UNIT -I Introduction : Nature and Importance of research, The role of business

research, aims of social research, research process, pure research vs. applied
research, qualitative research vs quantitative research, exploratory research,
descriptive research and experimental research, ethical issues in business research.
Research Process Types of Research Defining Research Problem Formulation of
Hypothesis Testing of Hypothesis.

UNIT-II Data Base: Discussion on primary data and secondary data, tools and
techniques of collecting data. Methods of collecting data. Sampling design
and sampling procedures. Random Vs. Non-random sampling techniques,
determination of sample size and an appropriate sampling design. Designing
of Questionnaire Measurement and Scaling Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale Ratio Scale Guttman Scale Likert Scale Schematic
Differential Scale.

UNIT-III Survey Research and data analysis: media used to communicate with
respondents, personal interviews, telephone interviews, self-administered
questionnaires, selection of an appropriate survey research design, the
nature of field work, principles of good interviews and field work
management. Editing Coding Classification of Data Tables and Graphic
Presentation Preparation and Presentation of Research Report.
 UNIT 1
Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific
investigation.

Redman and Mory define research as a, Systematized effort to gain new

knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the
known to the unknown.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary
defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together
they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Purpose / Aims / Objectives of Research

1. To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered so
far.

2. Aims at advancing systematic knowledge and formulating basic theories about

the forces influencing the relation between groups as well as those acting on
personality development and is adjustment with individuals.

3. Try to improve tools of analysis or to test these against the complex human
behaviour and institutions.

4. To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over
social behaviour.

5. To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group

dynamics, in skills of research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action.

Nature & Significance/ Importance of Research

Research is actually an act of studying something carefully and extensively in order to attain deep
knowledge in the same. For being successful, research should be systematic, arranged,
summarized and recorded properly. Research is not only a process that is limited to the field of
science. It can, as well, cater to people and scholars from artistic, historic or any other field where an
individual is willing to do extensive study to get relevant information. Research can be creative,
exploring or just reassuring in nature. However, you need to understand that its not the results from
a research that determine its use; its the people who handle the results.
Significance Of Research

To Gather Necessary Information

Research provides you with all necessary information in field of your work, study or operation before
you begin working on it. For example, most companies do research before beginning a project in
order to get a basic idea about the things they will need to do for the project. Research also helps
them get acquainted with the processes and resources involved and reception from the market. This
information helps in the successful outcome of the project.
To Make Changes
Sometimes, there are in-built problems in a process or a project that is hard to discover. Research
helps us find the root cause and associated elements of a process. The end result of such a
research invokes a demand for change and sometimes is successful in producing changes as well.
For example, many U.N researches have paved way for changes in environmental policies.

Improving Standard Of Living

Only through research can new inventions and discoveries come into life. Imagine how you would
have communicated had Graham Bell not come out with the first ever practical telephone! Addicted
as we are to mobile phones, we need to understand that all the luxuries and the amenities that are
now available to us are the result of research done by someone. And with the world facing more and
crisis each day, we need researchers to find new solutions to tackle them.

For A Safer Life

Research has made ground breaking discoveries and development in the field of health, nutrition,
food technology and medicine. These things have improved the life expectancy and health
conditions of human race in all parts of the world and helped eradicate diseases like polio, smallpox
completely. Diseases that were untreatable are now history, as new and new inventions and
research in the field of medicine have led to the advent of drugs that not only treat the once-
incurable diseases, but also prevent them from recurring.

To Know The Truth

It has been proved time and again that many of established facts and known truths are just cover
ups or transparent lies or rumors. Research is needed to investigate and expose these and bring out
the truth.

Explore Our History

Research about our planets history and human history has enabled us to learn and understand more
about our forefathers and helped us learn from their mistakes and absorb good things from their life.
Research about the planets history and existence has told us a lot about how things will shape up in
years to come and how we need to respect our planet and work closely together to stop global
warming and other scenarios of destruction.

