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Contents
Content
Preface
Introduction1
Individualised Production5
Direct, Mould-less Production Systems 6
Automated Optimisation for High-pressure Die Casting Dies 11
Automated Optimisation of Profile Extrusion Dies 16
Integrated Technologies33
Integrative Sheet Metal Processing Centre34
Multi-Technology Machining Centre39
Monolithic Plastics Optics44
Structural Parts49
Integrating Electrical Functionalities in Plastics Parts54
Collaboration Productivity115
Theory of Production116
Scientific Cooperation Engineering 117
Scientific Cooperation Portal 118
Technology Transfer122
PROTECA Integrative Production Technology Aachen123
Preface
Preface
Manufacturing is one of the core sectors of the European renowned companies from different branches, sustaina-
economy with more than 30 percent of all employees. ble solutions for production in the future.
Manufacturers in high-wage earning countries are there-
fore more exposed to volatile changes in the global en- The focus of the Cluster of Excellence is primarily on
vironment and under pressure from the financial climate increasing productivity, not only on production in a
so that, a reduction in costs is only possible to a certain traditional sense, but also in the product development
extent. To remain globally competitive, it is therefore process. Product development and production are
essential to compensate cost disadvantages by providing addressed using a holistic approach, and lead to a new
greater customer proximity, flexibility, adaptability and theory of production. Taking into consideration the
process synchronisation. These measures in combination background of new breakthroughs in hard- and software
with high productivity lead to locational advantages, and and in intelligent automation and social networks, a new
need therefore to be focused on. type of collaboration productivity arises, that can be seen
in the results.
Since 2006, scientists from the RWTH Aachen Univer-
sity have been working together on interdisciplinary This publication will provide you with an overview of the
research projects within the Cluster of Excellence (CoE) current technical demonstrators, and research results and
titled, Integrative Production Technology for High-Wage analysis of different studies by the Cluster of Excellence,
Countries. Sponsored by the Deutsche Forschungs- Integrative Production Technology for High-Wage
gemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) 80 Countries.
scientists from more than 25 institutes from the areas of
production, material sciences, economics as well as natu- We look forward to receiving your suggestions and ideas,
ral and social sciences, are developing in cooperation with and if you are interested in participating in any of our
activities, please feel free to contact us.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Brecher (CEO) Cathrin Wesch-Potente (COO, 04/12 - 06/14)
Introduction
Introduction
For production in high-wage countries, it is vital to offer The rapid progress in hard- and software during the last
products corresponding to customer demands, at com- years has already changed the common procedures of
petitive prices as well as to fully adapt to the market, and manufacturers. In future the strong integration of infor-
social changes while still assuring an optimal usage of mation and communication technologies (ICT), intelligent
resources. These contradicting objectives (scale vs. scope; sensors and automation in production as well as social
plan vs. value) form the so-called polylemma of produc- networks will accelerate this trend, and lead to an incre-
tion. Its resolution is the key to sustainable production in ase in productivity. In retrospect, all preceding industrial
high-wage countries. revolutions resulted in a significant productivity growth
within production. In the first industrial revolution, the
Performance indicators and models within individual steam engine was introduced as a main source of energy.
production technologies are not sufficient, a deeper At the same time, labour became increasingly specialised
technology-spanning perception is necessary. Moreover, and standardised parts were launched, allowing for an
it has become evident that reductionist description and easier exchange of broken parts. These developments
interpretation models have to be combined with a cyber- led to the establishment of central production sites, and
netic approach in order to account for the unpredictable to a significant growth of manufacturers. Demand for
and complex nature of production systems as a whole. energy rose simultaneously and urbanisation around
industrial areas took place. The next boost of productivity
The Cluster of Excellence aims therefore, not only to was triggered during the second industrial revolution
develop production technologies for the future, but when Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the division
also to increase productivity in production, and product of labour, and Henry Ford introduced the conveyor belt.
development processes by combining deterministic and Standardised products, e.g. Model T and clear work task
cybernetic models. descriptions enabled learning, while economies of scale
1
Introduction
Scope Value
Plan Scale
Return on Engineering
allowed for rising quantities of an item to be built with The Return on Engineering quantifies the growth of
a considerable reduction of unit costs and marking the productivity which is gained in the product development
beginning of mass production. process. The aim is to attain considerable cost benefits for
small lot sizes, down to lot size one. The key for indivi-
Computer development, as well as the invention of pro- dualised production is a radical shortening of product
grammable logic controllers (PLC) and industrial robots development processes, in order to quickly develop a
led to the third industrial revolution. This involved auto- product from the beginning of the idea. The means of
mation of all sorts of processes driven by Moores law, prototypes and agile development on the basis of short
which states that the number of transistors on a compu- feedback cycles are as important as new business models
ter chip, and therefore the computing capacity doubles which embed customers and reduce disruptions. With the
every two years. In contrast to the three preceding indus- strategic use of simulations, development times and costs
trial revolutions, the current revolution has its roots, not can be decreased. For being able to deploy virtual proto-
in the production sites but in the private domain where types, it is not sufficient to look at one single process step
social networks and mobile devices are used as means to and one single technology. Instead the entire value chain
gather, evaluate and communicate information. This new needs to be taken into consideration. Only the creation
development of networking, interaction and cooperation of complete and consistent virtual process chains allows
among and between employees and machines offers simulating diverse scenarios and factors that may exercise
greater potential for higher productivity. Not only manu- an influence. Such simulations strengthen the basis for
facturing processes, but indirectly other departments can making high-quality decisions in production systems.
also benefit from this higher degree of interconnection.
Therefore, two major objectives have been defined within
the Cluster Integrative Production Technology for High- Return on Production
Wage Countries: Return on Production and Return on
Engineering. These objectives are addressed in the four Increasing productivity in manufacturing processes is
main research areas: Individualised Production, Virtual represented by the objective Return on Production. A
Production Systems, Integrated Technologies and Self- revolutionary shortening of the complete value chain,
optimising Production Systems. and therefore a reduction of interfaces and disruptions
2
Introduction
today today
#
# #
Virtual Engineering of the Complete Value Chain Revolutionary Short Value Chains
are essential for a raise in productivity. By integrating or even the initially anticipated level of productivity can be
substituting several process steps and technologies into exceeded. It may be possible to gain productivity growths
one, by parallelising process steps, or by integrating mul- beyond todays foreseeable limits, by adapting the target
tiple functions into one product, production times and system and corresponding structures during the process.
disturbances can be reduced. Concepts and first results regarding a rise of Return on
Production and Return on Engineering will be described
Furthermore, self-optimising production systems which in this publication in the following diverse research fields.
are directly adaptable and capable of making decisions
so that they are able to immediately react to failures offer
high potential. The aim is to continuously improve the
performance from a socio-technical perspective so that
CHAIR FOR
COMPUTATIONAL
ANALYSIS OF
TECHNICAL
SYSTEMS
INSTITUT FR REGELUNGSTECHNIK
UNIV.-PROF. DR.-ING. DIRK ABEL
3
Introduction
4
Individualised Production 1
Individualised Production
The research area of Individualised Production deals with ments. Additionally, SLM allows new business models 3
how customised products can be produced efficiently. where the customer is more involved in the design and
The aim is to achieve competitive prices, even at the lot development process.
size of one. Thus, the focus is on a radical shortening of
the process from the idea of a product to the production. A second approach within the research cluster was to
One approach is the implementation of direct mould-less focus on mould-based manufacturing processes used in 4
manufacturing processes that have been advanced by the mass-production. The manufacturing of moulds is time-
Cluster of Excellence. One of the key technologies, in this consuming and cost-intensive, and requires extensive
area is Selective Laser Melting (SLM) which is an additive experience, as well as the practice of trial-and-error. The
manufacturing process originally used for generating objective within the cluster was therefore, to develop
prototypes only, but is now being qualified for small- processes that are competitive especially in small-scale 5
batch series as well. This requires however, improvement applications. Moulds needed to be designed and pro-
and acceleration of processes as well as extending the duced faster, and costs had to be reduced. This applied
material range. to continuous manufacturing, e.g. profile extrusion, as
well as to discontinuous processes, e.g. metal casting.
Furthermore, SLM opens up new possibilities of product With the method of virtual design and optimisation of
design as a result of unrestricted geometric freedom, moulds, cost-intensive experiments with a real mould can
prototypes with a completely new geometry and unique be reduced, and development times shortened. New tool
functional characteristics can be developed and optimi- geometries lead to further challenges. The first SLM tools
sed. Hence, SLM products can be highly individual and are being tested.
designed with respect to application-specific require-
5
1 Individualised Production
Solving the dichotomy between mass-production and in- turing with conventional manufacturing methods, cost
dividualised single piece production is the aim of ICD A2. curves differ significantly (see figure above): and due to
3 Additive manufacturing methods, like Selective Laser Mel- lower start-up costs, small lot sizes can be produced cost
ting (SLM), can be a main driver for producing individua- efficiently with additive manufacturing. This is a key-
lised products at nearly the same costs as mass produced enabler for new business models focusing on highly
products. The basic principle of Additive Manufacturing individualised products (Individualisation for free).
is to manufacture a part layer by layer, utilising e.g. metal Manufacturing costs of additively manufactured parts
4 powder. In contrast to sintering, during the SLM process are almost completely independent of part complexity
this metal powder is fully molten, and therefore 100% (Complexity for free), and since the time and effort
dense parts with properties comparable to conventional needed for manufacturing is only depending on compo-
manufactured ones can be produced. Neither tools nor nent volume, innovative products with integrated func-
moulds are required, in contrast to conventional manuf- tionalities can be realised using additive manufacturing
5 acturing (e.g. die-cast). Comparing additive manufac- methods like SLM (see fig. 2 and 3).
Figure 2: Helicopter part with lattice structure Figure 3: Ressource-efficient stub axle
6
Individualised Production 1
2
Practical Issues
Off-the-shelf SLM machines manufactured by considera- the build-up rate without scarifying part quality. Ho-
ble OEMs like EOS, SLM Solutions, Realizer and Concept wever, today there is not much experience yet in industri-
Laser are limited in regards to their productivity. By incre- al applications of the skin-core principle with laser powers 3
asing laser power from 200 W to 1 kW and developing exceeding 1 kW. Additionally, pre- and post-process work
a double-beam concept to realize the skin-core principle, is needed to prepare the machine results in a rather high
the process efficiency could be increased by a factor of amount of nonproductive time and therefore resulting in
10 in the last five years. The double-beam concept utilises a lower efficiency of the SLM process. Also, utilisation of
a beam switch, to shape two different beam sizes, either the laser source itself is limited, since powder dispersion 4
200 m or 1 mm beam diameter (see fig. 4). This ability and exposure to laser radiation are distinctive, non-
to switch beam diameter, enables the machine to build parallelised process steps. A 100% laser utilisation cannot
the contour of the additively manufactured part with be achieved with todays SLM machines. Mechanical
a laser spot size of 200 m and small layer thicknesses properties of additively manufactured lattice structures
(approx. 50 m) to achieve high accuracy, surface quality under load-bearing conditions are only sparsely available. 5
and resolution. In contract, core sections only resemble The huge potential of functionally optimised parts, by
bulk material and therefore a beam diameter of 1 mm integration of lattice structures (see fig. 6), today is far
and layer thicknesses of >200 m are used to increase from being utilisable.
7
1 Individualised Production
1
Figure 7: Systematical approach for designing new SLM production systems
Approach
2
A possible solution needs to be based on a holistic An innovative process chamber design should increase
analysis of the SLM process, and the development of a re- the handling of the SLM machine. Multiple designs were
ference architecture for mould-less production systems. created and evaluated (see figures 8 and 9), with the
This holistic approach is necessary to harness SLM for sliding system with two scanners systems and two se-
3 serial production. To improve the SLM machine techno- parate lasers having the most positive impact on handling
logy, multiple concepts of each SLM machine module are and process efficiency.
developed and evaluated in a systematic approach (see
fig. 7). Achieving nearly 100% utilisation of the laser, To increase build-rate even more, High Power Selective
and minimal non-productive time is the major guideline Laser Melting (HP-SLM) was qualified for the maraging
4 during evaluation and creation of a complete next- steel 1.2709. Compared to phase one, adapted process
generation SLM machine (see fig. 10). The new concept management and a further increase of laser power up to
for the laser utilisation calls for using the laser while the 2 kW will leverage the theoretical build-rate from 14 mm
powder is distributed (on-the-fly). Also, using multiple up to 23 mm.
laser sources in parallel will significantly reduce primary
5 processing time.
