannica. Ulti-
mate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britan-
nica, 2008
[45] Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that historians of
Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time
that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers
as Nagarjuna, Dignga, Chandrakirti, Aryadeva, and
Bhviveka, among many others, formulated their theo-
ries while living in Buddhist communities in ndhra.[404]
They note that the ancient Buddhist sites in the lower
Ka Valley, including Amaravati, Ngrjunako and
Jaggayyapea can be traced to at least the third century
BCE, if not earlier.[405]
[46] The most important evidence in fact the only evidence
for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around
the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence
at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of
the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyn-
cratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated
into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an In-
doscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as
Lokaksema.[410]
[47] The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in pro-
ducing Mahayana Sutras Warder[412]
[48] See Hill (2009), p. 30, for the Chinese text from the Hou
Hanshu, and p. 31 for a translation of it.[427]
[49] (Harvey 1990),(Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1
2, identies three broad traditions as: (1) The Ther-
avda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also
sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) The
East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Viet-
nam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism";
and, (3) The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred
to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982)
divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled
The Buddhism of South Asia (which pertains to Early
Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled The De-
velopment of Buddhism Outside of India with chapters
on The Buddhism of Southeast Asia, Buddhism in
the Tibetan Culture Area, East Asian Buddhism and
Buddhism Comes West; Penguin handbook of Living
Religions, 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, Introduc-
ing Buddhism, ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005,
printed ed, Harper, 2006
[50] See e.g. the multi-dimensional classication in Encyclo-
pedia of Religion[435]

[51] Cousins, L.S. (1996); Buswell (2003), Vol. I, p. 82; and,
Keown & Prebish (2004), p. 107. See also, Gombrich
(1988/2002), p. 32: [T]he best we can say is that [the
Buddha] was probably Enlightened between 550 and 450,
more likely later rather than earlier.
[52] Williams (2000, pp. 6-7) writes: As a matter of fact Bud-
dhism in mainland India itself had all but ceased to exist
by the thirteenth century CE, although by that time it had
spread to Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. [441]
(Originally 1958), Chronology, p. xxix: c. 1000-1200:
Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in
India. See also, Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982), pp.
100-1, 108 Fig. 1; and, Harvey (1990/2007), pp. 139-40.
[53] According to Charles S. Prebish:[465] Although a variety
of Zen 'schools developed in Japan, they all emphasize
Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts,
that provides the potential for direct realization, that the
realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature
possessed by each sentient being ....
[54] Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): It presumes that
sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression
of Buddha nature. The method is to detach the mind
from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality
directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar
Stephen Hodge writes: "... practitioners of Zen believe
that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or
Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered
over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts.
According to this view, Enlightenment is not something
that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can
occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of men-
tal and emotional obscurations.[466]
[55] This is a contested number. Ocial numbers from Chi-
nese govt are lower, while other surveys are higher. Ac-
cording to Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, in non-government
surveys, 49 percent of self-claimed non-believers [in
China] held some religious beliefs, such as believing in
soul reincarnation, heaven, hell, or supernatural forces.
Thus the 'pure atheists make up only about 15 percent
of the sample [surveyed].[478]
Subnotes
[1] The realms of rebirths in Buddhism are further subdivided
into 31 planes of existence.<ref group='web'>Mahathera,
Ven. Suvanno. The 31 Planes of Existence (PDF).
www.buddhanet.net. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 7 August 2013.
[2] According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication In-
dian Buddhism, from the oldest extant texts a com-
mon kernel can be drawn out.[360] According to Warder,
c.q. his publisher: This kernel of doctrine is presum-
ably common Buddhism of the period before th great
schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be
substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, al-
though this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism
presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred
years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is
no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone
27
else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."<ref
name='FOOTNOTEWarder1999inside ap'>Warder, &
1999 inside ap.
[3] Richard Gombrich: I have the greatest diculty in ac-
cepting that the main edice is not the work of a single
genius. By the main edice I mean the collections of
the main body of sermons, the four Nikyas, and of the
main body of monastic rules.[218]
[4] Ronald Davidson: While most scholars agree that
there was a rough body of sacred literature (dis-
puted)(sic) that a relatively early community (dis-
puted)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little con-
dence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scrip-
ture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."<ref
name='FOOTNOTEDavidson2003147'>Davidson 2003,
p. 147.
[5] J.W. De Jong: It would be hypocritical to assert that
nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Bud-
dhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the
canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed
by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his
disciples and, nally, codied in xed formulas."<ref
name='FOOTNOTEJong199325'>Jong 1993, p. 25.