Understanding Arts
This helps us in understanding the work of artists in literature, paintings, sculptures and everything
that can be attributed with artistic touch. If no research is conducted into any of these, we will never
be able to understand any of these as per the artists imagination. Also, a lot of great artistic work is
hidden in the shadows of history, which needs to be drawn out.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Planning of research means deciding the question to be studied,
setting the objectives of the study and determining the means of
achieving those objectives. Planning research refers to determining, in
advance, various steps to be followed in a research.

1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the Research Problems-:

After creating interest in a research work, a researcher has to think about

formulating the problem related to his research work. Choosing a correct
problem for study is the most important step in the entire research process.
After selecting the problem, the researcher has to formulate the problem.

2. Extensive Literature Survey:-

Before formulating the research it is desirable that researcher
examines all available
literature, both conceptual and empirical. The conceptual literature is
one which deals with concepts and theories. Empirical literature is that
which contains studies made earlier and so it consists of many facts
and figures observed in the earlier studies.
3. Writing a Primary Synopsis:-
After formulating the problems a brief summary of it should be written
down. A research worker has to write a synopsis of the topic selected
for research work mentioning the summary of what is going to be done
under his research.
4. Indentifying and Labeling Variables: -
In any research the problem under study deals with relation between
variables. The
variables whose change has affected the other variable, is called
independent variable.
Therefore there is a cause and effect relation between the variables.
The research problem must be formulated in such a manner that it
highlights the nature, extent and implications of relation existing
between the variables. It is only through this process of establishing
 the effective relation between variables that meaningful conclusions
are derived from the study.
5. Setting Up Of Hypothesis: -
Specification of working hypothesis is a basic step in the research
process. A hypothesis is atentative conclusion logically drawn. The
research work is conducted to test the truth of this hypothesis.
6. Preparing the Research Design:-
A research design is a plan that specifies the sources and types
of information relevant to the research problem. It is a strategy which
approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data. It includes
the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these
two constraints. A research design provides a rational approach to
research enabling one to decide in advance what to do, how to do, in
investigating the subjects.
7. Determining the Sample Design:-
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given universe. Sample design refers to the
technique or the
procedure which the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sampling units from the
universe for drawing inferences about the universe. If the proper
procedure is followed to select the sample, definitely the sample will
give all dependable information.
8. Collecting of Data: -
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. Some of the
methods of collecting primary data are
(1)Observation method. (2) Direct personal interview method.
(3)Telephone interview method. (4) Questionnaire method. (5)
Schedule method.
9. Execution of the Project: -
The researcher has to see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. He should make necessary preparations for
successful conduct of the project.
10. Processing, Analysis and Interpretation of Data by Statistical Methods: -
Theprocessing of data consists of classification, tabulation and coding.
By classification and tabulation the unwieldy data can be condense
into few manageable and purposeful groups and tables so that further
analysis becomes simple. Coding converts the data into symbols and
small figures so that the data can be dealt with in an easy manner.
Editing improves the quality of the data since it is at this stage that
data which is irrelevant can be dropped.
 Analysis and interpretation of data results in observation, analysis,
conclusion, induction
and deduction. For this various statistical measures are computed.

11. Testing of Hypothesis: -

Depending upon the nature of data and conclusions to be arrived one

or two of these tests can be applied. Testing of hypothesis will results
in either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis
may prove or disprove a theory
and a theory facilitates formulating of a further hypothesis. Testing of
hypothesis will result in contribution to existing theory or the
generation of a new theory.

12. Preparation of the Report or Thesis:-

A report is a detailed description of what has been done and how it has been
done with respect to a particular area or topic. The report should contain the
preliminary section, the main body and the end matter. The preliminary
section contains only titles, data, acknowledgement foreword and table of
contents. The important section of a report is its main body. It carries
introduction, methodology, statements of findings, conclusions and
recommendations. The end matter includes appendix, literature selected and
bibliography.

The appendix includes letters, questions or other tools used. Bibliography is

the list of books, journals. Reports, bulletins etc. used for reference.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of Research
Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of research , the
knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates etc,.