8
Individualised Production 1
1
Figure 10: Overall concept of the SLM-machine (CAD model)
Technical Challenges
2
Afterwards, tensile test specimens are manufactured and Major technical challenges are developing and shaping
tested to prove the mechanical properties. Finally, a func- innovative concepts for the different machine modules,
tionally optimised mould insert used for profile extrusion in order to achieve a nearly 100% utilisation of the laser
is manufactured utilising HP-SLM, to show the potential source, and minimise non-productive time. The degree
on a real application part (see fig. 5). of novelty of the chosen concepts, e.g. the multi-beam 3
concept, also requires adapted process management in
To fully exploit the geometric potential of SLM, carefully the overlapping areas, and is managed on innovative
chosen lattice structures are manufactured and tested control system software, as well as innovative machine
for mechanical properties (see fig. 11 and 12). Those will components.
form the basis of a database for mechanical properties 4
of a wide range of lattice structures, to help optimising
additively manufactured parts regarding weight, function,
resource efficiency and to fully utilise the geometrical
potential of SLM manufactured parts.
5
Figure 11: Lattice structures fabrication by SLM Figure 12: Mechanical tests on lattice structures
9
1 Individualised Production
10
Individualised Production 1
Introduction
3
High-pressure die casting (HPDC) is a common industri- HPDC-dies, is now to make the mass production process
al mass production process. In HPDC, molten metal is of HPDC more suitable for smaller lot sizes.
injected into a reusable steel die at high pressure. Due to
repetitive filling however, exists an intensive thermal flow
from the molten metal to the die. In order to maintain a Practical Issues 4
stable temperature level of the die, it is therefore man-
datory to cool the die, so a temperature control system The gating and the temperature control systems are
exists built up by cooling channels inside the die. The crucial for the design of an HPDC-die. So far there are
main advantages of HPDC are its high productivity, the no standardised procedures that guide the die-designer
good surface quality of the castings, and the capability towards an ideal die. Nowadays, the toolmaker designs 5
to produce thin-walled structures. On the other hand, the die based on empirical formulas and his experience.
the manufacturing effort of the dies is relatively high, For complex parts, casting-simulations are used to reach a
so that HPDC is particularly efficient for large lot sizes. good design for the gating system. Usually a lot of simu-
During the last couple of years however, the demand for lations need to be done in order to achieve a satisfactory
individualised products has increased, so that the aim filling behaviour of the die. This iterative and therefore
of the demonstrator for the automated optimisation of time-consuming approach makes the design process
11
1 Individualised Production
expensive and causes the main part of the total amount process such as HPDC can be operated economically even
of costs for the die design. As long as the HPDC-process for lot sizes of individualised production. The automated
2 is used for mass production this is not a major issue. optimisation approach has already been tested successful-
The high costs of the dies are compensated for by the ly for the plastics profile extrusion process. This has also
large amount of parts that are produced with one die. been part of the Cluster of Excellence.
For individualised production however, lot sizes tend to
be much smaller, and the die costs are distributed over The starting point for the optimisation is the numerical
3 fewer parts resulting in the newly cast part not being cost simulation of the HPDC-process. The simulation data is
competitive. used to evaluate the filling and solidification behaviour in
the die. Also, the temperature distribution is examined.
All of this can be achieved without running expensive
Approach experiments. These simulations take into account the
4 whole die including the temperature control system. In
The motivation of the automated optimisation approach addition to that, a quality measure is needed that allows
for HPDC is to find an optimal die design with minimal the evaluation of the overall quality, a so-called objective
effort by the die-designer, and the quality of the resulting function. The aim of the optimisation is the minimisation
casting should be improved. With this improvement of of this objective function, which is developed in close
5 efficiency in the die-design process, a mass production collaboration with casting experts. The last component
Figure 5: Simulation of the filling process (Image: starcast) Figure 6: Simulation of the temperature control system (Image: starcast)
12
Individualised Production 1
that is needed for the optimisation is the representation such an optimisation, can reduce the amount of manual
and deformation of the geometry. In this regard it is simulations/trial-runs, and therefore the overall manufac-
important to determine the constraints for the geometry turing costs. In this context, the application of generative 2
deformation (in this case: for the gating- and temperature manufacturing processes for die manufacturing will be
control system). Again the experience of casting experts investigated as well. Using an exemplary geometry, the
must be taken into account. simulation results will be validated and the numerical mo-
dels will be improved with the help of the gained data.
The automated optimisation process is designed as 3
follows: Using a start-geometry a numerical simulation
of the filling process is performed. Based on the results Technical Challenges
of this simulation, the objective function is evaluated. An
optimisation algorithm now uses the objective function A big challenge for the optimisation is the numerical
and generates a new geometry by deforming the old modelling of the filling process. This has two reasons. 4
one, eg., for the gating system a free-form deformation On the one hand, the filling process lasts only fractions
as well as a translation is possible. The modified geo- of a second, and on the other hand the metal flow is
metry is then used as the basis for the next optimisation very complex. Due to the high flow-velocities, the melt is
cycle. This process is reiterated until the results show the exposed to high pressures in the range of 300-1200 bar,
desired quality. A die, which is manufactured, based on and the melt front underlies turbulent movements. The 5
13
1 Individualised Production
complexity of the modelling is even further increased as tive functions used for the HPDC-process are a complete
2 the solidification of the molten metal also needs to be filling of the cavity, or the compliance to certain tempe-
taken into account. This leads large variations in the ma- rature-boundaries for the die. In addition, an approach
terial properties like density and viscosity leading inevitab- needs to be developed for a simple and robust way to
ly to higher computational costs. In order to perform the deform the geometry during the optimisation process.
numerical investigations in a reasonable amount of time,
3 big computing clusters have to be used, thus implying
that the simulation tools must be able to support them. In
the context of automated optimisation, the definition of
a suitable objective function is another challenge. When
developing an objective function several parameters need
4 to be taken into account. Possible ingredients for objec-
Figure 11: Principle structure Figure 12: SLM-Insert with cooling channels
14
Individualised Production 1
Hardware:
Bull Cluster, IT Centre RWTH
27880 Cores, Intel Westmere/Nehalem
94192 GB Ram
3D Visualisation (Powerwall)
Software:
STAR-CCM+, STAR-Cast
Optimisation framework in Fortran/Python
Paraview
15
1 Individualised Production
Automated Optimisation of
1
Profile Extrusion Dies
Introduction
16
Individualised Production 1
1
Figure 4: Approach in the design and manufacturing of profile extrusion dies
Practical Issues
Due to the almost unlimited complexity of possible profile process is offered by flow simulations with the stabilised 2
cross-sections, an analytically exact design of the profile FEM (Finite-Element-Method) which transfers the iterative
extrusion die is usually not possible. Instead, the design design process from the machine to the computer.
and manufacturing often take place in form of a trial Through the numerical analysis of the flow processes, the
and error process. Starting from a first draft, the die running-in process is simplified as vulnerabilities can be
designer changes the flow channel geometry iteratively detected even before the manufacturing of the die. 3
based on empirical knowledge and insights from the However, in this case the experience and the knowledge
running-in trials. This happens via deposition or removal of the die maker are still necessary to decide how the
of material until the produced profile satisfies the previ- geometry has to be changed, in order to achieve the
ously defined quality criteria. Depending on the complexi- design goals. Therefore, the design process is still domi-
ty of the geometries this can take up to 15 iterations. This nated by its iterative, time-intensive nature. 4
type of production is very time-consuming and costly, the
extruder is not available during the running-in trials for
the regular production and considerable costs occur for
the experimental materials. A shortening of the design
5
Figure 5: Running-in trials in a profile extrusion line Figure 6: Flow simulation of a die
17
1 Individualised Production
Figure 7: Automated optimisation of the flow channel with the optimisation framework
Approach
2 The fundamental approach to finding a solution to the end, again costly. In this respect, this demonstrator goes
problem is to imitate the real process of continuous beyond the numerical and experimental components
improvement of the die. The realisation of this process is and integrates best practices of the industry and the
the usage of optimisation algorithms, which minimise a manufacturing process. Another future step is the use
so-called objective function. The objective function mainly of SLM (Selective Laser Melting) produced components
3 reflects the quality of the die. In order to simulate the real and modules within the dies, so that previously not only
process, it is necessary to model the reality within certain manufacturable but also rapidly deployable modules
limits. Here we use several methods that replicate all the could be used.
relevant properties and the behaviour of the real process,
but are still calculable by high performance computers
4 or ideally ordinary computers within acceptable times. It Technical Challenges
is crucial for this optimisation application, to get to the
target in as few steps as possible. Due to the non-intuitive behaviour of the plastics, the
representation of reality is one of the biggest technical
The background is, that one tries to simulate as few challenges. The core property which complicates the
5 geometries as possible, because each simulation is time behaviour of the plastics to such a degree is called visco-
consuming and computationally intensive and, in the elasticity. Viscoelasticity is defined as the superposition
18
Individualised Production 1
Figure 11: Simulation of the profile swell Figure 12: SLM in the die manufacturing (Image: Fraunhofer ILT)
19
1 Individualised Production
20
Virtual Production Systems 2
2
The research area Virtual Production Systems improves factory level to the behaviour of the work piece in the
and connects virtual models on all levels of the produc- manufacturing process, e.g. laser cutting. The key term
tion system and along the value chain starting with the Virtual Production Intelligence describes the application-
setup of comprehensive and consistent models. These specific visualisation and decision-making support of the 3
can then be tailored for specific applications. The aim planner.
is to radically shorten the product development process
for gaining productivity growth already in the develop- The horizontal integration on the other side places the
ment phase of production technology. The focus lies on emphasis on consistent simulations along the value chain.
the support, the development and the optimisation of a Here the behaviour throughout the product life cycle is 4
production system, as well as on the decision capability of simulated and forecasted beginning with the moulding of
the planner. The virtual try-out of numerous alternatives the material through forming and cutting to the finishing
improves understanding of the behaviour of produc- and use of the product. All models are merged on a
tion systems and its elements, and identifies key levers. standardised, modularly extensible platform Integrative
Compared to testing in reality, cost and time advantages Computational Materials and Production Engineering 5
can be achieved by virtual simulations. Todays computing (ICMPE). In this way all influences of the material struc-
power and new methods of data management open up ture on further processes can be taken into consideration
new possibilities to process and visualise data at high in corresponding models. Furthermore, the standardisa-
speed. The main focus of vertical integration lies on data tion of the simulation interfaces is pushed forward at the
mining, processing and visualisation of information on global level.
all levels of the production system, from logistics on the
21
2 Virtual Production Systems
2
Virtual Production Intelligence goes
Virtual Reality
3
Introduction
Based on the methods of information integration and Virtual Production Intelligence (VPI) is based on success-
4 visualisation explored within the first funding period of ful, already well-established concepts of information
the research area The Ontology and Design Methodo- integration and aggregation as well as their evaluation
logy of Virtual Production Systems, the research area and interpretation by experts in the relevant application
Virtual Production Intelligence consistently continues domains.
the research on virtual production.
