A Study of Fixture Layout and Clamping Force PDF

A Study of Fixture Layout and Clamping force for a Ti-6Al-4V Disk in
a Vertical Turning Lathe Numerically Controlled Machine
by
Maureen Fang
A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate
Faculty of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Major Subject: Mechanical Engineering
Approved:
_________________________________________
Ernesto Gutierrez-Miravete, Thesis Adviser
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Hartford, CT
November, 2009
(For Graduation December 2009)
Copyright 2009
by
Maureen Fang
All Rights Reserved
ii
CONTENTS
A Study of Fixture Layout and Clamping force for a Ti-6Al-4V Disk in a Vertical
Turning Lathe Numerically Controlled Machine ......................................................... i
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS.......................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................................. iii
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... iv
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Objectives........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background and Significance ............................................................................ 1
1.3 Literature Review............................................................................................... 2
2. Machining Set-up......................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Vertical Turning Lathe (VTL) process .............................................................. 3
2.1.1 Machine Axis ......................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Machine Table........................................................................................ 4
2.2 Description of Workpiece .................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Geometry of the Disk ............................................................................. 5
2.2.2 Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V........................................................... 5
2.2.3 Machinability ......................................................................................... 6
2.3 Description of fixture ......................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Plate................................................................................................ 9
2.3.2 Locators .10
2.3.3 Clamps.. ............................................................................................... 11
3. Machining of Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Disk................................................................. 13
3.1 Machining Conditions...................................................................................... 13
3.2 Cutting Tool Properties .................................................................................... 13
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3.2.1 Cutting Tool Material........................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Cutting Tool Geometry ........................................................................ 14
3.3 Machining Parameters...................................................................................... 16
3.3.1 Feed Rate, h.......................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Depth of Cut, b..................................................................................... 17
3.3.3 Cutting Speed, v ................................................................................... 18
3.3.4 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting.......................................................... 18
3.4 Cutting Forces .................................................................................................. 19
3.4.1 Orientations .......................................................................................... 19
3.4.2 Assumptions......................................................................................... 21
3.4.3 Calculation Procedure .......................................................................... 21
3.4.4 Oblique angle, i , and Chip flow angle, ........................................... 22
3.4.5 Normal rake angle, n ......................................................................... 23
3.4.6 Friction angle, a , and Normal friction angle, n ................................ 24
3.4.7 Chip compression ratio, rc, and Normal shear angle, n ..................... 24
3.4.8 Cutting Constants ................................................................................. 27

3.4.9 Cutting Forces Formulas ...................................................................... 28
3.4.10 Matlab Code Calculations .................................................................... 29
3.4.11 Results.............................................................................................. 29
3.4.12 Verifications of Calculation Results .................................................... 30
4. Finite Element Model Analysis ................................................................................. 32
4.1 Fixture-Disk Model Properties......................................................................... 32
4.2 Clamping Candidate Region ............................................................................ 33
4.2.1 Clamping Area ..................................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Clamping Pressure ............................................................................... 35
4.2.3 Initial Clamping Force ......................................................................... 35
4.3 Locating Candidate Region.............................................................................. 36
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4.4 Assumptions..................................................................................................... 36
4.5 Initial Fixture Layout ....................................................................................... 37
4.6 Cutting Forces Applied to Fixture-Disk Model ............................................... 38
4.7 Cutting Forces Locations Represent Complete Cut ......................................... 39
4.8 Cutting Forces Locations Represent Disk Rotation ......................................... 41
4.8.1 45 Degree Location .............................................................................. 44
5. DOE to determine the appropriate Fixture Layout .................................................... 45
5.1 Objective Statement ......................................................................................... 45
5.2 Factors .............................................................................................................. 46
5.3 Levels ............................................................................................................... 46
5.3.1 The Number of Clamps and Locators .................................................. 46
5.3.2 The Magnitudes of the Cutting Forces (F)........................................... 47
5.4 Matrix of Experiments ..................................................................................... 48
5.5 Constraints ....................................................................................................... 49
5.6 Solution Procedure ........................................................................................... 49
5.7 Statistical Analyses .......................................................................................... 50
5.7.1 Main Effects ......................................................................................... 50
5.7.2 Interaction Effects ................................................................................ 52
5.8 Results and Recommendations ........................................................................ 54
6. DOE to determine the appropriate magnitude of Clamping Force............................ 56
6.1 Objective Statement ......................................................................................... 56
6.2 Clamping Pressure ........................................................................................... 56
6.3 Constraints ....................................................................................................... 56
6.4 Screening Stage................................................................................................ 57
6.4.1 Recommended Range of Clamping Forces.......................................... 58
6.5 Matrix of Experiments ..................................................................................... 60
6.6 Factors and Levels ........................................................................................... 61
v
6.7 Solution Procedure ........................................................................................... 61
6.8 Statistical Analyses .......................................................................................... 61
6.8.1 Main Effects ......................................................................................... 61
6.8.2 Interaction Effects ................................................................................ 63
6.9 Results and Recommendations ........................................................................ 65
7. Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................................................... 67
7.1 Conclusions from Machining Ti-6Al-4V Disk and FEM Analysis ................. 67
7.2 Conclusions from Design of Experiments ....................................................... 68
7.3 Future Studies .................................................................................................. 69
8. Appendix: .................................................................................................................. 70
8.1 Matlab codes to calculate cutting forces in oblique cutting............................. 70
8.2 Matlab codes to calculate cutting forces in orthogonal cutting........................ 71
8.3 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 4.8 .................................. 72
8.4 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 5 ..................................... 84
8.5 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 6 ..................................... 89
Reference: ........................................................................................................................ 95
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V. [Donachie, 4]............................................. 6
Table 2.2: Machinability comparisons of Ti-6Al-4V with several steel materials.
[Doanchie, 4] ..................................................................................................................... 6
Table 2.3: Properties of Ti-6Al-4V compared to a medium carbon steel. [Machado, 14] 7
Table 3.1: Material properties of WC/Co C2 grade cutting tool. [Santhanam, 17]......... 14
Table 3.2: Actual dimensions of cutting tool. [Donachie, 4]........................................... 16
Table 3.3: Cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut for chapter 3................................. 17
Table 3.4: Cutting angles for oblique and orthogonal cutting angles.............................. 23
Table 3.5: Cutting Constants for both Oblique and Orthogonal Cutting......................... 28
Table 3.6: Comparisons of the cutting forces.................................................................. 30
Table 4.1: Finite Element Model Properties.................................................................... 33
Table 4.2: Cutting forces are generated by a finish cut. .................................................. 39
Table 5.1: The number of clamps and locators with corresponding total contact surface
area................................................................................................................................... 47
Table 5.2: Machining parameters for finish, semi-finish, and rough cut. ....................... 48
Table 5.3: The cutting forces for finish, semi-finish, and rough cut. .............................. 48
Table 5.4: Nine experiments with corresponding values of the two factors. .................. 49
Table 5.5: Reduction rates for a rough cut. ..................................................................... 54
Table 6.1: Clamping Pressures with corresponding clamping forces.............................. 56
Table 6.2: Six experiments with corresponding values of the two factors...................... 58
Table 6.3: Nine experiments with corresponding values of the two factors ................... 61
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Facing on a vertical boring machine [Boothroyd, 13] .................................... 3
Figure 2.2: Amera Seiki Vertical Turning VT2000 Machine............................................ 4
Figure 2.3: A fixture is being clamped onto a vertical-boring machine table through a
Radial T Slot [Boothroyd, 13]. .......................................................................................... 5
Figure 2.4: Fixture-disk assembly includes plate, locator and clamp.............................. 10
Figure 2.5: The 3-2-1 principle of location applied to a rectangular shape workpiece.
[Doyle, 16]....................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.6: Commercially available fixture clamps. [Wilson, 15] .................................. 12
Figure 3.1: Geometry of single-point cutting tool. [Altintas, 18].................................... 15
Figure 3.2: Depth of cut, b, and Feed Direction, Vf, for an outer diameter cut. ............. 18
Figure 3.3: Geometries of orthogonal and oblique cutting processes [Altintas, 18]. ...... 19
Figure 3.4: Schematic diagram of the lathe turning process of an outer diameter cut with
workpiece rotation V, feed direction Vf, tangential force, Ft, feed force, Ff, and radial
force Fr. ............................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 3.5: Cutting forces (tangential force, Ft, feed force, Ff, and radial force Fr ) acting
on workpiece and feed direction, Vf, of cutting tool. ...................................................... 20
Figure 3.6: Flow diagram of cutting forces calculations. ................................................ 22
Figure 3.7: Geometry of oblique cutting process. [Altintas, 18] ..................................... 23
Figure 3.8: The normal Shear angle is determined by the range of chip compression ratio
values from 0.8 to 1.5 and the normal rake angle of 4.8o for oblique cutting. ................ 26
Figure 3.9: Cutting forces results for both oblique and orthogonal cutting..................... 29
Figure 4.1: Disk is divided into 128 equally spaced volumes. ........................................ 32
Figure 4.2: The 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate Region. ............................. 34
Figure 4.3: Dimensions of a clamp or locator, and one area. .......................................... 35
Figure 4.4: Von Mises stress in the initial fixture layout. ............................................... 37
Figure 4.5: Initial Fixture Layout contains four clamps and locators.............................. 38
Figure 4.6: Cutting forces are applied in vertical locations such as top, middle, and
bottom to represent a complete cut.................................................................................. 40
Figure 4.7: Displacement vector sum represents top, middle, and bottom locations. ..... 40
Figure 4.8: Top view of initial fixture layout in ANSYS. ............................................... 41
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Figure 4.9: Cutting forces applied to seven locations in the initial fixture layout........... 42
Figure 4.10: Displacement vector sum in seven locations circumferentially.................. 43
Figure 4.11: Displacement components such as x, y, and z in seven locations
circumferentially.............................................................................................................. 44
Figure 5.1: Cutting tool travel path in relation to the deflected disk............................... 46
Figure 5.2: Three levels of the number of clamps and locators....................................... 47
Figure 5.3: Main Effects Plot for Displacement Vector Sum.......................................... 50
Figure 5.4: Main Effects for x-component displacement. ............................................... 51
Figure 5.5: Main Effects for y-component displacement. ............................................... 51
Figure 5.6: Main Effects for y-component displacement. ............................................... 52
Figure 5.7: Interaction Plot for Displacement Vector Sum. ............................................ 52
Figure 5.8: Interaction plot for maximum x-component displacement. .......................... 53
Figure 5.9: Interaction plot for absolute minimum y-component displacement. ............ 53
Figure 5.10: Interaction plot for absolute minimum z-component displacement............ 54
Figure 6.1: The chosen appropriate fixture layout with 16 clamps and locators............. 57
Figure 6.2: Displacement vector sum for 500N and 3500N clamping forces. ................ 58
Figure 6.3: X-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.............. 59
Figure 6.4: Y-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.............. 59
Figure 6.5: Z-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces. ............. 60
Figure 6.6: Main Effects plot for displacement vector sum. ........................................... 62
Figure 6.7: Main Effects plot for x-component displacement......................................... 62
Figure 6.8: Main Effects plot for y-component displacement......................................... 63
Figure 6.9: Main Effects plot for z-component displacement. ........................................ 63
Figure 6.10: Interaction plot for displacement vector sum.............................................. 64
Figure 6.11: Interaction plot for maximum x-component displacement. ........................ 64
Figure 6.12: Interaction plot for absolute minimum y-component displacement. .......... 65
Figure 6.13: Interaction plot for absolute minimum z-component displacement............ 65
Figure 8.1: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator) 73
Figure 8.2: Displacement Vector Sum at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator) ......... 73
Figure 8.3: X-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator) ...... 74
Figure 8.4 Y-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator) ....... 74
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Figure 8.5: Z-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)....... 75
Figure 8.6: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator....... 75
Figure 8.7: Displacement Vector Sum at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator................. 76
Figure 8.8: X-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator............... 76
Figure 8.9: Y-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator............... 77
Figure 8.10: Z-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator ............. 77
Figure 8.11: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator....... 78
Figure 8.12: Displacement Vector Sum at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator................. 78
Figure 8.13: X-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator............. 79
Figure 8.14: Y-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator............. 79
Figure 8.15: Z-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator ............. 80
Figure 8.16: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -45o from a Clamp and Locator.......... 80
Figure 8.17: Displacement Vector Sum at -45o from a Clamp and Locator.................... 81
Figure 8.18: X-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator................ 81
Figure 8.19: Y-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator................ 82
Figure 8.20: Z-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator ................ 82
Figure 8.21: Side View of X Displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator......... 83
Figure 8.22: Side View of X Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator........... 83
Figure 8.23: Side View of X Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator.............. 84
Figure 8.24: Displacements Contour Plots for Experiment#2......................................... 85
Figure 8.25: Displacements Contour Plots for Experiment#3......................................... 85
Figure 8.26: 16 Clamps and Locators for Experiment# 4 to 6 ........................................ 86
Figure 8.27: Displacements Contours Plots for Experiment# 4 ...................................... 86
Figure 8.30: 32 Clamps and Locators for Experiment# 7 to 9 ........................................ 88
Figure 8.32: Displacements Contours Plots for Experiment#8 ....................................... 89
Figure 8.34: Displacement Contour Plots of No Cutting Forces Applied....................... 90
Figure 8.35: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment# 1 ......................................... 90
x
Figure 8.37: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment#3 .......................................... 91
Figure 8.43: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment#9 .......................................... 94
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
Angles
Symbol Descriptions Unit
i oblique angle degree
f cutting tool side rake angle degree
p cutting tool back rake angle degree
r cutting tool side cutting-edge angle degree
clf Side relief angle degree
clp End relief angle degree
kr End cutting-edge angle degree
f Side rake angle degree
n normal rake angle degree
o orthogonal rake angle degree
p Back rake angle degree
r orthogonal rake angle degree
a friction angle degree
n normal friction angle degree
chip flow angle degree
n normal shear angle degree
n,c orthogonal normal shear angle degree
r Side cutting-edge angle degree
Symbol Descriptions Unit

