Lectures Note

On
Process Dynamic and Control
(6th semester)

Subject code PCCH 4301

Prepared By

Brahmotri Sahoo
Assistant Professor

Chemical Engineering Department

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang

Dhenkanal, Odisha- 759146

1
 PROCESS DYNAMICS AND CONTROL (3-1-0)

Module - I
Response of first order systems, Physical examples of first order systems Response of first order
systems in series, Response of Second order systems, Transportation lag. Control System,
controllers and final control elements, Block diagram of a Chemical Reactor Control system,
Closed loop transfer functions, Transient response of simple control systems.

Module - II
Stability, Root locus, Frequency response, Control system design by frequency response.

Module - III
Cascade control, feed forward control, Ratio control, Dead time compensation, Internal model
control, controller tuning and process identification, control valves.

Module - IV
Introduction to sampled data controllers, sampled data control of a first order process with
transportation lag, Design of sampled data controllers, Digital computer simulation of control
systems.

2
 LESSON PLAN

INDIRA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF

Name of the Institute: TECHNOLOGY, SARANG

Department: Chemical Engineering

Semester: 6th semester/B. Tech

Subject Name with code: Process Dynamic and Control

Total No. of Classes taken: 30

Faculty Name: Brahmotri Sahoo

Class
No. Brief description of the Topic/Chapters taught
1 Introduction,
2 Response of first order system in a mercury thermometer, step, impulse,
sinusoidal)
3 Step and impulse response of a first order system.
4 Sinusoidal response of a first order system.
5 Physical examples of first order systems (liquid level, mixing, RC circuit)
6 Linearization.
7 Response of first order systems in series (interacting & non-interacting)
8 Response of Second order systems (interacting & non-interacting)
9 Damping factor, characteristics of the under damped system, Transportation
lag.
10 The Control System (components, development of block diagram)
11 Block diagram of a Chemical Reactor Control system, Closed loop transfer
functions.
12 Types of controllers (proportional,PI).
13 Types of controllers (PD,PID)
14 Transient response of simple control systems.
15 Stability (Routh test & problems)
16 Root locus & its related problem
17 Frequency response, Control system design by frequency response.
18 Bode plot of first and higher order systems.

3
19 Bode plots of different types of controllers.
20 Bode plots related problem.

21 Nyrist plot and its related problems.

22 Cascade control, Ratio control.
23 Feed forward control, feedback control.
24 Internal model control.
25 Controller tuning and process identification.
26 Control valves and types of control valves.
27 Introduction to sampled data controllers.
28 Sampled data control of a first order process with transportation lag.
29 Design of sampled data controllers.
30 Digital computer simulation of control systems.

4
 Disclaimer

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the committee faculty
members for their respective teaching assignments as an additional tool for the teaching-learning
process. Various sources as mentioned at the reference of the document as well as freely
available material from internet were consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of
the information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not
intended to be used for commercial purpose and the committee faculty members are not
accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The
committee faculty members make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy
or completeness of the contents of this document and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

5
 Module I
Introduction
A chemical plant is an arrangement of the processing units (reactors, heat exchangers, pumps,
distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks etc.) integrated with one another in a
systematic and rational manner.

The plants overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input feed stock) into desired
products using available sources of energy, in the most economical way.

During the operation of the plant, the plant must satisfy several requirements which are as
follows:

Safety
Production specifications
Environmental regulations
Operational constraints
Economics

Again there are three general classes of needs that a control system is called on to satisfy.

1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances.

2. Ensuring the stability of a chemical processes.
3. Optimizing the performance of a chemical processes.

6
1. Suppresses the influence of external disturbances

Suppressing the influence of external disturbances on a process is the most common objective of
a controller in a chemical plant. Such disturbances which denote the effect that the surroundings
have on a reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, and so on are usually out of reach of
the human operator. Consequently we need to introduce a control mechanism that will make the
proper changes on the process to cancel the negative impact that such disturbances may have on
the desired operation of a chemical plant.

Example-1.1 Controlling the operation of a stirred tank heater

Consider the tank heater system as shown below.

Fi, Ti

Q h
T

F, T

Condensate

Fst

Steam

A liquid enters the tank with a flow rate of Fi and the temperature of Ti, where it is heated with a
steam having a flow rate of Fst. F, T be the flow rate and temperature of the stream leaving the
tank. The tank is considered to be well stirred which implies that the temperature of the effluent
is equal to the temperature of the liquid in the tank.

The operational objectives of the heater are:

To keep the effluent temperature at a desired value T.

To keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value Vs.

7
The operation of the heater is disturbed by the external factors such as changes in flow rate and
temperature (Fi and Ti). if nothing changed, then after attaining T = Ts and V = Vs, we could
leave the system alone without any supervision and control. It is clear, though, that this cannot be
true since Ti and Fi are subject to frequent changes. Consequently, some form of control action is
needed to alleviate the impact of the changing disturbances and keep T and V at the desired
values.

Controlling the temperature of a stirred tank heater using the feedback control

2. Ensure the stability of a process

Stable system

From the figure below, it is shown that at time t = t0, the constant value of X is disturbed by
some external factors, but that as time progresses the value of X return to its initial value and
stays there.

If X is a process variable such as pressure, temperature, concentration or flow rate, then that
process is stable or self regulating.

8
 Response of a stable system

Unstable system

The figure reflects that the variable Y does not return to its initial value after it is disturbed by
the external influences.

The processes whose variable follow the pattern indicated by Y are called the unstable system
and it require external control system for the stabilization of the behavior.

Response of a stable system

Example: the explosion of a hydrocarbon fuel with air is an example of a unstable system.

Controlling the operation of an unstable reactor

Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) in which an irreversible exothermic reaction
AB takes place. So heat is evolved during the reaction in the reactor.

9
The heat of reaction is removed by a coolant medium that flows through a jacket around the
reactor.

CSTR with cooling jacket

The heat released by the exothermic reaction in a CSTR is a sinusoidal function of temperature.
But the heat removed by the coolant is a linear function of time.

Again at steady state,

Heat removed by the reaction = heat removed by the coolant

10
So P1, P2 and P3 are the steady state points among which P2 is the unstable point and P1 and P3
are the stable points.

The following graphs show the point of instability at the middle point and point of stability at the
extreme two points (i.e. P1 and P3).

Instability of the middle steady state point P2

Stability of a steady state point P1 and P3

11
Transfer function
The transfer function completely describes, the dynamic characteristics of a complete system or
the response of system at timet. The transfer function relates the two variable of a physical
process.

Input function-cause (forcing function/input variable/manipulated variable)

Output function-effect (measure variable/response/output variable/controlled variable)

In terms of mercury in glass thermometer the surrounding temperature is the cause (input
function) where as the thermometer reading is the effect or output variables.

Y s
Transfer function, G s
X s

Where G(s) = symbol for transfer function

X(s) = transform of forcing function or input, in deviation form
Y(s) = transform of response or output, in deviation form

X(s) Y(s)
G(s)
Forcing function Response

Transfer function of a first order system Consider the thermometer to be located in a flowing
stream of fluid for which the temperature x varies with time. Our problem is to calculate the
response or the time variation of the thermometer reading y for a particular change in x.

First order system

Film Resistance

X = Surrounding
Temperature Glass Wall

Mercury

12
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:

1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e., the
resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).