5 The vision of this project is to reduce the plan-value
During the second funding period of the Cluster of dilemma by facilitating the aggregation and propagation
Excellence, the focus is on the systematic analysis of infor- of heterogeneous information generated within processes
mation from the production environment. This includes from real and virtual production environments.
the identification, integration, extraction, analysis and
visualisation of production information. The concept of
22
Virtual Production Systems 2
In established factory planning processes, an inspection of The first scenario examines the inspection on the factory
the factory is not possible until its completion. Due to this floor in a fully immersive environment. Firstly, a factory 3
limitation, natural effects, such as the visibility between model that has been developed by means of the factory
workstations, cannot be considered during the planning planning tool visTABLE is loaded into the aixCAVE and
phase. In many projects, such issues have negative effects made available for exploration. The user can observe his
on the planning result. immediate surrounding from different perspectives by
physically walking through the aixCAVE, while remote 4
Another important aspect is the ideal configuration of areas can be reached by intuitive navigation techniques.
machines for the planning of a factory. The variety of Furthermore, the model can be analysed for compliance
adjustment possibilities that have impact on the produc- with relevant criteria: the stereoscopic representation and
tion result leads to a large parameter space which can natural mobility enable, for example, the visual accessibi-
no longer be intuitively grasped. As a consequence, ideal lity of workplaces or the estimation of their layout. These 5
configurations for individual processes often cannot be possibilities of immersive visualisation represent a signifi-
found and are therefore substituted by approximations cant enhancement compared to previous planning tools.
based on experience or technology tables
Figure 5: Workstation at machinery within the aixCAVE Figure 6: The factory from a different perspective
23
2 Virtual Production Systems
24
Virtual Production Systems 2
Figure 11: aixCAVE at RWTH Aachen University Figure 12: Another scenario within the aixCAVE
25
2 Virtual Production Systems
1
Technical Data
26
Virtual Production Systems 2
Introduction
In this project, a simulation platform for the integrative by simulation will be produced on a laboratory scale, 4
development of materials and process chains is introdu- forged to a bevel gear and carburised to demonstrate its
ced. This simulation platform is applied to the numerical suitability for high-temperature carburisation. In future,
development of aluminum-free case hardening steel with the industrial implementation will be established with a
improved cleanliness for large gears in the wind industry. consortium of industrial partners along the entire process
In order to validate the new numerical based combined chain for large gear components. 5
material and process concept, new gear steel developed
Figure 2: Gear damage of a wind turbine Figure 3: Tooth fracture of a large gear wheel
27
2 Virtual Production Systems
1
Figure 4: AixViPMaP Aachen (Aix) Virtual Platform for Materials Processing
Improving the service life of carburized gear components A material based approach for improving the oxide
is a high priority for wind turbine manufacturers. Only a purity level represents the reduction of the aluminum
reliable prevention of early failures ensures economic content, which decreases the likelihood of lifetime-
3 operation of wind turbines. The service life of gear reducing aluminum oxides in the material and thus a
components depends on many factors which are set premature failure of the wind turbine. However,
during material production, forming or heat treatment. aluminum is used in the further course of the process
Important influencing parameters such as phase fraction, chain in combination with a defined addition of
grain size and grain size distribution can be reset again nitrogen also for ensuring the fine-grain resistance,
4 by an adapted heat treatment at any point in the process which in turn is responsible for setting the tooth
chain. However, microscopic oxide purity is an important strength. Metallurgically this effect is based on
endurance limiting issue, which is set during the aluminum nitrides that are finely dispersed in the
metallurgical production of steel and is irreversible from microstructure which exist as finely dispersed
then on in the solid material. The improvement of the precipitates on the nanometer scale and reduce the
5 level of purity without deterioration of the fine grain grain boundary mobility.
stability is a high priority for steel manufacturers and
wind turbine operators.
28
Virtual Production Systems 2
Figure 7: Numerical alloy design for a micro-alloyed Al-free case hardening steel
1
Technical Challenges
Purity grade-related early failures are to be avoided for In order to implement an integrative, simulation-based
the economic use of wind turbines. Aluminum-free development of materials and processes, several different 2
microalloyed case hardening steels show an improved simulation approaches and programmes are necessary.
microscopic oxide purity level and promise a reliable use The efficient and effective use of various programmes is
of large gears. Moreover, they are produced time and ensured by developing an Internet-based platform for the
energy reduced by the so-called high-temperature carbu- simulation of process chains. In doing so, uniform formats
rising process allowing an efficient manufacturing route. for data and visualisation were defined. This approach al- 3
The development of the current aluminum-free alloy lows simultaneous simulation and analysis on all relevant
concept is based on a combination of modern numerical scales from nano- to component-scale.
simulation methods and aims at the substitution of alumi-
num nitrides by niobium carbonitrides. The basis for the The test case Al-free case hardening steel deals with
combination of different model approaches is a simulati- quantification of the fraction and size evolution of 4
on platform for the calculation of process chains, which microalloying precipitates along different alternative
allows the calculation at all relevant levels of observation process chains. On this basis it allows to predict the fine-
at the nanoscale of the precipitates, at the micro scale of grain stability during carburisation as a function of the
the microstructure and at the macro scale of the compo- process chain, the process parameters and the chemical
nents. Based on this multiscale approach the optimisation composition. 5
of alloys and process parameters can be realised in a
holistic manner.
Figure 8: Process chains of gear manufacturing Figure 9: Possible grain size distributions
29
2 Virtual Production Systems
Figure 10: Detection of the improved level of purity and the shortened process chain on a laboratory scale
2
For validation of the purely numerically developed alloy started together with FVA and FOSTA. The consortium is
concept, a laboratory melt was created, processed into composed of various steel manufacturers, a ring rolling
a bar and examined with respect to purity and fine grain company and a wind turbine manufacturer and two
3 resistance at high carburising temperatures. Eventually, research departments, namely the Steel Institute (IEHK)
good fine-grain stability has been documented for the at RWTH Aachen University and the Institute for Material
modified variant after blank-hardening at 1050 C for Technology (IWT) at University Bremen. In this combinati-
12 hours or at 1100 C for 1 hour for a process chain on, the entire production chain for large gear componen-
with FP-annealing. ts including component application is investigated.
4
Future Work Internationalisation Strategy
In order to achieve the fastest possible industrial imple- As part of an EU-funded Coordinated Support Action
5 mentation of the new combined material and process (CSA), an expert group for ICME is formed: ICMEg. This
concept in large gear components, an AVIF project is group of experts will develop a future data standard for
ICME-Tools during two international workshops with
non-European participation. For sustainable maintenance
of this ICMEg standard, an Association ICMEg e.V. is for-
med, where research institutes, software developers and
ICME-User from industry are involved.
Figure 11: Detection of fine grain resistance Figure 12: Demonstrator of a bevel gear
30
Virtual Production Systems 2
31
32
Integrated Technologies 3
Integrated Technologies
The research area Integrated Technologies aims at processes, e.g. incremental sheet forming. Moreover,
productivity growth within production by a drastic shor- process integration can enable or facilitate the produc-
tening of the value chain. Integrating and substituting tion of multi-technology products that integrate different 3
process steps along the value chain allow eliminating functionalities and materials. Manufacturing processes for
interfaces that would otherwise lead to disruptions. The these products are being developed within the cluster,
development of multi-technology production systems, ho- e.g. processing of metal and plastics within the same
wever, is challenging since more interdependencies have mould. By integrating functionalities, e.g. structuring
to be considered. Examples of multi-technology produc- the surfaces of foils, materials and products enter new 4
tion systems that have been developed within the cluster application areas.
are platforms of machining and sheet metal processing.
Within the cluster both parallel and combined processing Also special treatment of surfaces like coating opens up
on one single machine are being considered, e.g. by inte- new possibilities, e.g. regarding conductivity. In addition,
grating a robot into the machining process. the systematic development and evaluation of new tech- 5
nologies is pushed forward, in consideration of economic,
Furthermore, individualisation of mass-production ecologic and social challenges.
components is being researched by combining mass-pro-
duction processes, e.g. stretch forming, with prototype
33
3 Integrated Technologies
Introduction
34
Integrated Technologies 3
The establishment of a both flexible and resource-effici- In Incremental Sheet Forming (ISF) the final part is formed
ent production represents a major challenge for produc- by a sum of localised plastic deformations. A generic 1
tion engineers. Customised sheet metal parts are usually forming tool moves along the contours of the desired
characterised by a high complexity and low production part. The forming process can be supported by a full or
volumes. Common sheet metal forming processes, e. g. partial die. Since the forming tool is independent of the
deep drawing and stretch drawing, are in many cases produced geometry, this production method is excellent
not capable to meet the requirements of the customers. for the manufacturing of prototypes and small production 2
Furthermore, a specific forming tool is needed for every volumes.
single geometric variety. The production of forming tools,
however, is expensive and time-consuming. A combination of stretch drawing and ISF expands the
production possibilities of the Integrative Sheet Metal Pro-
Another issue is the processing of different material cessing Centre. The first process step is stretch drawing 3
grades. Especially the aerospace industry uses high followed by the incremental shaping of geometric details.
strength metals, such as titanium alloys. The possibilities Due to the combination of these two processes the com-
of forming these materials with common sheet forming paratively large process time of pure ISF can be reduced
processes at room temperature are limited. Combining significantly. Additional advantages in the process combi-
different technologies renders the manufacturing of com- nation of stretch drawing and ISF are the homogenisation 4
ponents made of high strength materials with complex of the sheet thickness distribution and the increased
geometries possible. geometric accuracy of the entire part. Hence, more com-
plex geometries can be produced within a shorter time. In
general, ISF is characterised by low forming forces due to
the locally limited forming area and a low tooling effort. 5
These features turn ISF into an economic alternative for
industrial sectors with specific product requirements,
Figure 5: Forming tool with hemispherical tip Figure 6: Combination of ISF and stretch drawing
35
3 Integrated Technologies
1
Figure 7: Processing centre for hybrid Incremental Sheet Forming from EIMA Corp. (Image: Thilo Vogel)
such as the aerospace industry. Many geometric varieties, are produced in consecutive processes by combining dif-
2 small production volumes, large parts and the use of high ferent technologies in one single production unit. That al-
strength materials are characteristic for this industry. Ty- lows the customised production of geometrically accurate
pically, titanium alloys which are difficult to form at room components made of sophisticated materials. Simultane-
temperature, e. g. TiAl6V4, are used. Their formability ously, stock costs and set-up times can be reduced.
can be increased by a local heating of the forming area
3 during ISF. To realise ISF of high strength alloys, a laser
optics is integrated in the Integrative Sheet Metal Pro-
cessing Centre. The two introduced hybrid technologies
enable a flexible production of sheet metal parts with an
extended component and material spectrum. The parts
4
Figure 8: Combination of ISF and laser-heating Figure 9: Temperature distribution on the back side of the plate
36
Integrated Technologies 3
2
Figure 10: Self-supporting sheet metal structure manufactured by Incremental Sheet Forming
Technical Challenges
3
The integration of different technologies and manufactu- process neither blank nor forming tool should overheat.
ring processes is challenging. The different technologies The optimal process temperature for a specific material
have to be mounted in a limited workspace and linked has to be analysed and kept constant during the forming
within the control unit. Furthermore, complex forming process. Thus, the temperature of the locally formed area
strategies have to be implemented to apply the combi- has to be measured and controlled precisely. Suitable 4
nation of stretch drawing and ISF. Another task is the solutions have been developed and tested on industry-
temperature regulation of laser-assisted ISF. During the related components.
Figure 11: Sheet metal part manufactured with ISF and stretch Figure 12: Laser-assisted ISF
drawing
37
3 Integrated Technologies
38
Integrated Technologies 3
Rapid changes in global markets require high flexibility The project Development of Multi-Technology Plat-
in production. However, the demands on the achievable forms from the interdisciplinary cluster domain Integra-
product complexity and production profitability should ted Technologies examines how various manufacturing 4
not be reduced. Therefore, one focus for the design and technologies of traditional individual machines can be in-
selection of the necessary means of production and ma- tegrated into so-called Multi-Technology Platforms (MTP).
chinery lies on maximum productivity. In contrast, further In order to evaluate the success potential of an MTP, the
focus is on the production of any complex components. comparison of an MTP and a concatenation of individual
These commonly contrary poles scale and scope machine tools of the given production technologies can 5
are an essential part of the research within the Cluster be performed. Important criteria for a distinction between
of Excellence and can therefore be found in the mission MTPs and single machines are accuracy, lead times and
statement, the polylemma of production technology. idle times. Since in principal an MTP can perform several
manufacturing processes in a single setup, the operator
of an MTP can achieve higher accuracies and prevent
waiting and setup times.
Figure 2: Machine structure Figure 3: Decreasing costs per piece for small lots
39
3 Integrated Technologies
40
Integrated Technologies 3
Technical Challenges
41
3 Integrated Technologies
Displacement
Sensors
X-Direction
Y-Direction
Z-Direction
Figure 11: Measuring displacement with a laser tracker Figure 12: Investigation of thermal displacement
42
Integrated Technologies 3
2
Technical Data
43
3 Integrated Technologies
Monolithic Plastics Optics are used in new imaging applications, such as light-field
photography and microscopy, display and security tech-
1 nology, and miniaturised sensors.
