ANSI/ASAE EP302.

4 FEB1993 (R2008)
Design and Construction of Surface Drainage Systems On
Agricultural Lands in Humid Areas

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ANSI/ASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 (R2008)
Approved August 1993; reaffirmed February 2008 as an American National Standard
Design and Construction of Surface Drainage Systems On
Agricultural Lands in Humid Areas
Developed by the ASAE Surface Drainage Committee; approved by the
ASAE Soil and Water Division Steering Committee; adopted by ASAE as
a Recommendation December 1966; revised March 1972, March 1973;
reconfirmed December 1977; reconfirmed and reclassified as an
Engineering Practice December 1978; reconfirmed December 1983,
December 1984, December 1985; revised December 1986; reconfirmed
December 1991; revised February 1993; approved as an American
National Standard August 1993; reaffirmed by ASAE December 1997,
December 1999; reaffirmed by ANSI June 2000; reaffirmed by ASAE
January 2001, February 2003; reaffirmed by ANSI February 2003;
reaffirmed by ASABE and ANSI February 2008.
Keywords: Drainage, Erosion, Humid, Surface
1 Purpose
1.1 This Engineering Practice is intended to improve the design,
construction and maintenance of surface drainage systems which are
adapted to modern farm mechanization. It is limited to agricultural or
farm-size areas, 259 ha (640 ac) or less, in the humid region of the
eastern USA (see figure 1).
1.2 Surface drainage is normally required for efficient crop production on
slowly permeable soils with restrictive topography. It is not required when
excess water is removed naturally. Typical problem areas are glaciated
areas, coastal plains, bottomlands, deltas, and old lake beds. Surface
drainage may eliminate the need for subsurface drains under certain
conditions. Surface drains also apply to farm mains used to collect water
from field drains and subsurface drains.
Figure 1 Key map for drainage curves (Humid areas of eastern USA
where surface drainage may be needed)
ASABE STANDARDS 2008 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008
2 Normative references
The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in
this text, constitute provisions of this Engineering Practice. At the time of
publication, the editions indicated were valid. All standards are subject to
revision, and parties to agreements based on this Engineering Practice
are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent
edition of the standards indicated below. Standards organizations
maintain registers of currently valid standards.
ASAE S268.4, Design, Layout, Construction and Maintenance of Terrace
Systems
ASAE S526, Soil and Water Engineering Terminology
3 Definitions and terminology
3.1 The following terms used in this Engineering Practice are defined in
ASAE S526:
bedding
berm
crowning
diversion
field drain
field lateral
interceptor drain
land grading
parallel system
reverse grade
row drain
row grade
surface drainage
water leveling
3.2 For the purpose of this Engineering Practice only, the following terms
are defined herein:
3.2.1 land smoothing: The process of smoothing the land surface with
a land plane or land leveler to eliminate minor depressions and
irregularities without changing the general topography.
3.2.2 cross slope: The slope perpendicular to crop rows.
3.2.3 farm main: An outlet ditch serving an individual farm.
3.2.4 pipe drop: A pipe, with or without headwalls, used as an erosion
control structure at a transition to drop water into a deeper drain.
3.2.5 random system: A system of meandering row drains, field drains,
and/or field laterals that are located in and drain depressions in a field.
3.2.6 transition: The outlet section of a drain that discharges into a
deeper drain. Transitions may be vegetated or nonvegetated sections, or
erosion control structures.
4 Principles
4.1 The objectives of surface drainage are:
a) to prevent water from ponding on land surfaces or in surface
drains that are crossed by farm equipment;
b) to remove excess water in time to prevent damage to crops;
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 c) to accomplish the above without excess erosion.
4.2 Complete drainage systems shall be planned and designed with all
aspects considered. The collection system, consisting of the land surface
and shallow drains, removes excess surface water from individual areas
within fields. The disposal system, consisting of somewhat larger ditches,
receives drainage water from the collection system and removes it from
the land. Transitions, including structures, that permit drains to discharge
into larger or deeper drains must provide for adequate erosion control
without holding water on field surfaces for excessive periods of time. The
system shall be designed as an integral part of the soil and water
facilities, the farm layout, and cropping plan. Farm roads shall be planned
to complement the drainage system and to facilitate farming operations.
4.3 There are several methods of draining agricultural land. Land
surfaces that pocket water can be drained by cutting and filling.
Depressions can be drained by row drains, field drains, and field laterals.