b depth of cut mm
F1 The magnitude of the cutting forces for finish cut N
F2 The magnitude of the cutting forces for semi-finish cut N
F3 The magnitude of the cutting forces for rough cut N
Fc Clamping Force N
Ff Feed force N
Fr Radial force N
Ft Tangential force N
h feed rate mm/rev
Kfc Feed cutting constant MPa
Kfe Average edge force coefficient N/mm
Krc Radial cutting constant MPa
Ktc Tangential cutting constant MPa
Kte Average edge force coefficient N/mm
P Clamping Pressure Pa
R Nose radius mm
rc Chip compression ratio ~
V Workpiece rotation m/min
v Cutting Speed m/min
Vf Feed direction ~
s Shear yield stress MPa
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to offer my appreciation to my advisor Prof Ernesto Gutierrez-Miravete for
his support and time. It has been a great learning experience. I would like to offer my
gratitude to Mr. Scot Webb for his mentorship throughout my graduate studies and my
career at Pratt and Whitney. I am truly appreciated for Scots guidance and reviews of
my thesis. I would like to thank my colleague, Chris Quinn, for helping me in learning to
use ANSYS software and review of my thesis. In addition, my parents and brother,
Leon, have offered me a tremendous amount of support and love. I am truly fortunate
and happy to have such a wonderful support.
iii
ABSTRACT
Fixtures are the most critical and expensive tool within a machining process such as
turning, milling, and drilling. The reason is that a fixture must be able to support and
hold a workpiece in a precise location and orientation while it is subjected to the cutting
forces during chip formation. The cutting forces cause the workpiece to elastically
deform which in turn jeopardize the machining dimensional accuracy. A properly
designed fixture should be able to minimize the deflections and to enhance dimensional
control within the workpiece.
The type of machining process, physical characteristics of the workpiece, and the
magnitude of cutting forces govern the specifications for designing a fixture. A
numerically controlled vertical turning lathe is chosen as the type of machining process
in this study. The machining parameters and cutting tool properties are determined to
best represent turning Ti-6Al-4V workpieces in the aerospace industry. The chosen
workpiece is a symmetrical Ti-6Al-4V disk which represents a rotor within an aircraft
engine because the aerospace industry is heavily dependent on machining to make
rotors. The turning process in this study is determined to be oblique cutting. The
formulas and assumptions from published literature are used in the written Matlab codes
for the calculations of cutting forces.
In order to determine the best fixture design, the deflections within the disk are
examined by a finite element (FE) model in ANSYS to represent the fixture-workpiece
system of the entire turning process. The FE model calculates the elastic deflections
within the disk. This study uses Design of Experiments method to determine an
appropriate number of clamps and locators, and magnitude of clamping force by
achieving a tolerable amount of deflection within the disk. The statistical analyses are
performed in Minitab. 16 clamps and locators are chosen as the appropriate fixture
layout which consists of 50% coverage of the clamping/locating candidate regions.
There are no significant additional benefits to use 32 clamps and locators which
represent the 360o full ring type of configuration as widely being used in the industry.
An appropriate amount of clamping force is determined to be 100N. This is significantly
smaller than the suggested clamping force from the published literature.
iv
1. Introduction
Fixtures orient and stabilize a workpiece during machining processes such as
turning, drilling, and milling. A typical fixture contains a base plate, locators, and
clamps. The goal of a fixture is to provide the constrained workpiece with a quasi
equilibrium environment throughout an entire machining operation which includes setup
and material removal. In the aerospace industry, the rotors within an aircraft engine are
axisymmetrical and are made of titanium or nickel alloys. The industry is heavily
dependent on machining processes to make these products because these products have
very tight tolerances and unique features which impose great challenges upon the
fixture-workpiece environment. In this study, a Ti-6Al-4V disk is chosen as the
workpiece to represent an aircraft engine rotor. A Numerically Controlled (NC) Vertical
Turning Lathe (VTL) process is chosen as the machining process.
1.1 Objectives
There are three objectives in this study. First, determine a specific set of machining
parameters and the corresponding cutting forces to best represent a machining process in
the industry. Second, develop a finite element model for fixture-workpiece system in a
VTL process to calculate the amount of deflections within the disk. Third, perform
Design of Experiments which determines the appropriate fixture layout and clamping
force to achieve the minimum tolerable amount of deflections within the disk.
1.2 Background and Significance

The rigidity provided by a fixture is vital to maintain dimensional accuracy and
surface finish quality in a machining process[Wilson1, 1]. During a machining process,
the cutting forces generated by the cutting tool induce a deflection within the
constrainted workpiece as the cutting tool enters and exits the cutting surface. The
machining dimensional accuracy may be jeopardized by the deflection within the
workpiece. A properly designed fixture is able to minimize the deflections within the
workpiece. It can also provide the control of vibration during a machining process to
ensure the desired surface finish is achieved.
1
Titanium alloys are considered to be difficult-to-machine metals in the industry. The
low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, high temperature strength, and high
chemical reactivity of titanium alloys induce many challenges in machining processes
[Ezugwa2, 2]. The success in machining titanium alloys depends largely on overcoming
of the principal problems associated with the inherent material properties [Ezugwa, 2].
One critical solution is a rigid support of the workpiece as suggested by [Ezugwa, 2],
[Polmer3, 3] and [Donachie4, 4] to minimize the deflection of the workpiece and
resultant in reducing machining errors such as dimensional tolerance control and chatter.
Therefore, this study will focus on the proper support from the fixture to ensure the
workpiece is held rigidly during a turning process.
1.3 Literature Review

A literature search is performed to understand the fixture-workpiece systems. Much
research has been done regarding fixture-workpiece systems. These studies give a great
insight into various fixturing schemes. However, these studies lack the focus on the
turning process. Development of fixture design for sheet metal and composite products
is completely based on CAD models by [Walczyk5, 5]. This method eliminates the need
for datum surfaces and registration features on the CNC machine table. This method
makes fixture fabrication easy and inexpensive while maintaining high geometrical
accuracy [Walczyk, 5]. To enhance the rigidity of the fixture, [Walczyk6, 6] uses a
computer-controlled reconfigurable fixturing device (RFD) concept which is based on a
matrix of individually stoppable pins lowered by a single rigid platen. The fixture is used
in machining process such as drilling, routing, and deburring. [Deng7, 7] focuses on
fixturing stability during a milling process by examining loss of contact and gross
sliding.
There are several studies illustrated the optimization of fixture layout and clamping
forces in a milling process by using the genetic algorithm (GA). The optimization
focuses on minimize the dimensional machining errors induced by elastic deflections of
workpiece within machining processes. [Krishnakumar8,9, 8,9], [Kaya10,10] and
[Chen11,11] have extensive discussions on implementations of GA. In addition, fixture
layout optimization can be determined by a min-max loading criteria [DeMeter12, 12].
2
2. Machining Set-up
2.1 Vertical Turning Lathe (VTL) process

2.1.1 Machine Axis
A vertical turning lathe also known as vertical-boring machine uses a vertical axis to
enhance the support for a large diameter workpiece [Boothroyd13, 13]. It enables an easy
access to load the workpiece onto the horizontal worktable also called machine table.
Figure 2.1 shows a generic schematic of a vertical-boring machine. The bed is the
bottom support of the overall machine weight and motion. The machine rotates the
worktable, fixture, and workpiece about the z-axis in a counterclockwise direction. The
tool travels in the negative x-axis for facing the top surface of the workpiece, and in the
negative z-axis for turning inner or outer diameter of workpiece [Boothroyd, 13].
Figure 2.1: Facing on a vertical boring machine [Boothroyd, 13]
In the industry, vertical lathe machines are controlled by a Numerically Control

(NC) unit as shown in Figure 2.2. The NC unit stores NC programs which contain all the
machining parameters and geometry of the workpiece in G&M machining codes. The
NC programs govern all motions such as machine table rotation and tool travel to
complete an entire machining cycle automatically and come to a stop. Multiple cuts can
be combined into one NC program to generate multiple features within a workpiece.
3
Tool Head
Numerically
Controlled
Unit
Machine Table/
Worktable
Figure 2.2: Amera Seiki Vertical Turning VT2000 Machine
2.1.2 Machine Table
The fixture usually sits on top of the machine table and connects the workpiece onto
the machine table. The fixture is locked onto the machine table by clamping through the
radial T slots of the machine table as shown on Figure 2.3. Ideally, there should be a
minimum amount of gap between the fixture and machine table to have the maximum
amount of rigidity and support from the machine onto the fixture.
4
Fixture
Clamp
Radial T Slot
Machine
Table
Figure 2.3: A fixture is being clamped onto a vertical-boring machine table through a Radial T Slot
[Boothroyd, 13].
2.2 Description of Workpiece

2.2.1 Geometry of the Disk
The geometry of the workpiece is a symmetric disk. The dimensions of the disk
are 0.508m, 0.456m, 0.0254m, and 0.0508m as outer diameter, inner diameter, radial
thickness, and height, respectively.
2.2.2 Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V
The material of the disk is chosen to be Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. The material

properties of both annealed and solution treated and aged (STA) conditions of Ti-6Al-
4V are shown in Table 2.1. The STA condition has higher tensile and yield strength, and
hardness. The maximum operating temperature is approximately 400o C [Donachie, 4].
Ti-6Al-4V alloys are light weight metals with excellent material properties such as high
strength-to-weight ratio at elevated temperatures, excellent creep strength, corrosion-
resistant, good thermal stability, heat treatable, good forge-ability, and good fabric-
ability. These material properties offer the performance required by the aerospace
industry which holds the 50% of overall usage of titanium alloys [Donachie, 4]. Engine
manufacturers use titanium alloys to make most of the front section of the engine. Most
of the titanium products within the engine manufacturing industries are produced by
5
turning and milling processes. Both turning and milling offer the best tolerance
requirements at the most economical cost.
Modulus
Ultimate
Tensile Yield of Poisson
Material Condition Shear Elongation Hardness
Strength Strength Elasticity Ratio
Strength
Tension
MPa MPa MPa % GPa Hv
Ti-6Al-
Annealed 900-993 830-924 529 14 110 310-350 0.34
4V
Ti-6Al- solution treated

1172 1103 676 10 - 350-400 0.34
4V and aged
Table 2.1: Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V. [Donachie, 4]
2.2.3 Machinability
Titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloys have machinability rating of 18 and 22 for annealed(A)

and solution treated and aged (STA) conditions, respectively, as stated in Table 2.2
[Donachie, 4]. The rating is based on 100 for B1112 steel material which is assumed to
have the best machining conditions by having the lowest production costs. Ti-6Al-4V
alloys have two ratings due to the different material properties are produced by two
different alloying conditions. The different material properties between annealed and
solution treated and aged conditions of a Ti-6Al-4V bar are shown in Table 2.3
[Machado14, 14]. The solution treated and aged alloys have higher mechanical properties
than the annealed alloys especially the hardness. This contributes to the difference for
the machinability ratings among Ti-6Al-4V alloys.
Condition Machinability
Alloy
(a) rating (b)
B1112 resulfurized steel HR 100

1020 carbon steel CD 70
302 stainless steel A 35
Ti-6Al-4V A 22
Ti-6Al-4V STA 18
(a): HR=hot rolled, CD=cold drawn, A=annealed, and STA=solution treated

and aged
(b): Based on a rating of 100 for B1112 steel
Table 2.2: Machinability comparisons of Ti-6Al-4V with several steel materials. [Doanchie, 4]
6
In addition, the material properties are very different between Ti-6Al-4V alloys and
steel as stated in Table 2.3. Ti-6Al-4V alloys are stronger and have double the amount of
hardness. Ti-6Al-4V has very low thermal conductivity, whereas, steel has very good
thermal conductivity which enables the ability to dissipate heat generated by machining.
The cutting tool life is much higher for machining steel than titanium alloys. Therefore,
steel is able to achieve a very good machinability rating.
Modulus Specific
Tensile Yield Reduction of heat at Thermal
Elongation Hardness Density
Strength Strength Area Elasticity 20- Conductivity
Material Tension 100oC
MPa MPa % % GPa Hv g/cm3 J/kg K W/m K
Ti-6Al-
4V
895 825 10 20 110 340 4.43 580 7.3
annealed
bar
Ti-6Al-
4V
solution 1035 965 8 20 - 360 - - 7.5
treated
and aged
bar
AISI-
1045
625 530 12 35 207 179 7.84 486 50.7
cold
drawn
Table 2.3: Properties of Ti-6Al-4V compared to a medium carbon steel. [Machado, 14]
The two major characteristics of titanium alloys are low thermal conductivity and
low elastic modulus that induce many challenges during machining processes. Table 2.3
states that the thermal conductivity for Ti-6Al-4V alloys is less than steel by
approximately seven times. The modulus of elasticity for Ti-6Al-4V is half the amount
for steel. Under normal conditions, the cutting forces may be predicted to be only
slightly higher than those required for steels of the equivalent hardness [Polmear, 3]. In
real practice, the cutting forces in machining Ti-6Al-4V are increased by factor of
several times due to the fracture of the cutting edge in the cutting tools [Polmear, 3]. The
cutting tools tend to fracture due to the high temperature which is generated at a small
contact surface area between chip and tool [Polmear, 3]. This high temperature is caused
by low thermal dissipation of heat within titanium because of the low thermal
conductivity.
In addition, the increased magnitudes of the cutting forces can easily deflect the
workpiece because titanium has low elastic modulus which makes titanium very
7
sensitive to external forces [Polmear, 3]. The deflections within the workpiece cause
machining errors such as poor surface finishes, chatter problems, and reduced
dimensional tolerances. Therefore, the machinability rating is very low for titanium
alloys.
2.3 Description of fixture