Introduction
The properties of plastic components are not only defined Practical Issues
by their base material but also to a higher degree by the
2 design of the surface. In many cases, surface structures Drawbacks of established design and production methods
with a size of a few micrometres are sufficient to drasti- are:
cally alter the surface properties, for example to avoid the
adhesion of dust particles or water droplets (Fig. 2) or to Insufficient flexibility relating to the design geometry of
create an optically functional surface (Fig. 3). Caused by individual micro-optical elements
3 the progressing miniaturisation in sensor systems, image Limited compactness of optical components due to
and data processing, conventionally used macroscopic required functionality
optical systems are increasingly replaced by micro-optical Moulding precision and deviations for optical elements
systems. Additionally, the general demands for compact
designs in the consumer market as well as the gene- For a future increase in efficiency and functionality of pro-
4 ral challenge in the adjustment of miniaturised optical ducts based on hybrid optics, it is necessary to improve
systems contribute to the increasing integration of micro the whole production chain by a holistic approach which
optical systems into monolithic components. improves not only design and production methods itself,
but also views each step in respect to the other ones.
Due to the size of typical optical components, they are An example for non-imaging micro-optical systems that
5 well suited for mass production by injection and extrusion is suitable for monolithic integration is the backlight of
moulding. Such monolithic, multifunctional plastics optics liquid crystal displays that in conventional designs consists
44
Integrated Technologies 3
2
Figure 4: Division of the production chain into injection and extrusion moulding
Approach
4
In the test case Optical components, we are working
on an optimised and holistic process chain (Fig. 1) for
the design and production of optically functional plastics
components. The process chain begins with the design of
the hybrid micro-optical components. We are developing 5
a design method that allows for the optimisation of an
optical surface with a high degree of freedom, optionally
including deviations from the target geometry during pro- Figure 5: Prism under production constraints
duction (Fig. 5).
45
3 Integrated Technologies
Figure 7: Variations of the surface geometry by the adjustment of the variothermal moulding process
1
46
Integrated Technologies 3
Figure 10: PVD coating of structured tools or laser structured PVD coatings
2
Technical Challenges
47
3 Integrated Technologies
2
Technical Data Project Team
48
Integrated Technologies 3
Structural Parts
Introduction
1
Lightweight construction is a crucial challenge for todays polymers, and the combination of steel- and aluminium-
industrial production. It is considered to be one of the key alloys. The aim of using a material mix is to realise certain
technologies of the 21st century to counteract the advan- functions within a part or component with the most
cing climate change and preserve natural resources. suitable material. In case of the metal-polymer-materials,
the metal could be used to withstand mechanical stress, 2
The concept of lightweight construction does not only in- while the polymer-components, which distinguish oneself
volve the use of lightweight materials, it also includes the through their excellent formability and their high freedom
purposeful combination of different materials. The aim of of design, could take over the part of functional integra-
these composites is to combine the specific advantages tion. In the case of steel-aluminium-hybrids, steel parts
of different materials in order to achieve a functional could be applied to the highly stressed areas of a product, 3
and also lightweight design. Considering these aspects, while lesser strained areas would be manufactured from
the used joining technologies have a massive impact on the much lighter aluminium. Both options offer new ways
target-oriented lightweight constructions. of target-orientated lightweight construction.
Figure 2: Machine for multi-component high pressure die-casting Figure 3: Plastic-metal joint in one step
49
3 Integrated Technologies
50
Integrated Technologies 3
51
3 Integrated Technologies
Figure 10: Procedural principles and parameters for friction stir welding of aluminium and steel
1 Technical Challenges
Due to the technical complexity of the dies used for the ans, an additional surface-treatment needs to be applied
combined pressure-injection-casting-process, they need to increase the composite-strength. Examples for such a
to be very precisely machined. To maintain a good bondi- treatment are CMT-Pin-welding, Electron-Beam-Structu-
2 ng performance between the metal and the polymer, an ring or Laser-structuring, used to generate undercuts
exact control of the die temperature during the process is (Fig. 9 fltr).
necessary.
The joining-mechanism during friction stir welding is a
An accurate thermal processing is the key to a good result of temperature input and material-deformation.
3 metal-polymer-adhesion quality. A homogenous tempe- The task is to create a composite which can still be
rature distribution should be achieved before starting the formed into a complex structure after being joined (Fig.
joining process. Unfortunately, a homogenous heating of 12). Furthermore, friction stir welding tools need to be
complex work pieces cannot always be ensured, thus the wear-resistant.
process control needs constant adaption. Another chal-
4 lenge is the correct design of the joints. If the mounting
areas are too small or not well placed by constructive me-
Figure 11: Multi-material friction stir welding joint Figure 12: Manufacturing of light weight structures
52
Integrated Technologies 3
2
Technical Data Project Team
53
3 Integrated Technologies
1
Introduction
The combination of plastics and metal offers a wide This new production technology for metal-plastics hybrids
range of properties, especially concerning the possibility benefits from a shorter process chain in comparison to
2 of weight reduction compared to an all-metal solution. current methods. A compact manufacturing cell consi-
Case components, for example, will oftentimes be made sting of an injection moulding machine, a robotic thermal
of metal in order to increase the electromagnetic tole- spraying unit and an appropriate mould is to render
rance of enclosed electronics. Frequently however a thin possible the highly integrated process and to enable the
metal layer on the case suffices to ensure electromagnetic production-oriented fabrication of metal-plastics hybrids
3 tolerance. The combined utilisation of plastics and metal in shortest possible cycle times. A strong, permanent
allows for an application-specific use of the materials. connection between the plastics and the metallic layer
The newly developed In-Mould-Metal-Spraying (IMMS) is and an exact outline replication of the metallic layer in
supposed to enable the integration of metallic areas on the pre-assigned areas are to be realised. With the help
plastics parts. Therefore it incorporates the processes of of different test parts the electromagnetic tolerance, the
4 thermal spraying of metal and plastic injection moul- electric functionality and the accuracy to size are evalua-
ding in one advanced moulding tool. In the first step of ted. The feasibility of the innovative approach has already
the IMMS a metallic layer is applied to specific areas of been proven.
the moulds surface using wire arc spraying or cold gas
spraying, which is immediately followed by the plastic in-
5 jection. During this second step the metallic layer is trans-
ferred onto the plastics part similarly to the In-Mould-
Labelling process. The plastics part with the transferred
partial metallic surface is then removed from the mould.
54
Integrated Technologies 3
1
Practical Problems
In order to achieve an optimal quality of the metallic coa- complex geometries of relevance for the application, e.g.
ting, the layer has to stick to the moulds surface during thickness changes, cut-outs or ribs. Especially the minimal
the plastic injection moulding and may not be damaged flanging radius that has to be provided at such construc- 2
by the melt flow. During demoulding of the part on the tion elements must be experimentally determined to
other hand, it has to peel off the mould easily and to ensure an error-free transfer of the metallic layer from the
adhere to the plastics. Additionally there are no previous mould to the plastics part.
experiences concerning the ability to reproduce more
3
55
3 Integrated Technologies
Figure 7: Variation of part surface via sole change of variothermal temperature control
Approach
To solve the conflict of objectives between adherence In order to represent the whole product development
and peeling off, it is investigated which surface qualities chain simulative tools will be developed for the product
the mould has to possess to enable the peeling off of and the process. On the product side the morphological
1 an applied metallic layer. The research parameters are simulation of the sprayed metallic layers is to predict the
the kind of tool steel, the surface roughness, the metal theoretical electrical conductivity of final metal coating.
coatings and varying geometrical elements. Since the pro- On the process side, based on the simulation of the
duction parameters of the injection moulding influence injection moulding, the probability of a successful transfer
greatly the quality and the transferability of the metallic of the metallic layer is to be calculated depending on
2 layer, the injection moulding process has to be adapted the components geometry and the process parameter.
to the IMMS process. An adapted mould using changing These simulative tools are to enable short development
inserts is developed to be able to examine the mentioned cycles and to reduce the number of necessary iterations in
parameters. Additional evaluations relating to component mould manufacturing.
design and process management are to be made with
3 the help of a second test part which possesses a struc-
tured surface. The structure is repeated along the radius.
Along the circumference the structure differs in shape,
depth and flanging radius. The achieved adherence
between tool steel and metallic layer can be determined
4 via tensile tests before the injection moulding process.
56
Integrated Technologies 3
Technical Challenges 1
The main question is which combination of tool steel, ge with every subsequent spraying process. Furthermore
sprayed metallic layer and spraying procedure provide for the thin metallic layer can be washed away or displaced
a reliable transfer of the metallic layer to the plastics part by the melt flow during the injection phase of the injec-
while also ensuring a long lifetime of the mould. For exa- tion moulding process. To prevent this, the roughness of 2
mple one challenge is the reproducible adhesion of cold the mould surface is increased in order to provide anchor
gas sprayed conductive tracks. The high kinetic energy of points for the metallic layer. Additionally depressions can
the particles during cold gas spraying causes a roughe- be placed in the mould surface to enhance this effect.
ning of the mould surface. Therefore the conditions chan-
3
Figure 11: Comparison of two-color presentation and reconstructed Figure 12: Simulated shear stress distribution
3D-representation
57
3 Integrated Technologies
2
Technical Data Project Team
58
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
The research area of Self-optimising Production Systems At the supply-chain and production control level decision
deals with the development of technical and socio-tech- support for employees is in the focus. That requires the
nical production systems that achieve better performance design of suitable interfaces between the human and the 3
than initially planned and forecasted by self-optimisation. machine and/or the system.
Productivity can be increased on the one side by impro-
ving local decision capability of employees on the shop- For automated but flexible and robust manufacturing
floor and in supporting areas and on the other side of and assembly it is important to integrate intelligence and
cognitive and adaptive systems and networks. cognition capability into the control of the system. Thus, 4
not only controlled variables but also control structures
The object of research covers all levels of a production can be adopted during the process without the interven-
system from supply-chain-level through order processing tion of employees. Essential is on the one hand sensors
to process control and machine control level. This inclu- that perceive and detect environment conditions and
des data mining and information retrieval by adequate pre-process information. On the other hand mechanisms 5
sensors, preparation and disposition of information, and that enable self-regulation and -learning need to be
simulation of alternative solutions and their visualisation established.
to enable a faster decision-making and adaption on-site.
On the basis of the Viable System Model information
is managed across all levels of production systems and
cybernetic control methods are established.
59
4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1 Introduction
A lack of connectivity between different solutions often asingly complex logistical coherences and concepts more
prevents an efficient added value in production and tangible and explorable in the real production and IT envi-
logistic networks in as much as the necessary informa- ronments. The Campus-Cluster Logistics offers a develop-
2 tion is not available on time in an adequate quality. The ment and testing environment in order to decipher the
optimisation of logistic performance of manufacturing complex relationships in logistics and to finally illustrate
companies through the application of innovative concepts them in a real production and IT environment.
and solutions in logistics and IT is researched by the FIR
at the RWTH Aachen. As part of the Cluster of Excellence The centre of the RWTH Aachen Campus-Cluster Logistics
3 at RWTH Aachen University, the FIR works with manufac- has three Innovation Labs: the ERP Innovation Lab, the
turing and service companies, associations and software Smart Objects lnnovation Lab and Service Science lnnova-
companies to develop new solutions to further improve tion Lab.
the logistics performance.
60
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Practical Issues 1
Manufacturing companies need to design processes of At the same time the horizontal integration enables the
production planning and order processing in an efficient efficient usage of logistical cooperation concepts such as
way but they are simultaneously facing challenges such as Collaborative Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment
lack of data availability, low information transparency and (CPFR) and hereby minimises the risk of building up 2
inadequate integration of information systems or their stocks and order quantities (the so-called bullwhip effect).
absence. Therefore, actors in the supply chain can only Especially in the inter-company context the benefits of
work with their local information, so not seeing the big the Electronic Product Code Information Service (EPCIS)
figure which can lead to economically more favourable are noticeable. In particular through the interaction of
decisions. Hence, the consideration of the horizontal and EDI and EPCIS optimisation potentials can be realised in 3
vertical integration is of enormous importance. company production and supplier networks.