The methods can be combined, thereby reducing the number of
depressions and the number of drains. A brief discussion of the principal
surface drainage methods follows.
4.3.1 Land smoothing eliminates minor depressions and irregularities in
a field, thereby improving surface drainage and increasing farm
machinery efficiency. Frequently, this is an interim measure that will be
replaced by land grading when economic conditions permit.
4.3.2 Land grading, by carefully designed cutting and filling operations,
provides excellent surface drainage.
4.3.3 Water leveling was developed for fields which are to be flooded
and provides adequate drainage for rice and other selected, close
growing, water tolerant crops.
4.3.4 Random drainage systems provide for drainage of the low areas
by row drains, field drains, and field laterals. These systems are relatively
low in cost and give a high return on the investment. They require
frequent maintenance and may be obstacles to farm machinery,
particularly if drains are closely spaced. On severely undulating
topography, random drainage may be the only economical system.
4.3.5 Parallel drainage systems facilitate mechanization by eliminating
short rows and point rows. Crossable field drains or row drains are
constructed between parallel field laterals. This permits farm equipment
to travel greater distances without turning. Field surfaces between field
laterals should be improved by land smoothing or land grading for
maximum benefits.
4.3.6 Bedding, under most conditions, is not considered an acceptable
drainage practice for row crops because rows adjacent to the dead
furrows will not drain satisfactorily. It is an acceptable practice for hay
and pasture crops in some areas. Normally there is some crop loss in
and adjacent to the dead furrows.
4.3.7 Crowning was developed for sugar cane production in areas that
formerly had ample hand labor; is well established in some areas and
provides excellent drainage. Crowning requires more maintenance than
most of the other systems. The large number of field laterals take land
out of production, and they are a source of erosion and sedimentation,
and weed and grass infestation. Crowning with crossable field laterals
provides excellent drainage for the pasture crops commonly grown in the
sugar cane areas.
4.3.8 Diversions intercept upland runoff and prevent it from overflowing
bottomlands. This simplifies installation of drainage systems on
bottomlands.
4.3.9 Interceptor drains intercept and remove subsurface water. They
are used on long slopes with 1% or steeper grades and shallow,
permeable surface soils overlying relatively impermeable subsoils.
5 Design
5.1 Surface drainage system design criteria are based on the
assumption that all lands to be drained will be suitable for agricultural use
after drainage. Design shall consider construction and maintenance
needs and irrigation requirements where applicable. The rate of water
removal, in terms of depth per unit of time to be provided by the drainage
2 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008
system, depends on several interrelated factors such as rainfall
characteristics, soil properties, and cropping patterns. For most row
crops, surface drainage systems shall complete removal of excess water
from the soil surface within 24 h after rainfall ceases. More rapid removal
may be necessary for high-value truck crops. A longer time is permissible
for grasslands and woodlands.
5.2 The intensity of drainage desired is expressed in terms of drainage
curves (see figures 1, 2, and 3). These empirical curves were developed
from a large number of field measurements of drainage flow rates and
observations of the adequacy of drainage. The curves will not provide for
peak flows from large storms. Excess runoff will be discharged as
overland flow temporarily flooding adjacent lands. Curves with the higher
coefficient values represent a larger drainage capacity.
5.2.1 The drainage curves are applicable to drainage areas having
average slopes of less than 4.7 m/km (25 ft/mile).
5.2.1.1 The basic equations used to describe the drainage curves of
figures 2 and 3 are of the form:
Q K 1 CM 5/6,
One exception is curve 2B which is
Q K 2 CM 0.7,
where:
Q is design discharge, m3/s (ft3/s);
K 1 unit conversion factor equal to 0.06 if in SI metric
units and 1 if in inch-pound units;
K 2 unit conversion factor equal to 0.0534 if in SI metric
units and 1 if in inch-pound units;
C coefficient relating to desired level of drainage. Numerical
values for the coefficient are shown on figures 2 and 3;
M drainage area, ha (ac).
5.2.2 Figure 1 shows the extent of the humid area of the eastern USA
where surface drainage may be needed. Regional areas are delineated
to show coverage of figures 2 and 3.
5.2.3 Figure 2 is for the northern regional area:
curve 2B for excellent farm drainage;
curve 2C for good farm drainage (basic curve for grain crops);
curve 2D for fair drainage (basic curve for improved pastures);
curve 2M for agricultural drainage in the Red River Valley in
Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota.
NOTENo recommendation is made for woodland drainage.