The term workholder embraces all devices that hold, grip, or chuck a workpiece in a
prescribed manner of firmness and location within a manufacturing operation [Wilson15,
15]. During a material removal process, the workholder is identified as a machining
fixture or simply called fixture in this study. The specific functions of a fixture within a
machining process are discussed within this section. A fixture must support a workpiece
in a precise location and orientation while the workpiece is subjected to the cutting
forces during material removal. The physical characteristics of a workpiece such as
material properties, size, shape, and weight govern the overall structural integrity of a
fixture. A fixture must be able to provide tool path clearance to enable tool access into
the machining surfaces. A fixture should allow access in loading and unloading of the
workpiece efficiently. This is very critical for a high production volume environment.
The fixture provides the safety to all users by containing all components from being
dislocated during a machining process. In additional, the costs of a fixture should be
economical.
There are many generic fixtures available for purchase in the industry. The chucks,
pump-jigs, vises, and V-blocks are common examples. Chucks are heavily used in
horizontal and vertical turning process for round shaped workpieces. Due to the specific
machining parameters and specific physical properties of the chosen workpiece, a chuck
is not adequate to be used in this study. The commonly used material properties of
fixture components are hardened steel with Youngs Modulus of 201 GPa and Poisson
Ratio of 0.296.
The two methods of designing a machining fixture are cut-and-try and analytical
approach [Wilson, 15]. The cut-and-try method involves building a fixture and trying out
the proposed machining operation. The analytical approach involves determining the
magnitudes and directions of the cutting forces, and then following a step-by-step
8
determination of designing a fixture can withstand the cutting forces. The analytical
approach is not widely used in the industry due to the extensive time required. The
analytical approach might not be practical because the calculation results might require
having fasteners of different diameter at each attachment point to match the anticipated
load [Wilson, 15]. This creates difficulties for installation and maintenance. Tool
designers usually apply the analytical approach mentally without any mathematical
computations [Wilson, 15]. However, the analytical approach must always predominate
to ensure proper structural integrity of a fixture [Wilson, 15]. This study will use
analytical approach to determine the best fixture scheme for the chosen machining
parameters.
2.3.1 Plate
A plate of a fixture is being clamped onto the VTL machine table through the radial
T slots as shown in Figure 2.4. It orients and holds both the locators and clamps in
proper locations. It contains the most weight and has the highest strength among the
fixture components. The bottom surface of the plate usually has very fine flatness
requirement to reduce the possibility of gaps between fixture and machine table. This
surface can be maintained within flatness requirement by grinding process. In this study,
a plate is chosen because of the good contact surfaces between the fixture and machine
table. A fixture can easily be removed from the machine table by unclamping the bolt
and nut from the T slots within the plate. This type of fixture will enable the flexibility
of using multiple fixtures in the same machine. The geometry of a plate is governed by
the machine table size and location of the radial T slots, the size and location of locators
and clamps, and the physical size of workpiece. The thickness of the plate is suggested
to be at least 10cm.
9
Ti-6Al-4V Clamp
Disk
Locator
Radial
T-Slot Plate
Figure 2.4: Fixture-disk assembly includes plate, locator and clamp.
2.3.2 Locators
There are six requirements for choosing the locating points within a fixture
[Doyle16, 16]. Each point of contact between the locators of a fixture and workpiece
should eliminate one degree of freedom up to six points for total of six degree of
freedom. This will determine the proper placement of locating points. The conditions of
the locating surface should be considered. A finished surface of a workpiece may be
acceptable to have a full 360o locating surface as shown in Figure 2.4. When the surface
of a workpiece is a non-finished surface, more than three points in a plane do not
improve locating purposes, but may promote stability and give extra support [Doyle, 16].
The shape of a workpiece affects both the shape and location of locators. The location of
the machining surface governs the locating points within a fixture. The locating supports
should be as close to the machining surface as possible for maximum support.
When a workpiece is positively located by means of six pins which collectively
restrict the workpiece in six degrees of freedom, this is known as the 3-2-1 method of
location [Wilson, 15]. The method is to place and hold a workpiece against three points
in a base plane, two points are in a vertical plane, and one point is in a plane
perpendicular to the other two planes as shown in Figure 2.5. This method works very
well for a rectangular shaped workpiece.
10
Figure 2.5: The 3-2-1 principle of location applied to a rectangular shape workpiece. [Doyle, 16]
2.3.3 Clamps
The purpose of clamping is to firmly hold a workpiece against the locating points or
surfaces and to secure a workpiece against all cutting forces[Doyle, 16]. A clamp must
direct and maintain a force onto the workpiece. There are four main considerations of
choosing clamps [Doyle, 16]. The size of the clamping force is affected by the type and
positions of the locators, the availability of clamping surfaces, the conditions of
clamping surfaces, and the directions and magnitude of cutting forces. The clamping
forces applied against the workpiece must counteract the cutting forces [Wilson, 15].
The clamping pressure should not be large enough to change the dimension of a
workpiee. The source and size of the force which is available for actuating the clamp
will determine the type and size of a clamp. In the industry, the clamps as shown in
Figure 2.6 can be tightened manually using a torque wrench. These clamps are widely
available for purchase. The economy of clamping involves a choice of best clamping in
terms of the advantages of a complicated and quick acting device for a high production
volume environment as compared to a simpler and slower device for low production
volume environment [Doyle, 16].
11
Figure 2.6: Commercially available fixture clamps. [Wilson, 15]
12
3. Machining of Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Disk
3.1 Machining Conditions

Titanium alloys are well known for the very low machinability due to the specific
material properties. The material properties of titanium alloys are high temperature
strength, very low thermal conductivity, relatively low modulus of elasticity and high
chemical reactivity. These material properties induce high cutting temperature and high
stresses at the cutting edge during the machining processes [Ezugwu, 2]. Therefore,
machining titanium alloys requires very unique machining parameters. There are six
main guidelines provided by [Donachie, 4] for machining titanium alloys. Titanium
alloys are very sensitive to the heat generated by cutting tools because titanium has low
heat conductivity. This will create a tremendous amount of heat during machining. This
heat causes a significant temperature buildup within the contact surface between the
workpiece and cutting tool. Thus, a low cutting speed is highly recommended. A
sufficient amount of cutting fluid should be applied during machining. The cutting fluid
reduces the amount of heat which enters into both the cutting tool and workpiece. In
addition, the geometry of the cutting tool is very critical in terms of heat dissipation
during machining. Thus, the cutting tool should have a sharp cutting edge. In ideal
conditions, the cutting edge of the tool is constant and has no tool wear. Tool wear
would result in built-up edge for turning titanium alloys. The built-up edge causes poor
surface finishes, and increases the magnitudes of the cutting forces. The increased
cutting forces can cause deflection within the workpiece. In this study, the cutting tool is
assumed to be in good condition and no built-up edge. In addition, the feed rate will be
continuous and steady state. There is no rapid stopping during the entire machining
process.
3.2 Cutting Tool Properties

3.2.1 Cutting Tool Material
The turning of titanium alloys requires unique cutting tool properties. There are five
specific requirements suggested by [Ezugwu, 2]. First, the cutting tool should have high
hardness to resist the high stresses developed during machining. Second, the cutting tool
13
should have good thermal conductivity to minimize thermal gradients and thermal
shock. Third, the cutting tool should have good chemical inertness to depress the
tendency to react with titanium. Fourth, the cutting tool should have toughness and
fatigue resistance to withstand the chip segmentation process. Fifth, the cutting tool
should have high compressive, tensile, and shear strength. Based on previous studies, the
straight tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC/Co) is the best suitable tool materials for
machining titanium alloys as suggested by [Ezugwu, 2] and [Donachie, 4]. The C-2 also
known as ISO K20 is the best carbide grade which is low cost and is widely used in the
industry. The material properties of the cutting tool are stated in Table 3.1. The straight
tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys have excellent resistance to simple abrasive wear. For
example, the aerospace industry intensively uses straight carbide tools for machining
titanium engine and airframe products. Thus, the C-2 grade is chosen for this study.
Coefficient of
Modulus Relative thermal
Nominal Grain Transverse Compressive of abrasion expansion at Thermal
composition size Hardness Density strength strength elasticity resistance 200 C conductivity
Hv g/cm3 MPa MPa GPa m/m K W/m K

94WC-6Co Medium 91.7-92.2 15 2000 5450 648 58 4.3 100
Table 3.1: Material properties of WC/Co C2 grade cutting tool. [Santhanam17, 17]
3.2.2 Cutting Tool Geometry
A single-point tool is chosen for this study because it is commonly used in turning
processes. A single-point tool is shown in Figure 3.1 which has one major cutting edge
which comes in contact with the chip. It has one shank. In industry, an insert is
assembled onto a single-point tool and provides the major cutting edge for the single-
point tool. The insert can be replaced once a single cut is completed. This method
maintains the sharpness requirement of the cutting edge for all cuts. The replacement of
an insert has lower cost than the replacement of a single point tool. An insert can also
provide index-able cutting edges. This means that an insert can be rotated and to provide
new cutting edges for multiple cuts.
14
Figure 3.1: Geometry of single-point cutting tool. [Altintas, 18]
The actual tool geometry is tabulated in Table 3.2 based on given values from
[Donachie, 4]. The most important feature is the nose radius which is given to be 0.762
mm in this study. The nose radius is suggested by [Donachie, 4] to be used for finishing
cuts. The nose radius is assumed to be constant because no built-up edge cutting
condition is assumed. Additional care must be implemented to ensure the tool life to be
maintained. A large range in size of the cutting tool nose radius is being used in the
industry to machine various engineering materials. The cutting tool nose radius affects
the amount of cutting forces exerted onto the workpiece. The temperature at the contact
area between the workpiece and cutting tool is highly dependent on the nose radius. A
large nose radius has a large surface area to dissipate heat. Whereas, a small nose radius
is able to reduce the amount of cutting forces acting onto the workpiece. However, the
amount of heat generated would be significant, thus, the tool life would be drastically
reduced. This is the main reason that industry uses a large nose radius tool for titanium
alloys due to the low heat specific coefficient within the materials.
Table 3.2 contains tool feature symbols which are used in calculation of cutting
forces. These tool feature symbols are taken from [Altintas18, 18]. A graphic
representation of the tool feature symbols are shown in Figure 3.1. The cutting tool has
back rake angle, p , and side rake angle, f , of zero degree and five degrees,
respectively, which are suggested by [Donachie, 4] for finishing cut. A positive side
15
rake angle will minimize the cutting forces. This may considered to be an optimal
machining condition.
Tool Feature symbols Tool Feature Names Actual Tool
p Back rake angle 0

o
f Side rake angle 5
o
clp End relief angle 5
End clearance angle

o
clf Side relief angle 5
Side clearance angle
kr End cutting-edge angle o

15
r Side cutting-edge angle o

15
R Nose radius 0.762 mm
Table 3.2: Actual dimensions of cutting tool. [Donachie, 4]
3.3 Machining Parameters

The machining parameters are critical input parameters for this study. They are
chosen to best represent an actual turning process. It is impossible to utilize the actual
machining parameters from industry due to most companies guarding their specific
machining parameters as Intellectual Properties. However, the chosen machining
parameters which are gathered from published information are considered to be a
generic representation of an actual machining process. [Donachie, 4] has defined the
typical parameters for machining gas turbine components which are made of Ti-6Al-4V
alloys. The three major machining parameters are feed rate, cutting speed, and depth of
cut. For a turning operation, there are three types of cuts which are defined as rough,
semi-finish and finish cut. Each type of cut has individual unique machining parameters.
A specific set of machining parameter is chosen for this chapter and summarize in Table
3.3.
16
Cutting Speed, v Feed Rate, h Depth of Cut, b
m/min mm/rev mm
0.127
0.254
60 0.178 0.381
0.508
0.635
Table 3.3: Cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut for chapter 3
3.3.1 Feed Rate, h
The feed rate, h, is defined as the uncut chip thickness per revolution of workpiece
rotation during a turning process. This study uses the feed rate, h, of 0.127 mm/rev
within this chapter. This is an average value which represents the generic machining
parameters from [Donachie, 4] for a typical finishing cut of aerospace type of Ti-6Al-4V
alloys. The direction of feed rate is in the negative z-axis which is shown in Figure 3.2.
3.3.2 Depth of Cut, b
The range of depth of cut, b, is determined to be from 0.127mm to 0.635mm as

shown in Table 3.3. The depth of cut is smaller than the cutting tool corner radius which
is 0.762mm. The main reason is that semi-orthogonal cutting mechanics may be applied
[Altintas, 18]. This will simplify calculations. Therefore, orthogonal calculations will be
used for verification purposes. In real machining processes within industries such as
automotive and aerospace, the values of the depth of cut are extensively different. It is
largely dependent on the material properties of the workpiece, cutting tool geometry and
production volume requirement. Figure 3.2 illustrates the depth of cut which pertains to
the outer diameter of the workpiece. This means that each cut reduces the outer diameter
of the workpiece, thus, the thickness of the workpiece is being reduced.
17
Figure 3.2: Depth of cut, b, and Feed Direction, Vf, for an outer diameter cut.
3.3.3 Cutting Speed, v
The cutting speed, v, for this study is assumed to be 60m/min which is given by
[Donachie, 4]. The previous study by [Gente19, 19] shows that the cutting speed does not
affect the magnitudes of cutting forces obtained from turning Ti-6Al-4V alloys. In
addition, [Altintas, 18] illustrated that there is no significant change to the magnitude of
cutting forces when the cutting speed changes from 4.61m/min to 47.3m/min in
orthogonal cutting. Thus, this study will not examine the effects of the cutting speed
upon the magnitudes of the cutting forces, although this would be a good topic for future
studies. This study will focus on the impact of the depth of cut upon the magnitude of
cutting forces in this chapter.
3.3.4 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal cutting is defined as the cutting edge of the cutting tool is perpendicular
to the machined surface. Orthogonal cutting generates two-components cutting forces
such as tangential and feed force. The oblique cutting defined as the cutting edge of
cutting tool known as rake face and machine surface in an angle known as oblique angle,
18
i . Oblique cutting generates the third-component cutting force known as radial force.
The magnitudes of cutting forces are higher for oblique than orthogonal cutting. Figure
3.3 shows the geometries of both orthogonal and oblique cutting.
Orthogonal Cutting
Geometry
Oblique Cutting
Geometry
Figure 3.3: Geometries of orthogonal and oblique cutting processes [Altintas, 18].
3.4 Cutting Forces