The vertical integration (within the company) is defined The interaction of vertical and horizontal integration pro-
as the harmonisation and integration of the companys vides a stable base for flexible supply chains. The ability
internal information technology from the automated to react opens up the possibility of targeted cost savings 4
acquisition of high-resolution movement data (eg. RFID) through transparent process design. Cost-intensive
till the use of this data in higher-mounted planning and sectors, such as stocks, can be identified and sustainab-
control systems (eg. Manufacturing Execution System, ly improved. As a requirement towards a reactive and
MES for short). A cross-company exchange of relevant sustainable supply chain, the real-time capability of the
information along the supply chain is defined as horizon- systems and the communication between the systems 5
tal integration. It enables companies to share electronic need to be established. Real-time capability refers to the
messages such as orders, order confirmations, delivery ability of a system to provide needed information and to
notes etc. paperless and without large time delays. be able to process the information within a stipulated
time frame.
Figure 4: Barcodescan at the stock receipt Figure 5: Processes in the logistics demonstrator
61
4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1 Approach
The logistics demonstrator which was developed in col- the use of RFID tags at the item level is possible any time.
laboration with partners of the RWTH Aachen Campus- For that purpose the logistics demonstrator uses GS1
Cluster Logistics and the FIR illustrates possibilities and standards. Hereby the real-world challenge of worldwide
2 potentials of horizontal and vertical integration. The aim zero overlapping identifiability is solved. The USB stick
of the demonstrator is to highlight complex relationships blanks shipped by the supplier are distinguished with a
in logistics and make the potential of vertical and hori- standardised shipping label and a Serial Shipping Contai-
zontal integration understandable. The logistics demons- ner Code (SSCC) on the package. After an automated re-
trator displays the essential steps in order processing. Due ceipt from the producer and a comparison with the prior
3 to the given transparency various scenarios can be tested to shipping electronically distributed dispatch notification,
and all effects of any change can be disclosed. Through the blanks are engraved with laser lettering and refined
this, the members of the supply chain can see the impacts with customised documents on the stick.
of their decisions on the entire supply chain and the ways
to optimise it. In this specific example the products are provided with a
4 serialised item number that uniquely identifies the pro-
Despite the different ERP systems along the supply chain, duct through the following process flow. This serialised
order processing can be carried out smoothly via the item number stored on both the RFID tag and in a GS1
myOpenFactory . Working with real software and Data Matrix allows for a clear assignment and traceability
hardware makes the logistics demonstrator unique com- of products and shipment units. In this way the serialised
5 pared to other demonstrators that usually work only with item number can be used to match orders with deliveries
virtual simulations. Traceability of material flows through and with the aid of pick-by-voice solutions to support
stock piling and removal.
Figure 7: Control center of the logistics demonstrator Figure 8: Horizontal and vertical integration
62
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
1
The demonstrator shows how processes can be made
more efficient. This enables companies to quickly access
information and to respond to problems such as the
threat of delivery delay. The impacts of a 20%-increase in 2
orders from a merchant can become directly visible to all
participants. The combination of horizontal and vertical
integration makes it possible for all the players to adapt
themselves to changes in the ordering behaviour of the
customer or other changes. This case of an USB stick 3
production can also be applied to other industries.
63
4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Server consisting of 3 Blades Type Dell Power Edge Prof. Gnther Schuh
M620. FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
Each equipped with: 2 x CPU Xeon E5-2660 Prof. Volker Stich
4 With 8x 2,2 GHZ, 128 GB Ram cores each FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
Matthias Blum
FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
Marcel Groten
FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
5 Niklas Hering
FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
Simone Korall
FIR e.V. at the RWTH Aachen University
64
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
The degree and the scope of automation of the technolo- dualisation of production. The ability to adapt to chan-
gy used increased with the growing number of quantities. ging demands and environmental conditions is therefore
One reason was the limited flexibility of the automated a central requirement for future automation systems. 4
systems. The effort to design, program and operate such However, the automatic decision-making requires a much
a system safely were high in the case of frequent changes broader knowledge within the automation systems. This
in the production process. Todays automation systems expansion of knowledge demands an increase of the pos-
are characterised by rigid rules and have no intelligence sible transparency of internal processes of the automation
nor the skills to develop intelligence. An automation technology, so that in case of a problem, the operator 5
technology, that limits the variety of products and the can, for example, also be involved in the solution process.
flexibility of production processes, also hinders the indivi-
Figure 2: Planning cycle of the cognitive architecture Figure 3: Individual assembly of a switch cabinet
65
4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Figure 4: Design and processes of the assembly cell Figure 5: Virtual image of the assembly cell
Practical Issues
The increasing demands on the automation of processes tecture into production systems is demonstrated using a
within production lead to a disproportionate increase robotic assembly cell: the operator of the assembly cell
1 in planning and preparation activities. An increasing specifies an assembly task by composing simple basic
automation is only useful if the required adaptability can components to a complex assembly group by means of a
be compensated by a reduction of the necessary effort. graphical interface. In order to realise high transparency,
These costs are in particular reasoned in the field of non- variability and scalability and to keep the complexity of
value added planning, design, programming, commissio- the actual assembly process as low as possible, Lego-
2 ning and testing. Even the close integration and networ- Duplo components have been used. The task of the co-
king of real automation technology with the virtually gnitive control unit is to find a possible assembly sequen-
generated models opens up potential. Finally, the degree ce of the components at runtime, to plan the assembly
of automation in carrying and supporting of planning autonomously with respect to the available resources and
tasks can be further increased. to control the process. The assembly cell comprises two
3 robots and a transfer system consisting of six indepen-
dently controllable conveyor belts with gates and light
Approach barriers. The assembly robot uses a camera for identifying
the components and a flexible gripper for handling the
The approach aims at shifting the planning process into components. Beside these active components, also exists
4 the execution level. This will require an intelligent different areas which can be used for the assembly and
control platform capable of planning and executing the buffering. The assembly groups that are finished are then
process autonomously with regard to the target and the checked with regard to correctness of the geometry and
current situation and to interact with the human expert. colour by means of 3D image processing by the second
Thereby, the (given) generic structure is always distingu- robot.
5 ished from the (acquirable) problem specific content. The
sum of both is finally observable as intelligent behaviour.
The structure is also named cognitive architecture and Technical Challenges
has deep interdependencies with the representation of
the contents. In the following application, a methodical The most relevant technical challenges are the deve-
approach for the integration of a cognitive control archi- lopment of the necessary algorithms for planning and
66
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
controlling the assembly process. These are planning Furthermore, the variety of technical components and
algorithms such as for generating the possible assembly their interfaces are additional technical challenges. The
sequences as well as technical algorithms for instance for decisions made in the cognitive control unit must be for
2D and 3D image processing. instance, transformed into control commands for the
robot and programmable controllers. 1
The possible assembly sequences are determined by
means of graph-based algorithms. Therefore, first the
possible assembly steps are determined using a so-called
Assembly-by-Disassembly strategy. The assembly group
is disassembled stepwise until the final component. The 2
intermediate states describe in the reverse direction all
the possibilities to perform the assembly. And afterwards,
the resulting valid states are transformed into an assem-
bly graph by combining equal states, and weighted for
the further planning process. 3
During the process of grasping an object 2D image pro-
cessing enables the identification of moving components.
Due to the connection to the control unit of an industrial
robot, their velocity can additionally be determined, so 4
that the movement of the robot be synchronised. By cal-
culating the relative pose, the component can be grasped
without any interception of the movement.
67
4 Self-optimising Production Systems
68
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Introduction
Nowadays, production processes are characterised by optimisation system will be developed for an advanced 3
growing customer orientation, greater product variety, planning and scheduling system in a surrounding of the
and more complex material flow. Production control demonstrator of the self-optimising production planning
needs to be able to ensure robust production processes and control (PPC). The surveillance system therefore
in order to cope with the increasing dynamic within reveals discrepancies between the IT-system and reality
production. Many software solutions have been deve- and shows optimisation suggestions. A successful start of 4
loped in the past to live up to this challenge including the project ProSense which is sponsored by the Federal
advanced planning and scheduling systems that calculate Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) was enabled
an optimal processing order for assignments using specifi- because of preparatory work of the excellence cluster
cally designed algorithms. Currently existing IT-systems concerning this subject.
are often criticised for missing responsiveness and poor 5
prognosis quality. These shortcomings mostly occur due
to bad data quality, and wrong system configurations.
In order to counteract these deficits, a surveillance and
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Challenges
Since the beginning of the 1990s, challenges in produc- accompanied by poor achievements of logistical target.
tion control have been characterised by short delivery Therefore, it is paramount to include the complexity of
time and products, which are developed according to the order structures and of the material flow in the PPC
individual customer demands. Consequently, produc- to allow real-time adjustments. The production processes
1 tion life cycles are shortened constantly to live up to the and their planning have to be improved continuously to
market demands and to stand up to the international react to changed circumstances in a dynamic environ-
competition. Concurrently, decreasing lot sizes of single ment.
product variants go hand in hand with an increasing
product variety. Additionally, volatile lot sizes increase the Nowadays, software does not permit this flexible ad-
2 challenges for PPC in such a dynamic environment. aption, is configured in erratic intervals and thus often
presents worse control results than with a simple First-In-
The goal of the PPC is to cope with these dynamics and First-Out (FIFO)-prioritisation.
to master these complex processes. Typically, a major
issue is the strong deviation between planning results and
3 the actual outcome of the production system. This leads
to a general dissatisfaction in afflicted enterprises and is
Figure 5: Example throughput time distribution Figure 6: Data basis for simulation can be selected freely
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Approach
A surveillance system is needed in order to improve the In addition to the comparison of IT-results and actual ma- 2
prognosis results and quality of the control systems. This terial flow the surveillance system can also reveal produc-
surveillance system compares the planning results of the tion control potentials by simulating different scenarios.
IT-system with the actual material flow on the shop floor Potential measures are visualised for the employee and
and identifies potential divergences. These variances can an assessment of the improvement in logistical targets is
for instance occur because of an order prioritisation made given. This way, the employees stay in the position of the 3
by the employees on the shop-floor differing from the decision maker while being supported via an user-friendly
prioritisations made by the IT system. If a divergence is and interactive visualisation.
being identified two reactions are possible: the employee
gets informed and he can change the parameters in the
IT-system or he can adapt the parameters given by the IT- 4
system and inform fellow employees to follow the given
order.
Figure 8: Potential given in Production Control Figure 9: PPC-Benchmarking (Throughput Time example)
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Technical Challenges
Figure 11: Application by production controller Figure 12: Modelling and analysis of production reality
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Production of injection moulded parts requires robust and recognised variables, which influence the reproducibility
4 consistent operating processes to satisfy high quality stan- of moulding processes by additional process disturbances.
dards. The goal of such processing is to reproduce each During the packing phase for example, temperature or
cycle identically and consistently within several process viscosity fluctuations may affect the reproducibility of the
variables. process. The concept of self-optimising injection moul-
ding therefore, is to compensate for reoccurring process
5 In particular, process variables such as the melt pressure variations and increase reproducibility.
and temperatures in the cavity. Conventional control-
ling of injection moulding machine controls is based on
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Practical Issues 1
Machine variables can be referred to as values which as the cavity pressure) provide detailed information about
describe the state and action of an injection moulding processes, during the injection and holding pressure pha-
machine. Just such a parameter is the hydraulic pressure se. The cavity pressure path correlates with various quality
of the injection cylinder. Term process variables summari- variables such as the part weight, or moulding accuracy, 2
se the variables, allowing for a clearer description of the warpage or shrinkage, as well as morphology and sink
process at the actual location where the moulding takes marks.
place. The cavity pressure is another example of such
a process variable. Properties of manufactured moul-
ded parts which result from injection moulding can be Approach 3
described as quality variables, and an example of quality
variables are the part weight and geometry accuracy. The concept of a self-optimising system is divided into
Due to disturbances acting upon the injection moul- model based optimisation (MO-System) and various,
ding process, exclusive control of machine variables are information processing sensor actuator systems (ISA-Sys-
insufficient to reproduce the process, but cannot ensure tems). Temperature sensors, like IR-Sensors or thermo- 4
consistant moulding quality. Therefore, the monitoring or elements are the thermal boundary conditions which
direct control of process variables is desired. Systematic can be measured, and a working point determined by
disturbances such as a fluctuating ambient temperature, the ISA-System. A working point is used to calculate the
or varying material properties can seriously effect product optimal processing path of the cavity pressure based on
quality. This includes the changes in the heat balance of the quality model. This optimal cavity pressure path will 5
the injection mould which can occur for example, with a describe the internal objective for another ISA System,
non-identical repetitive process such as, after changing which then realises its internal objectives, such as rea-
machine parameters. In contrast to the machine variables ching the cavity pressure path independently.