[6] Bronkhorst: This position is to be preferred to (ii) for
purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay
nd, even if no success is guaranteed.[367]
[7] Lopez: The original teachings of the historical Buddha
are extremely dicult, if not impossible, to recover or
reconstruct.[368]
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[2] Roach 2011.
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[5] Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal
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[6] Williams 1998, pp. 275f.
[7] Robinson 1998, p. xx.
[8] Gethin 1998, pp. 2728, 7374.
[9] According to Peter Harvey, early Buddhist schools al-
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Sammasambuddha, a perfect and completely awak-
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[Buddhahood in Mahayana tradition]
28 10 REFERENCES

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[70] Gethin 1998, p. 70.
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[76] Goldstein 2002, p. 158.
[77] Bucknell 1984.
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that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self
29
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[85] Klaus Klostermaier 2010, p. 604.
[86] Juergensmeyer & Roof 2011, pp. 271272.
[87] Trainor 2004, p. 58, Quote: Buddhism shares with Hin-
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through an unceasing cycle of birth, death and rebirth until
they nd a means of liberation from the cycle. However,
Buddhism diers from Hinduism in rejecting the asser-
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which constitutes his or her ultimate identity, and which
transmigrates from one incarnation to the next..
[88] Wilson 2010.
[89] McClelland 2010, p. 172, 240.
[90] Williams, Tribe & Wynne 2012, p. 1819, chapter 1.
[91] Conze 2013, p. 71, Quote: Nirvana is the raison d'tre
of Buddhism, and its ultimate justication..
[92] Gethin 1998, p. 119.
[93] Buswell 2004, pp. 711712.
[94] Buswell & Gimello 1992, pp. 78, 8384.
[95] Choong 1999, p. 2829, Quote: Seeing (passati) the na-
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13.1 Text 45

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Darrendeng, NewEnglandYankee, Naturalmetal, Zerokitsune, Msnxy, SJP, Gregtzy, Nareshgupta, Sensei48, ArdenD, Shub iitkgp, FJPB,
Tanaats, Rumpelstiltskin223, Morinae, Sjr10, Blckavnger, Anniemclaughlin, Sunderland06, MetsFan76, Juliancolton, Mamin27, Comet-
styles, Wordnitpick, WJBscribe, Prabeshhimalaya, RB972, JJ6000, Nicklattan, Annastacia, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Bosheng, Geekdiva,
Schun, Ghostbear616, Henitsirk, Natl1, Thecanadiankid, Gtg204y, Huru179, Potaco99, Splorpy, Andy Marchbanks, SoCalSuperEagle,
Xiahou, Squids and Chips, Lolwikiscum, Rpeh, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Abc2992, Lrdwhyt, Benchars, Jus1193, Wikieditor06, ACSE, Fim-
bulfamb, Paulbunyon, Nealh 1, Prasood185, Nietz, BeyRel, Jonwilliamsl, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, Thedjatclubrock, Johan1298~enwiki,
ABF, Pleasantville, Rucha58, Macedonian, Gabriello, Leebo, Je G., Zainaldin, Barbacana, Tomer T, Frank Thomas, Hybernator, Ae-
sopos, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Steamwheel, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, Knverma, Spitface33, WatchAndObserve, Maximillion Pe-
gasus, Rightfully in First Place, Psykocree, Billy bob johnson, Saleems, Himom222, Vipinhari, Joe coxen, Sandlas Juagas, Monkey-
pox37, Youbetcha, DuckeJ, Darkerhat, Excess noise, Yksin, The Marine, Gdseal, Phillip Rosenthal, Lradrama, Lanka07, Metatrons Cube,
Seraphim, MackSalmon, Martin451, THDju, Sirkad, Abdullais4u, Buddhipriya, Wassermann~enwiki, Cremepu222, Anarchangel, Moon-
sell, Maxim, Chsbcgs, Doug, Rkpdesilva, Deathk2, BobTheTomato, YODAFON~enwiki, Ana570, Synthebot, Hodness, PhaedrusTheS-
tudent, Enviroboy, AjitPD, AgentCDE, Chen yanto, Multiplestars~enwiki, Smitanarang, RaseaC, Evanbrks, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga,
Alcmaeonid, Skarz, HiDrNick, Ss1234, AlleborgoBot, Bluedenim, Axegod12, Tnnr789, Mohonu, PericlesofAthens, FlyingLeopard2014,