2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the mercury
assumes a uniform temperature throughout.

3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the transient
response.
It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that, before time zero,
there is no change in temperature with time. At time zero the thermometer will be subjected to
some change in the surrounding temperature x (t).

By applying the unsteady-state energy balance,

Input rate - output rate = rate of accumulation

we can get the result

hAx y 0 mCdy (1)

Where A = surface area of bulb for heat transfer,

C = heat capacity of mercury, Btu/(lb)( )
m = mass of mercury in bulb,
t = time, hr
h = film coefficient of heat transfer, Btu/(hr)( )(

For the steady-state condition,

hAxs y s 0 (t < 0) (2)

The subscript s is used to indicate that the variable is the steady-state value.
Subtracting equation-2 from equeation-1,

d y ys
hAx x s y y s mC (3)
dt

Defining the deviation variable,

y ys Y
x xs X

13
Putting the above values in equation-3,
(4)
hA X Y mC
dY
dt
Taking the Laplace transform on both the sides,

hAX x Y s mCsY s Y 0

X s Y s sY s
mC
hA

X s Y s sY s

Y s 1

X s s 1

mC
Where
hA
The parameter is called the time constant of the system and has the units of time.

a) If a step input is applied to a first order system

Mathematically, the step function of magnitude A can be expressed as

X (t) = Au(t)

Where u(t) is the unit-step function.

X (t) = A

L[X (t)] =

14
G(s) =

Y(s) = *

Y(s) = A [ ]

Y(s) = A [ ]

Y(s) = A [ ]

Comparing above equation,

C=0 B=

Taking inverse laplace transform

Y (t) = A [1- ]

Y (t) = {A [1- } (t>0)

={ 0 } (t<0)

b) If a impulse input is applied to a first order system

X (s) = 1

By applying above process we get,

15
Y (t) =

c) If a sinusoidal input is applied to a first order system

Sinusoidal input

The sinusoidal input function is

X A sin t

The transform of the above equation is given by;

A
X s
s 2
2

A
So Y t sin t
A
e t
1
22
1
2 2

Where tan 1

As t , the first term on the right side of the above equation,

Y t sin t
A
2 1
2

16
For the sinusoidal forcing function, for the ultimate periodic response, we see that

The output is a sine wave with a frequency equal to that of the input signal.
The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is 1 2 2 1 . This is always smaller
than 1. We often state this by saying that the signal is attenuated.
The output lags behind the input by an angle . It is clear that lag occurs, for the sign of
is always negative.

Physical examples of first order system

1. Single capacity system

Consider the system, which consists of a tank of uniform cross sectional area A to which is
attached a flow resistance R such as a valve, a pipe, or a weir. Assume that , the volumetric
flow rate (volume/time) through the resistance, is related to the head h by the linear relationship;

h
q0 (1)
R

By doing the transient mass balance around the tank:

Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank

In terms of the variables used in this analysis, the mass balance becomes

d Ah
qt q0 t (2)
dt

17
 qt q0 t A
dh
(3)
dt

Putting the value of (t) in the eq-3;

h dh
q A (4)
R dt
But at steady state condition;

hs
qs 0 (5)
R
Where the subscripts has been used to indicate the steady-state value of the variable.
Subtracting eq-5 from eq-4, we get

h hs
q qs 1 h hs A d (6)
R dt
Defining the deviation variable;

Q q qs
H h hs

Putting the above values in eq-6;

H dH
Q A (7)
R dt
Taking the transform the Laplace transform on both the sides;

H s
Qs AsH s (8)
R
On solving;

H s R
(9)
Qs s 1

Where AR
If the transfer function relating the inlet flow q (t) to the outlet flow q0 (t) is desired,

hs
q0 s (10)
R
Subtracting Eq. 10 from Eq. 1 and using the deviation variable

18
 (11)

Taking Laplace transform on both the sides;

H s
Q0 s (12)
R
Combining equation (12) and equation (9) to eliminate H(s) gives

(13)

Where, the steady-state gain for this transfer function is dimensionless, which is to be expected
because the input variable q (t) and the output variable have the same units (volume/time).

Application of different types of forcing function to single capacity system

I. Step response
Q(s) = A/S
H (t) = R A (1- )

II. Impulse response

Q(s) = 1
H(t) = R/

III. Ramp response

Q(s) =A/
H (t) = Rb

IV. Sinusodial response

Q(s) =

H(t)=

19
 2. Mixing process
Consider the mixing process shown in Fig. 6.4 in which a stream of solution containing
dissolved salt flows at a constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank of constant holdup volume V.
The concentration of the salt in the entering stream, x (mass of salt/volume), varies with time.

It is desired to determine the transfer function relating the outlet concentration y to the inlet
concentration x.

Assuming the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must equal the flow rate out,
since the holdup volume is fixed.

We may analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance for the salt;

Flow rate of salt in - flow rate of salt out = rate of accumulation of salt in the tank

dVy
qx qy (1)
dt
At the steady state condition;

qxs qy s 0
(2)
Subtracting Eq-2 from Eq-1and introducing the deviation variables
x=x-
y = y-

qX-qY = V (3)

Taking the Laplace transform;

V
Where,
q

20
 3. R-C circuit

The transfer function is,

Where, RC
R = Resistance
C = Capacitance

First order system connected in series

Two possible arrangements are:

1. Non-interacting systems
The outlet flow from tank 1 discharges directly into the atmosphere before spilling into tank 2
and the flow through depends only on . The variation in in tank 2 does not affect the
transient response occurring in tank 1. This type of system is referred to as a noninteracting
system.

Assumption:-

1. The liquid to be of constant density

2. The tanks to have uniform cross-sectional area, and
3. The flow resistances to be linear.
A balance on tank 1 gives;

dh1
q q1 A1 (1)
dt
A balance on tank 2 gives;

21
 dh2
q1 q 2 A2 (2)
dt
The flow-head relationships for the two linear resistances are given by the expressions,

h1
q1 (3)
R1

h2
q2 (4)
R2

Combining Eqs. (1) and (3);

Q1 s 1
(5)
Qs 1 s 1

Where, Q1 q1 q1s
Q q qs
1 A1 R1
In the same manner, we can combine Eqs. (2) and (4) to obtain the transfer function for tank 2;
thus
H 2 s R2
(6)
Q1 s 2 s 1

Where, H 2 h2 h2 s
Q1 q1 q1s

Having the transfer function for each tank, we can obtain the overall transfer function (s)/Q(s)
by multiplying Eqs. (5) and (6) to eliminate (S):

H 2 s R2 1
(7)
Qs 2 s 1 1 s 1

Q2 s 1
2

(if 1 2 ) (8)
Qs s 1

The overall transfer function is the product of two first-order transfer functions, each one of
which is the transfer function of a single tank operating independently of the other.