Basic / PURE Research

The research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have
immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and
plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic,pure,fundamental research. The main motivation is to
expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something.
Applied Research[edit]
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledges sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It
focus on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on
large scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it often conducted with the support of some financing
agency like government , public corporation , world bank, UNICEF, UGC,Etc,.

According to hunt, applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to
solve practical problems for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific
disease, improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among workers in
large companies be improved?

Exploratory/Formulative Research
You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the issue was new or
theresearcher has written little on it, you began at the beginning. This is called exploratory research.
Theresearcher's goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer.
Exploratoryresearch may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. A researcher may need to know
enough todesign and execute a second, more systematic and extensive study

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the
answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census,
and Educational Census are examples of such research. Descriptive study offers to the researcher a
profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest. Look at the class in research
methods and try to give its profile the characteristics of the students. When we start to look at the
relationship of the variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.

Explanatory Research
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might begin to
wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the
reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For
example, a descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children,
whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why parents abuse their children
Quantitative Research[edit]
This research is based on numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research aim to measure the
quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In social
sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative
properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena.

The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental

connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.
Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.

Quantitative research involving the use of structured questions, where the response options have
been Pre-determined and large number of respondents is involved. eg:-total sales of soap industry in
terms of rupees cores and or quantity in terms of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008,could be
researched, compared with past 5 years and then projection for 2009 could be made.

Qualitative Research[edit]
Qualitative research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to
the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things. Qualitative
research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting information,mainly
individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended. Small number of people are
interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted.

Historical research:-
It allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows
one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Eg:-the lending pattern
of business in the 19th century.
 UNIT 2
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,
observations or even just descriptions of things.

Types of Data

There are two different types of data that we use when we are carrying our research projects. These
two different types of data are called Primary and Secondary data collection.

Primary Data

Primary data is data that we collect ourselves during the period of our research e.g. Questionnaires,
Observations, Interviews and so on. We then use the data we have collected and noted down to
begin the next stage of out research which is the theory making and the understanding of what we
are researching.

Primary data is best used for ever evolving research because different factors play roles in things we
research and can lead to varying results depending on the factor and how much of a role it plays on
the research.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is data that has already been collect and we use for reference or to gain knowledge
from other peoples experiences e.g. published books, Government publications, Journals and the
internet. We then use this data to add to the Primary data that we have collected and use it to
combine different peoples opinions and base a theory with evidence to back this point up.

Secondary data is best used to add other existing evidence and proof to the Primary data that we
have collected, we are better using Secondary data as reference and to gain the knowledge that we
need to begin our own research processes.

Tools and Techniques of Data or Information Collection:

The primary data or information can be collected by the following means-

a) Observing Behaviors of Participants: This method specifies the conditions

and methods at making observation. In this method, the information is
sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from
the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observations are done accurately. It is the most commonly used
method especially in studies relating to behavioral science.

b) Questionnaire Method: Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to

the survey (known as questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various
informants by post. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space
for answer. A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to
fill up the questionnaire and sent it back within a specified time. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The questionnaire
can be delivered directly hand by hand, through surface post or as an
electronic questionnaire.

In preparing a research questionnaire general question, question wording to

collect personal information, use of unfamiliar terms and jargon, etc. should
be avoided. Further, before distribution of a research questionnaire at least
two pre-tests should be conducted and it is very much needed.

c) Interview Method: This involves listening to or integrating informants. The

interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses. So, under this method
of collecting data, there is a face to face contact with the persons from whom
the information is to be collected. The interviewer asks them question
pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. This method
can be used through personal interview, telephone interview, Chat, Audio
Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc. The interview can be structured, semi
structured or open interview.
d) Schedules Method: In this method of data collection, the ennumerator or
interviewers who are specially appointed for the purpose along with
schedules, go to the respondents, put to them the questions from the
Performa in the order the questionnaire are listed and record the replies in
the space meant for the same in the Performa. In certain situation, schedules
may be handed over to respondents and ennumerators may help them in
recording their answer to various questions in the said schedules.
Ennumerator explains the aims and objectives of the investigation and also
removes the difficulties which respondents may feel in relation to
understanding the implication of a particular question or a definition or
concept of difficult term. This method has the advantage over the
questionnaire method in the sense that the respondents have no scope to
misunderstand any question and thereby putting irrelevant answer.

