COM 300: Visual Rhetoric

Graphic Design: A brief history

Serena Fenton, University of North Carolina

Design is subject to fashion and changing moods of the political and economic climate. Design
trends move back and forth in a pendulum arc from one extreme to another. The average time
for the trends to move from one extreme to another takes about 20 to 40 years. At one end is the
organic look: appearing handmade and influenced by nature. The other end is the machine look:
streamlined and taking advantage of the latest technological advances. At present, we are in the
downswing of the latest mechanical trend, moving back toward organic.

Arts and Crafts Movement – late 19th Century

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This pendulum has been swinging in this fashion since the late-19 century, following the advent
of the industrial age. The changes in society in the years of the industrial revolution and those
following were tumultuous. Charles Dickens spent a lifetime telling stories that documented the
clashes of a society in rapid change.

Cities became foul with smoke from the

factories and industrial waste. Yet people
continued to pour in because of the improved
job opportunities and pay. While the quality of
life was improving in some ways, it was also
simultaneously degrading. The response from
the artists’ community was an interest in the
skills that were being lost and forgotten.
Handmade objects with intricate detailing
gained in popularity. While machine made
type was popularizing publications, artists were
relearning the skills and ideals of hand.William
Morris was a leader in both the Arts and Crafts
movement, which sought to unify usefulness
and beauty, but also in the Pre-Raphaelite
movement, a group of painters who held that
all great art had been created prior to the high
Renaissance. Morris was outspoken about the
decline in quality of goods due to mass-

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production. He called for a return to the hand-crafting of artifacts that had characterized the
Middle Ages. Morris was the son of a wealthy mine owner. He used his family money to
establish his own company to produce wallpapers, textiles, carpets, embroideries, tapestries and
books using traditional methods, materials and themes. A touch of irony is found in the fact that
his wallpapers were printed with arsenic based green ink. This could become vaporous and was
blamed for the deaths of several small children.

A quote from William Morris (from the reading, The Decorative Arts, Their Relation To Modern
Life And Progress, expresses the essence of Morris’ philosophy: “for there is the decoration, or
some pretence of it, and it has, or ought to have, a use and a meaning. For, and this is at the root
of the whole matter, everything made by man's hands has a form, which must be either beautiful
or ugly; beautiful if it is in accord with Nature, and helps her; ugly if it is discordant with Nature,
and thwarts her; it cannot be indifferent; we, for our parts are busy or sluggish, eager or unhappy,
and our eyes are apt to get dulled to this eventfulness of form in those things which we are
always looking at.”

Art Nouveau 1900 - 1920

Art nouveau officially emerged as a full-blown phenomenon at 1900 World's Fair in Paris, where
Art Nouveau was established as the first new decorative style of the twentieth century. The goal
of Art Nouveau was to create an international style of design. Like the Arts and Crafts movement,
art Nouveau was heavily influenced by fluid organic shapes. And also like the Arts and Crafts
Movement, Art Nouveau was a response to the Industrial Revolution.
While some artists welcomed the technological progress of new
materials such as cast iron (creating the famous Paris subway
entrances), others deplored the shoddiness of mass-produced goods.
Art Nouveau designers believed that all the arts should work in
harmony to create a "total work of art," or Gesamtkunstwerk. Nature
was probably the major inspiration for most Art Nouveau artists and
designers. Motifs from the natural world were the basis for most of
their work.

Constructivism, de Stijil, and Bauhaus

1913 -1933

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Constructivism had its start in 1913 in Russian by a group of artists and architects influenced by
cubism. In 1920, the movement wrote their “Realist Manifesto” that outlined the goals of the
movement (one of which was to “construct art” - hence the name, constructivist). In this
manifesto, the group declared their enthusiasm for machines, technology, industrialism and
modern industrial materials. Although they considered themselves artists, they sought to emulate
the practical thinking of mechanical engineering. Much of this thinking was influenced by the
1917 Communist Revolution in Russia and the promise of an ideal society through the application
of modern industrial methods.

De Stijl (or The Style) was a related movement in the Netherlands. Piet
Mondrian was the group's leading figure. All design was ordered by rules of
design economy and simplicity. Architect Theo van Doesburg founded the
group in 1917 and published the magazine De Stijl, which ran from 1917 to
1928. De Stijl artists sought to create a universal style in painting,
architecture and design, using rectangles and squares in geometric shapes
of primary colors with black, gray and white, all carefully arranged in a grid
format.