Bn2500, Austriacus, Deconstructhis, Arjun024, Silananda, The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick, Straycode, Happydude12345, GoonerDP, Tu-
tuy, SieBot, Spuzzy, Kenath, Dusti, Brenont, Ttony21, Wikimelee, Sahilm, Euryalus, Xenus, Weeliljimmy, Silkdogg111, Narendrafd,
XkamkikazeX, Mbroshi, Kid nightyer, JoshEdgar, Saltywood, Julzpop, Mikeg2000, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Drrai s, Ivan romero, Jroberts 84,
Triwbe, Penguin12314, LeadSongDog, Eweker, Srushe, Dkusic1, Keilana, Nite-Sirk, Pxma, Zentek, Tiptoety, Radon210, VAwebteam,
Oda Mari, Wameya, JSpung, Mudithachampika, Left.behind666, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Marklm, Muncakes, Javierfv1212, The-
hotelambush, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Hak-k-ngn, O034, Fratrep, Impulse1494, OKBot, Kutera Genesis, Spartan-James,
StaticGull, Polarwolf, Witchkraut, Realm of Shadows, Bowei Huang 2, JChris90, Dust Filter, Ptr123, Dabomb87, Varanwal, Janjeewa,
Pinkadelica, Gantuya eng, Jobas, Randy Kryn, Sudheeras, Angelo De La Paz, Emptymountains, Barkjon, Explicit, ImageRemovalBot,
Khirurg, SallyForth123, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Atif.t2, Johnny Undead, Loren.wilton, Saman SL, ClueBot, Kath-
mandu2007, Centaurioid, Yesser, Rumping, UniQue tree, Jivearse, MacCraich, The Thing That Should Not Be, Simonteoh, Wikiwoowiki,
Dharmaling, Lastbetrayal, Eeepl, Rjd0060, Goldenhawk 0, Valaris17, Wisebuddy, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Rebel XTi, Arakunem, Meeky-
wiki, Ed2975, Drmies, Sevilledade, Bobisbob, FabFaris, Wikilost, Julianlzb87, SuperHamster, Doseiai2, Dbdolan, CounterVandalism-
46 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Bot, Niceguyedc, Lampak, Harland1, Gkedpage, Lokantha, Neverquick, Cirt, Gyroerrol, Puchiko, Auntof6, 22kevin, Shatrunjaymall,
Mspraveen, Robedob22, Cardinal 1962, Wutizevrybudylookingat?, Iziizi, DragonBot, E mc46, Anonymous101, Jusdafax, Haden is a
homo, Ggbsha, Alegge, Winston365, Ludwigs2, Danscottgraham, HeroGiant, S paw1, Simon D M, Kalamrir, Cheezybeans1, Arjayay,
Jayefex, Jotterbot, Sbfw, Drawn Some, Camerajohn, Nozix, Dumdumdom, M.O.X, Lloydee7, Elizium23, Revotfel, Ebaran, Rpm099,
Beat Buddha, SchreiberBike, Mr.whiskers, BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, Lisaspank, EdwardLawrence, Esteban.barahona, Amcsports, Thingg,
Oliverkahnisthebest07, Azucar1223, Right America, Russel Mcpigmin, Aitias, Gettochink21, Branden-Olsen, Jester5x5, Mhockey, Adri-
ansrfr, Burner0718, Lewsbestfriend, Editor2020, Party, Crowsnest, Rossen4, Pikdude, DumZiBoT, Fionnch, Ano-User, Redhill54, Jerry-
ofaiken, XLinkBot, Qscaxz, Fedaykinx, Dsvyas, Andrewbowden987654321, Jakemitra, Zoey101fan, Kimsoohyun, PseudoOne, Mitsube,
Stickee, Nannan123, Rror, Catman7965, SkinSack, 1ChineseKid, MACNIFICINT, Dr3w1492, Darkstar8225, Raze5667, Pgallert, Mtor-
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Aunt Entropy, Sploot, Ejosse1, Cfahland, Eklipse, HexaChord, Chamath Mc, Prowikipedians, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Jakewil-
liam, Franceroy, DivineDeeds, DOI bot, Khmaisoldier94, Betterusername, Opus88888, Montgomery '39, CL, DougsTech, Ocdnctx,
Rich jj, Tanhabot, Wingspeed, Windy Wanderer, Fieldday-sunday, Ironholds, Tengu800, The Thin Man Who Never Leaves, Martindo,
CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Stormed~enwiki, Chummi, Rejectwater, Swimmerfan13, BenTrotsky, Truthsayer62, Glum Mun,
CarsracBot, Pasta4470, Loopady321, Jessrobinson83, Goldtop72, Glane23, Lihaas, Leo messi123, Tehtrigger, Debresser, SpBot, Anam
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Paragonson, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, Emperor Genius, VVPushkin, Bermicourt, Ret.Prof, , Jackelve, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Windyhead,
Tongueey, Cm001, Rsquire3, Setmymax, Pectore, EditingElite, Washburnmav, Ajh16, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Noah03, Tkd-
man99, Truthbody, KamikazeBot, Isshii, Shashmann, Tao2911, DiEb, South Bay, Filodelphia, Vicithorana, , Dmarquard, DiverDave,
AnomieBOT, Kyocat1234, TenzinNamgyal, Cantanchorus, Tryptosh, Arjun G. Menon, Shamrockman455, Jim1138, Abstruce, Galoubet,
AloysiusLiliusBot, Andi 3, AdjustShift, Jo3sampl, Giants27, Materialscientist, Thisara.d.m, Citation bot, OllieFury, AzianPyro, Luke-