5.2.4 Figure 3 is for the southern regional area:
curve 3A for row-crop drainage in the gulf coastal and coastal
plains area;
curve 3B for row-crop drainage in the deltas and bottomlands of
the major rivers;
curve 3C for improved pasture drainage;
curve 3D for irrigated ricelands;
curve 3E for upland range and unimproved pasture drainage;
curve 3F for gulf coast marsh and marsh range, andwoodland
drainage.
5.2.5 The value for M should be determined for each separate drainage
component. For each row drain, this would be that amount of land
drained by it. For each collector component, such as field drain, field
lateral and farm main, the value for M would be the total area drained by
the system.
5.3 Ditch design
5.3.1 Field drains (see table 1 and figure 4) are located at the lower
ends of field rows, through surface depressions, above barriers that trap
runoff, and where required to divert runoff from lower areas. Drains
located at or near soil changes provide locations for field roads,
ASABE STANDARDS 2008
 Figure 2 Drainage curvesnorthern area of USA (see figure 1). Source based on USDA SCS National Engineering Handbook, section 16, chapter 6
permitting the soils to be managed differently during farming operations.
Field drains need not be designed to contain the quantities of flow
indicated on the drainage curves, as their primary purpose is to remove
residual surface water after volume runoff has passed out of the field.
Recommended design grades are from 0.10 to 0.30%, and should never
be less than 0.05%. Grades may be uniform or may increase or
decrease. Abrupt changes to flatter grades may result in excessive
sedimentation.
5.3.1.1 Row drains are acceptable field drains provided they have
adequate grades; topography permits the disposal of spoil without
restricting drainage into the row drains; and adequate maintenance is
provided.
5.3.1.2 Vee field drains with side slopes steeper than 10:1 are easily
constructed and maintained with blade equipment. These drains are
difficult to cross with farm machinery, fill rapidly with sediment, and must
be re-established yearly. They are not recommended under normal
conditions.
5.3.1.3 Vee field drains that are 0.15 to 0.30 m (0.5 to 1.0 ft) deep with
10:1, or flatter, side slopes are excellent when crop rows on one or both
sides terminate at or near the centers of the drains. Field roads adjacent
to these field drains will not interfere with mechanized operations if field
road side slopes are not steeper than 10:1.
5.3.1.4 One-half vee field drains are not crossed by farm machinery.
Machinery turns within the cross sections without crossing the bottoms of
the drains. Turn areas must be smoothed and any obstruction at the
bottom of the drains removed. There are no restrictions on the side slope
opposite the field other than that it must be stable.
5.3.1.5 Trapezoidal field drains are satisfactory in some areas. Where
soils are not erosive, trapezoidal field drains can be constructed to grade
without uniform depths and can be expected to have long lives with little
ASABE STANDARDS 2008 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008
maintenance. Where soils are erosive and field drains are not vegetated,
trapezoidal field drains with the recommended depths will fill quickly with
eroded material.
5.3.1.6 Double field drains are recommended only on ungraded land for
use in wide, shallow depressions where runoff enters from both sides
and the excavated soil must be placed between the twin drains.
Recommended minimum distances between the centerlines of the twin
field drains are 15 m (50 ft) for drains 0.15 m (0.5 ft) deep, plus 3.0 m
(10 ft) for each additional 0.03 m (0.10 ft) of depth. Lesser distances may
be necessary at the outlet ends because of construction requirements.
5.3.2 Subsurface drains are located adjacent to field drains in some
areas where subsurface drainage is effective. The installation of
subsurface drains lowers water tables, aids tillage, and reduces
maintenance requirements.
5.3.3 Field laterals (see table 2 and figure 5) shall be designed to
discharge the rates of flow indicated by the appropriate drainage curves.
Field laterals occupy productive land and are costly to construct and
maintain. They shall be spaced as widely apart as field conditions permit.
5.3.3.1 The design cross sections of field laterals shall meet the
combined requirements for capacities, erosion control, depths, side
slopes, maintenance and, if needed, allowance for sedimentation.
Minimum field lateral depths, regardless of design capacities, shall be 0.3
m (1.0 ft).
5.3.3.2 The water surface elevations used in the design of field laterals
shall be as near natural ground surfaces as practical to hold ditch depths
to a minimum at row drain and field drain entrances. Flat side slopes
and, for trapezoidal sections, wide bottom widths can be used to reduce
depths.
5.3.3.3 The spoil from field laterals should, in most cases, be spread or
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 Figure 3 Drainage curvessouthern area of USA (see figure 1). Source based on USDA SCS National Engineering Handbook, section 16, chapter 6