Bauhaus 1919-33

Much like the Constructivists and de Stijl, the Bauhaus began with
an utopian definition: "The building of the future" was to combine
all the arts in ideal unity. Originally, the notion was to provide a
new education for the artists. By 1923 though, the idea had
evolved to: "art and technology - a new unity", indicating a merger
of industrial techniques and artistic design standards, which would
produce goods that were both functional and aesthetically
pleasing. The Bauhaus workshops produced prototypes for mass
production. The items would then, theoretically be produced in
factories and mass marketed to the consumer. The Bauhaus
product line ranged from a single lamp to a complete dwelling. In the Bauhaus manifesto, Walter
Gropius proclaimed,:

“Schools must return to the workshop. The world of the pattern-designer and applied artist,
consisting only of drawing and painting must become once again a world in which things are built.
If the young person who rejoices in creative activity now begins his career as in the older days by
learning a craft, then the unproductive "artist" will no longer be condemned to inadequate artistry,
for his skills will be preserved for the crafts in which he can achieve great things. “

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The Bauhaus masters on the roof of the Bauhaus building in Dessau. From the left: Josef Albers, Hinnerk Scheper, Georg
Muche, László Moholy-Nagy, Herber Bayer, Joost Schmidt, Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, Vassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee,
Lyonel Feininger, Gunta Stölzl and Oskar Schlemmer.

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Some of the greatest designers of the 20 century were participants in the Bauhaus movement,
including Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, Vassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Josef Albers, and László
Moholy-Nagy. "New Typography" was graphic design contribution of the Bauhaus. As
opposed to the proceeding movements of decorative typography, the Bauhaus sought to express
“clarity of the message in its most emphatic form". The mantra became “simplify, simplify,
simplify.”

Pictorial Modernism
Pictorial Modernism isn’t so much an actual school of artistic thought as it is an expression of
what was actually being seen and published. While the Bauhaus, Constructivists and de Stijl
struggled to create an ideal society through the application of art and design, there was an
parallel design trend that never waived in its popularity with the masses. Pictorial modernism
followed a style of idealized illustration of contemporary society. The works were persuasive
simply because they targeted a specific market and followed through with a strong appeal. The
artists ranged from such greats as Charles Dana Gibson to Norman Rockwell. While these works
reflected the current society, they also served to define that society by portraying a picture perfect
fantasy-reality.

Examples of pictorial modernism:

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Kelloggs ad; 1917

US Army Recruiting
Poster; World War I

RCA Radiola ad by
Karl Godwin; 1920s

Coke ad by Haddon
Sundblom; 1937

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Norman Rockwell;
1943

“Rosie the Riveter”;

1942

National Dairy
Products; 1947

Tattooed Man,
(Marlboro Man); 1955

International Typographic Style (a.k.a Swiss design)

1950 – 1970 +

The International Style emerged from Switzerland and Germany in the

post war years, rising from the traditions of the Bauhaus and de Stijl.
Where the earlier movements had been largely regional or limited in
outreach, the International style dominated the world of graphic design for
over 20 years. The movement lacked any clearly articulated polemic or
manifest, such as the earlier modernist movements had had. Nontheless,

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the elements of the design aesthetic were quite clearly defined and widely used throughout
American and Europe.

The design objective of the International Style was to present visual and verbal information in a
clearly articulated, easily understood manner. The designers focused on achieving this visual
clarity by the use of a rigorously constructed mathematical grid. The design elements would then
be placed in an asymmetrical composition on the grid. A tension
was thereby created between the rigidity of the grid and the
spontaneity of the layout. Type faces were usually sans-serif, a
style that expressed the ideal of modernity and a lack of
sentimentality.

The work was highly structured, and often appeared almost

sterile, being so devoid of any humor or emotion, yet it
reflected the societal excitement for a “bright new beautiful
tomorrow”. The designers saw themselves as attempting to find a
universal and scientific solution to a communication problem. Personal idiosyncrasies and
eccentric solutions were almost the antithesis of this modernist movement. Achieving clarity and
order were the ideal – it followed the 1950s notion of “better living through science”.

New York School: Paul Rand and Saul Bass 1950s

Paul Rand and Saul Bass were men at a crossroads. They were Americans and they were
influenced by the International Typographic Style which dominated their time. But they allowed
their personal design sense and their visual storytelling to escape beyond the traditional
boundaries of the International Style. It was Swiss Style goes American.

The era was one of huge corporate growth. The war was over. The troops were home.
Everyone wanted a family, a house, and a car. Corporate America was doing its best to meet
those goals. As the corporations fought over the public’s dollar and their loyalty, the notion of
corporate logos and branding was born.

Paul Rand is best known for his logo design work, having created logos
for large corporate entities from IBM to UPS. Quoting from a Tributre to
Paul Rand at Renssaler Institute of Tecnology, we can grab a succinct

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look at this man’s contribution to design: “Paul Rand is one of the most influential figures in
American graphic design. He explored the formal vocabulary of the European avant garde art
movements and developed an unique and distinctly American graphic style which was
characterized by simplicity, wit and a rational approach to problem solving”

His work went far beyond just the corporate logo; Rand created designs that were minimal and
clear, yet shimmered with wit and originality. In a tribute to Rand in Communication Arts
magazine, they quote Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, as saying Paul Rand was “an idealist and a realist
using the language of the poet and the businessman. He thinks in terms of need and function. He
is able to analyze his problems, but his fantasy is boundless.”

