GSM Services

Service Category Service Comments

Tele services Speech Full Rate 13Kbps

SMS (Short Message Point to Point & Cell Broadcast

Bearer Services Asynchronous Data 300 9600bps

Synchronous Data 300 9600bps

Supplementary Services Call Forward Subscriber Busy, Not Reachable

Call Barring International & Incoming Calls

900 MHz. Uplink Frequency 890-915 MHZ.

Downlink Frequency 935-960 MHz

1800 MHz. Uplink Frequency 1725-1780 MHZ.

Downlink Frequency 1820-1870 MHz

124 carriers.
There are 8 channels in each carrier.
Channel separation is 200 KHz.

Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved blocks through the use of
encryption techniques to the particular mobile station and base transceiver station.
Two types of ciphering algorithms, called A3 and A5, are used in GSM to
prevent unauthorized network access and privacy for the radio
transmission respectively.

Authentication is the process of uniquely proving an identity to a certain service,

network or device and the verification of the given identity.

The AuC is associated with the HLR (Home Location Register) in a GSM or
UMTS network. It provides authentication parameters for the authentication
process such as authentication triplets in GSM or authentication vectors within
UMTS

A3 - Authentication Algorithm A3
Authentication algorithm used in conjunction with Ki the authentication key and
RAND the random number generated in the AuC (Authentication Centre) to
produce the SRES (Signed Response) This variable is used by the network to
authenticate a MS (Mobile Station) requesting network resources.

Equalization is the technique used to improve the redial link performance. That is
to minimize instantaneous bit error rate (Inter symbol interference).since the mobile
feeding channel is random and time varying, equalizers must track the time varying
characteristics of the mobile channel, and thus are called as adaptive equalizers.

In reality, bit errors often occur in sequence, as caused by long fading dips affecting
several consecutive bits. Channel coding is most effective in detecting and correcting
single errors and short error sequences. It is not suitable for handling longer
sequences. For this reason, a process called interleaving is used to separate
consecutive bits of a message so that these are transmitted in a non-consecutive way.

The major drawback of interleaving is the corresponding delay: transmission

time from the first burst to the last one in a block is equal to 8 TDMA frame
Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. In this
format, information is organized into discrete units of data (called bits) that can be
separately addressed (usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes).

The GSM speech codec transform the analog signal (voice) into a digital
representation, has to meet the following criteria:

A .good speech quality

B. to reduce the redundancy in the sounds of the voice

Channel coding is a method to reduce information rate through the channel and
increase reliability. This goal is achieved by adding redundancy to the information
symbol vector resulting in a longer coded vector of symbols that are distinguishable
at the output of the channel.

Frequency reuse is a technique of reusing frequencies and channels within a

communications system to improve capacity and spectral efficiency. Frequency
reuse is one of the fundamental concepts on which commercial wireless systems are
based that involves the partitioning of an RF radiating area (cell) into segments of a
cell. One segment of the cell uses a frequency that is far enough away from the
frequency in the bordering segment that it does not provide interference problems.
Frequency re-use in mobile cellular systems means that each cell has a frequency
that is far enough away from the frequency in the bordering cell that it does not
provide interference problems. The same frequency is used at least two cells apart
from each other. This practice enables cellular providers to have many times more
customers for a given site license.

Cell splitting is the process of splitting a mobile cell into several smaller cells. This is
usually done to make more voice channels available to accommodate traffic growth
in the area covered by the original cell.

A Interface

This is the interface within the GSM network architecture between the BSS (Base
Station Subsystem) and an MSC (Mobile Switching Centre). The interface supports
standard 64Kbps channels for signalling and traffic. The primary protocols on this
interface are DTAP (Direct Transfer Application Part) and BSSMAP (Base Station
Subsystem Management Application Part).

Abis Interface

The interface within the GSM architecture, between the BTS (Base Transceiver
Station) and BSC (Base Station Controller). This interface is usually configured
using a 16Kbps slot structure.

The A1 interface

Carries signaling information between the Call Control and Mobility Management
functions of the MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) and the call control component of
the BSC (Base Station Controller).

A9 Interface

The A9 interface carries signaling information between the BS (Base Station) and
the PCF (Packet Control Function).

LAPD - Link Access Protocol on the D Channel

Link Access Protocol on the D channel is a Layer 2 protocol used on the ISDN D channel. LAPD
was derived from the LAPB (Link Access Protocol Balanced) protocol and was designed to
satisfy the signalling requirements of ISDN basic access. LAPD is defined in the ITU-T
(International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector. The
LAPD, protocol is used to convey messages between layer3 entities across the GSM radio
interface.

LAPDm - Link Access Protocol on the Dm Channel

LAPDm is a modified version of LAPD(Link Access Protocol in the D channel), the Data link
layer protocol. The modifications make it suitable for transmission across a radio interface. It is
used in GSM to support the transport of information between the mobile and the network.

Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) is a standard for easy and secure establishment of a wireless home
network, created by the Wi-Fi Alliance .The goal of the WPS protocol is to simplify the process
of configuring security on wireless networks.

17. What is MAP?

MAP - Mobile Application Part

A protocol which enables real time communication between nodes in a mobile cellular network.
A typical usage of the MAP protocol would be for the transfer of location information from the
VLR(Visitor Location Register) to the HLR(Home Location Register).

A mobile allocation index offset (MAIO) refers a time delay separating traffic channels. When a
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) mobile phone is served by a cell that is
hopping over a set of frequencies, the separate traffic channels hop over the allocated
frequencies according to a hopping sequence number (HSN). The traffic channels with the same
HSN hop over the same frequencies in the same order but are separated in time by a mobile
allocation index offset (MAIO).

The smallest amount of interference on a site is achieved if it is possible to synchronize all

channels on the site and separate the channels using the MAIO.
Frequency hopping is defined as continuous changing the frequency from one slot to another

Each burst is transmitted on a different frequency

Both mobile and base station follow the same hopping sequence

Base Band Hopping (BBH)

The TCUs transmit always the same frequency

Number of frequencies for hopping = Number of carriers

Synthesiser Frequency Hopping (SFH)

The TCUs change (retune) the frequency every burst

Number of frequencies for hopping > Number of carriers

TCUs can hop over a range of 64 different frequencies

The average speed of mobile stations within a cell is determined or estimated using a
variety of techniques. If the average speed is below a predetermined threshold, then
a cyclic FH sequence is used to achieve superior frequency diversity and therefore
combat small-scale fading. If the average speed is above a predetermined threshold,
then a random FH sequence is used to achieve superior interference averaging and
therefore combat co-channel interference.

Frequency hopping is employed in frequency division spread spectrum to hide the data channels
in the noise or to avoid interference from other users of the common spectrum. It is also
employed in fading channels to improve the quality of the radio connection. The hopping
pattern must be known both by the receiver and the transmitter. This pattern is described using
a hopping sequence and identified by the HSN.

Discontinuous transmission is a mechanism that allows the radio transmitter to be

switched off during speech pauses. In a normal conversation this will lead to a
decrease in transmission time of about 50%. The primary functions of DTX in the
uplink and downlink are to save battery in the mobile and to reduce the interference
levels in both links

Discontinuous Reception (DRX) is a method used in mobile communication to

conserve the battery of the mobile device.

The mobile device and the network negotiate phases in which data transfer happens.
During other times the device turns its receiver off and enters a low power state

Discontinuous reception is employed in cellular systems to prolong the mobiles

battery life. The mobile station listens only to the paging channels within its DRX
group. Moreover the network will only page the mobile in that group of paging
channels. Thus the mobile does not have to continuously monitor the paging
channels

GSM----------9.6 Kbps

2.5 G High Speed Ckt Switched Data (HSCSD) ---------76.8 Kbps

The Erlang is a measurement of telephone traffic equivalent to 3600 seconds of

telephone use.

Grade of Service defines the quality of a telephone service in terms of a user

receiving a network busy signal.

Grade of service is the blocking for the given traffic channels.

Timing advance is a solution specifically designed to counteract the problem of time
alignment. It works by instructing the misaligned MS to transmit its burst earlier or
later than it normally would. In GSM, the timing advance information relates to bit-
times. Thus, an MS may be instructed to do its transmission by a certain number of
bit-times earlier or later related to previous position, to reach its timeslot at the BTS
in right time. Maximum 63 bit-times can be used in GSM systems. This limits GSM
normal cell size to 35km radius.

A Location Area is a number of cells (defined by the mobile operator) throughout

which a GSM / UMTS mobile will be paged.

Location information is maintained and used by the network to locate the user for
call routing purposes. The network registers the users location in a register called
users HLR, which is associated with an MSC located in a PLMN to which user is
subscribed.
Each BSS keeps broadcasting on periodic basis the cell identities on broadcast
control channels of the cells under its coverage. The mobiles within each cell keep
monitoring this information.
As changes in location are detected (from the last information recorded by
them), they each report the new location to the BSS which then routes it the VLR of
the MSC to which it is connected. The VLR sends the location information to users
HLR where it is also recorded. Meanwhile, the HLR directs the old VLR to delete
the old visiting location of the mobile from its database and also sends a copy of the
users service profile to the new VLR. Location updating is performed by the
Mobility Management (MM) protocol sub layer.
IMSI stands for International Mobile Subscriber Identity. It is the unique network
identity of the GSM subscriber. TMSI stands for Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity. TMSI is the temporary network identity of the subscriber in the visited
Location Area.