22
 2. Interacting systems

The analysis is started by writing mass balances on the tanks as was done for the non interacting
case. The balances on tanks 1 and tank2 give;

dh1
q q1 A1
dt
(1)

dh2
q1 q 2 A2 (2)
dt

However the flow relationship for tank 1 is,

q1
1
h1 h2 (3)
R1

h2
q2 (4)
R2

At steady state condition,

q s q1s 0 (5)

q1s q2 s 0 (6)

Subtracting eq-5 from eq-1 and eq-6 from eq-2 and defining some deviation variable;

dH 1
Q Q1 A1 (7)
dt

dH 2
Q1 Q2 A2 (8)
dt

H1 H 2
Q1 (9)
R1

23
 H2
Q2 (10)
R2

Taking the Laplace transform of the above four equations ;

Qs Q1 s A1 sH1 s (11)

Q1 s Q2 s A2 sH 2 s (12)

H 1 s H 2 s
Q1 s (13)
R1

H 2 s
Q2 s (14)
R2

By arranging the above equations;

H 2 s R2
(15)
Qs 1 2 s 1 2 A1 R2 s 1
2

Second order system

A block of mass Wresting on a horizontal, frictionless table is attached to a linear spring. A
viscous damper (dashpot) is also attached to the block. Assume that the system is free to oscillate
horizontally under the influence of a forcing function F(t). The origin of the coordinate system is
taken as the right edge of the block when the spring is in the relaxed or unstretched condition. At
time zero, the block is assumed to be at rest at this origin. * Positive directions for force and
displacement are indicated by the arrows.

24
Consider the block at some instant when it is to the right of Y = 0 and when it is moving towards
the right. Under this condition position Y and the velocity dY/dt are both positive.

At this particular instant, the following forces are acting on the block:

The force exerted by the spring (toward the left) of -KY where K is a positive constant,
called Hookes constant.
The viscous friction force (acting to the left) of -CdY/dt , where C is a positive constant
called the damping coefficient.
The external force F (t) (acting toward the right).

Newtons law of motion, which states that the sum of all forces acting on the mass is equal to the
rate of change of momentum (Mass Acceleration) takes the form,

W d 2Y
F t
dY
2
KY C (1)
g c dt dt

W d 2Y
F t
dY
2
KY C (2)
g c dt dt

Where,
W = mass of block, lbm
= 32.2(lbm)(ft) / (lbf)( )
C = viscous damping coefficient, lbf / (ft/sec)
K = Hookes constant, lbf / ft
F (t) = driving force, a function of time, lbf
Dividing Eq. (2) by K gives;

W d 2Y C dY F t
2
Y (3)
g c K dt K dt K

d 2Y
Y X t
dY
2 2
2 (4)
dt dt
Where,

W
2
gc K
C
2
K
F t
X t
K

25
If the block is motionless (dYldt = 0) and located at its rest position (Y = 0) before the force is
applied to the block.
Hence the Laplace transform of eq-4 gives;

2 s 2Y s 2 sY s Y s X s
(5)

Y s 1
2 2 (6)
X s s 2 s 1

Where,

= Damping coefficient
= Time constant of the system

Depending on the different values of damping coefficient, the second order system may be
classified as the following types;

For < 1, the system is under damped.

= 1, the system is critically damped.
> 1, the system is over damped.

Application of different types of forcing function to a second order system

I. Step response

If the forcing function is a unit-step function, then we have

X s
1
s
Y s
1 1
(1)
s s 2 s 1
2 2

Solving the above equation, the roots are coming as follows;

2 1 2 1
s1 and s 2

The eq-1 can be written as;

12
Y s (2)
ss s1 s s 2

26
The eq-2 can be solved for the three different cases;

Case-I, < 1
Case-II, = 1
Case-III, > 1

Case-I, < 1(Under damped system)

1 2 1 2
s1 j And s 2 j

1 2
Taking a And b

s1 a jb And s 2 a jb

Hence the eq-2 can be written as;

Y s 12
Gs
X s s a jb s a jb

X s
1
s

12
Y s
ss a jb s a jb

By doing the partial fractions;

12 C C2 C3
Y s 1
ss a jb s a jb s s a jb s a jb

C1 s a jb s a jb C 2 ss a jb C3 ss a jb
1

Putting s = 0 and a 2 b 2 1 2

C1 1

Putting s = (-a + jb) and a b 1

2 2 2

27
 a jb
C3

a 2 b 2 2 jb
2

Putting, s a jb and a b 1
2 2 2

a jb
C2
2 jb

By putting in equation (7) and taking inverse Laplace transform, we get;

t
1 1
2
Y t 1
1
e sin 1
2 t
tan
(3)
1 2

Case-II, = 1(critically damped system)

Similarly like case-I;

Y t e t
t
(4)

Case-III, > 1(over damped system)

t
Y t 1 e t cosh 2 1 sinh 2 1
t
(5)
2 1

Where,

e a e a e a e a
sinh a and cosh a
2 2

Terms for under-damped system of second order

Of these three cases, the under damped response occurs most frequently in control systems.
Hence a number of terms are used to describe the under damped response quantitatively which
are as follows.

28
 a. Overshoot

Overshoot is a measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimate value following a
step change and is expressed as the ratio A/B in the figure.

overshoot exp 1 2
b. Decay ratio

The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks and is given by C/A
in the figure. The decay ratio is related to by the following expression;

decayratio exp 2
1 2 overshoot
2

c. Rise time

The time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value and is labeled t r . the t r
increases with increasing .

d. Response time

This is the time required for the response to come within 5 percent of its ultimate value
and remain there. The response time is indicated in the figure. The 5 value are arbitrary,
and other limits have been used in other texts for defining a response time.

e. Period of oscillation

1 1 1 2
f
T 2

Where,

T = Period of oscillation, time/cycle

f. Natural period of oscillation

1 1
fn
Tn 2

Where,

Tn = Natural period of oscillation

29
 II. Impulse response
If a unit impulse is applied to the second order system, then the problem is again divided into the
three cases as in the previous case.
Case-I, < 1(Under damped system)

Y (t) = (6)

Case-II, = 1(Critically damped system)

Y (t) = t (7)

Case-III, > 1(Over damped system)

Y (t) = (8)

III. Sinusoidal response

If the forcing function applied to the second order system is sinusoidal, then
X t A sin t (9)
A
So, Y s

(10)
s 2 s 2 2 s 1
2 2

By doing the partial fraction and inverse Laplace transform;

Y t sin t
A
(11)

1 2
2 2 2

Where,
2
tan 1 (12)
1
2

By comparing eq-9 and eq-11, it is observed that;

The response of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is
1
1
2 2
2 2
This is in direct contrast to the sinusoidal response of the first order system, where the
ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is always less than 1.
The output lags the input by phase angle .

30
Transportation lag
This is otherwise known as dead time or pure delay of process.

Whenever the input variable of the process changes there is a time interval during which there is
no effect observed in the output variable then that time interval is transportation lag or dead time
or pure delay of the system.

Let us consider the system through which liquid flow through a insulated tube of uniform cross-
section A of length L of constant flow rate Q, density of fluid is and the heat capacity is
constant, x is the temperature of the entering fluid varies with the time, y is the temperature of
exit fluid varies with time.

If the variation in x(t) were some arbitrary function, then the response y(t) at the end of the pipe
would be identical with x(t) but again delayed by units of time. The transportation lag
parameter is simply the time needed for a particle of fluid to flow from the entrance of the pipe
to the exit, and it can be calculated from the expression

volumeofpipe

volumetricflowrate

AL

q

At steady state condition,

xs y s (1)

If a step change is applied to input x(t) at t=0 ,the change would be detected in y(t) at second
later.

yt xt (2)

Subtracting eq-2 and eq-1 and defining the deviation variable;

31
Y t X t (3)

Taking the Laplace transform on both the sides;

Y s e s X s (4)

Y s
e s (5)
X s

s
Therefore, the transfer function of transportation lag is e

The control system

If an electrical source were used, the final control element might be a variable transformer that is
used to adjust current to a resistance. Heating element; if steam were used, the final control
element would be a control valve that adjusts the flow of steam.