(such as the hydraulic pressure), process variables (such
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Figure 11: Additional mould geometries Figure 12: Highly accurate reproduction
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Image: Trumpf
2
Introduction
Manufacturing in high wage countries has a growing gy. New drives and faster control systems together with 4
influence on the local economy. Innovative manufactu- enhanced laser sources lead to an overall increase in per-
ring systems are the base of an efficient production of formance of the systems. Robust manufacturing systems
goods which are expected to fulfil increasing customer require this advance to go in line with the stability of the
expectations with respect to quality and delivery time. process itself, considering all the variations in boundary
The market share of laser based manufacturing systems is conditions. 5
facilitated by a continuously increasing level of technolo-
Image: Trumpf
Figure 2: Cut head of TruLaser 5030 Figure 3: High quality cut in stainless steel
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
2
Figure 4: Stainless Steel after cutting with CO2 laser at different focus positions
Practical Issues
3 Quality of laser cut products is defined by the clients ap- foreground. The major influences on the process are
plication. If the defined dimensional precision is reached, associated to technical boundary conditions and material
properties of the cut face come into scope. One prerequi- compositions which altogether determine the absorption
site for a high quality cut is a good command of the laser of the laser energy and result in the establishment of
beams focus position. In CO2 cutting, this focus position the cut front. Laser cutting is an industrially established
4 can be determined by mounting a diagnostic measure- manufacturing process which is widely adopted with an
ment device into the machine and measuring the energy increasing amount of automation. Future potentials in
distribution. In the practical application, most industrial technological advance of this manufacturing technology
cutting machines provide a calibration routine that allows are seen in innovative, automated assistant systems based
the operator to determine the focus position, and transfer on self-optimising capabilities.
5 its value to the machine. As the focus position is subject
to change over time, the machine is only calibrated when
the calibration routine has just been executed. Once the
focus position is known, other parameters move to the
Figure 5: Sample of the focus set up routine Figure 6: Model of the kerf width
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Figure 8: Image from the process observation Figure 9: System Sketch of the process observation set up
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
2
Figure 10: Concept of Model-Based Self-Optimisation (MBSO)
related setting parameters and guide the system into an and the machine has to provide solutions in cases where
3 optimised operating point. these solutions cannot be fetched from embedded
process knowledge, nor from decision units. Any of these
Achieving this target requires an adaptation of sensors steps adds to an increase in productivity and robustness
and actuators to the high dynamics of the melt based of future manufacturing systems, and aid in utilising
cutting process. The concept of Model-Based Self- unexploited potentials.
4 Optimisation (MBSO) creates the required separation of
time scales with a fast control cycle and an asynchronous
optimisation. One big challenge lies in the implementati-
on of the interaction with the operator. When the manuf-
acturing system is capable of determining its operating
5 point autonomously, communication between humans
Figure 11: Interaction between operator and machine Figure 12: Commercial figures of laser technology
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Model-based Modules for the
Self-optimisation of Gas Metal Arc
Welding Processes
2
Introduction
In the field of automatic gas metal arc welding processes, combinations can be determined if disturbances occur,
3 clamping devices nowadays are often used to prevent so that the varying conditions can be compensated and a
weld errors by realising an exact positioning of the plates. steady welding result can be guaranteed.
Due to a higher individualisation of products, time and
cost related intensive changes of the set-up exist when
a new product is produced. Nevertheless, disturbances Practical Issues
4 to the process can occur leading to process conditions
resulting in an aberrated welding result. To react flexibly The research activities of the Welding and Joining Insti-
to such altering conditions, the welding process was tute (ISF) were to focus on a solution for the above menti-
enabled to adapt without external intervention by app- oned challenge, when using typical applications with thin
lying intelligent sensor systems combined with process sheets with hereby commonly used weld preparations.
5 models. For this purpose, process states and their influ- As process type, a pulsed gas metal arc welding process
ence on the welding result are recorded and mathemati- was used which was more applicable to thin sheets, due
cally modelled. By utilising these models, new parameter to its great reach of efficiency. Furthermore, this process
Figure 2: Gas metal arc welding process Figure 3: Model for the root height
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Figure 4: Influence of the gap variation on the weld geometry (overlap joint) 1
type was sufficiently flexible to compensate for changing process stability with the objective to influence the speci-
boundary conditions. fic process parameter of the welding power source. While 3
on the macro level the actual welding result is monitored
and setting parameters are adapted for potential distur-
Approach bances, like variations in the gap width or in the contact
tube distance.
In this section of the Cluster of Excellence Integrative 4
Production Technology for High-Wage Countries, a
cross-process concept for a model-based self-optimisation Technical Challenges
of production processes has been developed. The transfer
of this concept to the gas metal arc welding process As well as the development of a global process model
includes an automated optimisation to guarantee the which maps the correlation between setting parameters 5
required weld quality on two levels. On the micro level and welding results adequately, the challenge lies in
this is achieved via monitoring and optimisation of the providing a suitable sensor system to monitor the process.
Figure 5: Optimisation of the weld quality Figure 6: Optimisation of the process stability
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Figure 7: Correlation of high speed images and voltage data
2 In the case of process stability on the lower, micro level a sensor system was developed, which offered the possi-
real-time capable sensor module has been realised, which bility of monitoring the formation of the weld pool. For
detects the mass transfer and energy input of pulsed gas this, a CMOS-camera had been set up at the welding
metal arc welding processes. The module uses transient torch, which recorded up to 500 frames per second
current and voltage data, and detects therein the point in full screen mode with a resolution of 1280 x 1024
3 of time of the droplet detachment, because this event pixels. The optics had been built according to the special
combined with actual electrical capacity has a significant requirements of gas metal arc welding processes, which
influence on the homogeneity and the quality of mass meant that an optical filter was equipped that limited the
transport. The point in time of the droplet detachment spectral range to near infra-red. Furthermore, a remo-
is indicated within the voltage data by a short increase vable protection glass was included to shield the sensor
4 of the voltage. An algorithm was therefore written using from welding spatter. And to reduce radiation intensity, a
a special filter method. At a pulse time of about 10 ms, customised pinhole aperture was added that shielded the
the evaluation results were available approximately 3 sensor from welding spatter because of its small diame-
ms before the next pulse started. This short evaluation ter.
time enabled the start of a control procedure in the
5 subsequent pulse, if the droplet had not detached. For With the help of the newly provided information about
the optimisation on the higher, macro level an optical the weld pool in combination with observations from the
Figure 8: User interface of the sensor module Figure 9: Detection of the droplet detachment
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
1
Figure 10: Correlation of the image analysis with the welding results (macro sections)
Figure 11: Application of the camera during welding Figure 12: Arrangement of the camera at the welding torch
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Software
MATLAB
LabVIEW
DIAdem
Modelling with R
Welding process simulation with SimWeld
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Image: Picanol
Self-optimisation of the
3
Weaving Process
Introduction
4
Weaving is one of the oldest processes for the fabrication threads of the early looms. In the course of industriali-
of textiles. The process is characterised by orthogonal sation however, the first mechanically powered looms
interlacing of warp- and weft-threads. To enable the have been created. In the 20th century the development
interlacing, the warp-threads have to produce the so- of looms was characterised by an increasing automation
called shed, which is created by raising or lowering of the of the weaving process sequence, with an aim of higher 5
weft-threads. After the shed-formation, the weft yarn is efficiency. Due to the cumulative computerisation of the
inserted into the open shed. The first looms are dated at weaving process, weaving became the most productive
approximately 3000 BC. To produce the required tension process for producing textile fabrics. On modern looms,
for weaving, stones were used as weights on the warp- different materials can be processed and a wide variety
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Practical Issues
4
Figure 5: Warp tension sensor The modification of the weaving-loom to apply various
materials requires complex adjustments be made to the
machine. For example, yarn guiding elements, weft-inser-
ting-systems or process parameters must all be aligned to
5 the particular material.
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Figure 8: Concept for the self-optimising weaving loom Figure 9: Camera system for monitoring the fabric-quality
The aim of this project is to design the setup-process of With help of the 9-Step-Tool an X-ray sensor of the 1
the loom to such an extent that for a desired product BST ProControl GmbH, Freudenberg has been chosen to
quality the loom itself will define the necessary process monitor the fabric grammage. Following the integration
parameters. For this purpose a meta-model will be gene- of the sensor within the weaving process, a control loop
rated and integrated into the loom achieving a premium monitoring the fabric grammage was realised with help
worsted fabric with a shortened setup time (30 min) at a of a smith-predictor. For additional system monitoring 2
cost reduction of 61.10 to 60.50 per running meter. of the fabric-quality, an optical camera system has been
Furthermore, there was a reduction in waste material developed and integrated into the loom.
associated with the setup resulting in the saving of the
expensive materials. With the use of a thread sensor which has been integra-
ted into the loom, the warp tension could be measured 3
At first, the process has to be modelled with regard to online. The obtained data has been used for model-
the warp tension. In addition, a self-optimising-routine building by quadratic regression. By the dint of the
which optimises the weaving parameters of the loom will Gauss-Markov theorem, and additional quality criteria, an
have to be realised. An other aspect will be the identifica- optimised set of parameters could be calculated. In this
tion of suitable sensors for monitoring the product-quality manner a self-optimising-routine was generated, which 4
using the ITA 9-Step-Tool method and their integration was implemented with the help of products (Soft SPS) by
in the weaving process. the company iba AG, Frth into the weaving loom.
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Figure 11: Measured warp thread tension with or without self-optimising routine
2 nv, Ieper, Belgium was connected to the routine. Due to impact on the warp thread tension. There is still however,
the new settings after completing the optimising-routine, the question whether a regression model can provide the
the loom runs 100 rpm faster. Furthermore, the loom optimum results for the described additional input- and
produced two shifts without process-related stops and output-parameters. Hence alternative models have to be
the fabric quality fulfilled the requirements. analysed. Likewise the control of the self-optimisation by
3 so-called Smart Devices like Tablets or Mobiles will be of
On-going work will aim to embed further parameters interest as well as the storage and forwarding of process
as e.g. the energy consumption, or the position of the data using RFID technology.
looms components into the optimisation-routine. And for
that purpose, both appropriate sensors and additional ac-
4 tuators were needed to be integrated into the loom. One
solution to monitor the air consumption was the installa-
tion of a flow sensor between the compressed air supply,
and the loom. Present-day measuring techniques enable
the wireless transfer of measured data at sufficient speed.
5 By integration of stepper motors e.g. the position of the
warp stop motion can also be adjusted automatically. The
position of the warp stop motion therefore has a strong Figure 12: Project partners
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Self-optimised Metal Cutting Processes
2 Introduction
Cutting processes are one of the key technologies used in for this include the increasingly competitive pressure from
many industries to manufacture products for the global manufacturers in low-wage earning countries, the global
market. The processes include, inter alia, five axis milling shortage of resources, or legal requirements. The result is
3 and gun drilling operations which are used in industries in an urgent need to continue the progress of controlla-
with automotive, aeronautical or medical technology. For bility in cutting processes while taking the global scope of
production in high-wage earning countries like Germany, action into account.
it is of key importance that these cutting processes be
controllable. This becomes increasingly difficult as increa-
4 sing demand for quality, higher degrees of individualisa- Practical Issues
tion, and shorter product life cycles require more flexible
cutting processes which can be operated safely at their Due to the manufacturing task, the cutting process has to
technological limit. Furthermore, the economic and eco- meet different demands, which include not only pro-
logical aspects will be more and more in focus. Reasons duct specific quality aspects, but also economic targets.