MSISDN is the international ISDN no. allocated to the mobile subscriber.

MSISDN should comply to the countrys ISDN numbering plan. The MSISDN
number basically consists of a country code (CC), a national destination code
(NDC) which specifies a PLMN within that country and a subscriber number (SN).
The MSISDN number is used for dialing by a calling subscriber from
PSTN/ISDN, and is used to route the call to a Gateway MSC of the GSM network.
The GSM MSC then uses the MSISDN to interrogate the appropriate HLR for the
rerouting information required to extend the call to the mobiles visiting MSC.

ARFCN - Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number

Within the spectrum allocated for cellular mobile communications, the radio
channels are identified by ARFCN. If the system is operating in FDD (Frequency
Division Duplex) mode then the channel number is associated with both the uplink
and downlink radio channels. Within the GSM900spectrum ARFCN 1 to 124 are
used. In GSM1800, ARFCN 512 to 885 are used and in GSM1900 ARFCN 512 to
810 are used.

The Power Control is sent on the Forward Power Control Sub channel or Reverse
Power Control Sub channel to signal the MS (Mobile Station) or base station to
increase or decrease its transmit power.

Frequency Division Duplex is employed in radio systems to provide an uplink and

downlink radio channel between the network and the user. The frequencies
separated by a duplex spacing. Users tune between the uplink and downlink
frequencies to transmit and receive respectively.

In a Time Division Duplex system a common carrier is shared between the uplink
and downlink, the resource being switched in time. Users are allocated one or more
timeslots for uplink and downlink transmission. The main advantage of TDD
operation is that it allows asymmetric flow which is more suited to data
transmission.

To provide cellular coverage in rural areas where user density is low, the operators
tend to build large cells in order to reduce the number of base station (BS) sites.
This reduces the total cost of BS equipment, network installation, and maintenance.
The cell range extension technique is specifically targeted to the GSM/DCS1800 for
providing cost-effective countryside coverage. It is based on the use of the GSM
half-rate speech codec over-the full-rate traffic channel cross the extended cell
range, so that additional channel coding can be utilized to improve the error rate
performance.

The term Multiple Access is used to describe a system where several users can gain
access to a common transmission channel. Examples of Multiple Access systems
include TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) used in GSM, CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) used in UMTS and CSMA/CD (Carrier Sensing Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) used by Ethernet.
Frequency Division Multiple Access is a technique in which multiple users of a radio
system are separated in the frequency domain
Code Division Multiple Access is a method for describing physical radio channels.
Data intended for a specific channel is modulated with that channels code. These are
typically pseudorandom in nature, and posses favourable correlation properties to
ensure physical channels are not confused with one another.

SDCCH (Stand Alone Control Channel) when not on a call

SACCH (Slow associated control channel) When we are on a call.

Random Access Channel (RACH)

The Access Grant Channel is used to assign resources to a user requesting access to
the network. These resources will include the dedicated channel to be used along
with timing advance information. (OR) Response for RACH is AGCH.
Call establishment, location update and SMS.
SDCCH is a duplex pt-to-pt channel which is used for signaling. It carries all
signaling between the BTS and the MS when no TCH is allocated.
It is used for service request , location updates, subscriber authentication, ciphering
initiation, equipment validation and assignment to a TCH.

Each timeslot on a TDMA frame is called a physical channel

A physical channel may carry different messages, depending on the information that
is to be sent. These messages are called logical channels.

TDMA Frame: It consists of 8 bursts, time is 4.616ms. one burst is 577microsec.

Multi Frame: 26 TDMA frames makes one multi frame. Time of one multiframe is
120ms.
Superframe: 51 mult iframes make one superframe. Time of one super frame is 420
ms.
Hyperframe: 2048 superframes make one hyperframe.

Frequency correction channel FCCH continuously transmits in downlink direction

unmodulated carrier frequency for frequency correction of MS .

SCH is used for frame synchronization of MS and contains information about

RFN(Reduced TDMA Frame Number) and BSIC. BSIC consists of NCC and BCC.

BCCH broadcasts general information about the cell like neighbouring cells
information, MS transmit power maximum on CCHs and local area identification.
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) is a GSM signalling channel that
provides a relatively slow signalling connection. The SACCH is associated with
either a traffic or dedicated channel. The SACCH can also be used to transfer Short
Message Service (SMS) during a call. It gives measurement reports.