removed. When spoil is removed, tillable low levees prevent water entry 5.3.3.7 The excavated material from field laterals should be placed and
except at planned inlets. Spoil banks are usually recommended only as shaped to minimize overbank wash, provide access for maintenance
an undesirable alternate but may be preferred in some locations. equipment, prevent excavated material from washing or rolling back into
5.3.3.4 Shaped spoil banks should have side slopes on the field sides of the channel, and prevent sloughing of channel banks caused by heavy
6:1 or flatter to permit operation of farm equipment. The area which loads near the channel.
contributes runoff to the channel side slopes should be kept to a 5.3.3.8 Field laterals and mains with their spoils can be hazardous;
minimum for erosion control purposes. For this reason side slopes on the therefore, side slopes, berm widths, etc., should be chosen to provide
channel sides can be as steep as the angle of repose of the spoil maximum safety in construction and maintenance operations. There
material and should be no flatter than the channel side slopes. Shaped should be information in the final design on the limitations and safety
spoil banks ordinarily should not exceed 1.0 m (3 ft) in height. features. If hazards do exist, it should be so stated to the persons or
5.3.3.5 When spoil is shaped, berms may not be required. When used, agency responsible for construction and maintenance. A record of this
berms should be adequate to satisfy the intended purpose and, in no information should be kept on file.
case, should be less than 0.6 m (2 ft) wide. 5.3.4 Farm mains shall be designed to carry the volume of flow indicated
5.3.3.6 When spoil is dumped and left unshaped, the recommended on the drainage curves. Where discharge into swamps, marshes, or
berm widths are shown in table 3. lakes is contemplated, high water marks shall be checked to determine
whether gravity flow will be adequate. Pump drainage may be necessary.
Special consideration should be given to minimize siltation, nutrients,
pesticides, etc., discharging into these areas. Specifications for the
Table 1 Recommended row drain and field drain dimensions design and construction of farm mains usually require freeboard added to
the design depths, but are generally the same as for field laterals.
Depth Bottom width
5.4 Design for land surface modification
Type m ft m ft Side slope 5.4.1 Land smoothing to eliminate minor depressions usually may be
directed in the field without detailed surveys or plans. However, surveys
Row drain 0.09*) 0.3*) 0 0 may be required in critical portions of some fields, when visual
Vee 0.15 to 0.3 0.5 to 1.0 0 0 10:1 or flatter) observations do not provide the accuracy required.
One-half vee 0.15 to 0.3 0.5 to 1.0 15:1 or flatter 5.4.2 Land grading for drainage may be planned with row grades and
Trapezoidal 0.23 to 0.45 0.74 to 1.5 2.4 8 8:1 or flatter cross slopes that are uniform or that vary within limits imposed by soils,
topography, and economics. Areas to be graded shall be planned for a
*) Minimum, 0.06 m (0.2 ft) below row middles for row crops. minimum number of field drains with the drains located, where possible,
)
10 horizontal to one vertical. perpendicular to field laterals and crop rows.