waring, Optimusprimechucknorris, Eumolpo, Ryanmartel6, Didaktron, Dewan357, WorldWarUSA, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Pmdkh, Xqbot,
Bhvintri, Suddha, Ep347, The Banner, TechBot, Ceci14, Lele giannoni, DSisyphBot, XZeroBot, HFret, Wall of putrid esh., Anna Frode-
siak, Bodinagamin, Almabot, Heygosh1, King, Ble, J04n, GrouchoBot, Oasis08, Omnipaedista, Nikolyne~enwiki, RibotBOT, Richard
Pecorino, Alexandru Stanoi, Brutaldeluxe, GhalyBot, MerlLinkBot, Sael, Shadowjams, Moby-Dick3000, Bluehotel, iedas, SlayerBlood-
ySlayer, Who then was a gentleman?, Mannymm25, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Jacob Newton, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Buzi-
atov, Lothar von Richthofen, Seibun, D'ohBot, Sudipta.kamila, Seanbond5, Bodigami, Bambuway, Askalan, CynofGavuf, Airborne84,
KnowledgeAndVision, HamburgerRadio, AchillesTruth, Citation bot 1, Composemi, Mizanthrop, I dream of horses, Kim-Zhang-Hong,
Notedgrant, LinDrug, FILWISE, Tom.Reding, King Zebu, Tomcat7, A8UDI, Fat&Happy, Ravikanthvarmag, . , MastiBot,
SpaceFlight89, Olivemountain, Arthurborges, Tlhslobus, Socksiong, Comancheros, Jemesouviens32, Modernyoo, Buddhisttrain, Fluy-
Rocks, UkFaith, Kgrad, Ashisshy, Ff22, Lightlowemon, Leggette, FoxBot, Changewords, Kurri, Mnmsgp, TheoloJ, Sabotager808, Newt
Winkler, Sblenz, Lotusfred22, Baz00k4 Jo3, Lotje, Javierito92, Dulandias, Anjafa7, Vancouver Outlaw, January, Chavezh19, Capt. James
T. Kirk, Canuck100, Lakewood re, Greg Pandatshang, Pleasespammelater, Robtoth1, Aoidh, Mikessej, Oakleywisdom, GlooscapSinclair,
Marinaro, Apop123, JFerrand, Diannaa, Pham Hoang-Khoi, Alexander Rudik, Ijustplainrockok, Mogimogi~enwiki, Ajraval, Bennett858,
World8115, Aero13792468, RjwilmsiBot, Hermes67, TjBot, Punyam, Mandolinface, Zujine, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot,
Griswaldo, Thigle, Seren-dipper, SafwanZabalawi, Vidium, Elvenmuse, Dcirovic, Sarpasarpeti101, Malcolm77, Buddhakahika, AvicBot,
ZroBot, Iwanttoeditthissh, Kamalmonami, Euloiix, Stemoc, Lechonero, LordSuryaofShropshire, Aeonx, SporkBot, Samuel de mazarin,
Someone65, Brandmeister, Rabuve, Sahimrobot, Thouv, Rigley, Erget2005, Ppyoonus, Ollyoxenfree, Dineshmed, Mjbmrbot, Helpsome,
Krizpo, Pebble101, Nobody60, CocuBot, SheenShin, Movses-bot, Vlad.Ureche, Winston786, Snotbot, Frietjes, Hazhk, MathKeduor7, Ge-
oerybard, AbelBergaigne, Dorje108, Geotaylor1969, Adityamadhav83, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, ?oygul, MediaJet, Rebekahw7,
BG19bot, Battman95, Vagobot, Wrathjtr, Mazandar, Scilover386, ComputerJA, PhnomPencil, Malnormalulo, Repmartinshaw, TomUSA,
AvocatoBot, Marcocapelle, LhunGrub, Notlivingdead, Gorthian, FoxCE, AnwarInsaan, CitationCleanerBot, Joshua Jonathan, Min.neel,
Rakhmanhakim, Snowcream, , Zedshort, Drewrau, Vegetarianiwow9, Matmill, Ctny, Wikibdt, Joe Feather, Pierrewee, Rhinopias,
BattyBot, Justincheng12345-bot, Amilaganegoda, CO2Northeast, Ian M Clarke, Magerius, Ashish-Sharma-Dilli, Williamteoh97, Cyber-
bot II, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Khazar2, JCJC777, Shrabulator, Nathanielrst, JYBot, Cpt.a.haddock, Soni, Rockin It Loud, Avisbliss,
Borakai, Dexbot, Mogism, Retrospector87, Emil K2, Nasir Ghobar, Brianna8cD, Sagar R Salvi, TheNano7474, Happyseeu, BobDog54,
Wario-Man, Obaid Raza, Trphierth, Rupert loup, Bunny bella, NeWorldorder, Puttingfacts, Mason0190, Msundqvist, Ambrosius80, Cheru-
binirules, Accepttruth, Horst 75, Apophaticlogos, Duckduckstop, JimRenge, Rekowo, Noyster, Bladesmulti, GreyWinterOwl, Hosogami,
Prestigiouzman, Suyash.dwivedi, Dr Prashanna Jain Gotani, Mooch025, Cookieballer, Villanator, AkhilKumarPal, 1990sguy, Ms Sarah
Welch, Ethically Yours, BillyTanjung, Friend.hey, Blobr186, Monkbot, VictoriaGrayson, Kristoer Shae-Khow, Filedelinkerbot, Book-
worm729, Calypsomusic, D4iNa4, Verdana Bold, TanmayaPanda, Peter238, Aclarke9913, Dayan de Alwis, Prof.t.adamson, Skynden,
Piledhighandeep, Rajatantra, BigGreenCahuna, Tulsirama, Ashvawiki, Ghost Lourde, Knowledgebattle, Riversid, Cartakes, Suresh design,
Ericwilloughby, Xyxyo, Abhi.dhakal, Hobbitschuster, Tapasya Dev, Rtbhive, Human3015, Jegr9, Jerodlycett, Ankush 89, Tiger7253,