The components of a Control System

The components of the system shown above are as follows:

1. Process (stirred-tank heater).

2. Measuring element (thermometer).
3. Controller.
4. Final control element (variable transformer or control valve).

32
Block diagram

For the computational purposes, it is convenient to represent the control system of the figure
shown above by means of the block diagram shown above. Such diagram makes it much easier
to visualize the relationship among the various signals. Some new terms appear, such as;

Set point

The set point is a synonym for the desired value of controlled variable.

Load
Load refers to a change in any variable that may cause the controlled variable of the process to
change.
In this example the inlet temperature Ti is a load variable. Other possible loads for this system
are changes in flow rate and heat loss from the tank. (These loads are not shown on the diagram.)

Comparator
The control system shown above is called a closed-loop system or a feedback system because the
measured value of the controlled variable is returned or feed back to a device called the
comparator.
In the comparator the controlled variable is compared with the desired value or set point.

Negative feedback
Negative feedback ensures that the difference between and , is used to adjust the control
element so that the tendency is to reduce the error.

Positive feedback system

If the signal to the comparator were obtained by adding and e would have a positive
feedback system, which is inherently unstable.

33
Servo and regulator problem
Servomechanism-type or servo problem type
We assume that there is no change in load Ti and that we are interested to change the set point
value.

Regulator problem

The desired value is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is to maintain the
controlled variable to changes in load variable Ti.

Development of block diagram from a process

Each block in the block diagram represents the functional relationships existing between the
input and the output of a particular component. In block diagram representation of the control
system, the variables selected are the deviation variables, and inside each block is placed the
transfer function relating the input-output pair of variables. Finally the blocks are combined to
give the overall block diagram.

1. Process

An unsteady state energy balance around the tank gives,

q + wC( (1)

Where, is the reference temperature.

34
At steady state, is zero and eq-1 becomes;

(2)

Where, the subscript s has been used to indicate the steady state.
Subtracting eq-2 from eq-1;

(3)

Defining the deviation variables;

=
Q=q-

Eq-3 becomes;

Q (4)

Taking Laplace transform

= (5)

Where,

If there is change only in Q(t) then =0 and the transfer function is

(6)

Similarly if there is change in only then

Q (t) = 0 and the transfer function relating to is

= (7)

The eq-5 can be arranged in the following form;

35
 1swC
T ' s Qs wCTi ' s
1
(8)

Hence the block diagrams for the representing the eq-5 and eq-8 are as follows:

2. Measuring instrument

We shall assume that the temperature-measuring element is a first-order system, for which the
transfer function is

Deviation variable

When the control system is at steady state, = , which means that the temperature-
measuring element reads the true bath temperature.

36
 3. Controller and final control element
For convenience, the blocks representing the controller and the final control element are
combined into one block. In this way, we need be concerned only with the overall response
between the error and the heat input to the tank. Also, it is assumed that the controller is the
proportional controller.
The relationship for the proportional controller is

q= (1)

Where

A=heat input when

At steady state it is assumed that the set point, the process temperature and the measured
temperature are all equal to each other thus

(2)

Let be the deviation variable for error thus

(3)

Where

Since , and equation (3) becomes

(4)

At steady state,

= 0+A= A

This can be written as

q=

Q= (5)

Where Q=q-

37
Laplace transform gives

Q(s) = (6)

This is the required transfer function of proportional control system.

Note that , which is equal to ' , may be expressed as

TR TRs Tm Tms

TR' Tm'

Taking the Laplace transform;

s TR' s Tm' s

The transfer function for the proportional controller and the generation of the error may be
expressed by means of the following block diagram.

Reduction of block diagram

R=set point value

C=controlled variable

=error

B=variable produced by measuring element

M=manipulated variable

U=load

38
GC=transfer function controller

G1=transfer function of final control element

G2=transfer function of process

H=transfer function of measuring element

Standard control system nomenclature

Overall transfer function for single loop systems

The overall transfer function of the above single loop system can be calculated for the two types
of problem i.e servo problem and the regulator problem.

39
 A. Servo type problem

Servo problem means U=0 and the overall transfer function is calculated between controlled
variable C and set point R i.e C/R.

In this case, the above block diagram may be simplified as follows:

Let M is the input to the input to the process.

C
So, G2 (1)
M

C G2 M (2)

B HC (3)

R B (4)

M Gc G1 (5)

From eq-2;

C G2 M Gc G1G2 (6)

C Gc G1G2 R B (7)

C Gc G1G2 R HC (8)

C 1 Gc G1G2 H Gc G1G2 R (9)

C Gc G1G2
(10)
R 1 Gc G1G2 H

40
 C G
(11)
R 1 GH

Where, G Gc G1G2

Equation-11 is the overall transfer function relating to C and R.

B. Regulator type problem

Regulator type problem means R=0 and the overall transfer function is calculated between
controlled variable C and load U i.e C/U.

In this case, the above block diagram may be simplified as follows:

So, C G2 M U (1)

B HC (2)

B (3)

M Gc G1 (4)

From eq-1,

C G2 M U (5)

C G2 Gc G1 U (6)

C G2 Gc G1 B U (7)

41
 C G2 U Gc G1 HC (8)

C G2
(9)
U 1 G1G2 Gc H

C G2
(10)
U 1 GH

Where, G Gc G1G2

Equation-10 is the overall transfer function relating to C and U.

Controllers and final control elements

The input signal to the controller is the error and the output signal of the controller is fed to the
final control element. In many process control systems, this output signal is air pressure and the
final control element is a pneumatic valve that opens and closes as air pressure on the diaphragm
changes.

For the mathematical analysis of control systems, it is sufficient to regard the controller as a
simple computer. For example, a proportional controller may be thought of as a device that
receives the error signal and puts out a signal proportional to it. Similarly, the final control
element may be regarded as a device that produces corrective action on the process. The
corrective action is regarded as mathematically related to the output signal from the controller.
However, it is desirable to have some appreciation of the actual physical mechanisms used to
accomplish this. For this reason, we begin this chapter with a physical description of a pneumatic
control valve and a simplified description of a proportional controller.

Mechanisms
The control valve

The control valve is a variable restriction in a pipeline which receives its position command from a
controller-either in the form of a single loop regulator or as a part of more complex control system.

The control valve shown in figure contains a pneumatic device (valve motor) that moves the
valve stem as the pressure on a spring-loaded diaphragm changes. The stem positions a plug in
the orifice of the valve body. As the pressure increases, the plug moves downward and restricts
the flow of fluid through the valve. This action is referred to as air-to-close. The valve may also
be constructed to have air-to-open action. Valve motors are often constructed so that the valve
stem position is proportional to the valve-top pressure. Most commercial valves move from fully
open to fully closed as the valve-top pressure changes from 3 to 15 psig.

42
In general, the flow rate of fluid through the valve depends upon the upstream and downstream
fluid pressures and the size of the opening through the valve. The plug and seat (or orifice) can
be shaped so that various relationships between stem position and size of opening (hence, flow
rate) are obtained. In our example, we shall assume for simplicity that at steady state the flow
(for fixed upstream and downstream fluid pressures) is proportional to the valve-top pneumatic
pressure. A valve having this relation is called a linear valve.