4 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008 ASABE STANDARDS 2008

 Figure 4 Field drains

5.4.2.1 Surface drainage will be adequate if all reverse row grades that
form depressions are eliminated. Minimum grade limits should include a
tolerance in construction that will permit the elimination of all depressions
either in original construction or by post construction touch-up. Reverse
row grades can be eliminated with relative ease on fields designed with
0.20% minimum grades. Unusual precision in construction is required
with 0.10% and flatter grades.
5.4.2.2 Land is frequently graded for both irrigation and surface
drainage. In these cases, design limits to meet irrigation requirements
may take precedence over those from drainage.
5.4.2.3 Economic considerations and the requirements for efficient
mechanized operations may justify exceeding the recommended

ASABE STANDARDS 2008 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008 5

 Table 2 Recommended field lateral side slopes Table 3 Recommended berm widths for unshaped spoil

Depth Average depth of ditch Minimum berm width*)

Cross section Recommended Minimum
type m ft side slope side slope m ft m ft

Vee 0.3 to 0.6 1.0 to 2.0 6:1 3:1 0.6 to 1.2 2.0 to 4.0 depth of ditch depth of ditch
Vee 0.61 and over 2.1 and over 4:1 3:1 1.3 to 1.8 4.1 to 6.0 2.4 8
Trapezoidal 0.3 to 0.9 1.0 to 3.0 4:1 2:1 1.9 to 2.4 6.1 to 8.0 3.0 10
Trapezoidal 0.91 and over 3.1 and over 2.5:1 1:1 over 2.4 over 8.0 4.5 15

*)In locations where soils are not stable, wider berm widths may be necessary.

maximum row grade and cross slope limits. When the recommended
limits are exceeded, provisions should be made to control erosion and
sedimentation.
5.4.2.4 Recommended row grades range from 0.10 to 0.50%. Grades
may be uniform, or increase, or decrease.
5.4.2.5 Cross slopes normally should not exceed 0.5%. Reverse cross
slopes are satisfactory providing field drains have the minimum required
grades and drainage outlets are adequate.
5.4.2.6 Lengths of rows shall be determined by soil changes, soil depths,
topography, irrigation, and erosion control requirements, and grading
costs.
5.4.2.7 The maximum allowable depth of cut depends upon soils and
costs.
5.4.3 Water leveling shall be planned to increase the size and improve
the shape of the areas between contour levees. The conventional vertical
spacing between levees shall be increased and levee alignment shall be
improved. Straight, parallel levees are preferred.
5.4.4 Bedding shall be designed so the beds are parallel to the direction
of the greatest land slope. Field laterals oriented normal to the dead
furrows should be spaced at intervals that will provide adequate outlets.
5.4.5 Crowning shall be designed as precision drainage systems.
Crowns may slope from the center to both sides or in only one direction.
Minimum cross slopes shall be 0.3%. Row drains shall be installed at all
points where there are reverse row grades. Field drains or row drains are
required at the ends of the rows. Field laterals shall be located parallel