3.4.1 Orientations
A finishing cut of the outer diameter of the workpiece will be examined in this
chapter. Figure 3.4 illustrates the workpiece, cutting tool, cutting forces and feed
direction of the cutting tool. The workpiece is a Ti-6Al-4V alloy disk. It has outer
diameter of 0.508 m and radial thickness of 0.0254 m. The grade C-2 carbide insert has
0.762 mm nose radius and is part of a single point tool. The cutting tool travels in the
feed direction, Vf, which is parallel to vertical z-axis as shown in Figure 3.5. This
generates a feed force onto the workpiece, Ff which is acting vertically down onto the
workpiece from the cutting tool nose radius. The workpiece rotation, V, rotates about the
vertical z-axis in the counterclockwise direction. This generates a tangential force onto
19
workpiece, Ft which is tangent to the outer diameter of the workpiece and is in the
negative y-axis direction as shown in Figure 3.5. In oblique cutting, the radial force onto
the workpiece, Fr, is in the negative x-axis or radial direction of workpiece. All cutting
forces Ft, Ff, and Fr act onto the workpiece at the point of contact with the nose radius of
the cutting tool. The tangential Force, Ft, is the primary cutting force and has the
maximum magnitude. The radial force, Fr, has the smallest magnitude and has zero
magnitude in orthogonal cutting.
Figure 3.4: Schematic diagram of the lathe turning process of an outer diameter cut with workpiece
rotation V, feed direction Vf, tangential force, Ft, feed force, Ff, and radial force Fr.
Figure 3.5: Cutting forces (tangential force, Ft, feed force, Ff, and radial force Fr ) acting on
workpiece and feed direction, Vf, of cutting tool.
20
3.4.2 Assumptions
The shear yield stress, s , of Ti-6Al-4V is assumed to be 613 MPa. The average
edge force coefficients, K te and K fe represent the rubbing forces per unit width [Altintas,
18]. The coefficients, K te and K fe , are 24 N/mm and 43 N/mm, respectively. All three
assumptions are based the empirical data collected by [Altintas, 18] on orthogonal
cutting experiment machining Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
3.4.3 Calculation Procedure
In this study, the calculation of the cutting forces the equations and assumptions
which are given by Manufacturing Automation by [Altintas, 18]. The flow diagram of
the calculation of the cutting forces is shown in Figure 3.6 which gives the overview of
the calculation procedure of the cutting forces. The input variables are the tool
geometries and machining parameters which are determined to best represent the
machining processes in the industry. The normal shear angle is calculated based on the
chip compression ratio is determined to 1.2 and the friction angle is 20.5o. Then, the
cutting constants are calculated using the formulas gathered from [Altintas, 18]. The
cutting forces are calculated using Matlab Codes which are included in the Appendix.
21
Tool Machining Input
Geometries Parameters Variables
Normal rake
angle
Chip
Normal Shear Compression
Angle Ratio=1.2
(Oblique
Cutting)
Formulas and
Cutting
Friction Angle = assumptions from
Constants
20.5 degree literatures
Cutting Forces
Formulas
Matlab Codes
Cutting Forces
(Fr, Ft, Ff)
Figure 3.6: Flow diagram of cutting forces calculations.
3.4.4 Oblique angle, i , and Chip flow angle,
The oblique angle is calculated to be 1.3o for oblique cutting. The oblique angle is
zero degree for orthogonal cutting because the orthogonal cutting defines the cutting
edge of the tool is perpendicular to the machined surface. The oblique angle is calculated
using equation 3.1 which is given by [Altintas, 18]. The oblique angle depends on the
cutting tool properties such as side rake angle, f , back rake angle, p , and side cutting-
edge angle, r are summarized in Table 3.4. Figure 3.7 shows the graphical
representation of the angles.
tan i = tan p cos r + tan f sin r 3.1
Where
i - oblique angle
p - cutting tool back rake angle
r - cutting tool side cutting-edge angle
22
f - cutting tool side rake angle
Orthogonal
Angles Oblique Cutting Cutting
Degree Radian Degree Radian
f cutting tool side rake angle 5.0 0.087 5.0 0.087
p cutting tool back rake angle 0.0 0.000 0.0 0.000
r cutting tool side cutting-edge angle 15.0 0.262 15.0 0.262
i oblique angle 1.3 0.023 0.0 0.000
chip flow angle 1.3 0.023 0.0 0.000
n normal rake angle 4.8 0.084 4.8 0.084
a friction angle 20.5 0.358 20.5 0.358
n normal friction angle 20.5 0.358 20.5 0.358
n normal shear angle 53.1 0.9261 37.2 0.649
Table 3.4: Cutting angles for oblique and orthogonal cutting angles.
Z n
Rake face
Cut Surface
Y
X
n Tool
h Workpiece
i
Figure 3.7: Geometry of oblique cutting process. [Altintas, 18]
3.4.5 Normal rake angle, n
The orthogonal rake angle, 0 ,is 4.8o, which is determined by cutting tool properties
such as side rake angle, f , back rake angle, p , and side cutting-edge angle, r using
equation 3.2. The orthogonal rake angle is input into equation 3.3 to calculate the normal
rake angle for both orthogonal and oblique cutting. The oblique angles, 1.3o and 0o, for
oblique and orthogonal cutting, respectively, are used to determine the normal rake
23
angles. Since the difference between the two oblique angles for oblique and orthogonal
cutting is so small, the values of normal rake angle are 4.8o.
tan 0 = tan f cos r + tan p sin r 3.2
Where 0 - orthogonal rake angle
tan n = tan 0 cos i 3.3
Where n - normal rake angle
3.4.6 Friction angle, a , and Normal friction angle, n
The equation to calculate the frictional angle a was determined by using the
empirical data collected by [Altintas, 18] on an orthogonal cutting experiment. The
experiment was performed on Ti-6Al-4V alloys with different cutting tool rake angles at
different feed rates and cutting speeds with the material of cutting tool of tungsten
carbide. A force dynamometer was used to measure the cutting forces. The equation 3.4
was generated from the data collected from this experiment to determine the friction
angle, a for orthogonal cutting. The calculated frictional angle,

a , is 20.5o for
orthogonal cutting. The normal friction angle, n , is 20.5o which is calculated using the
equation 3.5. The normal friction angle is same for both of orthogonal and oblique
cutting because the difference between the oblique angles for both cutting conditions is
negligible.
a = 19.1o + 0.29 n 3.4
n = tan 1 (tan a cos i ) 3.5
3.4.7 Chip compression ratio, rc, and Normal shear angle, n
The chip compression ratio, rc, is defined as the ratio of uncut chip thickness, also
known as feed rate, over actual chip thickness [Altintas, 18]. The chip compression ratio
affects the values of normal shear angle, n as indicated in equation 3.6. The value of
the normal shear angle affects the values of the cutting constants, Ktc, Kfc, and Krc, which
will affect the values of cutting forces and will be defined in later section in this study.
24
The flow diagram in Figure 3.6 shows the connections among these parameters. A large
chip compression ratio will produce a large shear angle. A large shear angle will increase
the values of cutting constants. Therefore, the cutting forces will be at the maximum
level. This will require the fixture to have the most rigid support for the workpiece.
rc cos n 3.6
n = tan 1
1 rc sin n
Where
n - normal shear angle
rc - chip compression ratio
Both [Gente, 19] and [Cotterell20, 20], stated there are two methods to calculate
the normal shear angle. One method is that the shear angle can be calculated by using the
chip compression ratio. This method assumes that the chip is a steady-state continuous
chip. As for machining titanium, the chip is segmented. Other method is that the normal
shear angle is obtained from the actual measurements of the longitudinal cross section of
the segmented chips as indicated by [Gente,19] and [Cotterell, 20] experiments. In their
experiments, both authors concluded the calculated and measured normal shear angles
are correlated well. Therefore, the calculated normal shear angles will be used for both
oblique and orthogonal cutting in this study.
The most important variable in calculating the normal shear angles is the chip
compression ratio. The measurement data of the actual chip thickness from previous
studies by [Li21, 21] and [Cotterell, 20] gives a good indication of actual chip
compression ratios. Unfortunately, these studies did not use the same machining
parameters as stated in this study. Therefore, a range of values from 0.8 to 1.5 is chosen
to determine the best representative value of the chip compression ratio. The chosen
minimum value of 0.8 is smaller than the chip compression ratio of one which was
chosen by [Altintas, 18]. [Altintas, 18] stated that if the depth of cut is less than nose
radius of cutting tool, the chip thickness is constant and equal to feed rate. This
assumption is valid for a continuous chip condition.
However, the titanium alloys usually produce segmented chips. Both [Li, 21] and
[Cotterell, 20] considered the effects of segmented chips during machining of titanium
alloys. The chosen maximum value of 1.5 is the calculated average value from the
25
experiments performed by [Li, 21] and [Cotterell, 20]. In addition, [Cotterell, 20]
conducted orthogonal cutting tests on a flat Ti-6Al-4V disk using feed rate of 0.1mm/rev
and measured the local normal shear angles. The chip compression ratio was calculated
to be 1.38 by using the measured shear angle of 37.5o at cutting speed of 60m/min. [Li,
21] conducted oblique baseline cutting tests on a titanium workpiece using two feed
rates of 0.254 and 0.381 mm/rev at 1.02 mm depth of cut. [Li, 21] measured the actual
deformed chip thicknesses. At cutting speed of 60 m/min, the calculated chip
compression ratios are 1.5 and 1.7 at 0.254 and 0.381 mm/rev, respectively.
The normal shear angle is calculated using the range of chip compression ratios
from 0.8 to 1.5 and the normal rake angle of 4.8o. The normal shear angle is plotted as a
function of the chip compression ratios is shown in Figure 3.8 which shows that the
correlation between the normal shear angle and the chip compression ratio is linear. The
normal shear angle increases from 40o to 60o as the chip compression ratio increases
from 0.8 to 1.5.
70.0
60.0
50.0
Normal Shear Angle, degree
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Chip Compression Ratio
Figure 3.8: The normal Shear angle is determined by the range of chip compression ratio values
from 0.8 to 1.5 and the normal rake angle of 4.8o for oblique cutting.
26
In this study, the chip compression ratio is chosen to be 1.2 and the normal shear
angle, n , is 53.1o for oblique cutting. The main reason is that the chip compression ratio
should be close to the maximum level because a large value of the normal shear angle,
n , is expected. A large shear angle is able to produce the large value of the cutting
forces. These cutting forces require the fixture to provide the maximum amount of
support to workpiece. Thus, a rigid setup will be needed for this machining process.
For comparisons and verifications purposes, the normal shear angle, n,c , is 37.2o for
orthogonal cutting. This calculation is based on Merchants Minimum Energy Principle

in equation 3.7 by [Altintas, 18]. The normal shear angle corresponds to the
determination by [Gente, 19]. In addition, the measured shear angle is 37.5o in the
experiment conducted by [Cotterell, 20] for orthogonal cutting of Ti-6Al-4V with feed
rate of 0.1mm/rev.
n
n ,c = a 3.7
4 2
3.4.8 Cutting Constants
The cutting constants, Ktc, Kfc, and Krc, for tangential, feed, and radial forces,
respectively, are calculated by equation 3.8 to 3.10. The values of the cutting constants
are stated in Table 3.5 for both oblique and orthogonal cutting. Both Ktc and Kfc have
lower values for orthogonal than oblique cutting. The main reason is the different values
of the normal shear angle, n , which is 53.1o and 37.2o for oblique and orthogonal
cutting, respectively. The cutting constants are dependent on the values of the normal
shear angle, n . Therefore, the oblique cutting constants have higher values of cutting
constants than orthogonal cutting. In addition, the cutting constant, Krc, is zero for
orthogonal cutting due to both oblique angle and chip flow angle is zero.
s cos( n n ) + tan i tan sin n
K tc = 3.8
sin n cos 2 (n + n n ) + tan 2 sin 2 n
s sin ( n n )
K fc = 3.9
sin n sin i cos 2 (n + n n ) + tan 2 sin 2 n
27
s cos( n n ) tan i tan sin n
K rc = 3.10
sin n cos (n + n n ) + tan sin n
2 2 2
Oblique Orthogonal
Constants
MPa MPa
Ktc 2035.5 1617.3