Controller
The controller hardware required to control the temperature of a stream leaving a heat exchanger
is shown in below figure.The hardware is manufacturers of such equipment ,consists of
following components listed here along with their respective conversions:

1. TRANSDUCERS (temperature to current)

2. CONTROLLER RECORDER (current to current)
3. CONVERTER (current to pressure)
4. CONTROL VALVE (pressure to flow rate)

To see how the components interact with each other, consider the process to be operating at
steady state with the outlet temperature equal to the set point. If the temperature of the hot
process stream increases, the following events occur: After some delay the thermocouple detects
an increase in the outlet temperature and produces a proportional change in the signal to the
controller. As soon as the controller detects the rise in temperature, relative to the set point, the
controller output increases according to proportional action. The increase in signal to the
converter causes the output pressure from the converter to increase and open the valve wider in
order to admit a greater flow of cooling water. The increased flow of cooling water will
eventually reduce the output temperature and move it toward the set point. From this qualitative

43
description, we see that the flow of signals from one component to the next is such that the
temperature of the heat exchanger should return toward the set point. In a well-tuned control
system, the response of the temperature will oscillate around the set point before coming to
steady state.

Control valve

A pneumatic valve always has some dynamic lag, which means that the stem motion does not
respond instantaneously to a change in the applied pressure from the controller. From
experiments conducted on pneumatic valves, it has been found that the relationship between flow
and valve-top pressure for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer
function; thus

Where, is the steady-state gain, i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow
rate and valve-top pressure, and is the time constant of the valve. In many practical systems,
the time constant of the valve is very small when compared with the time constants of other
components of the control system, and the transfer function of the valve can be approximated by
a constant

Under these conditions, the valve is said to contribute negligible dynamic lag.

Controllers
1. Proportional controllers
Proportional controller produces an output signal that is proportional to the error .
This is expressed as,

Where,
p= output signal from controller, psig or ma

=error =set point- measured variable

= a constant

The units of set point and the measured variable must be same. (Error is difference between these
two quantities)

44
In a controller having adjustable gain, the value of the gain can be varied by moving a knob in the
controller. The value of is the value of the output signal when E is zero, and in most controllers be
adjusted to obtain the required output signal when the control system is at steady state and E = 0.

At time t=0, we assume the error to be zero, then is already a deviation variable.

(t)

Transfer function of an ideal proportional controller,

Term proportional band is generally used in place of term gain. Proportional band is defined as
the error required to move the valve fully open to fully closed. A frequently used synonym is
bandwidth.
proportional gain is inversely proportional to proportional band.

On off control: A special case of proportional control is on-off control. If the gain K, is made very
high, the valve will move from one extreme position to the other if the pen deviates only slightly
from the set point. This very sensitive action is called on-off action because the valve is either
fully open (on) or fully closed (off); i.e., the valve acts like a switch. This is a very simple
controller and is exemplified by the thermostat used in a home-heating system. The bandwidth of
an on-off controller is approximately zero.

Proportional integral controller

This mode of control is represented by,

(1)

45
To obtain the transfer function of eq-1, we again introduce the derivation variable P p p s
into the eq-1 and then take the transform to obtain

Ps 1
K c 1 (2)
s Is

Propertional derivative controller

This mode of control is represented by,

d
. p K c K c D ps (1)
dt

Where, K c = gain
D = derivative time, min
p s = constant

In this case, we have added to the proportional term another term, K c D d dt , which is
proportional to the derivative of the error. The values of K c and D may be varied separately by
knobs on the controller. Other terms that are used to describe the derivative action are rate
control and anticipatory control.

The action of this controller can be visualized by considering the response to a linear change in
error as shown in the figure. This response is obtained by introducing the linear function
t At into the above equation to obtain

46
pt AK c t AK c D ps (2)

To obtain the transfer function of eq-1, we introduce the deviation variable P p p s and take
the transform to obtain

Ps
K c 1 D s (3)
s

Proportional integral derivative controller

This mode of control is the combination of the previous modes and is given by the expression,

(1)

The transfer function of this controller can be obtained from the Laplace transform of eq-1,

Ps 1
K c 1 D s (2)
s I s

47
RESPONSE OF TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF
VARIOUS MODES OF CONTROL

48
Transient response of simple control system
Transient response implies the time response of a control system. Determination of transient
response to change in set point and load change is done by deriving overall transfer function of a
control system considering servo problem (i.e change in set point) and regulator problem(i.e
change in load).

Proportional Control
For Set Point Change

Consider a control system for heated, stirred tank with a proportional control of gain
and load set point of unity-feedback system (i.e no dynamic lag in the
measuring element).

49
According to this result, the response of the tank temperature to change in set point is first-order.
The time constant for the control system, , is less than that of the stirted tank itself, . This
means that one of the effects of feedback control is to speed up the response.
Offset =Ti () TR ()

= 1- =

For Load Change

TR = 0

50
51
Offset= Ti() - TR() = 0

One of the most important advantages of PI control is the elimination of offset.

52
Proportional-Derivative control
Servo problem (Set point change)

T ( S ) K (1 D S ) A S 1
C

TR ( S ) 1 K C (1 D S ) A S 1
Rearranging the above equation we will get

T ( s ) A1
=

TR ( S ) 1 S 1

KC A
Where A1=
1 AK C
2 AK C D D
And 1
1 AK C

1
For step input TR(S)=
S
1 A1
So, T =
S 1S 1

Offset = T () - TR ()
1
=
1 AK C

53
Regulator problem (load change)

T ( S ) 1
S 1
Ti( S ) 1 K C (1 D S ) A
S 1

This may be rearranged as

T ( S ) A1

Ti( S ) 1S 1

1
Where A1=
AK C 1
AK C D
And 1
AK C 1

For a step input

1 A1
T ( S )
S 1S 1

t
1
T (t ) A1 (1 e )

Offset = TR () T ()
=- T ()
1
=
AK C 1

Proportional-Integral-Derivative control
Servo problem (set point change)

1 A
K C (1 D S )
T ( S ) I S 1 S 1

TR ( S ) 1 A
1 K C (1 D S )
I S 1 S 1

54
This may be rearranged as

T ( S ) I S I D S 2 1

TR ( S ) AK C D I 2 I AK C
( I )S ( )S 1
AK C AK C

For a step input

1 I S I D S 2 1
T ( S )
S I AK C D I 2 I AK C
( )S ( )S 1
AK C AK C

Offset = T () - TR ()
=0

Regulator problem (load change)

1
T ( S ) S 1

TR ( S ) 1 A
1 K C (1 D S )
I S 1 S 1

This may be rearranged as

T ( S ) I / AK C

TR ( S ) AK C D I 2 I AK C I
( I )S ( )S 1
AK C AK C

For step input

1 I / AK C
T ( S )
S I AK C D I 2 I AK C I
( )S ( )S 1
AK C AK C

Offset = - T ()
=0

55
 Module II
Stability and Algebraic Criteria
A system is stable if any bounded input produces a bounded output for all bounded initial
conditions.