Figure 5 Field laterals

6 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008 ASABE STANDARDS 2008

to the crowns to provide outlets for the row drains, and also
perpendicular to the crowns at intervals as needed to conduct flow to
farm mains.
5.4.6 Diversions and interceptor drains are specialized drainage
structures. (See ASAE S268 for diversion design recommendations.)
Interceptor drains shall be designed to meet the field condition as
disclosed by soil borings and topography.
6 Construction
6.1 Good quality construction is essential for adequate drainage.
Qualified engineers should be responsible for surveys, designs, layouts,
and checking to guarantee that construction meets specifications.
Landowners and contractors shall be provided with information
necessary for good quality construction.
6.1.1 Land smoothing will provide adequate drainage only if depressions
are eliminated by smoothing the land surface. Row drains, field drains,
and/or laterals shall be installed in the remaining low areas.
6.1.2 Land grading is hampered by trash and vegetation which shall be
destroyed or removed prior to construction and kept under control while
the work is being done. Plowing trash under the land surface is not
recommended.
6.1.2.1 Fields shall be scarified prior to construction if there are
hardpans. Fields shall not be graded when wet, because this impairs the
physical condition of the soil.
6.1.2.2 Grading shall be checked prior to and following finishing
operations. A tolerance of 30 mm (0.1 ft) may be allowed in checking,
providing there are no reverse grades in row direction.
6.1.2.3 Land smoothers shall be passed over the field surface at least
three times as a finishing operation. The first two passes shall be on
opposite diagonals and the last pass shall be in the row direction.
6.1.2.4 Fields shall be scarified either before or after the final land
smoothing operations to loosen the cut surfaces and to blend the fill
material with the underlying soil.
6.1.3 Water leveling shall be constructed with adequate permanent
levees and water control devices. After partial flooding, highs between
levees shall be cut to sufficient depths and the soil-water slurries agitated
and allowed to settle so that, upon draining and drying, level surfaces are
formed.
6.1.4 Bedding shall be constructed so all beds are full-bodied and free of
pockets or depressions. The parallel dead furrows between the beds
shall be free of water-holding pockets.
6.1.5 Crowning shall be constructed so all crowns are free of pockets or
depressions. Depths of cuts and fills shall be established at key points by
surveys. Experienced operators can then construct crowns with only
visual checking between the key points. Crowns shall be land smoothed
after rough construction.
6.1.6 Field drains must be constructed without reverse grades to give
satisfactory performance.
6.1.6.1 Field drains having irregular depths and cross sections are
subject to differential deposition of sediment causing ponding and grade
maintenance problems. Therefore, when feasible, the land surfaces
adjacent to and above the drains should be graded to have the same
grades (cross slopes) as the drains.
6.1.6.2 Spoil material excavated from vee drains located in depressions
should be removed from the site so water can enter the drains freely
from both sides. Where this is not possible, spoil material shall be
shaped or spread and provision made for entrance of side-water by use
of constructed inlets and row drains. Sometimes this may be
accomplished by feathering the spoil material with blade equipment so
water enters freely.
6.1.7 Field laterals shall be constructed with uniform side slopes for ease
of maintenance. Productive spoil excavated from field laterals shall be
shaped to facilitate cropping and vegetative control, spread so that row
crops can be planted parallel and adjacent to the laterals, or removed
ASABE STANDARDS 2008 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008
and used in land grading operations. Spread spoil shall be deposited so
water enters the laterals only at planned inlets. Shaped spoil banks shall
be constructed with smooth crowns and sloped to provide drainage away
from the excavated channels. Nonproductive spoil shall be dumped to
minimize the area of productive land taken out of production.
6.1.8 Transitions that do not require special design for erosion control
shall be constructed without restricting drainage. Specially graded
channel transitions for erosion control shall be precisely constructed,
because poor workmanship may easily reduce or eliminate their erosion-
resistant qualities. Local experience may indicate that graded transitions
will become stable after minor erosion has occurred; otherwise they
require establishment of grass or other erosion resistant material for
protection.
7 Construction equipment