Kfc 570.9 453.7
Krc 29.3 0
Table 3.5: Cutting Constants for both Oblique and Orthogonal Cutting.
3.4.9 Cutting Forces Formulas
The cutting forces formulas are stated in equation 3.11 to 3.13 which are given by
[Altintas, 18]. Both the tangential and feed forces are calculated using published value of
the average edge force coefficients, Kte and Kfe. The machining parameters of the depth
of cut, b, and feed rate, h, are given at Table 3.3 as input variables. As previously
discussed, the values of the cutting constants, Ktc, Kfc, and Krc are higher for oblique
than orthogonal cutting. Thus, the values of the cutting forces are expected to be higher
for oblique than orthogonal cutting as shown in Figure 3.9.
Ft = K tcbh + K teb 3.11
F f = K fcbh + K feb 3.12
Fr = K rcbh 3.13
Where
Ft - tangential force
F f - feed force
Fr - radial force
b - depth of cut
h - feed rate = uncut chip thickness
K te - average edge force coefficient = 24 N/mm
K fe - average edge force coefficient = 43 N/mm
28
Cutting Forces using Feedrate=0.178mm/rev or 0.007 in/rev
300.0
250.0
200.0
Cutting Forces (N)
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700
Depth of cut (mm)
Ft, Tangential Ff, feed Fr, radial Ft. Tangential_Orthogonal Ff, feed_Orthogonal
Figure 3.9: Cutting forces results for both oblique and orthogonal cutting.
3.4.10 Matlab Code Calculations
A Matlab code was generated to perform the calculations of the cutting forces by
utilizing the previously stated formulas and assumptions. The values of the input
variables are tool geometries and machining parameters which are entered into the
Matlab codes which are included in the Appendix for both oblique and orthogonal
cutting.
3.4.11 Results
The cutting forces are calculated using the chosen tool geometry properties and
machining parameters. This study will use both mechanics of orthogonal and oblique
cutting to calculate the cutting forces. As discussed previously, the procedure of
calculating cutting forces in mechanics of oblique cutting is based on the formulas and
assumptions given by Manufacturing Automation by [Altintas, 18]. The calculation
results are generated by the Matlab Code. The calculated cutting forces as a function of
depth of cut are shown in Figure 3.9. The tangential cutting force is the primary cutting
29
force component. It has the highest magnitude which ranges from 50N to 245N. The
feed force ranges from 18N to 92N. This is means the feed force is less than the half of
amount of the tangential force. Moreover, the radial force component is very small; close
to zero.
The cutting forces are calculated using orthogonal cutting and used to verify the
calculated results from oblique cutting. Figure 3.9 shows that the magnitudes of
tangential and feed cutting forces are very similar between oblique and orthogonal
cutting. The main difference between orthogonal and oblique cutting is the shear angle.
The different values of shear angles result in the different magnitudes of the cutting
forces. However, it does not significantly impact the overall results. Moreover, the
orthogonal cutting does not have the radial force because the oblique angle is zero
degrees for orthogonal cutting.
3.4.12 Verifications of Calculation Results
The machining parameters from previous studies [Li, 21 and Molinar22, 22] are used
to verify cutting forces calculations stated in Table 3.6. The Cutting forces are calculated
by inputting these given machining parameters into the Matlab code. The feed force is
closer to the longitudinal force from [Molinar, 22] than [Hoffneister, 22]. In addition, all
cutting forces are compared with the findings from [Li, 21]. Both the calculated
tangential and feed forces correspond to [Li, 21] findings. However, the calculated radial
force is much smaller.
Depth of
Previous Feed Cut
Studies mm/rev mm Previous Studies Results Calculation Results
Molinari 0.120 10.000 Longitudinal Force =1042 N Feed Force = 1115 N
Hoffmeister 0.120 10.000 Longitudinal Force =1667 N Feed Force = 1115 N
Ft, Ff, Fr are 114-140, 51-71, and 14-
30N, respectively - FE Models Ft, Ff, Fr are 137, 47 and
Li 0.254 0.254
Ft, Ff, Fr are 116-130, 51-61, and 16- 2N, respectively
33N, respectively - Experiments
Table 3.6: Comparisons of the cutting forces.
In addition, there are many ways to verify the magnitude of cutting forces. The two
well known methods are finite element models and experiments. Actual experiments will
30
not be used in this study, although it might be a good topic for future studies. Three
finite element models were created using Thirdwave Advantage software to determine
the cutting forces in orthogonal cutting. The models use the machining parameters and
tool properties stated in this study with three different depth of cuts, 0.127, 0.381, and
0.638mm, respectively, for individual FE model. The maximum amount of cutting force
is calculated to be 1000 N for tangential cutting force at depth of cut in 0.638mm. This
discrepancy of the magnitude of cutting force between the FE models and calculation is
caused by the fact that the machining process described in this study is not orthogonal
which was used in the FE models. Therefore, the magnitude of cutting forces is highly
dependent the chosen mechanics of cutting when both calculations and finite elements
are being used.
In this study, the calculated cutting forces are not 100% accurate. They are
approximations which are considered a good representation of a turning process of Ti-
6Al-4V in the industry. These values will be used in subsequent simulation models to
examine the deflections within the disk.
31
4. Finite Element Model Analysis
4.1 Fixture-Disk Model Properties

A finite element model (FEM) is developed to represent the assembly of the fixture
and disk during the machining setup and material removal in ANSYS23 software. The
dimensions of the model are 0.254m, 0.2286m and 0.0508m; outer radius, inner radius
and height respectively. As shown in Figure 4.1, the z-axis is in the vertical direction.
The x-y axis forms a plane which the model sits on. Although the model was created in
Cartesian coordinate system, all nodes and results are rotated into ANSYS Global
Cylindrical Coordinate System known as csys1. The origin of both coordinate systems is
located at the center of the disk. To simplify the selections of the proper regions for the
clamps and locators, the model is divided into 128 equally spaced volumes as shown in
Figure 4.1. The boundary conditions such as loads and constraints which represent the
clamps and locators are applied onto the top and bottom surfaces of the volumes. By
using Mapped meshing function within ANSYS, the model contains the uniform size of
hexahedral solid. The element type being used is Solid45 which represents 3D-Brick.
Table 4.1 contains the properties within the model. The large amount of elements and
nodes will enable the model to more accurately perform calculations such as deflections
and stresses. The workpiece material properties such as modulus of elasticity and
poisson ratio represent the chosen Ti-6Al-4V disk.
Figure 4.1: Disk is divided into 128 equally spaced volumes.
32
Number of elements 32000
Number of Nodes 38720
Degree of Freedom per Node 3
Type of Elements 3D-Brick
Material of Workpiece Ti-6Al-4V
Modulus of Elasticity 110 GPa
Poisson Ratio 0.34
Table 4.1: Finite Element Model Properties.
4.2 Clamping Candidate Region

The clamping candidate region is identified within the top surface of the model and
confined within the 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate Region as shown Figure
4.2. The 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate is within the radius of 0.2413 m to
ensure the proper cutting tool travel path clearance is provided. Due to tool path
clearance requirement, only the inner volumes are qualified to be the candidate region
for clamping and locating surface. This method prevents the cutting tool from crashing
onto the clamps and locators. The number of clamps is identical to the number of
locators. The locations of clamps are directly above the locators. This method will
minimize the bending moments might be induced by the clamps and locators being off
location vertically. Also, it increases the possibility that the disk to be properly
constrained during the entire machining process.
33
360 degrees
Clamping/Locating
Candidate Region
Figure 4.2: The 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate Region.
4.2.1 Clamping Area
The clamping candidate region is divided into 64 areas shown in Figure 4.2. Each
clamp occupies two areas on the top surface, thus, the maximum number of clamps is
32. When 32 clamps are applied, the model is constrained in 360 degrees on the top
surface within the clamping candidate region. The dimensions of one clamp or locator
consist of 11.250o, 0.2286m, and 0.2413m; degree, inner radius and outer radius
respectively, are shown in Figure 4.3. The area, A, is calculated to be 2.92e-4 m2 which
will be used to calculate the clamping pressure per area, P. The size of each clamp is
assumed to be identical in this study. This is consistent with the actual practices in the
industry. It would be a good topic for future study to examine the effects of various sizes
of the clamps.
34
A=2.92e-4 (m^2)
Figure 4.3: Dimensions of a clamp or locator, and one area.
4.2.2 Clamping Pressure
The clamping pressure per area, P, is calculated using equation 4.1. The clamping
force is divided by two because there are two areas within one clamp. The positive
normal pressure is applied against the top surface within the ANSYS model representing
the vertical downward compressive clamping pressure of an actual machining process.
The clamping pressure is distributed uniformly onto each node within the surface area.
FC FC 4.1
P= 2 = 2
AS 2.92e 4
Where
P Clamping pressure per area
Fc Clamping Force
4.2.3 Initial Clamping Force
The initial clamping force is determined to 1500N. This means the initial clamping
pressure per area, P, is 2.56e6 Pa. The magnitude of clamping force was gathered from
published literature by [Krishnakumar, 8]. For simplification purpose, the 1500N is used
35
in the initial fixture layout model instead of 1779N as chosen by [Krishnakumar, 8]. The
initial clamping force will be extensively used in both the investigation of deflections
within the Ti-6Al-4V disk and Design of Experiments which determines the best fixture
layout configuration in chapter 5.
4.3 Locating Candidate Region

The clamping candidate region is identified within the bottom surface of the model
and confined within the 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate Region as shown
Figure 4.2. The 360 degrees Clamping/Locating Candidate is within the radius of
0.2413m to ensure the proper cutting tool travel path clearance for the same reasons as
of the clamps. This radial dimensional constraint is to prevent cutting tool from
interfering with the locators. The locating surface is assumed to be within flatness
requirements. No gap between the locators and disk is assumed in this study. The
locators can occupy the whole bottom surface in 360 degrees circumferentially. All
locators have equal size. The locators have the identical size as the clamps. Both locators
and clamps are vertically aligned. This study assumes the locators are firmly supporting
the disk in all three axes. The three axes such as x, y, z displacement constraints are
applied on the identified individual locators in the finite element model.
4.4 Assumptions
The friction is assumed to be sufficient at the contact points between the disk and all
fixture components such as clamps and locators. This frictional force is able to prevent
any relative motion such as slipping of the workpiece relative to the clamps and locators.
This assumption will be further discussed in Chapter 6. The Ti-6Al-4V disk is forged
into a workable shape prior to any machining process. The residual stress from the
forging process is assumed to be removed at previous machining operations in this
study. This means the previous machining operations have been performed and
eliminated all residual stress from the forging process. Future study is suggested to
examine the residual stress effects from the forging process upon the machining process
by modifying the current finite element model.
36
The cutting speed of 60 m/min is chosen in this study as discussed in Chapter 3. The
rotational speed is low. However, the inertia angular velocity of 1000 rad/sec is applied
to the model to examine the effect of centrifugal forces during a turning process. There
is no change to analysis results such as displacements and von mises stress. In addition,
the von mises stresses are examined to determine whether any plastic deformations exist.
A large amount of the von mises stress exists at the contact point between the cutting
tool and disk as shown Figure 4.4. This stress allows chip formation during machining
process. The magnitude of von mises stress decreases rapidly at the area outside of
cutting tool contact area. This means there is no plastic deformation outside of the
contact area between the disk and cutting tool. Thus, this study will assume all
deflections not associated with the actual cutting are elastic.
Figure 4.4: Von Mises stress in the initial fixture layout.
4.5 Initial Fixture Layout

The chosen initial fixture layout consists of four equally spaced clamps and locators
as shown in Figure 4.5. A set of clamp and locator is positioned 90o away from each
other. The clamping force of 1500N is being used. The clamping pressure is 2.56e6 Pa
which is applied onto the eight areas onto the top surfaces to represent four clamps. The
locators are aligned directly below the clamps and are constrained in all three x, y, and z
axis.
37
The initial fixture layout configuration will be used to examine the deflection
behaviors within the disk when the cutting forces are applied at different locations of the
model. The initial fixture layout is chosen because it contains the smallest possible
number of clamps and locators because this configuration generates the maximum
amount of deflections. The maximum amount of deflection is a critical factor in
designing a functional fixture. A properly designed fixture will be able to minimize the
amount of deflections within the disk.
Figure 4.5: Initial Fixture Layout contains four clamps and locators.
4.6 Cutting Forces Applied to Fixture-Disk Model

The cutting forces are added onto the fixture-disk model to represent the material
removal in a machining process. The model calculates the deflections within the disk.
The cutting forces are applied at a single node on the outer diameter of the disk to
represent a snap shot of an entire outer diameter machining process. During a machining
process, safety is a very critical factor. In the industry, the machining shops take a
tremendous amount of precautions to prevent any accidents and injuries. Therefore, the
designs of fixtures must meet the necessary strength specifications to withhold an
unexpected impact during the machining processes. In this study, a safety factor of three
is chosen. This means that the magnitudes of the cutting forces applied within the finite
38
element model are three times the calculated values. The magnitudes of the cutting
forces for the finishing cut are shown in Table 4.2 for both the calculated forces and the
magnitudes of the cutting forces within the finite element model. The calculated forces
are generated by the Matlab Code which is shown in the Appendix by using the
machining parameters such as the feed rate of 0.178mm/rev and depth of cut of
0.635mm. The cutting forces within the finite element model are determined by
multiplying the calculated forces by three as summarized in Table 4.2.
Calculated Forces Forces in FEM
Cutting Forces Orientations
N N
Fr, radial -x 3 10
Ft, Tangential -y 245 736
Ff, feed -z 92 275
Table 4.2: Cutting forces are generated by a finish cut.
4.7 Cutting Forces Locations Represent Complete Cut