Stability of the system and roots of characteristic equations

Characteristic Equation
Consider an nth-order system whose the characteristic equation (which is also the denominator of
the transfer function) is

Routh Hurwitz Criterion

1. Goal: Determining whether the system is stable or unstable from a characteristic equation
in polynomial form without actually solving for the roots.
2. Rouths stability criterion is useful for determining the ranges of coefficients of
polynomials for stability, especially when the coefficients are in symbolic (non numerical)
form.

56
A necessary condition for Rouths Stability

1. A necessary condition for stability of the system is that all of the roots of its characteristic
equation have negative real parts, which in turn requires that all the coefficients be
positive.
2. A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the
polynomial characteristic equation are positive & none of the co-efficient vanishes.
3. Rouths formulation requires the computation of a triangular array that is a function of the
coefficients of the polynomial characteristic equation.
4. A system is stable if and only if all the elements of the first column of the Routh array are
positive.

Method for determining the Routh array

Consider the characteristic equation

Rows

1st ao a2 a4 a6

2nd a1 a3 a5 a7

3rd b1 b2 b3

4th c1 c2 c3

Compute elements for the 3rd row

Compute elements for the 4th row

b1 a3 a1b2
c1
b1

57
 b1 a5 a1b3
c2
b1

b1 a7 0
c3
b1

Root locus Technique

Introduced by W. R. Evans in 1948
Graphical method, in which movement of poles in the s-plane is sketched when some
parameter is varied
The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open loop gain K is
varied from 0 to are called root locus.
Direct Root Locus = 0 < k <

Root Locus Analysis

The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation define the system characteristic
responses
Their location in the complex s-plane lead to prediction of the characteristics of the time
domain responses in terms of:
Damping ratio,
Natural frequency, wn

Basics of Root Locus

Symmetrical about the real axis.

Root Locus branch starts from open loop poles (p) and terminates at open loop zeroes (z).
No. of Root Loci branches (N) = No. of open loop poles (p), if p > z
= No. of open loop zeros (z), if z > p
Centroid is common intersection point of all the asymptotes on the real axis.
Asymptotes are straight lines which are parallel to RL going to and meet the RL at .
No. of asymptotes = No. of branches going to .
At Break Away point , the RL breaks from real axis to enter into the complex plane

58
Procedure to draw the Root Locus plot
Step 1: Starting point: the root locus starts (K = 0) from the open loop poles.
Step 2: Ending point: the root locus terminates (K = ) either on open loop zeros or infinity.
Step 3: Number of branches: The no. of branches of the root locus are
N = P, if P > Z
= Z, if Z > P
Step 4: Existance on the real axis: the existence of the root locus on a section of real axis is
confirmed if the sum of the open loop poles and the open loop zeros to the right of the section is
odd.

Step 5: Break away point: the break away point can be determined by writing the characteristic
equation

And there from solving for the value of s from the equation given below,

dK
0
ds

Step 6: Inter section of asymptotes on the real axis: the asymptotes intersect at a point x on the
real axis given by:

x
Poles Zeros
PZ

Step 7: The angle of asymptotes: For the higher value of K the root locus branches are
approximated by asymptotic lines making an angle with the real axis given by

2K 1 180
PZ

Where K = 0, 1, 2, .up to (P-Z)-1

Step 8: Inter section point with the imaginary axis: The actual point at which the root locus
crosses the imaginary axis is readily evaluated by using Rouths criterion to the characteristic
equation.

Step 9: The angle of departure from complex pole: The angle of departure of the root locus from
a complex pole is given by

59
 d 180 P Z
Where P = The sum of all the angles subtended by the remaining poles.
Z = The sum of all angles subtended by zeros.

Step 10: The angle of arrival at complex zeros: the angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex
zero is given by

a 180 Z P

Where Z = The sum of all angles subtended by remaining zeros.

P = The sum of all angles subtended by poles.

60
Frequency Response
Consider a system with a sinusoidal input

Under steady state, the system output as well as signals at all other points in the system are
sinusoidal. The steady state output may be written as

The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the steady state output of
a system is termed as frequency response. In linear time-invariant systems, the frequency
response is independent of the amplitude and phase of the input signal.

61
Advantages of Frequency Response Analysis

The frequency response test on a system or a component is normally performed by keeping the
amplitude A fixed and determining B and for a suitable range of frequencies. Signal generators
and precise measuring instruments are readily available for various ranges of frequencies and
amplitudes.

Whenever it is not possible to obtain the form of the transfer function of a system through
analytical techniques, the necessary information to compute the transfer function can be
extracted by performing the frequency response test on the system.
The design and parameter adjustment of the open loop transfer function of a system for
specified closed loop performance is carried out somewhat more easily in frequency
domain than in time domain.
The effect of noise disturbance and parameter variations are relatively easy to visualize
and assess through frequency response.
The Nyquist Stability criterion is a powerful frequency domain method of extracting the
information regarding stability as well as relative stability of a system without the need to
find roots of the characteristic equation.

Commonly used frequency response analysis Methods

Commonly used frequency response analysis Methods are:

Bode plot
Nyquist plot
Nichols chart

Bode plot consists of two simultaneous graphs:

Magnitude in dB [(20 log |G(j)|)(Base 10)] vs. frequency (in log )

Phase (in degrees) vs. frequency (in log )

In the logarithmic representation, the curves are drawn on semilog paper, using the log scale for
frequency and the linear scale for either magnitude (in Decibels) or phase angle (in degrees).
Advantages of Bode Plot
Multiplication of Magnitudes can be converted into addition.
A simple method of sketching Bode Plot is based on asymptotic approximations. Such
information on straight line asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on

62
 frequency- response characteristics is needed.
Should the exact curve be desired, corrections can be made easily to these basic
asymptotic plots.
Low frequency response contains sufficient information about the physical characteristics
of most of the practical systems.

Experimental determination of a transfer function is possible through Bode plot analysis.

Bode Diagrams

In Bode diagrams, frequency ratios are expressed in terms of:

Octave: it is a frequency band from 1 to 21.

Decade: it is a frequency band from 1 to 101, where 1 is any frequency value.

The basic factors which occur frequently in an arbitrary transfer function are:

Gain K

Integral and derivatives: ( j)1

First order factors: (1 + jT ) 1 , T = 1a 1

Quadratic Factors:

Bode Diagrams

For Constant Gain K, log-magnitude curve is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of
(20 log K) dB and phase angle is 0 deg.

Varying the gain K, raises or lowers the log-magnitude curve of the transfer function by the
corresponding constant amount, but has no effect on the phase curve

Logarithmic representation of the frequency-response curve of factor ( j ( / a) +1) can be

approximated by two straight-line asymptotes

Frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency or break
frequency.

63
The Gain K:
Magnitude Response:
Log Magnitude = 20 log K
As a number increases by a factor of 10, the corresponding value increases by a factor of 20. This
may be seen from the following:

Again, when expressed in decibels, the reciprocal of a number differs from its value only in sign,
i.e., for the number K,

Integral and Derivative Factors

Log Magnitude Plot:
Log Magnitude of is

Phase Plot:
The phase angle of is constant and equal to -90.

If the log magnitude is plotted on a logarithmic, scale, it is a straight line. To draw this
straight line, we need to locate one point (0 dB, on it. Since

The slope of the line is -20 dB/decade or -6 dB/octave.

Similarly,
Log Magnitude of is

The phase angle of is constant and equal to 90.