7.1 Proper construction equipment and skilled operators are required for
good quality work. Proper grade control must be assured for satisfactory
drainage performance. Grade control can be obtained by either laser
controlled leveling or by the use of grade stakes.
7.1.1 Tractor and scraper combinations are used for excavating, for
hauling excavated material to fill areas, and for spreading excavated
material. Tractors and scrapers are used for land grading, and to
construct and maintain field drains and diversions. Under favorable
conditions, they are used to construct and maintain field laterals with flat
side slopes. Track-type tractors and large pan scrapers have been used
for many years. In recent years, larger wheel-type farm tractors have
been used with small pan scrapers pulled in tandem and with self-loading
scrapers. Smaller wheel-type farm tractors have been used with single
small pan-type scrapers and have become very popular in some areas.
The tractor-scraper combination is the most versatile type of earthmoving
equipment commonly used in surface drainage work.
7.1.2 Water leveling blades are specially designed, tractor-mounted
blades that loosen soil by scraping adjacent to or under water reducing
the soil and water to a fluid slurry.
7.1.3 Land smoothers, commonly known as land levelers or land planes,
are used for land smoothing or to finish land grading. They will
automatically fill small low areas and remove small high areas when
traversing a field. They cannot accomplish the major grading operations
done by tractors and scrapers. Land smoothers are used periodically to
maintain the surface of land that has previously been graded or
smoothed.
7.1.4 Motor graders and blade-type graders pulled by tractors are used
to excavate relatively small channels, such as field drains or field laterals,
where the excavated material can be spread or shaped along one or both
sides of the channels. Graders are used to construct diversions and to
crown land. They are used extensively to maintain field drains and field
laterals. A grader is an efficient tool where firm foundation conditions
exist and the work area is free of stumps.
7.1.5 Draglines and backhoes are used to construct and maintain field
laterals, farm mains, and interceptor drains. Occasionally they are used
to construct field drains under wet conditions. Draglines are adapted for
work under wet conditions, for channels having steep side slopes, and
where excavated spoil material can be deposited alongside the
excavated channel. Excavated spoil ordinarily must be shaped or spread
by some other type of equipment.
7.1.6 Bulldozers are used to crown land, to construct diversions, to
spread spoil, and for maintenance. Occasionally, they are used to
construct and maintain field drains and field laterals with flat side slopes.
Bulldozers are suitable for use where excavated material is moved short
distances.
7.1.7 Moldboard or disk plows may be used for bedding and to construct
row drains. They are used to maintain beds and crowns.
8 Erosion control
8.1 Erosion of deep productive soils in fields that require surface
drainage may be of little direct economic importance. On shallow soils,
7
erosion may over a period of time result in irreparable losses in
productivity and/or sedimentation that obstructs nearby channels. The
justifiable intensity of erosion control measures on field surfaces,
therefore, depends on the depth of soil, the relative cost of preventing
erosion and maintaining channels, off-site costs, and applicable
regulations.
8.1.1 Erosion control on land surfaces is normally required only where
land grades exceed 1.0% or where there are reverse row grades. By
concentrating water and causing it to overflow row beds, reverse row
grades are a major contributing cause of erosion across rows. Graded
rows, precisely constructed so that there are no reverse row grades and
so that each row carries its own water, are an effective erosion control
practice.
8.1.2 Field drain side slopes and the row middles immediately above the
field drains are subject to rill erosion with resultant sedimentation in the
field drains. To control this erosion, portions of field drains that are 0.15
m (0.5 ft) below field level or below row middles shall be vegetated,
except vegetation is not necessary for field drains re-established yearly.
8.1.3 Field drains with grades of about 0.30% and steeper shall be
vegetated to prevent channel erosion. The initial erosive grades vary with
soils and flow velocity.
8.1.4 Field laterals are subject to serious erosion in some areas where
they are located on erodible soils and steeper grades. These laterals
should be vegetated. Where there is a doubt, the maximum permissible
grade for unvegetated channels should be checked. Permissible grades
are dependent on the scour conditions which are likely to occur in the
channels.
8.1.5 Sedimentation in field laterals is usually expected. In areas where