5
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
2
In order to adjust the cutting process to these respec- appropriate countermeasures, is mainly dependent upon
tive requirements, the process is nowadays designed the experience of the operator. The ability to respond by
in advance. For this purpose, extensive resources and the manufacturing company is often limited.
technological knowledge are required which depend 3
upon the complexity of the manufacturing task. Further-
more, cutting processes have to deal with a multitude of Approach
variations and disturbances, which can only be partially
considered during the design phase. So that, during To increase controllability, the idea of self-optimisation is
production the demanded process stability is not always therefore transferred to metal cutting processes. For de- 4
maintained resulting in a quality below pre-defined to- monstration purposes, monitoring and control strategies
lerances. This may lead to scrap or re-machining opera- are developed for the 5-axis milling process and the gun
tions which creates immense additional costs and has a drilling process. Process stability is ensured by strate-
negative, long-term effect on the manufacturer. Nowa- gies for detecting disturbances, and their subsequent
days, feedback from process disturbances which affords compensation by closed control loops. Furthermore, 5
Figure 5: BLISK (Blade Integrated Disk) Figure 6: Injection body (Image: Bosch)
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Figure 7: Connectivity of virtual and real world for information exchange
2
Technical Challenges
planning aspects are integrated into the control loops to The challenge of introducing self-optimisation to metal
achieve an optimum concerning external target values of cutting processes is caused by the complexity of the
3 the production plant. An important requirement is the processes. The abstraction of process coherences and the
development of new or adaption of existing technological reproduction in technical models, are today probably the
models that are used as a basis for decision-making in most challenging tasks. For modelling the 5-axis milling
self-optimisation. For the implementation, sensor systems process and the gun drilling process, transfer functions
are developed, empirical and simulative investigations are used and implemented to black box models. The ex-
4 performed, process information extracted and transferred tension by physical descriptions of phenomena and cau-
to knowledge in machine-readable models. Further tasks se-effect relationships transfers the models to the class of
are the cross-linking of single components of the overall grey box models. For the development of suitable models,
system to ensure a consistent data exchange. Concerning the interconnection of virtual and real world is necessa-
this latter, a special task is the linkage between CAM and ry. This includes the joining of experimental results and
5 physical process monitoring that is established by a positi- simulations. For example, the position-correlated forces
on related monitoring and simulation strategy. of the 5-axis milling process are measured and connected
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
to engagement conditions of the simulation. By this, first their control behaviour depending upon the actual pro-
optimisations can be done in the CAM system. On the cess state. Furthermore, the developed process models
other hand the information about engagement condi- must be integrated into the control concept. Therefore, 3
tions can be used for the continuous identification of interfaces have to be established that enable a smooth
important parameters for the control loop and the more communication within the control system.
detailed processing of monitoring data.
Figure 11: Process without axial force control loop Figure 12: Process with axial force control loop
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Introduction
4
Thomas Walford, a Briton from Manchester, claimed At least two thread systems are needed to manufacture a
the first patent for a braiding machine in 1748. On this braided structure.
machine, as well as on the subsequent machines, it was
possible to manufacture two-dimensional structures, such With braids it is possible to produce 2-dimensional as well
as laces and straps. as 3-dimensional structures. The most commonly known 5
methods for braiding are flat braiding, packing braiding,
According to DIN 60000 braids are described as fabrics rotary braiding and overbraiding. A special method of
with closed selvedges. Braids consist of at least two braiding is the radial braiding. The bobbins face radially
thread systems that intersect alternately and have a de- towards the centre of the machine. Threads from the
fined angle at the selvedges, the so-called braiding angle. bobbins pass to the centre of the ring body, where the
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Figure 4: Sinusoidal Path of the Bobbins
2 Practical Issues
braiding ring collects them. Due to the radial arrange- A consistent quality over the entire overbraided core,
ment of the bobbins, thread deflections are minimised. through the length as well as diameter, is desired. For
This ensures lower thread damage during braiding and example the deviation of the braiding angle from the
3 thus enables braiding of delicate materials. The braided local target value and the damage of the fibres are
structure is created in a radial braiding process by in- example quality criteria. The braiding angle varies with
tersecting of two thread systems on two paths by moving the geometry of the braiding core and the take-off speed
in opposite directions (clockwise and anticlockwise). of the core moved by a robot through the braiding ring.
Consequently, the threads of the one thread system The tension of each thread is another factor which affects
4 cross the threads of the other one. Braided structures can the braiding angle. Furthermore, the thread placement is
be divided into biaxial and triaxial braids. Biaxial braids affected by the friction of the filaments with each other.
consist only of the two thread systems which form the The more stationary threads (0-threads) and braiding
braid. Triaxial braids are created by adding 0-threads, the threads are used, the greater the friction of the threads
so-called stationary threads, to the biaxial structure. with each other. If the radial braiding machine is for exa-
5 mple only half-fitted with stationary threads, the friction
of each thread changes consequently at an angle of 180
degree. In addition, the combination of materials has an
influence on the friction. The braiding angle is influenced
by varying the speed of the core that is pulled through
the braiding ring. Furthermore, the complexity of the core
affects the braiding angle.
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
1
Figure 7: Concept to Regulate the Thread Tension
2
Currently, the thread tension is controlled mechanically Approach
via a spring. Thereby, the thread passes from the coil
over the guiding plate and then through an eyelet. The The approach here is to monitor and control the braiding
eyelet moves upwards against a spring when the thread angle and thread tension by the interaction of a sensor 3
is pulled. When the maximum suspension travel of the system in a bobbin developed at ITA and an Active Carrier
spring is reached, the bobbin releases more material. system designed by ITA for regulation of the thread
Thus, the thread tension is about the tension that results tension.
by the spring during the pull process of the thread from
the bobbin. However, the spring can only compensate The Active Carrier System includes an electric motor, a 4
the difference in take-off speed from the bobbin, but not tension sensor at the pedestal of each of the 144 bobbins
the fitting of stationary threads and other factors, such as of the braiding machine and a data processing unit. The
unequal thread tension. The unequal tension can result in tension sensor measures the thread tension, which is
damages of the thread. than processed and the electric motor releases the thread
or holds it back. In this way, the thread tension of each 5
In case of unequal yarn tension is the possibility of the bobbin can be individually detected and controlled.
thread to be damaged by too much tension. In case of
low thread tension, there is a risk that a braid may deflect
by overbraiding of the core.
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Technical Challenges king of all the parameters and thus methodically defining
3 a fast realisation of a desired component configuration is
A standard for quality evaluation of braids needs to be still missing. Particularly, the automated determination of
developed. This measurement basis is required for bench- a trajectory of the robot, which guides the braiding core
marking of measurements and results. through the braiding ring is relevant. A module based
on a knowledge database and the component geometry
4 Another challenge is the online process monitoring. A will be adding great value. The module should write and
concept for an active default of bobbin tension is already simulate a program for the robot and dictates necessary
available. However, the implementation is taking some machine configuration. The knowledge database is inten-
time due to its complexity. ded to learn continuously. Furthermore, there is a lack of
solutions for monitoring the winding process as well as
5 Furthermore, the exact interrelations between machine, the integration in the monitoring and braiding process.
material parameters and resulting parameters of other Furthermore, a solution for detection and influences to
components are still unknown. ITA has a large amount of changes in thread tension between the bobbins and
experimental data available. A solution containing the lin- the braiding ring, which is dependent on the stationary
threads and the material pairing has to be found.
Figure 11: Simulated Braiding Cell Figure 12: Braided Hub of Motorcycle Wheel Rim
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
Introduction
4
An increasing number of industrial companies are Approaches for self-optimisation are currently being re-
confronted with the challenge of automating complex searched for the application in the assembly of large com-
assembly processes, in a flexible manner, in order to ponents (e.g. planes, wagons, or wind turbines). Large
compete on international markets. With ever increasing components are posing special challenges for production
5 complexity of a process however, the complexity of engineering, as they tend to deviate significantly from a
production equipment and control systems increases as theoretically planned geometry (because of deformation
well. And as not all production states can be planned in due to gravity, manufacturing tolerances, or fluctuations
advance, a reliable control of these processes cannot be in temperature).
guaranteed. A current research approach for mastering
this complexity is the use of self-optimising systems,
which aside from controlling can also fulfill planning
tasks, thus ensuring control over the complex system.
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
2
Practical Issues
In order to compensate for deviations in assembly alternative to industrial robots. By a simple reprogram-
processes, conventionally fixed steel jigs are used, ming of the robot motions, various components can be
which exactly map the geometry of the component and moved and positioned within the workspace. The low 3
compensate the deformations. Since the precision in the accuracy of a robotic system, in comparison with a fixed
manufacturing of these jigs directly affects the dimen- tool, can be compensated by the integration of exter-
sional accuracy of the components, they have to be nal measurement systems to measure and re-adjust the
produced within a tenth millimetre tolerance or have to positional deviation of the manipulating unit. The usage
be measured during commissioning. Not only has the pre- of cooperating handling units combined with metrology, 4
cision of these tools led to enormous costs, but also their instead of purely fixed jigs, leads to a higher installation
size. As they are custom designed to fit the geometry of complexity and a larger planning effort for operating this
one component, multiple of the large, expensive jigs have system.
to be procured to cover a variety of components.
5
A more flexible technology for the positioning of compo-
nents is the use of robots. As the large components have
to be supported at several grasping points, the produc-
tion of task-specific handling units can be an economic
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Approach
For the execution of such complex production processes, process self-optimising, a changeable assembly system is
the use of self-optimisation is currently being re- required. This system has to offer at least the mechanical
2 searched. Compared to state of the art control systems, degrees of freedoms that are required to adept itself to
self-optimising assembly systems get assigned more the task. Additional mechanical degrees of freedoms for
degrees of freedom for planning and control. By that, the a self-optimising assembly process are achieved by a re-
system will be able to make decisions autonomously, configurable handling technology. A promising approach
change its behaviour flexibly, and reach the assembly is the manipulation principle PARAGRIP, which integrates
3 goal self-optimising, within predefined limits. There- the handling object, in this case an aircraft shell, as a part
fore, the system needs to be able to perceive its environ- in the kinematic chain of the created structure. By an au-
ment with suitable sensors, and possess sufficient degrees tonomous selection of suitable contact points, the system
of freedom for adapting the process to the current situa- can be reconfigured without mechanical modifications.
tion. In order to fulfil the requirements of the production This creates additional degrees of freedoms to achieve
4 the desired level of changeability.
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Self-optimising Production Systems 4
2
Figure 9: Vision of Local shaping
Technical Challenges
3
In order to transfer planning tasks to a machine control, with focus on flexibility and changeability. Therefore, a
mathematical and physical models have to be developed consistently modular assembly system is required, which
which describe the states and correlations between com- can be used to react quickly and simply to altering requi-
ponent, process and assembly system. While kinematic rements. In this respect, the selection of the structure and
and dynamic models for the description of a handling its dimensions pose a major challenge. Furthermore, the 4
system mostly exist, there is a fundamental need for additional degrees of freedoms lead to a much higher
research on the description of the components behavi- complexity of the manipulation system. For still being able
our under the influence of external forces. The goal is to find the optimal operating point, the required planning
to create models, based on measurement data and to algorithms for the systems configuration and motion
derive robot motion based on the individual component, planning need to be deduced first. Thus, a changeable 5
in order to compensate for its deformation. The new and efficient operation can be guaranteed.
manipulation technology has to be designed and imple-
mented based on the requirements of a changing process
Figure 10: Component geometry measurement Figure 11: Universal manipulation system
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
108
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
Self-optimising Assembly of
1
Laser Systems
Introduction
2
Photonic technologies play an important role in industri- imperative programming paradigm which requires the
al production with increasing relevance. Short product manual planning and storing of all decision points that
life cycles require improved and novel solutions for the can possibly occur during assembly and respective pro-
production of laser systems which are capable of meeting cess steps of handling, alignment and bonding. Product
the demands regarding mass customisation. variance and even scaling the production usually leads 3
to massive re-programming efforts for the stored com-
plex decision points and can also leads to a modification
Practical Issues of the used hardware. The demonstrator for self-optimi-
sing assembly of laser systems validates methods which
Customer-specific requirements and relatively low pro- intend to increase flexibility of assembly systems and to 4
duction volumes between one and a thousand units per allow economic production of low-volume production.
year are characteristic of the production of micro-optical
laser systems today. Versatility leads to a high degree of
manual processes for assembly and thus leads to rising
product costs. Therefore manual processes claim up to 5
80 % of the added value of such a laser. In a few cases
automated solutions have been installed. Rigid auto-
mation concepts can only be economic for high-volume
production. Rigid automation is based on the dominating
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
1
Approach Technical Challenges
For decreasing assembly costs, manual assembly shall High flexibility is only possible if production tools provide
be replaced by flexibly automated processes. The efforts standardised interfaces with regard to hardware and
2 for planning and commissioning of processes on the software interfaces, which allow fast re-configuration,
assembly platform need to be reduced. An increase of the and easy change of the control program. The task is to
degree of autonomy reduces the need of implementing provide interfaces which serve as a common standard,
decision points in an imperative manner. Self-optimisation while not limiting future applications, and at the same
is applied in order to achieve the goals. A self-optimising time are easy to implement. Flexible production processes
3 production system is characterised by the ability of need to be specified in a flexible manner so that optimi-
detecting tolerance chains, finding optimisation patterns sation potential can be realised. Especially the demanding
and compensation strategies which allow an automatic field of laser assembly requires the use of simulation
reaction to changes in external influences and adapt own models during production in order to optimise the optical
behaviour to new situations. Adaptation capabilities inclu- function of the system. Simulation-based approaches
4 de the change of behaviour (structure or logic of internal need to be capable of compensating for work piece to-
state machine). Due to this flexible use of the production lerances and limited machine accuracy. A core challenge
system a reduction of setup times occurring to the chan- is the mapping of measured data into simulation models.
ge from one product to another increase the production Robots with large work space as well as ultra-precise
flexibility. micromanipulators need to be integrated in the control
5
Figure 5: Assembly of the MicroSlab laser system Figure 6: Table-top version of the micromanipulator
110
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
1
Demonstration Process
architecture. Calibration plays an important role in order The demonstrator will realise industrial assembly pro-
to link the real world with the world of simulation mo- cesses by applying new approaches. One focus is the
dels. Tolerances can be exploited in order to compensate assembly of collimation optics for diode laser systems, 2
for abberations by dynamically changing the order of as- which are used to parallelise diverging laser beams, as
sembly and applying tolerance matching techniques. This they occur in diode laser systems. Such elements require
requires the characterisation of individual parts and their the highest precision to six degrees of freedom covered
influence on the optical quality. The process of enginee- by a micromanipulator developed in the first phase of the
ring self-optimising control requires novel methodologies project. 3
in order to minimise costs for software development.