It can be seen that the differences in the frequency responses of and lie in the slopes of the
log-magnitude curves and in the signs of the phase angles.

If the transfer function contains the factor or , the log magnitude becomes
respectively,

20 log
or

64
20 log

The slopes of the log-magnitude curve for the factors and are thus -20 dB/decade

and 20 dB /decade respectively. The phase angle of is equal to -90 over the entire
frequency range, where as that of is 90 over the entire frequency range. The magnitude
curve will pass through the point (0 dB,

Phase Margin (PM):

Phase margin is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover frequency required to
bring the system to the verge of instability.

Gain Crossover Frequency:

Gain crossover frequency is that frequency at which, , the magnitude of the open loop
transfer function is unity.

65
The Phase margin PM is 180 plus the phase angle of the open loop transfer function at the
gain crossover frequency.

Gain Margin (PM):

Gain Margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude at the Phase crossover frequency.

Phase Crossover Frequency:

Phase crossover frequency is that frequency at which, , the phase angle of the open loop
transfer function equals -180.

Thus, Gain Margin,

In terms of decibels,

A Few Comments on Phase and Gain Margins:

For a stable non-minimum phase system, the gain margin indicates how much the gain
can be increased before the system becomes unstable. For an unstable system, the gain
margin indicates how much the gain can be decreased before the system becomes stable.
The Gain Margin of a first and Second order system is infinite since the polar plot of such
systems does not cross the real axis. Thus, theoretically, the 1st and 2nd order systems
cannot be unstable.
It is important to point out that conditionally stable systems will have two or more phase
crossover frequencies and some higher order systems with complicated numerator
dynamics may also have two or more gain crossover frequencies. For stable systems
having two or more gain crossover frequencies, the Phase Margin is measured at the
highest Gain Cross-over Frequency.
Either the Gain Margin alone or the Phase Margin alone does not give a sufficient
indication of the relative stability. Both should be given for determination of stability.
For satisfactory performance, PM should be between 30 and 60 and the GM should be
greater than 6 dB.
The requirement that the PM be between 30 and 60 means that in Bode diagram, the
slope of the log-magnitude curve at the gain crossover frequency should be more gradual
than -40 dB/ decade. In most practical cases, a slope of -20 dB/decade is desirable. If the

66
 slope at the gain crossover frequency is -60 dB/ decade or steeper, the system is most
likely unstable.

Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process Reaction Method -

This method remains a popular technique for tuning controllers that use proportional, integral,
and derivative actions. The Ziegler-Nichols open-loop method is also referred to as a process
reaction method, because it tests the open-loop reaction of the process to a change in the control
variable output. This basic test requires that the response of the system be recorded, preferably
by a plotter or computer. Once certain process response values are found, they can be plugged
into the Ziegler-Nichols equation with specific multiplier constants for the gains of a controller
with either P, PI, or PID actions.

In this method, the variables being measured are those of a system that is already in place. A
disturbance is introduced into the system and data can then be obtained from this curve. First the
system is allowed to reach steady state, and then a disturbance, Xo, is introduced to it. The
percentage of disturbance to the system can be introduced by a change in either the set point or
process variable. For example, if you have a thermometer in which you can only turn it up or
down by 10 degrees, then raising the temperature by 1 degree would be a 10% disturbance to the
system. These types of curves are obtained in open loop systems when there is no control of the
system, allowing the disturbance to be recorded. The process reaction curve method usually
produces a response to a step function change for which several parameters may be measured
which include: transportation lag or dead time, dead, the time for the response to change, , and
the ultimate value that the response reaches at steady-state, Mu.

dead = transportation lag or dead time: the time taken from the moment the disturbance was
introduced to the first sign of change in the output signal

= the time for the response to occur

Xo = the size of the step change

Mu = the value that the response goes to as the system returns to steady-state

An example for determining these parameters for a typical process response curve to a step
change is shown below.

67
In order to find the values for dead and , a line is drawn at the point of inflection that is tangent
to the response curve and then these values are found from the graph.

To use the Ziegler-Nichols open-loop tuning method, you must perform the following steps:

1. Make an open loop step test

2. From the process reaction curve determine the transportation lag or dead time, dead, the
time constant or time for the response to change, , and the ultimate value that the
response reaches at steady-state, Mu, for a step change of Xo.

3. Determine the loop tuning constants. Plug in the reaction rate and lag time values to the
Ziegler-Nichols open-loop tuning equations for the appropriate controllerP, PI, or
PIDto calculate the controller constants. Use the table below.

68
Table 2. Open-Loop Calculations of Kc, Ti, Td

P
PI
PID

Advantages

1. Quick and easier to use than other methods

2. It is a robust and popular method
3. Of these two techniques, the Process Reaction Method is the easiest and least disruptive
to implement

Disadvantages

1. It depends upon purely proportional measurement to estimate I and D controllers.

2. Approximations for the Kc, Ti, and Td values might not be entirely accurate for different
systems.
3. It does not hold for I, D and PD controllers

69
 Module III
Cascade control

The system consists of a kettle through which water, entering at temperature T, is heated to T
by the flow of hot oil through a jacket surrounding the kettle.

In this system, which includes two controllers and two measuring elements, the output of the
primary controller is used to adjust the set point of a secondary controller, which is used to
control the jacket temperature.

Under these conditions, the primary controller adjusts indirectly the jacket temperature. If the oil
temperature should drop, the secondary control loop will act quickly to maintain the jacket
temperature close to the value determined by the set point that is adjusted by the primary
controller. This system is called a cascade control system.

The primary controller is also referred to as the master controller and the secondary controller is
called as the slave controller.

70
Analysis of Cascade Control

C GC1Ga G3

R 1 GC1Ga G3 H 1

GC 2 G1G2
Ga
1 GC 2 G1G2 H 2

Generalizations

Cascade control is especially useful in reducing the effect of a load disturbance that moves
through the control system slowly.

The inner loop has the effect of reducing the lag in the outer loop, with the result that the cascade
system responds more quickly with a higher frequency of oscillation.

The choice of control action and tuning of the primary and secondary controllers for a cascade
control system must be given careful consideration.

The control action for the inner loop is often proportional with the gain set to a high value.

The rationale for the use of proportional control rather than two- or three- mode control is that
tuning is simplified and any offset associated with proportional control of inner loop can be
handled by the presence of integral action in the primary controller.

The gain of secondary controller should be set to a high value to give a tight inner loop that
responds quickly to load disturbance; however the gain should not so high that the inner loop is
unstable.

Although the primary control loop can provide stable control even when the inner loop is
unstable.
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The action of primary controller is generally PI or PID. The integral action is needed to reduce
the offset when sustained changes in load or set point occur.

Feed forward control

1. If a particular load disturbance occurs frequently in a control process, the quality of control
can often be improved by the addition of feed-forward control.
2. Consider the composition control system in which a concentrated stream of control reagent
containing water and solute is used to control the concentration of the stream leaving a three-
tank system.
3. The stream to be processed passes through a preconditioning stirred tank where composition
fluctuations are smoothed out before the outlet stream is mixed with control reagent.
4. If the change in load disturbance C i can be detected as soon as it occurs in the inlet stream,
this information can be fed forward to a second controller that adjusts the control valve in
such a way as to prevent any change in the outlet composition from the set point.
5. A controller that uses information fed forward from the source of the load disturbance is
called a feed-forward controller. The block diagram that includes the feed-forward controller
G f as well as the feedback controller G c is shown in the Figure.