e) Information from Correspondents: Under this method, the investigator

appoints local agent or correspondents in different places to collect
information. These correspondents collect and transmit information to the
central office where the data are processed. The special advantage of this
method is that it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation.
However, it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal
prejudice and bias of the correspondents. Newspaper agencies generally
adopt this method.

Besides the above methods, nowadays many big companies also follow some
other method for primary data collection like warranty card, Distributor or
Store Audit, Consumer Panels, Projective Techniques, Depth Interview,
Content analysis, etc.

The Secondary data or information can be collected by the following means-

Official Statistics: Official statistics are statistics collected by governments and

their various agencies, bureaus, and departments. These statistics can be useful to
researchers because they are an easily obtainable and comprehensive source of
information that usually covers long periods of time.

Technical Reports: Technical reports are accounts of work done on research

projects. They are written to provide research results to colleagues, research
institutions, governments, and other interested researchers. A report may emanate
from completed research or on-going research projects.

Scholarly Journals: Scholarly journals generally contain reports of original

research or experimentation written by experts in specific fields. Articles in scholarly
journals usually undergo a peer review where other experts in the same field review
the content of the article for accuracy, originality, and relevance.

Literature Review Articles: Literature review articles assemble and review

original research dealing with a specific topic. Reviews are usually written by
experts in the field and may be the first written overview of a topic area. Review
articles discuss and list all the relevant publications from which the information is
derived.

Trade Journals: Trade journals contain articles that discuss practical information
concerning various fields. These journals provide people in these fields with
information pertaining to that field or trade.

Reference Books: Reference books provide secondary source material. In many

cases, specific facts or a summary of a topic is all that is included. Handbooks,
manuals, encyclopedias, and dictionaries are considered reference books
(University of Cincinnati Library 1996; Pritchard and Scott 1996).

Sampling Design Process

All the items in any field of inquiry constitute a Universe or Population A

complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as Census Inquiry.

Most times census inquiry is not practically possible Sample Survey of a few items
of the population. The respondents selected should be representative of the total
population. The sampling process is called the sampling technique. The survey so
conducted is known as the sample survey.

The researcher must prepare a sample design for his study that is, how a sample
should be selected and what size such a sample would be.

The following are some of the important steps that one needs to
keep in mind when developing a sample design:-

1. Defining the universe or population of interest is the first step in any

sample design. The accuracy of the results in any study depends on
how clearly the universe or population of interest is defined. The
universe can be finite or infinite, depending on the number of items it
contains.

2. Defining the sampling unit within the population of interest is the

second step in the sample design process. The sampling unit can be
anything that exists within the population of interest. For example,
sampling unit may be a geographical unit, or a construction unit or it
may be an individual unit.

3. Preparing the list of all the items within the population of interest is the
next step in the sample design process. It is from this list, which is also
called as source list or sampling frame, that we draw our sample. It is
important to note that our sampling frame should be highly
representative of the population of interest.

4. Determination of sample size is the next step to follow. This is the most
critical stage of the sample design process because the sample size
should not be excessively large nor it should be too small. It is desired
that the sample size should be optimum and it should be
representative of the population and should give reliable results.
Population variance, population size, parameters of interest, and
budgetary constraints are some of the factors that impact the sample
size.

5. Deciding about the technique of sampling is the next step in sample

design. There are many sampling techniques out of which the
researchers has to choose the one which gives lowest sampling error,
given the sample size and budgetary constraints.
Types of Sampling
1) Probability Sampling Also know as Random sampling or Chance
sampling.

Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the
whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. It is blind chance
alone that determines whether one item is selected or not. The results obtained
from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability, that is,
we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance.

Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on
an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe) This is why it is considered as the
best technique of selecting a very representative sample.

a) Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other
such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of results.

n particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance
in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.

Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling (also known as interval sampling) relies on arranging the study population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size). It is important
that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from
within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name
from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling.

Stratified sampling[edit]

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by
these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-
 population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. [2] There are several potential
benefits to stratified sampling.

First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable researchers to draw
inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalized random sample.

Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical estimates
(provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to the criterion in question, instead of
availability of the samples). Even if a stratified sampling approach does not lead to increased
statistical efficiency, such a tactic will not result in less efficiency than would simple random
sampling, provided that each stratum is proportional to the group's size in the population.

Cluster Sampling
It is very different from Stratified Sampling. With cluster sampling one should
divide the population into groups (clusters).
obtain a simple random sample of so many clusters from all possible clusters.
obtain data on every sampling unit in each of the randomly selected clusters.
It is important to note that, unlike with the strata in stratified sampling, the clusters should be
microcosms, rather than subsections, of the population. Each cluster should be heterogeneous.
Additionally, the statistical analysis used with cluster sampling is not only different, but also more
complicated than that used with stratified sampling.

Area Sampling:

if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, then it is better known as

area sampling

Multi-stage Sampling:

is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. Ex. suppose we want

to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and we want to
take a sample of few banks for this purpose the first stage is to select large
primary sampling units such as States then we select certain districts and
interview all the banks in the chosen districts. This is two-stage sampling design

NON-Probability SAMPLING :
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a
process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Availability/ Convenience Sampling
Availability sampling is a method of choosing subjects who are available or easy to find. This method
is also sometimes referred to as haphazard, accidental, or convenience sampling. The primary
advantage of the method is that it is very easy to carry out, relative to other methods. A researcher
can merely stand out on his/her favorite street corner or in his/her favorite tavern and hand out
surveys. One place this used to show up often is in university courses. Years ago, researchers often
would conduct surveys of students in their large lecture courses. For example, all students taking
introductory sociology courses would have been given a survey and compelled to fill it out. There are
some advantages to this design - it is easy to do, particularly with a captive audience, and in some
schools you can attain a large number of interviews through this method.

Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is designed to overcome the most obvious flaw of availability sampling. Rather than
taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the sample you get represents certain
characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population. Note that for this method, you have
to know something about the characteristics of the population ahead of time. Say you want to make
sure you have a sample proportional to the population in terms of gender - you have to know what
percentage of the population is male and female, then collect sample until yours matches. Marketing
studies are particularly fond of this form of research design.

Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on purpose of the
study. Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group
(sociology faculty at Columbia) or a subset of a population

Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of
interest, speaks to him/her, then asks that person to identify others in the population that the
researcher might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another person,
and so on.
Determining Sample Size: How to Ensure You Get
the Correct Sample Size
How many responses do you really need? This
simple question is a never-ending quandary for
researchers. A larger sample can yield more
accurate results but excessive responses can be
pricey.
Consequential research requires an understanding
of the statistics that drive sample size decisions. A
simple equation will help you put the migraine pills
away and sample confidently.
Before you can calculate a sample size, you need
to determine a few things about the target
population and the sample you need:
1.Population Size How many total people fit
your demographic? For instance, if you want to
 know about mothers living in the US, your
population size would be the total number of
mothers living in the US. Dont worry if you are
unsure about this number. It is common for the
population to be unknown or approximated.
2.Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) No
sample will be perfect, so you need to decide
how much error to allow. The confidence
interval determines how much higher or lower
than the population mean you are willing to let
your sample mean fall. If youve ever seen a
political poll on the news, youve seen a
confidence interval. It will look something like
this: 68% of voters said yes to Proposition Z,
with a margin of error of +/- 5%.
3.Confidence Level How confident do you want
to be that the actual mean falls within your
confidence interval? The most common
confidence intervals are 90% confident, 95%
confident, and 99% confident.
4.Standard of Deviation How much variance do
you expect in your responses? Since we
havent actually administered our survey yet,
the safe decision is to use .5 this is the most
forgiving number and ensures that your
sample will be large enough.
Okay, now that we have these values defined, we
can calculate our needed sample size.
Your confidence level corresponds to a Z-score.
This is a constant value needed for this equation.
Here are the z-scores for the most common
confidence levels:

90% Z Score = 1.645

95% Z Score = 1.96

99% Z Score = 2.576

If you choose a different confidence level, use

this Z-score table* to find your score.
Next, plug in your Z-score, Standard of Deviation,
and confidence interval into this equation:**
Necessary Sample Size = (Z-score) * StdDev*(1-
StdDev) / (margin of error)
Here is how the math works assuming you chose a
95% confidence level, .5 standard deviation, and a
margin of error (confidence interval) of +/- 5%.
((1.96) x .5(.5)) / (.05)
(3.8416 x .25) / .0025
.9604 / .0025
384.16
385 respondents are needed
Youve just determined your sample size.
If you find your sample size is too large to handle,
try slightly decreasing your confidence level or
increasing your margin of error this will increase
the chance for error in your sampling, but it can
greatly decrease the number of responses you
need.

Questionnaire
Questionnaires are best used for collecting factual
data and appropriate questionnaire design is
essential to ensure that we obtain valid responses
to our questions.
Objectives in designing questionnaires There are
two main objectives in designing a questionnaire:
To maximise the proportion of subjects
answering our questionnairethat is, the response
rate.
To obtain accurate relevant information for our
survey.

1. What are you trying to find out?

A good questionnaire is designed so that your results will tell you what you want to find
out.

Start by writing down what you are trying to do in a few clear sentences, and design
your questionnaire around this.

2. How are you going to use the information?

There is no point conducting research if the results arent going to be used make sure
you know why you are asking the questions in the first place.
Make sure you cover everything you will need when it come to analysing the answers.
e.g. maybe you want to compare answers given by men and women. You can only do
this if youve remembered to record the gender of each respondent on each
questionnaire.

3. Telephone, Postal, Web, Face-to-Face?

There are many methods used to ask questions, and each has its good and bad points.
For example, postal surveys can be cheap but responses can be low and can take a
long time to receive, face-to-face can be expensive but will generate the fullest
responses, web surveys can be cost-effective but hit and miss on response rates, and
telephone can be costly, but will often generate high response rates, give fast
turnaround and will allow for probing.

4. Qualitative or Quantitative?

Do you want to focus on the number e.g. 87% of respondents thought this, or are you
more interested in interpreting feedback from respondents to bring out common
themes?

The method used will generally be determined by the subject matter you are
researching and the types of respondents you will be contacting.

5. Keep it short. In fact, quite often the shorter the better.

We are all busy, and as a general rule people are less likely to answer a long
questionnaire than a short one.

If you are going to be asking your customers to answer your questionnaire in-store,
make sure the interview is no longer than 10 minutes maximum (this will be about 10 to
15 questions).

If your questionnaire is too long, try to remove some questions. Read each question and
ask, How am I going to use this information? If you dont know, dont include it!

6. Use simple and direct language.

The questions must be clearly understood by the respondent. The wording of a question
should be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long sentences.

7. Start with something general.

Respondents will be put-off and may even refuse to complete your questionnaire if you
ask questions that are too personal at the start (e.g. questions about financial matters,
age, even whether or not they are married).

8. Place the most important questions in the first half of the

questionnaire.

Respondents sometimes only complete part of a questionnaire. By putting the most

important items near the beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still
contain important information.

9. Leave enough space to record the answers.

If you are going to include questions which may require a long answer e.g. ask someone
why they do a particular thing, then make sure you leave enough room to write in the
possible answers. It sounds obvious, but its so often overlooked!

10. Test your questionnaire on your colleagues.

No matter how much time and effort you put into designing your questionnaire, there is
no substitute for testing it. Complete some interviews with your colleagues BEFORE you
ask the real respondents. This will allow you to time your questionnaire, make any final
changes, and get feedback from your colleagues.