Saul Bass followed a similar path in the world of posters and

Hollywood movie advertising. He manipulated typography to
achieve a range of psychological and emotional effects which had
been previously unobtainable with conventional type. Bass also
designed the opening for several Alfred Hitchcock films, including
North by Northwest, Vertigo and Psycho.

Bass emphasized mood and feeling of a piece to create the final

image. Prior to his work, the typical movie poster showed a glossy
of the star, rather than attempting to convey the emotion of the film.
Saul Bass’ most famous quote might be: “design is thinking made
visual.”

Psychedelic Era 1960-70s

The social climate of the mid and late sixties was all about breaking free from the constraints of
the 1950s. Design followed suit. Most of the conventions of the International Typographic Style
became viewed as stifling and rigid. The San Francisco hippie movement produced a new,
undulating organic style that harkened back to the Art Nouveau period. The push for clarity was
pushed aside in favor of style. If the communication was cool enough, the reader would
eventually come to understand it. What began as an alternative, street communication among a
relatively small circle of San Franciscans, spread rapidly and globally.

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Peter Max was a key European contributor to the style. In an

interview with Red Herring magazine, Max summarized the period:
“Back when the Beatles and rock-and-roll
started happening, I could see how a new
art form could gain a wide audience almost
overnight. I started to apply my images on
stuff like t-shirts, caps, magazine covers, and book jackets. Suddenly, I
had 30 or 40 licensing deals, and, to my shock and surprise, retailers
were selling a billion dollars in merchandise with my images on them! I
think that type of merchandising phenomenon is even more possible
today with the Internet. So I am now working with the New York Institute
of Technology and IBM to open a media lab to get my work to the
masses.”

PushPin Studios, in New York, under the direction of Milton Glaser and Seymour
Chwast took the concept of irreverent, fresh design and moved it into the
mainstream. PushPin combined the organic design aspects of Arts and Crafts, Art
Nouveau, and Art Deco with contemporary photography, typography and illustration
to create an original design entity. PushPin was not just
limited to publication projects. In 1968, Milton Glaser became one of the
founders and design directors of New York magazine, creating a regional
weekly with a fresh layout and format. In 1983, Glaser founded WBMG, a
firm which focuses on the graphic remaking of publications (including the
Washington Post). As a pro-bono piece for the New York office of
Tourism, Glaser originated the I Love NY campaign. He did not copyright
it- and it had been repeated endlessly around the globe.

Glaser also has done interior and industrial design as well as teaching
extensively. He designed the restaurants, observation deck, and
permanent exhibition for the now extinct New York World Trade Center. He finally expanded the
mold of the designer to being the mold of the Renaissance man; a man who can and does create
in any medium.

The Digital Era

Milton Glaser was the end of what has been called the manual era
of design. This was an era where type was set on a huge machine
and painstakingly positioned by hand, then held in place with gummy wax strips. Illustrations

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might incorporate photographs, but were largely hand done with material similar to what had been
used for hundreds of years (with the exception of some new drawing media such as markers and
colored pencils). The late 1980’s and the invention of the Apple Macintosh (or Mac) computer
changed all that. The Mac changed everything. Type could be manipulated in seconds; new
fonts could be easily created; images could be manipulated. Anyone could be a designer,
without the long mastery of the tools. And many tried their hand, bringing a new freshness and
excitement to the field.

Some of the designers who have been active since the mid-eighties and reshaped design with
grunge fonts, intentionally illegible typography, and abstract images are:

Muriel Cooper:
http://www.chrysler.com/design/design_influences/design_awards/1994/mcooper.html

David Carson: http://www.artandculture.com/arts/artist?artistId=252

Clement Mok: http://wisconsin.aiga.org/mok.html “Design should be used as a verb. Our society

looks at design as the creation or building of something.”

Tolleson Design: http://www.adobe.com/print/features/tolleson/main.html

Armin Hofmann: http://thegalleriesatmoore.org/publications/baselah.shtml

Jennifer Sterling: http://www.adobe.com/print/features/sterling/main.html

Bruce Mau: http://www.brucemaudesign.com/manifesto/manifesto.html

Designers Republic: “design or die” http://www.thedesignersrepublic.com/

Tibor Kalman : "Forward motion, clarity and surprise, these three principles," Tibor taught us,
"are at the heart of all great stories." http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm?Alias=tiborsclass

John Maeda: http://www.scottkim.com/inversions/gallery/johnmaeda.html

April Greiman: http://www.aprilgreiman.com/

Stefan Sagmeister: http://wisconsin.aiga.org/sagmeister.html

NEXT CLASS: Visual Rhetoric reading quiz, on the graphic designer. Matching Game in two
parts.

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