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Tuning Rules for Feedforward Feedback Control

In the practical application of feed-forward control, one does not have a block diagram with
transfer functions. For such a practical situation, one can still tune the feed-forward controller by
introducing a step change in the disturbance that enters the feed-forward controller ( Ci ) and
then applying some tuning rules.

The tuning rules listed below are explained with the help of Fig. In that figure, a unit step is
selected for the disturbance C i , and K f has been taken as 1. In practice, K f will, of course,
depend on the particular process being controlled.

1. Remove the control action in G c ( s ) by setting the controller to manual.

2. Set the feed-forward controller to the computed steady-state gain ( K f ) necessary to
compensate ultimately for a step change in C i . This means that the dynamic portion of G f (
s ) will be removed, and only the constant term ( K f ) will remain.
3. Make a step change in C i and observe the open-loop transient of C. The general shapes of
the response to be expected are shown in Fig.

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 4. If the response shown occurs, lead must predominate in G f ( s ) of Eq. (i.e., T 1 > T 2 ). If
the response occurs, lag must predominate in G f ( s ) (i.e., T 1 < T 2 ). The values of T 1 and
T 2 are found . The value of K f has been obtained in step 2.

Ratio control
Ratio control is a type of feed forward control in which two load variables or
disturbances are measured and the ratio of these two measured disturbances are held
constant with each other.
It is used most commonly for keeping constant ratio of flow rate of two strings.
Out of these two flow rates, one is controlled. The flow rate of the uncontrolled stream is
known as wild stream, which is used to adjust the flow rate of controlled stream; so that
the desired ratio can be maintained.
The measured signal for the uncontrolled stream is multiplied with desired ratio KR to
provide a signal that is the set point for the flow control loop of the controlled stream.
The controlled action for a flow system is generally PI for making offset zero and to
establish a precised ratio of the mixed stream of controlled(B) and uncontrolled(A).
Derivative action is usually avoided in flow control because the signal from the flow
measuring element is inherently noisy and the presence of PD-controller will amplify the
noise.
The output of the ratio controller acts on the diaphragm of the controlled valve which in
turn changes the flow rate to maintain the ratio of the two flow rates constant for the
control system.
Generally, it is used in distillation column for maintaining the constant reflux ratio and in
reactor, it is used for maintaining the stoichiometric amounts of the two reactants.

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From the block diagram, the flow of B may be written:

The control action for a flow-control system is usually PI. The integral action is needed to
eliminate offset and thereby establish a precise ratio of the mixed streams of A and B. Derivative
action is usually avoided in flow control because the signal from a flow-measuring element is
inherently noisy. The presence of derivative action would amplify the noise and give poor
control.

References

1. Process system analysis and control

- By Donald R. Coughanowr
2. Chemical process control
- By George Stephanopoulos
3. Linear control system with MATLAB application
- By B. S. Manke
4. Chemical process control
- By R. P. Vyas

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 Solved examples
Short answer types
1. A control system has the following transfer function

F s
s 1s 1
ss 2s 4

Calculate the initial value of the corresponding time function.

Answer:

From the initial value theorm

By L-Hospital rule

s 1
2. Calculate the initial value (t = 0+) of the unit step response of the transfer function .
2s 1
Answer:

By L-Hospital rule,

3. A process is initially at steady state with its output y = 1 for an input u = 1. The input is
suddenly changed to 2 at t = 0. The output response is y(t) = 1+2t. what is the transfer
function of the process?
Answer:
Given that,
yt 1 2t and u(t) = 2-1 = 1

Hence Y s L yt
1 2

s s2
And U s Lu t
1
s

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 Y s 1 s 2 s 2
Therefore Gs 1 2 s
U s 1s
4. A rectangular tank is filled with a valve at the bottom and is used for storing a liquid. The
area of cross-section of the tank is 10 m2 and the flow resistance of the valve is 0.1 s/m2.
Calculate the time constant of the tank.
Answer:
A R
10 0.1 1

5. A certain thermocouple has a time constant of 2 seconds. If the process temperature changes

abruptly from 800 to 900 C , then what is the temperature reading in an indicator attached
to the thermocouple after 6 seconds.
Answer:

800 900 800 1 e t 895 C
6. Determine the damping ratio of the second order system with the following transfer function
4
s 2s 4
2

Answer:
s 2 2s 4 2 s 2 2 s 1
Hence 2 1
1

And 2 2

2 2 2 0.5

7. A system has the transfer function Y X 10 s 2 1.6s 4 . A step change of 4 units
magnitude is introduced in this system. Calculate the percent overshoot?

Answer:
s 2 1.6s 4 2 s 2 2 s 1
1 1.6
Hence 2 and 2
4 4
Solving 0.5 and 0.4
= 25.4 %
8. An ideal PID controller has the transfer function 1 1 0.5s 0.2s . At which the magnitude
frequency ratio of the controller is 1?

77
 Answer:
AR K C D w 1 I w2 1
1
Dw
Iw
w2 1 I D
9. A first order system with a time constant of 1 min is subjected to frequency response
analysis. At an input frequency of 1 rad / min, what is the phase shift?

Answer:
phaselag tan 1 w tan 1 1 45 C

10. The time constant of a unity gain, first order plus time delay process is 5 min. if the phase lag
at a frequency of 2 rad/min is 60 then what is the dead time?

Answer:

K P e D s
Transfer function of a first order plus time delay system is
Ps 1

Phase lag tan 1 w P d w

Given = 60o =

Therefore, tan 1 2 5 D 0.2
3

Solving D 5 12

78
 Semester questions

Total number of printed pages - 02 B.TECH

PCCH 4304

3rd Year Special Examination 2014

PROCESS DYNAMICS AND CONTROL
BRANCH : CHEM
Time : 3 Hours
Max Marks : 70
Question Code : G606
Answer Question No. 1 which is compulsory and any FIVE from the rest.
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks.
Assume suitable notations and any missing data wherever necessary.
Answer all parts of a question at a place.

1. Answer the following questions : 2 x 10

(a) What is transfer function?

(b) Define time constant.

(c) Write the step forcing function for first order control system.
(d) Differentiate between non-interacting and interacting tank system.
(e) Define decay ratio.
(f) Plot the block diagram of a CSTR.
(g) What is the difference between servo and regular control problem?
(h) Write the transfer function of PI controller.

79
 (i) Define gain margin and phase margin.
(j) Write the advantages of cascade control.

2. Derive an expression for transient response of first order system when a 10

step input is introduced.

3 Derive the transfer function of CSTR. 10

4. A second order system is observed to exhibit an underdamped response 10

having the ultimate value of response is 16; the minimum value of the
response is 10. If the value of damping parameters is 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, and 0.1,
show that as damping co-efficient decreases, overshoot increases.

5 Determine the transfer function for the following:

10
U
+
R + e + C
G1

-
B

6. Explain the steps for plotting root locus diagram for negative feedback 10
system.

7. (a) What is the difference between negative and positive feedback control 03
system?

80
 (b) Derive the frequency response of a first order system. 07

8. Write short notes on any TWO: 5x2

(a) Bode diagram
(b) Feedback control
(c) PI controller for servo problem
(d) Transportation lag

-------------------

81