The machining surface is chosen to be the outer diameter of this disk in this study.
The cutting tool travels vertically downward from the top to bottom on the outer
diameter surface during a diametrical machining process as shown in Figure 4.6. The
radial thickness of the disk is being reduced by the depth of cut during the turning
process. The ANSYS model calculates the overall deflection and displays the results as
the displacement vector sum. The displacement vector sum is examined and the values
are summarized in Figure 4.7. The displacement vector sum is largest at the top surface
as the cutting tool enters onto the machining surface. When the cutting forces are at the
middle of the outer diameter, the maximum amount of material is surrounded the contact
point between the cutting tool and disk. The material of the disk is enabling a
counteracting force to prevent the deflections induced by the cutting forces, thus,
producing the minimum amount of displacement vector sum as indicated in Figure 4.7.
As the tool exiting the machining surface at the bottom, the displacement vector sum
increases because of the less amount of material within the disk to counteract with the
cutting forces. In this study, the top location is chosen to perform the subsequent
analysis because the cutting forces applied at the top node generate the maximum
amount of deflections within the disk. The fixture is designed to minimize this deflection
to provide the most rigid support to the disk.
39
Top
Middle
Bottom
Figure 4.6: Cutting forces are applied in vertical locations such as top, middle, and bottom to
represent a complete cut.
Displacement vector sum
1.90E-05
Top
1.85E-05
Bottom
1.80E-05
1.75E-05
Displacement (m)
1.70E-05
1.65E-05
1.60E-05
1.55E-05
1.50E-05
Middle
1.45E-05
1.40E-05
Location of cutting forces (node position)
Figure 4.7: Displacement vector sum represents top, middle, and bottom locations.
40
4.8 Cutting Forces Locations Represent Disk Rotation
In an actual turning process, the disk is rotating at the cutting speed of 60 m/min in
the counterclockwise direction. The distance between the cutting forces and fixture
components such as clamps and locators are not fixed. The finite element model in
ANSYS is static and can not be rotated. Therefore, the cutting forces are applied at seven
locations circumferentially to represent the full rotation of the disk. The locations of the
clamps and locators of the initial fixture layout are shown in Figure 4.8 on the top view
within ANSYS. The chosen seven locations are illustrated in Figure 4.9. The first
location is identified by point A which is negative 45o away from a set of clamp and
locator. When the cutting forces are aligned with a set of clamp and locator, the point is
identified to be B. The region between point A and B is identified as the cutting forces
are approaching toward the clamp and locator by using a sign convention of negative. As
the clamp and locator is moving away from the cutting forces, the region is identified as
positive region and ends at point C. The location of point C identified as positive 45o
location.
Figure 4.8: Top view of initial fixture layout in ANSYS.
41
Figure 4.9: Cutting forces applied to seven locations in the initial fixture layout.
The ANSYS model calculates the deflections also known as displacement within the
disk. As the cutting forces approaching and moving away from the fixture components
such as locators and clamps, the displacements within the disk change. The rotational
motion reduces the distance between the cutting forces and the set of clamp and locator.
The component displacement such as x, y, and z displacement are generated by the
model in ANSYS. The overall deflections are represented by the displacement vector
sum. Figure 4.10 shows the displacement vector sum generated by the cutting forces in
seven locations circumferentially. The plot shows that both point A and C have identical
displacement behaviors. However, the plot is not symmetric about point B which at 0o
position. The displacement vector sum within the disk decreases rapidly when the
cutting forces are approaching toward the set of the clamp and locator as of from point A
to B. The displacement vector sum is smallest at 0o position because the clamp and
locator are closest to the cutting forces. When the cutting forces are moving away from
the clamp and locator are moving from point B to C, the displacement vector sum is
42
increasing rapidly at 22.5o position, and then continues in a slower rate to reach the
maximum level at point C.
Displacement vector sum
1.40E-05
A C
1.20E-05
D is p la c e m e n t ( m )
1.00E-05 B
8.00E-06
6.00E-06
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Circumferential location of one clamp and locator with respect to cutting forces (degree)
Figure 4.10: Displacement vector sum in seven locations circumferentially.
The range of the magnitudes of the displacement throughout a full rotation of the
disk is very large. The difference between the maximum and minimum displacement is
approximately 85%. A common terminology known as potato chip is used in the
industry to describe this behavior. A good fixture design should reduce this variation and
provide a good amount of support to the disk.
The displacement within the model was further examined by generating the
displacement components such as x, y, and z; radial, circumferential, and axial
respectively. Each displacement component displays an individual behavior as shown in
Figure 4.11. Both the y and z component displacements are negative due to the negative
values of the tangential and feed forces. ANSYS considers the large negative values to
be the minimum values. The minimum values represent the largest deflections within the
disk. Therefore, all minimum values generated by ANSYS are converted into positive
values and are named as Absolute minimum y-component displacement and Absolute
minimum z-component displacement for analysis in this study. The z-component
displacement increases rapidly as the cutting forces move further away from fixture
components. The z-component displacement is double the amount of the x-component
displacement. The y-component displacement is fairly constant because the tangential
43
cutting force is acting in the negative y axis. The y-component displacement is highly
dependent on the stiffness of the disk because both clamps and locators contribute only
the normal supports to the disk.
Z-component =
Y-component = axial direction
circumferential Displacem ent com ponents
direction 1.00E-05
9.00E-06
8.00E-06
7.00E-06
Displacement (m)
6.00E-06
5.00E-06
4.00E-06
3.00E-06
2.00E-06
X-component =
1.00E-06
0.00E+00
radial direction
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Circum ferential location of one clam p and locator w ith respect to cutting forces (degree)
maximum x-component Displacement Absolute minimum y-component Displacement Absolute minimum z-component Displacement
Figure 4.11: Displacement components such as x, y, and z in seven locations circumferentially.
4.8.1 45 Degree Location
The maximum amount of displacement takes place at point A and C which are 45o
away from a set of clamp and location as shown in Figure 4.10. Therefore, the
circumferential location of the cutting forces is determined to be 45o for analysis in
Design of Experiments in Chapter 5 and 6. The goal is to utilize the worst scenario
within a turning process to enable the most robust fixture design.
44
5. DOE to determine the appropriate Fixture Layout
A Design of Experiments (DOE) is used to determine the appropriate fixture layout
which will consist of the optimal number of clamps and locators. The appropriate fixture
layout is determined using the initial clamping force of 1500N as discussed in Chapter 4.
The appropriate magnitude of clamping force will be determined once the appropriate
fixture layout is determined. In a turning process, the disk and fixture components such
as clamps and locators are rotating 360o at a cutting speed. The distance between the
fixture components and the point of contact of the disk and the cutting tool is not fixed.
Therefore, the distance between the cutting forces and fixture components varies
throughout the entire turning process. The contact surface areas between the fixture
components and disk are the critical design variable which can be determined to
minimize the deflections within the disk. The number of clamps and locators are the
corresponding to the contact surface areas between the disk and fixture components. By
increasing the number of clamps and locators, the contact surface areas will be increased
and the amount of support provided to the workpiece increases. The Design of
Experiments will determine the appropriate amount of contact surface areas required to
the tolerable amount of deflection within the disk.
5.1 Objective Statement

All deformations within the disk are determined to be elastic. The cutting tool is
traveling in a predefined path which is governed within the NC program. The cutting
forces inherently generate deflections within the disk during chip formation. The
deflections within the disk would distort the material removal volume within the entire
cut. Figure 5.1 shows the cutting tool is traveling in a predefined path and removing
materials from a deflected disk. In this case, the top section of outer diameter is being
removed in an excessive amount of material due to the bending shape of the disk.
Whereas, the lower section of the outer diameter would not have removed the proper
amount of material. Therefore, a dimensional error will exist during this cut. The cutting
forces are required within a machining process to remove materials from the workpiece.
Therefore, the cutting forces cannot be removed nor reduced due to chip formation
required. One solution is to design a fixture which is able to provide a sufficient amount
45
of support to the workpiece to minimize the machining dimensional errors. In this study,
the DOE will determine the appropriate number of clamps and locators to achieve the
tolerable amount of deflections within the disk. The objective of the DOE is to achieve
the tolerable amount of deflections within the disk by selecting the appropriate number
of clamps and locators which represents the appropriate fixture layout.
Cutting Tool
Travel Path
Figure 5.1: Cutting tool travel path in relation to the deflected disk.
5.2 Factors
Two factors are chosen for the Design of Experiments to determine the appropriate
fixture layout. The factors are the number of clamps and locators, and the magnitudes of
the cutting forces (F).The number of clamps and locators represent the contact surface
areas between the fixture components and disk. As the number of clamps and locators
increases, the contact surface areas increases and provides a larger amount of support to
the disk. The cutting forces are generated by the machining parameters such as feed rate
and depth of cut.
5.3 Levels
The levels within the Design of Experiments are defined as the chosen range of
values for an individual factor. [Willcox24, 24].
5.3.1 The Number of Clamps and Locators
The three levels of the number of clamps and locators are chosen to be 4, 16, and
32. Figure 5.2 shows the three configurations in ANSYS. The four clamps and locators
46
is the initial fixture layout which was defined in the previous chapter. This fixture layout
is considered to have the smallest amount of the total contact surface area which is
2.34e-3 m2. The Table 5.1 lists the total contact surface area for all three fixture layouts.
The 32 clamps and locators have the maximum amount of total surface area between the
fixture components and disk. The 360o full ring configuration is represented by 32
clamps and locators as shown in Figure 5.2. This fixture layout is expected to be able to
provide the maximum amount of support.
4 Clamps and Locators 16 Clamps and Locators 32 Clamps and Locators
Figure 5.2: Three levels of the number of clamps and locators.
Number of clamps and locators Total Contact Surface Area

m2
4 2.34E-03
16 9.34E-03
32 1.87E-02
Table 5.1: The number of clamps and locators with corresponding total contact surface area.
5.3.2 The Magnitudes of the Cutting Forces (F)
The magnitudes of the cutting forces (F) are generated by the machining parameters
such as feed rates and depth of cuts. Three different types of cuts are finish, semi-finish,
and rough cuts are chosen to represent the three levels of the magnitudes of the cutting
forces in this Design of Experiments. The machining parameters are listed in Table 5.2.
The cutting speed is 60m/min for all three types of cuts. The feed rate and depth of cut
are significantly larger for rough than finish cut as indicated in Table 5.2. In the industry,
rough cuts represent the preliminary machining processes to remove excessive amount
of materials in the forgings. The dimensional tolerance can be very large because the
machined surfaces are not part of the finished products which can be delivered to
customers. The subsequent type of cut such as finish is used to remove the remaining
47
material. A finish cut is mostly a fine cut which removes a small amount of material.
The dimensional tolerances of the features produced by the finish cuts are very small.
The manufacturers use different resources such as machines and tools for different type
of cuts such as finish, semi-finish, and rough cuts.
Cutting Speed, v Feed Rate, h Depth of Cut, b
Type of Cut
m/min mm/rev mm
Finish 60 0.178 0.635
Semi-Finish 60 0.254 1.524
Rough 60 0.305 3.048
Table 5.2: Machining parameters for finish, semi-finish, and rough cut.
The three levels of the magnitudes of the cutting forces are represented by F1, F2,
and F3 as of finish, semi-finish, and rough cut, respectively. The magnitudes of the
cutting forces are calculated using the Matlab codes which discussed previously and
stated in the Appendix. The calculated cutting forces were multiplied by the safety factor
of three. The safety factor is to prevent any accidents due to an unforeseeable magnitude
of the cutting forces being generated in the actual machining. The results are
summarized in Table 5.3. The magnitude of cutting forces increases rapidly from finish
to rough cuts due the large amount of depth of cut and feed rate being used. All cutting
forces are applied at the node which is located at the top of the outer diameter as
determined in Chapter 4.
Type of cuttings Finish=F1 Semi-Finish=F2 Rough=F3
Cutting Forces Orientations N N N
Fr, radial -x 10 34 82
Ft, Tangential -y 736 2473 5896
Ff, feed -z 275 860 1985
Table 5.3: The cutting forces for finish, semi-finish, and rough cut.
5.4 Matrix of Experiments

A full factorial design is chosen for this Design of Experiments. The number of
experiments is determined to be nine using the formula of levelfactor [Montgomery25, 25].
The matrix of experiments is shown in Table 5.4. The two factors such as the number of
clamps and locators, and cutting forces are listed in columns. Each row of the matrix
corresponds to one experiment. An individual experiment has a combination of two
factors and its corresponding level. For example, the first experiment has a combination
48
of 4 clamps and locators, and F1 cutting forces which represent a finish cut. All the
experiments are performed by the finite element model in ANSYS. The finite element
model calculates deflections within the disk.
Number of
Experiment Cutting
clamps and
No Forces
locators
1 4 F1
2 4 F2
3 4 F3
4 16 F1
5 16 F2
6 16 F3
7 32 F1
8 32 F2
9 32 F3
Table 5.4: Nine experiments with corresponding values of the two factors.
5.5 Constraints
The constraints of Design of Experiments are factors which can not be changed
[Montgomery, 25]. The constraints are the size of an individual clamp and locator, the
locations of clamps and locators, the clamping force, and the displacement constraints of
the locators. The size of an individual clamp and locator is identical. This means each
locator and clamp occupies two surface areas within the finite element model as stated in
Chapter 4. Each surface has the area of 2.92e-4 m. The locations of the clamps and
locators are restricted within the identified candidate region which discussed in the
previous chapter. The clamps and locators must be aligned vertical to eliminate any
bending moment might have induced to the disk. This will prevent the disk from slipping
during the machining process. The clamp force is determined to be 1500N
[Krishnakumar, 8] as discussed in the previous chapter. The clamping pressure per area
of 2.56e6 Pa is applied in the ANSYS finite element model. The locators are constrained
in x, y, and z-axis.
5.6 Solution Procedure

The analyses of all nine experiments are performed using the finite element model
in ANSYS. The deflections also known as the displacements within the disk are gathered
from the finite element model. The analysis results are displacement vector sum, x-
49
component, y-component, and z-component displacement. These results are entered into
Minitab26 software which performs statistical analyses to generate the Interaction and
Main Effect plots.
5.7 Statistical Analyses

5.7.1 Main Effects
The four Main Effect plots are shown Figure 5.3, Figure 5.4, Figure 5.5, and Figure
5.6 for displacement vector sum, x-component, y-component, and z-component
displacement, respectively. The main effect plots illustrate the relations between the two
factors and displacement within the disk. A negative correlation relationship exists
between the number of clamps and locators and displacement within the disk. This
means as the number of clamps and locators increases, the displacement decreases. The
three types of cutting forces are represented by 1, 2, and 3 as of the finish, semi-finish,
and rough cut, respectively. A large positive slope exists within the four graphs for the
cutting forces and indicates that the displacement increases as the type of cut changes
from the finish to rough cut.
Main Effects Plot for Displacement Vector Sum

Data Means
Number of Clamps and Locators Type of Cutting Forces

0.00007
0.00006
0.00005
Mean
0.00004
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
4 16 32 1 2 3
Figure 5.3: Main Effects Plot for Displacement Vector Sum.
50
Main Effects Plot for Maximum x-component displacement
Data Means

0.000018
0.000016
0.000014
0.000012
Mean
0.000010
0.000008
0.000006
0.000004
0.000002
4 16 32 1 2 3
Figure 5.4: Main Effects for x-component displacement.
Main Effects Plot for Absolute minimum y-component displacement