sedimentation is anticipated, field laterals should be overcut 0.1 m (0.3 ft)
or more to provide for sedimentation.
8.1.6 Inlets to field laterals for surface water shall be constructed only at
planned points. Continuous low levees, spread spoil, or spoil banks shall
prevent entry except at planned inlets.
8.1.7 The outlets of field drains and field laterals shall be checked for
erosiveness. In some cases the depths of channels can be controlled by
design to reduce or eliminate erosion. In other cases the water level in
the larger channels may reduce velocities sufficiently to effectively control
erosion. Where additional erosion control measures are indicated,
graded channel transitions shall be considered. Such transitions may be
grass waterways or nonvegetated channels, depending on the erosion
potential. When graded transitions are not adequate for erosion control,
pipe drops, chutes, drop structures, or other suitable erosion control
structures shall be used.
8.1.8 Pipe drops are relatively inexpensive, usually have long lives, and
provide crossings for field roads. Pipe drops shall have design capacities
of 1.25 to 1.50 times the volume of flow indicated on the drainage curves.
Small diameter pipe drops are subject to blockage by debris. Pipe drop
inverts shall be 0.03 to 0.09 m (0.1 to 0.3 ft) below design grades at the
inlet ends of the pipes. Insofar as practical, pipe drops should outlet at
least 0.6 m (2 ft) above the ditch bottoms at the outlet ends of the pipes.
Velocities shall be checked at the pipe outlets for erosive conditions. High
velocities may cause a hydraulic jump and scouring problems. This will
require erosion protection and energy dissipation for the ditch bottom and
banks.
8 ANSIASAE EP302.4 FEB1993 R2008
8.1.9 All uncultivated field lateral side slopes and spoil banks shall be
vegetated as soon as practical after construction. Vegetative plants shall
be selected for their erosion resistance, wildlife habitat, and beautification
values.
9 Maintenance
9.1 Timely maintenance is essential for continued adequate
performance of a drainage system. Maintenance operations shall be
planned when the system is designed. Inspection of the entire drainage
system should be made following heavy rainfall, and at least once each
year. Tillage operations should retain the shape of field surfaces as
initially constructed. The two-way plow is desirable for primary tillage
because dead furrows and back furrows can be eliminated or located to
meet the needs of the drainage system. Where the one-way plow is
used, dead furrows and back furrows shall be kept to a minimum, and
shall be located so they will not restrict water flow. Unless dead and back
furrows are parts of the drainage system as in bedding, their locations
shall be alternated annually.
9.1.1 Row drains and field drains may require cleaning following tillage
operations. When the field drains are not cultivated, weed growth shall be
kept under control by mowing, spraying, or burning.
9.1.2 Field laterals require periodic maintenance. Suitable chemical
weed and bush sprays are effective in controlling undesirable vegetation.
Mowing is effective where side slopes are not steeper than 3:1. Laterals
require cleanout where excess deposition has occurred.
9.1.3 Land grading maintenance is critical during the first year or two
after construction. Settlement of the fill areas may make several annual
land smoothing operations necessary. In some cases, particularly where
deep fills have been made, it may be necessary to cut and fill again with
tractors and scrapers to eliminate depressions and reverse row grades.
It is recommended that the land planning operation be substituted for one
of the secondary tillage operations. The final land maintenance
operations shall be in the direction of the crop rows.
9.1.4 Transitions shall be checked frequently for restriction of drainage.
Removal of deposition downstream from the transition may be the only
maintenance required.
9.1.5 Pipe drops shall be checked and maintained to see that the flow is
not restricted, that overtopping of the fills is not causing excessive
erosion, and that piping is not occurring along the conduits.
10 Safe practice messages
These safe practice messages are recognized as being effective for
enhancing safety, but may not be adequate, complete, or entirely
applicable for every situation. They may not cover all possible hazardous
situations; hence, they should be interpreted judiciously and not
necessarily reproduced verbatim in communications to users:
safety standards for workers and machines should be observed;
persons working in trenches should be protected from cave-ins by
proper shoring and should not work alone;
moving parts of machines should be protected by proper guards;
casual observers should not be permitted close to excavating
operations.
ASABE STANDARDS 2008