KasparBot, Suntalkha, Hulk576, Ephemerance, TheMagikBOT, Saint Tapasya, Furthershore, Dongar Kathorekar, Philosi4, Dorpater,
Buddhanet, Osaka855, Peppy Paneer, Neel.arunabh, HemaChandra88, Mywikicommons, FightersMegamix, Allthefoxes, InternetArchive-
Bot, Colonel Wilhelm Klink, Farang Rak Tham, GreenC bot, KumaraNeeson, Mr KEBAB, Bear-rings, Belbasesuraj, Leejiaqianxelf,
Acopyeditor, ystein.Eide, Aayush Pageni, Moonlight vs lalaland and Anonymous: 2730

13.2 Images
File:A_young_monk_against_the_background_of_Big_Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple._Matara,_Southern_
Province,_Sri_Lanka.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/A_young_monk_against_the_background_
of_Big_Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple._Matara%2C_Southern_Province%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Self-photographed, http://mstyslav-chernov.com/ Original artist: Mstyslav Chernov
File:Asoka_Kaart.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Asoka_Kaart.png License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Transferred from nl.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Dhammajoti at Dutch Wikipedia
File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/
40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.org/
region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the le. Artwork
created by an anonymous ancient source.
File:Bhavachakra.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Bhavachakra.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: http://probud.narod.ru/symbol/bhavachakra.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
13.2 Images 47

title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/

Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Buddha-Footprint.jpeg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Buddha_in_Haw_Phra_Kaew.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Buddha_in_Haw_Phra_Kaew.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:
/ -

File:Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_data_by_Pew_Research.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_
data_by_Pew_Research.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter
File:BuddhistTriad.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Buddhist_sects.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Buddhist_sects.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Javierfv1212
File:Chinese_Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/
Chinese_Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/festivefrog/
2901377745/ Original artist: Jon Bragg
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Debating_Monks.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Debating_Monks.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: self photographed Original artist: Rainer Haessner
File:Destroyed_Statue,_July_17,_2005_at_15-53.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Destroyed_
Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Destroyed Statue Original artist: Tracy Hunter from
Kabul,, Afghanistan
File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona
File:ElloraPuja.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ElloraPuja.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contribu-
tors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/andihefti/2091525508/sizes/o/ Original artist: andihefti
File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion
(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)
File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: <a class='mw-selink selink'>File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg</a> Original artist: Draw new ag by User: _
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian ag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS
6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1]
Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.
jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ginkakuji_Temple_Togudo_2009_059.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ginkakuji_Temple_
Togudo_2009_059.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dingy
48 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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