Data Means
0.00005
0.00004
0.00003
Mean
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
4 16 32 1 2 3
Figure 5.5: Main Effects for y-component displacement.
51
Main Effects Plot for Absolute minimum z-component displacement
Data Means

0.000040
0.000035
0.000030
0.000025
Mean
0.000020
0.000015
0.000010
0.000005
4 16 32 1 2 3
Figure 5.6: Main Effects for y-component displacement.
5.7.2 Interaction Effects
The four Interactions plots are shown in Figure 5.7, Figure 5.8, Figure 5.9, and
Figure 5.10 for displacement vector sum, x-component, y-component, and z-component
displacement, respectively. The Interaction plot is the displacement plotted against the
magnitudes of three types of cutting forces which are represented by 1, 2, and 3 as of
finish, semi-finish, and rough cut. Each plot contains three graphs which represent the
three different fixture layout configurations. The deflection within disk is very small for
a finish cut when compared with a rough cut.
Interaction Plot for Displacement Vector Sum

Data Means
0.00009 Number of
Clamps and
0.00008 Locators
4
0.00007 16
32
0.00006
0.00005
Mean
0.00004
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
1 2 3
Type of Cutting Forces
Figure 5.7: Interaction Plot for Displacement Vector Sum.
52
Interaction Plot for Maximum x-component displacement
Data Means
Number of
0.000025 Clamps and
Locators
4
16
0.000020 32
0.000015
Mean
0.000010
0.000005
0.000000
1 2 3
Figure 5.8: Interaction plot for maximum x-component displacement.
Interaction Plot for Absolute minimum y-component displacement

Data Means
0.00006 Number of
Clamps and
Locators
0.00005 4
16
32
0.00004
Mean
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
1 2 3
Figure 5.9: Interaction plot for absolute minimum y-component displacement.
53
Interaction Plot for Absolute minimum z-component displacement
Data Means
Number of
0.00006 Clamps and
Locators
4
0.00005 16
32
0.00004
Mean
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
1 2 3
Figure 5.10: Interaction plot for absolute minimum z-component displacement.
Overall, as the number of clamps and locators increase, the amount of displacement
decreases. The 32 clamps and locators have the smallest amount of displacement
because the fixture layout has the maximum amount of the total contact surfaces areas
by having a 360o full ring configuration. Table 5.5 summarized the reduction rate of
displacements for a rough cut. When the fixture layout changes from 4 to 16 clamps and
locators, the displacement vector sum is decreased by 31%, while the z-component
displacement decreases by 51%. There is no significant reduction even though the
number of clamps and locators can be reached to 32. This is very similar to the theory of
the diminishing of return. Once a certain number has reached, there is no significant
additional change.
Reduction Rate of Displacement
Fixture Layouts (%)
Vector Sum x-component y-component z-component
From 4 to 16 clamps and locators 31% 40% 11% 51%
From 16 to 32 clamps and locators 8% 25% 4% 16%
Table 5.5: Reduction rates for a rough cut.
5.8 Results and Recommendations

16 clamps and locators fixture layout configuration is chosen to be the appropriate
fixture layout which consists of 50% coverage of the clamping/locating candidate
regions. There are no significant additional benefits to use 32 clamps and locators which
represent the 360o full ring type of configuration widely used in the industry. A smaller
54
number of clamps and locators will reduce the amount of set-up time and the overall cost
of the fixture. The operating costs associated with the fixture would be more economical
because of the fewer numbers of components to be repaired and maintained. Thus, the
chosen fixture layout offers many advantages.
55
6. DOE to determine the appropriate magnitude of Clamping Force
6.1 Objective Statement

The initial magnitude of the clamping force is determined be to 1500N as stated in
Chapter 4. A Design of Experiments (DOE) is used to determine the best magnitude of
the clamping force for 16 clamps and locators fixture layout which is determined to the
appropriate fixture layout in Chapter 5. The objective of the DOE is to minimize the
deflections within the disk by selecting the appropriate magnitude of the clamping force
and confirm the frictional force assumption in Chapter 4. In this study, the frictional
force was assumed to be sufficient, thus, no relative motion such as slipping of the disk
in relation to fixture will exist.
6.2 Clamping Pressure

As stated in Chapter 4, the clamping pressure is calculated based in the magnitude
of clamping force. The clamping pressure is required when applying the clamping
constraints in the finite element model. The clamping forces and corresponding
clamping pressures are summarized in Table 6.1. These values will be used in the
Screening Stage and Design of Experiments.
Cases Clamping Force Clamping Pressure per area
N Pa
3500 5.99E+06
Screening Stage
500 8.56E+05
300 5.14E+05
Design of Experiments 200 3.42E+05
100 1.71E+05
Table 6.1: Clamping Pressures with corresponding clamping forces.
6.3 Constraints
The constraints are identical for the experiments performed in both the Screening
Stage and the Design of Experiments. Chapter 5 determines the appropriate fixture
layout which has 16 clamps and locators. The location of clamps and locators are shown
in Figure 6.1. All locators are constrained in x, y, and z axis. All clamps and locators are
56
vertically aligned to prevent any bending moments being induced onto the disk by
fixture components. All clamps will have the same magnitude of force. In this study, no
slipping is assumed. All cutting forces are applied at the top surface as determined in
Chapter 4.
Figure 6.1: The chosen appropriate fixture layout with 16 clamps and locators.
6.4 Screening Stage

A screening stage determines a valid range of clamping force to be used in the
Design of Experiments. A large range of clamping force is determined to explore the
design space. The clamping force is chosen to be 500N and 3500N. All three types of
cutting forces such as finish, semi-finish, and rough will be used. The Screening Stage
composes of six experiments. The corresponding values of the clamping force and the
magnitude of the cutting forces for each experiment are summarized in Table 6.2. The
magnitudes of the cutting forces F1, F2, and F3 which represent finish, semi-finish, and
rough cuts are determined in Chapter 5 and summarized in Table 5.3.
57
Experiment Clamping Cutting
No. Forces Forces
N N
1 500 F1
2 500 F2
3 500 F3
4 3500 F1
5 3500 F2
6 3500 F3
Table 6.2: Six experiments with corresponding values of the two factors.
6.4.1 Recommended Range of Clamping Forces
The parameters for the six experiments are input into the FE model to calculate the
displacement within the disk. The results from FE analysis are displacement vector sum,
x-component, y-component, and z-component displacement as shown in Figure 6.2,
Figure 6.3, Figure 6.4, and Figure 6.5, respectively. Overall, the displacements are very
similar for both clamping force of 500N and 3500N. This means that the magnitudes of
the clamping force do not affect the deflections within the disk for all three types of cuts.
Therefore, a small clamping force is suggested to be used in the Design of Experiments.
The chosen values of the clamping forces are 100, 200, and 300N.
Displacement Vector Sum
7.00E-05
6.00E-05
Rough
5.00E-05
Displacement (m)
4.00E-05
3.00E-05
2.00E-05 Semi-Finish
1.00E-05
Finish
0.00E+00
Type of cutting forces
Clamping Force=500N Clamping Force=3500N
Figure 6.2: Displacement vector sum for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.
58
Maximum x-component displacement
1.80E-05
1.60E-05
Rough
1.40E-05
1.20E-05
Displacement(m)
1.00E-05
8.00E-06
6.00E-06
Semi-Finish
4.00E-06
2.00E-06
Finish
0.00E+00
Figure 6.3: X-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.
Absolute minimum y-component displacement
0.00006
0.00005 Rough
0.00004
Displacement (m)
0.00003
0.00002 Semi-Finish
0.00001
Finish
0
Type of cutting Forces
Figure 6.4: Y-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.
59
Absolute minimum z-component displacement
0.000035
0.00003
Rough
0.000025
Displacement (m)
0.00002
0.000015
0.00001 Semi-Finish
0.000005
Finish
0
Type of cutting forces
Clamping Force=500N Clamping Force=3500
Figure 6.5: Z-component displacement for 500N and 3500N clamping forces.
6.5 Matrix of Experiments

A full factorial design is chosen for this Design of Experiments. The number of
experiments is determined to be nine using the formula of levelfactor [Montgomery, 25].
The matrix of experiments is shown in Table 6.3. The two factors such as the number of
clamping force, and cutting forces are listed in columns. Each row of the matrix
corresponds to one experiment. An individual experiment has a combination of two
factors and its corresponding level. For example, experiment number one has the
combinations of the clamping force of 300N and the magnitudes of the cutting forces for
a finish cut as of F1 which represent a finish cut. All the experiments are performed by
the finite element model in ANSYS. The finite element model calculates deflections
within the disk.
60
Experiment Clamping Cutting
No Forces Forces
N N
1 300 F1
2 300 F2
3 300 F3
4 200 F1
5 200 F2
6 200 F3
7 100 F1
8 100 F2
9 100 F3
Table 6.3: Nine experiments with corresponding values of the two factors
6.6 Factors and Levels

The two factors are the magnitudes of the cutting forces and clamping forces. The
cutting forces, F1, F2, and F3, represent the finish, semi-finish and rough type of cuts.
The magnitudes of the cutting forces are determined in Chapter 5 and summarized in
Table 5.3. The three levels of the clamping forces per clamp are 100N, 200N, and 300N
as stated in Table 6.3. The corresponding clamping pressures are summarized in Table
6.1.
6.7 Solution Procedure

The analyses of all nine experiments are performed using the ANSYS finite element
model in ANSYS. The deflections also known as the displacements within the disk are
generated from the finite element model. The finite element models post-processing
results are displacement vector sum, x-component, y-component, and z-component
displacement. These results are entered into Minitab software which performs the
statistical analyses to generate the Interaction and Main Effect plots.
6.8 Statistical Analyses

6.8.1 Main Effects
The four Main Effect plots are shown Figure 6.6, Figure 6.7, Figure 6.8, and Figure
6.9, for displacement vector sum, x-component, y-component, and z-component
displacement, respectively. A positive correlation relationship exists between the
61
displacements and cutting forces. As the cutting forces goes from finish to rough cuts,
the displacements increase. This is due to the magnitude of the cutting forces increase
from a finish which is represented by F1 or 1 to a rough cut which is represented by
F3 or 3. On the other hand, the three different clamping forces do not have any effect
on the displacement in the disk.
Main Effects Plot for Displacement Vector Sum

Data Means
Clamping Forces Types of cutting forces
0.00006
0.00005
0.00004
Mean
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
100 200 300 1 2 3
Figure 6.6: Main Effects plot for displacement vector sum.
Main Effects Plot for maximum x-component displacement

Data Means

0.000016
0.000014
0.000012
0.000010
Mean
0.000008
0.000006
0.000004
0.000002
100 200 300 1 2 3
Figure 6.7: Main Effects plot for x-component displacement.
62
Main Effects Plot for Absolute minimum y-component displacement
Data Means

0.00005
0.00004
Mean 0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
100 200 300 1 2 3
Figure 6.8: Main Effects plot for y-component displacement.
Main Effects Plot for Absolute minimum z-component Di

Data Means
0.000030
0.000025
0.000020
Mean
0.000015
0.000010
0.000005
0.000000
100 200 300 1 2 3
Figure 6.9: Main Effects plot for z-component displacement.
6.8.2 Interaction Effects
The four Interactions plots are shown in Figure 6.10, Figure 6.11, Figure 6.12, and
Figure 6.13 for displacement vector sum, x-component, y-component, and z-component
displacement, respectively. The displacements within the disk have no significant
change among the three different clamping forces among all three types of cutting
forces. All displacements are very similar. Surprisingly, the magnitude of the z-
63
component displacement is the smallest at the clamping force of 100N as shown in
Figure 6.13.
Interaction Plot for Displacement Vector Sum

Data Means
0.00006 C lamping
Forces
100
0.00005 200
300
0.00004
Mean
0.00003
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
1 2 3
Types of cutting forces
Figure 6.10: Interaction plot for displacement vector sum.
Interaction Plot for maximum x-component displacement

Data Means
0.000016 C lamping
Forces
0.000014 100
200
300
0.000012
0.000010
Mean
0.000008
0.000006
0.000004
0.000002
1 2 3
Figure 6.11: Interaction plot for maximum x-component displacement.
64
Interaction Plot for Absolute minimum y-component displacement
Data Means
0.00005 C lamping
Forces
100
200
0.00004 300
0.00003
Mean
0.00002
0.00001
0.00000
1 2 3
Figure 6.12: Interaction plot for absolute minimum y-component displacement.
Interaction Plot for Absolute minimum z-component displacement

Data Means
0.000030 C lamping
Forces
100
0.000025 200
300
0.000020
Mean
0.000015
0.000010
0.000005
0.000000
1 2 3
Figure 6.13: Interaction plot for absolute minimum z-component displacement.
6.9 Results and Recommendations

The 100N is chosen to be the appropriate magnitude clamping force for all three
types of cuts. The analyses from Design of Experiments illustrated that there is no
significant changes between 100N and 300N clamping force. The results might have
suggested a smaller magnitude of clamping force than the industry recommended value.
Based on industry experience, the clamping forces should not be smaller than 100N. In
65
an actual machining process, there are many unexpected variables such as broken cutting
tool, lack of machining coolants, and machine failure might cause the magnitudes of the
cutting forces to increase. This might cause unexpected injuries and accidents. Thus, the
clamping force is not recommended to be lower than 100N.
66
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusions from Machining Ti-6Al-4V Disk and FEM Analysis