The complexity of tasks requires the use of model-based
and self-optimising control. The integration of sensor
technology and intelligent evaluation algorithms are able
to map reality to models during assembly and to compen- 4
sate for possible deviations dynamically. Active alignment
is carried out operating the laser source based on online
sensor data. Novel concepts regarding the analysis of
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4 Self-optimising Production Systems
2
Figure 10: Assembly cell at the Chair for Technologies of Optical Systems at the Fraunhofer ILT
112
Self-optimising Production Systems 4
113
114
Collaboration Productivity 5
Collaboration Productivity
3
The stronger integration of information and communica- technology. Focus of Scientific Cooperation Engineering
tion technologies into production enables a new type of is to support and analyse collaboration in and across
productivity growth by collaboration. This so-called colla- the teams. On the one hand innovation and knowledge
boration productivity in integrative, interdisciplinary teams management in interdisciplinary research teams are analy- 4
is in the focus of the Cross Sectional Processes. Here sed, on the other hand the performance and productivity
three main perspectives of collaboration are considered: of those teams are measured.
results, employees and structure.
The Research area Technology Transfer aims to
The research results of the interdisciplinary project teams strengthen the collaboration structures within the Cluster 5
aim at increasing productivity both in the production and of Excellence by sustainable networking. With the Scien-
in the product development process, especially concer- tific Cooperation Portal networking structures can be te-
ning individualised products. The aim is to integrate the sted internally. In the long-term the aim is to simplify the
contributions of the different research projects by a holi- search of technologies for external partners. The network
stic approach to a new theory of production. This theory PROTECA (Production Technology Aachen) transfers the
is supposed to increase the predictability of the behaviour results and competencies into the local industry.
of socio-technical production systems and therefore sup-
ports the decision-maker.
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5 Collaboration Productivity
Theory of Production
3
Introduction Practical Issues
The classical, neoclassical, and decision-orientated Theo- To cope with the claim of a holistic theory, a multiplicity
4 ries of Production represent three historical milestones of of engineering disciplines as well as social and socio-
hitherto scientific analysis and description of production technical point of views necessary for the description and
systems. They originate from the core of business and design of production systems, had to be taken into consi-
economic research and investigate operational processes deration in the resulting construct. The claim of feasibility
under economical influences. The classical and neoclassi- of the theory at the same time requires an adequate
5 cal Production Theories set their focus on the description reduction in the covered complexity. The percentage of
via formula of input factors of a production process (raw knowledge workers respectively, analytical and arranging
materials, intermediates) and their output factors (finis- functions, in production systems increased continuously
hed products) in the form of production functions. Cost thereby stressing the importance of the human factor.
functions were used to evaluate the cost effectiveness
of the described transformational processes. Production
resources in the form of material, maintenance resources, Approach
and human workforce were therefore the fundamental
model parameters of Production Theory. The decision- To address the above mentioned claims and build up the
orientated Theory of Production represents an alternative hitherto findings of operational Theory of Production,
approach, whose main focus is not set in the combination effort was put into a Theory of Production that integra-
of production factors, but in the way operational relevant ted deterministic, as well as cybernetic models, into a
decisions of processes are passed on. The human factor, superordinate organisation frame. Models and theories
which represents the leading instance in a production from different research areas of the CoE were linked,
system becomes increasingly the centre of attention. thereby contributing to a technology-orientated Theory of
Production.
116
Collaboration Productivity 5
Introduction Approach
Scientific Cooperation Engineering (SCE) aims at the Since 2006, a consortium consisting of 3
interdisciplinary cross-linkage of scientific processes
within the Cluster of Excellence (CoE). Furthermore, the the Institute of Information Management in
evaluation of the performance concerning the Mechanical Engineering & Center for Learning and
organisational development within these research Knowledge Management & Associated Institute of
processes is addressed. Management Cybernetics of RWTH Aachen University 4
(IMA/ZLW & IfU RWTH Aachen University,
Coordination),
Challenges the Human-Computer Interaction Center (HCIC),
the Department of Ferrous Metallurgy (IEHK) and
Interdisciplinary cooperation takes on greater significance, the Department Nonlinear Dynamics of Laser 5
especially in science: Central research questions are more Processing (NLD), RWTH Aachen University
than ever located at or between the boundaries of
different cooperating disciplines. The growing dynamics has addressed the challenge of interdisciplinary coope-
and complexity emerging from interdisciplinary ration within the CoE. On the basis of an actor-based
cooperation processes require new approaches to the approach, various means have been developed and
cross-linkage of scientists and knowledge repositories. implemented in order to enable a cross-linkage between
Focusing on a successful scientific cross-linkage the researchers within the CoE. Those means comprise
interdisciplinary cooperation does not only have to be further trainings and colloquia for the clusters employees
shaped but also to be transformed into sustainable and on the one hand. On the other hand strategic workshops
robust structures. Therefore, the central research question as well as the identification and advancement of success
of SCE can be posed as follows: factors within cooperation of interdisciplinary teams are
conducted. Models and proceedings regarding perfor-
Which actions are necessary to support the transfer of mance measurement as well as the support of result and
highly complex, dynamic and interdisciplinary research knowledge dissemination (e.g. via a virtual approach:
cooperation of the CoE into sustainable and robust the Scientific Cooperation Portal), are also part of the
structures? SCE means. All of these means can be structured into
four fields of action: Knowledge & Cooperation Enginee-
ring, Interdisciplinary Innovation Management, Diversity
Management and Performance Management. In combi-
nation with a continuous evaluation, a system-oriented
management model for the CoE is formed.
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5 Collaboration Productivity
2 All main social challenges (energy, mobility, production, Interdisciplinary knowledge exchange has to deal with
health etc.) need appropriate solution strategies, which problems, such as missing criteria, guidelines and
often require an integration of methods and knowledge communication strategies, as well as different specific
from different entities. One important condition of sci- ratings. Hence respective scientific disciplines do not only
entific innovation capability is based on the possibility to operate with different terminologies, but are also based
3 connect existing knowledge with new knowledge. on diverse methodological understanding and cogni-
A central aspect for this connection is a broad exchange tive models. The resulting differences are often neither
between great research associations. Complex and highly consciously realised nor reflected, and up against this
specific knowledge as well as a high employee turnover background can hardly communicable.
require a systematic analysis and the storage of know-
4 ledge. The collected knowledge of an organisation exists
in the memory of its employees. The central issue of Approach
cross-divisional processes in knowledge-intensive orga-
nisations is to save and utilise the collected knowledge To support the employees of the Excellence Cluster Inte-
for all actors. The research of these organisations highly grative Production Technology for High-Wage Countries
5 contributes to manage knowledge strategically and thus in their daily work the Scientific Cooperation Portal (SCP)
supports the innovation capability. was initiated. The portal offers access to employee pro-
files, which show the respecting interest of research and
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Collaboration Productivity 5
competences, as well as contact information. Furthermo- people in charge. The application FlowChart supports
re, the SCP represents a virtual meeting point to collect project management in the development, visualisation
and represent central appointments, documents and and communication of project schedules. To visualise the 3
results. Moreover, the SCP also offers a range of appli- structures of the interdisciplinary cooperation SCP also
cations to further assist the interdisciplinary cooperation shows various network relationships, which are for exa-
and to tailor the development of measures to the support mple based on publication dates. They can be viewed as
of the research alliance. a general overview of the cluster, or from the individual
perspective of one single researcher. 4
One application serves the recording and visualisation of
the terminologies used within the cluster. It should assist
in revealing and overcoming the diversity of the termi-
nologies, and resulting barriers of the discipline-specific
cooperation. A further functionality is represented by the 5
technology platform, which depicts the key characteri-
stics of cluster-specific technologies, and the responsible
119
5 Collaboration Productivity
120
Collaboration Productivity 5
121
5 Collaboration Productivity
1
Technology Transfer
2 Introduction Approach
The increasing complexity of technology and thus, the In conclusion a community-orientated approach should
related considerable development effort required for the be adopted, in which a technology transfer portal for
next generation of technologies, in accordance with shor- the excellence-cluster based on modern social software
3 ter amortisation periods, will often exceed the resources solutions be developed. Initially, development will be
of an organisation. Hence companies will be forced into for cluster-internal use only, but the portal should create
a development cooperation. The related search for exter- transparency around the technologies being developed
nal, available technologies and suitable cooperation part- within the cluster, as well as the people behind it. As
ners will become a challenge for most companies in the part of the Scientific Cooperation portal, the portal
4 near future. So that, special importance will be attached should be made accessible to external parties after a
to the technology transfer from research into industry. successful test phase within parts of the cluster. This will
Various efforts from the government, funding sponsors then enable and encourage the exchange between indus-
and universities has therefore been made to promote and trial organisations and the possible cooperation partners.
encourage inter-organisational technology transfer, from
5 science into economy, and the implementation of excel-
lent research results into products for the market.
Challenges
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Collaboration Productivity 5
PROTECA is a network consisting of scientists and Development of the City of Aachen, the Stdteregion
industry representatives and builds a bridge between Aachen, the Industry-Dialogue of the Region of Aachen 4
research and practice. It transfers applicable solutions into and the Chamber of Commerce and Industry Aachen.
industry, in order to strengthen the competitiveness of Networking events, panel discussions and workshops are
that producing industry in Europe. The aim of PROTECA is being organised, as well as public events benefiting from
also to push forward efficient, close cooperation between the mutual cooperation and assistance.
science and industry. The focus will not only be on global 5
players, but also small and medium enterprises. Driven by the Cluster ProduktionNRW, a joint project
founded by the state of NRW and the Verband Deutscher
In total, PROTECA bundles production technology Maschinen- und Anlagenbau (VDMA), there will be an
expertise from more than 25 institutes inside the Cluster exchange within the state of (NRW) Nordrhein-Westfalia.
of Excellence, and transfers this expertise to industry. Public appearances such as an exhibition at the
Together, with Industrie 4.0 which is driven by the Hannover Messe, will strengthen the public presence of
increasing integration of information and communication the network, make its expertise highly visible, and help in
technology into the production, new scientific results acquiring new partners.
from different research areas in Individualised Produc-
tion, Virtual Production Systems, Integrated Technologies A strong collaboration, networking and clustering at all
and Self-optimising Production Systems will be directly levels will be the basis of ensuring the level of entrepre-
transferred into application, with the key focus being, neurial innovative capacity, prosperity and social stability
to leverage the full potential of both production and for High-Wage Countries over the long term.
engineering.
123
Cluster of Excellence
Integrative Production Technology
for High-Wage Countries
c/o Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
RWTH Aachen University
Steinbachstrae 19
D-52074 Aachen