The chip compression ratio is determined to be 1.2 for oblique cutting of the
chosen Ti-6Al-4V disk.
Using the chosen cutting tool geometry, the normal shear angles, n , are
calculated to be 53.1o and 37.2o for oblique and orthogonal cutting,
respectively. The frictional angle is 20.5o for both oblique and orthogonal
cutting.
The input variables for calculating the cutting forces are the tool geometries
such as nose radius, rake angles, and cutting-edge angles, and the machining
parameters such as feed rate and depth of cut. The input variables are entered
into the written Matlab codes based on the oblique cutting theory empirical
data for calculations of cutting forces.
The tangential cutting force is the primary cutting force component for both
oblique and orthogonal cutting because it has the highest magnitudes among
the three cutting force components such as tangential force, Ft, feed force, Ff,
and radial force Fr. This is consistent with previous published findings.
The ANSYS FE model calculates the displacements within the disk. As the
locations of the cutting forces change circumferentially in relation to the
fixture components such as clamps and locators, the displacements within
the disk change in a non-symmetrical manner. The difference between the
maximum and minimum displacement is approximately 85%. A term
potato chip is used in the industry to describe this behavior.
The results generated by the finite element model in ANSYS provide an
understanding of the behavior of the disk during a turning process. Turning
is a dynamic process. Both the disk and fixture are rotating in a speed known
as cutting speed which is 60 m/min in this study. The finite element model in
ANSYS is static analysis of a dynamic process. Therefore, key locations are
identified within the finite element model to represent snap shots of the
overall machining process. These snap shots illustrated the behaviors of the
67
dynamic machining process and enable readers to make reasonable
conclusions and predictions. The deflections in the disk due to the rotational
body force are negligible compared to those due to the cutting force. The
inertia angular velocity of 1000 rad/sec is applied to the FE model to
examine the effect of centrifugal forces during a turning process. There is
no change to analysis results such as displacements and von mises stress.
Therefore, the inertia angular velocity is chosen to be zero for analysis.
The x, y, and z displacement components represent radial, circumferential,
and axial, respectively. The maximum x-component displacement has an
average displacement of 2.4e-6m for the chosen finish cuts. The maximum
amount of z-component displacement is double the maximum amount of the
x-component displacement. The y-component displacement is fairly constant
and is approximately fives times higher than x-component.
When the machining surface is the outer diameter of a disk, the displacement
vector sum has the largest magnitude at the top surface where the cutting
tool enters into the machining surface of the disk.
7.2 Conclusions from Design of Experiments

A full factorial design is chosen for Design of Experiments to determine the
appropriate fixture layout. The Screening Stage and the Design of
Experiments are used to explore the design space for the magnitudes of the
clamping force.
The analyses of all experiments are performed using the finite element
model in ANSYS. The displacements within the disk are calculated. The
statistical analyses in Minitab generate the Interaction and Main Effect plots
for DOE.
16 clamps and locators are chosen to be the appropriate fixture layout which
consists of 50% coverage of the clamping/locating candidate regions by
achieving 31% displacement reduction. There are no significant additional
benefits to use 32 clamps and locators which represent the 360o full ring type
of configuration being widely used in the industry. The 360o full ring type of
68
configuration obtains 8% of displacement reduction while double the
amount of fixture components. The amount of displacement reduction is not
significant compared to the number of fixture components being added.
100N is chosen to be the appropriate clamping force for all three types of
cuts. The results from the DOE illustrate that the displacement within the
disk are approximately identical for 100N, 200N and 300N clamping forces.
This study recommends using a smaller magnitude of clamping force
because of savings in costs and the amount of set-up time required.
7.3 Future Studies

The following key elements are suggested for future studies.
The feed rate was assumed to be constant for the calculation of the cutting
forces in Chapter 3. It would be highly beneficial to examine the effects of
various feed rates.
The cutting forces are calculated using formulas and assumptions from
published materials. An actual machining verification of the calculated
cutting forces would be valuable and significant.
The residual stresses within a forged Ti-6Al-4V impact the machining
process. A finite element model analysis incorporated residual stress is
suggested to explore the effects of residual stresses within the surfaces of a
forged material workpiece.
Implementation of a real optimization process is suggested to determine the
optimal surface contact areas between the workpiece and fixture components
such as locators and clamps. The current FE model can be modified to
perform an optimization process.
The frictional force between workpiece and fixture components such as
locators and clamps should be studied for the effects such as the true
magnitudes of clamping force required.
69
8. Appendix:
8.1 Matlab codes to calculate cutting forces in oblique cutting.

%clc
%Tool Geometry - Need to convert to Radian angle unit
alpha_f=5*(pi/180); %side rake angle of tool
alpha_p=0*(pi/180); %back rake angle of tool
psi_r=15*(pi/180); %side cutting edge angle of tool
% Analyzing the mechanics of oblique cutting Eq 2.63 at P29. With exception
% to B_a_degree, all angles are in radian unit.
tan_alpha_o=tan(alpha_f)*cos(psi_r)+tan(alpha_p)*sin(psi_r);
tan_i=tan(alpha_p)*cos(psi_r)+tan(alpha_f)*sin(psi_r);
i=atan(tan_i);
n=i;
tan_alpha_n=tan_alpha_o*cos(i);
alpha_n=atan(tan_alpha_n);
rc=1.2;
fe_n=atan(rc*cos(alpha_n)/(1-rc*sin(alpha_n)));
B_a_degree=19.1+0.29*(alpha_n*(180/pi)); %degree
B_a_rad=B_a_degree*(pi/180);
B_n=atan(tan(B_a_rad)*cos(i)); %rad
% Calculations of Oblique Cutting Constants Eq 2.62 at P25
Den=sqrt((cos(fe_n+B_n-alpha_n))^2+(tan(n))^2*(sin(B_n))^2);
Ts=613; %613MPa = 613N/mm^2 which will be used. (from Table 2.1 on P13)
Ktc=(Ts/sin(fe_n))*((cos(B_n-alpha_n)+tan(i)*tan(n)*sin(B_n))/Den);
Kfc=(Ts/(sin(fe_n)*cos(i)))*(sin(B_n-alpha_n)/Den);
Krc=(Ts/sin(fe_n))*((cos(B_n-alpha_n)*tan(i)-tan(n)*sin(B_n))/Den);
%Cutting Forces
%INPUT Cutting Parameters
h=0.178; %feedrate [mm/rev]
b=0.635 %radial depth of cut [mm]
70
%Constant from Table 2.1
Kte=24; %N/mm
Kfe=43; %N/mm
Kre=0; %N/mm. This assumption is based on orthogonal cutting measurement
results.
% Calculations of cutting forces from Eq 2.59 on P24
Ft=Ktc*b*h+Kte*b
Ff=Kfc*b*h+Kfe*b
Fr=Krc*b*h
8.2 Matlab codes to calculate cutting forces in orthogonal cutting.

%clc
%Tool Geometry - Need to convert to Radian angle unit
alpha_f=5*(pi/180); %side rake angle of tool
alpha_p=0*(pi/180); %back rake angle of tool
psi_r=15*(pi/180); %side cutting edge angle of tool
% Analyzing the mechanics of oblique cutting Eq 2.63 at P29. With exception
% to B_a_degree, all angles are in radian unit.
tan_alpha_o=tan(alpha_f)*cos(psi_r)+tan(alpha_p)*sin(psi_r);
tan_i=tan(alpha_p)*cos(psi_r)+tan(alpha_f)*sin(psi_r);
%i=atan(tan_i);
i=0; %oblique angle is 0 for orthogonal cutting.
n=i;
tan_alpha_n=tan_alpha_o*cos(i);
alpha_n=atan(tan_alpha_n);
B_a_degree=19.1+0.29*(alpha_n*(180/pi)); %degree
B_a_rad=B_a_degree*(pi/180);
B_n=atan(tan(B_a_rad)*cos(i)); %rad
fe_n=pi/4-((B_a_rad-alpha_n)/2); %Orthogonal Shear angle use Merchant's
theory.
% Calculations of Oblique Cutting Constants Eq 2.62 at P25
71
Den=sqrt((cos(fe_n+B_n-alpha_n))^2+(tan(n))^2*(sin(B_n))^2);
Ts=613; %613MPa = 613N/mm^2 which will be used. (from Table 2.1 on P13)
Ktc=(Ts/sin(fe_n))*((cos(B_n-alpha_n)+tan(i)*tan(n)*sin(B_n))/Den);
Kfc=(Ts/(sin(fe_n)*cos(i)))*(sin(B_n-alpha_n)/Den);
Krc=(Ts/sin(fe_n))*((cos(B_n-alpha_n)*tan(i)-tan(n)*sin(B_n))/Den);
%Cutting Forces
%INPUT Cutting Parameters
h=0.178; %feedrate [mm/rev]
b=0.127 %radial depth of cut [mm]
%Constant from Table 2.1
Kte=24; %N/mm
Kfe=43; %N/mm
Kre=0; %N/mm. This assumption is based on orthogonal cutting measurement
results.
% Calculations of cutting forces from Eq 2.59 on P24
Ft=Ktc*b*h+Kte*b
Ff=Kfc*b*h+Kfe*b
Fr=Krc*b*h
8.3 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 4.8

Cutting Forces generated from finish type of cuts and 1500N Clamping Force are
applied to initial fixture layout which consists of 4 equally spaced clamps and locators.
72
Figure 8.1: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)
Figure 8.2: Displacement Vector Sum at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)
73
Figure 8.3: X-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)
Figure 8.4: Y-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)
74
Figure 8.5: Z-component Displacement at Point B (0o from a Clamp and Locator)
Figure 8.6: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
75
Figure 8.7: Displacement Vector Sum at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.8: X-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
76
Figure 8.9: Y-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.10: Z-component displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
77
Figure 8.11: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.12: Displacement Vector Sum at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
78
Figure 8.13: X-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.14: Y-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
79
Figure 8.15: Z-Component Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.16: Finish Cutting Forces is Applied at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
80
Figure 8.17: Displacement Vector Sum at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.18: X-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
81
Figure 8.19: Y-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.20: Z-Component Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
82
Figure 8.21: Side View of X Displacement at -11.25o from a Clamp and Locator
Figure 8.22: Side View of X Displacement at -22.5o from a Clamp and Locator
83
Figure 8.23: Side View of X Displacement at -45o from a Clamp and Locator
8.4 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 5

The ANSYS finite elements results were plotted for Chapter 5 when nine experiments
were performed for the Design of Experiments. The experiment number one was
performed in Chapter 4. Thus, the following figures represent experiment number two to
nine.
84
Figure 8.24: Displacements Contour Plots for Experiment#2
Figure 8.25: Displacements Contour Plots for Experiment#3
85
Figure 8.26: 16 Clamps and Locators for Experiment# 4 to 6
Figure 8.27: Displacements Contours Plots for Experiment# 4
86
87
Figure 8.30: 32 Clamps and Locators for Experiment# 7 to 9
88
Figure 8.32: Displacements Contours Plots for Experiment#8
8.5 ANSYS Finite Element Model Results for Chapter 6

The following figures are displacement contour plots. The fixture layout is 16 clamps
and locators as shown Figure 8.26 which is used for the Design of Experiments. All nine
experiments have four displacement contour plots individually.
89
Figure 8.34: Displacement Contour Plots of No Cutting Forces Applied.
Figure 8.35: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment# 1
90
Figure 8.37: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment#3
91
92
93
Figure 8.43: Displacement Contour Plots for Experiment#9
94
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A Study of Fixture Layout and Clamping force for a Ti-6Al-4V Disk in

a Vertical Turning Lathe Numerically Controlled Machine

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

3.4.5 Normal rake angle, n ......................................................................... 23

3.4.6 Friction angle, a , and Normal friction angle, n ................................ 24

3.4.8 Cutting Constants ................................................................................. 27

Symbol Descriptions Unit

1.2 Background and Significance

1.3 Literature Review

2.1 Vertical Turning Lathe (VTL) process

Figure 2.1: Facing on a vertical boring machine [Boothroyd, 13]

In the industry, vertical lathe machines are controlled by a Numerically Control

Figure 2.2: Amera Seiki Vertical Turning VT2000 Machine

2.1.2 Machine Table

2.2 Description of Workpiece

2.2.2 Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V

The material of the disk is chosen to be Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. The material

Ti-6Al- solution treated

Table 2.1: Material Properties of Ti-6Al-4V. [Donachie, 4]

Titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloys have machinability rating of 18 and 22 for annealed(A)

B1112 resulfurized steel HR 100

(a): HR=hot rolled, CD=cold drawn, A=annealed, and STA=solution treated

(b): Based on a rating of 100 for B1112 steel

2.3 Description of fixture

Figure 2.4: Fixture-disk assembly includes plate, locator and clamp.

3.1 Machining Conditions

3.2 Cutting Tool Properties

Hv g/cm3 MPa MPa GPa m/m K W/m K

3.2.2 Cutting Tool Geometry

Tool Feature symbols Tool Feature Names Actual Tool

p Back rake angle 0

End clearance angle

Side clearance angle

kr End cutting-edge angle o

r Side cutting-edge angle o

R Nose radius 0.762 mm

Table 3.2: Actual dimensions of cutting tool. [Donachie, 4]

3.3 Machining Parameters

3.3.1 Feed Rate, h

3.3.2 Depth of Cut, b

The range of depth of cut, b, is determined to be from 0.127mm to 0.635mm as

3.3.3 Cutting Speed, v

3.3.4 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

3.4 Cutting Forces

3.4.3 Calculation Procedure

Figure 3.6: Flow diagram of cutting forces calculations.

3.4.4 Oblique angle, i , and Chip flow angle,

r - cutting tool side cutting-edge angle

Figure 3.7: Geometry of oblique cutting process. [Altintas, 18]

3.4.5 Normal rake angle, n

Where 0 - orthogonal rake angle

tan n = tan 0 cos i 3.3

Where n - normal rake angle

3.4.6 Friction angle, a , and Normal friction angle, n

angle, a for orthogonal cutting. The calculated frictional angle,

n = tan 1 (tan a cos i ) 3.5

3.4.7 Chip compression ratio, rc, and Normal shear angle, n

orthogonal cutting. This calculation is based on Merchants Minimum Energy Principle

3.4.8 Cutting Constants

Ktc 2035.5 1617.3

3.4.9 Cutting Forces Formulas

F f = K fcbh + K feb 3.12

K fe - average edge force coefficient = 43 N/mm