PCH is used to page the MS during mobile terminated call setup. Paging messages
are sent to the area where the recipient MS is located. This is the downlink
transport channel in UMTS that carries the PCH (Paging Control Channel). It is
used to broadcast paging and notification messages in a cell.
The Cell Broadcast Channel is an additional feature of the GSM system. The
channel supports part of the SMS (Short Message Service) group known as point to
multipoint and is intended to be used for information such as traffic and weather
reports. This is a downlink only channel and is mapped into the second subslot of
the SDCCH (Standalone Dedicated Control Channel

Yes .BCCH is down link mode channel

Four burst delay .this is used to avoid the simultaneous transmission and reception
of mobile station

Traffic multiframe containes 26 bursts. Last burst is the idle burst.13th burst is for
SACCH

FACCH - Fast Associated Control Channel

The Fast Associated Control Channel appears in place of the traffic channel when
lengthy signalling is required between a GSM mobile and the network while the
mobile is in call. When SACCH is not available, at that moment a stealing bit is used
from the normal burst by FACCH and handover is given.

Information sent during one Time Slot (TS) is called a burst.

The burst types in GSM are Normal Burst (NB), Access Burst (AB),
Synchronization Burst (SB), Frequency Correction Burst (FCB) & Dummy Burst
(DB).

A standing wave may be formed when a wave is transmitted into one end of a
transmission line and is reflected from the other end by an impedance mismatch.
VSWR is the ratio of maximum to minimum voltage in a standing wave pattern

EIRP - Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power

The unit of measurement of the strength of a radiated field. Typically that from a
radio antenna.

The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the wave radiated by the

antenna. At a given position, the polarization describes the orientation of the electric
field.

Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of polarisation and they both fall into
a category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular
polarisation. This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications
where it helps overcome the effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections
and the effects of the spin that occur on many satellites. Circular polarisation is a
little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation. However it can be imagined
by visualising a signal propagating from an antenna that is rotating. The tip of the
electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels
away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left
handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when
there is a mix of linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by
the tip of the electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.

Fading is the distortion that a carrier-modulated telecommunication signal

experiences over certain propagation media. A fading channel is a communication
channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading is due to multipath
propagation and is sometimes referred to as multipath induced fading.

Rayleigh fading is caused by multipath reception. The mobile antenna receives a

large number, say N, reflected and scattered waves. Because of wave cancellation
effects, the instantaneous received power seen by a moving antenna becomes a
random variable, dependent on the location of the antenna.

A form of radio fading caused by the existence of two or more paths between the
transmitter and receiver. Delays on the reflected path may add to (strengthen) or
subtract from (fade) the main path. Multipath may be overcome by using multiple
receive antennas or frequency hopping

OTD - Orthogonal Transmit Diversity

An optional method of transmission of the Forward CDMA Channel that utilizes
two antennas, each transmitting a fraction of the code symbols. It is used to enhance
the performance in the presence of fades due to multipath propagation.

Space diversity
A method of TX (Transmission) or RX(Reception), or both, in which the effects of
fading are reduced by the simultaneous use of two or more antennas. Antennas
should ideally be separated by one or more wavelengths.

Time diversity
Transmission in which signals representing the same information are sent over the
same channel at different times.

OTD - Orthogonal Transmit Diversity

An optional method of transmission of the Forward CDMA Channel that utilizes

two antennas, each transmitting a fraction of the code symbols. It is used to enhance
the performance in the presence of fades due to multipath propagationATDPCH -
Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel
The Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel is associated with the APCH
(Auxiliary Pilot Channel), that is transmitted by a CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access) BS (Base Station) from the non-primary antenna when orthogonal transmit
diversity is employed.
FTFPCH - Forward Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel
A pilot channel transmitted by a CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) BS (Base
Station) from the non primary antenna when orthogonal transmit diversity is
employed

The signal is transferred using several frequency channels or spread over a wide
spectrum that is affected by frequency-selective fading. Middle-late 20th century
microwave radio relay lines often used several regular wideband radio channels,
and one protection channel for automatic use by any faded channel.

Multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at different time instants.
Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code is added and the message
is spread in time by means of bit-interleaving before it is transmitted. Thus, error
bursts are avoided, which simplifies the error correction.

The basic mechanisms of propagation are Reflection, Refraction, Scattering and

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or squeezing through a small

hole. It occurs with sound waves, light, atoms, and subatomic particles.

In electromagnetic wave propagation, the knife-edge effect or edge diffraction is a

redirection by diffraction of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a well-
defined obstacle such as a mountain range or the edge of a building.

The knife-edge effect is explained by Huygens-Fresnel principle, which

states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts
as a secondary source, and creates a new wavefront. This new
wavefront propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle.
Scattering is where the direction, frequency, or polarization of the wave is changed
when the wave encounters discontinuities in the medium, or interacts with the
material at the atomic or molecular level.

In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an

electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space,
with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. Free-space path loss is
proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver, and
also proportional to the square of the frequency of the radio signal.

The Fresnel Zone is the area around the visual line-of-sight that radio waves spread
out into after they leave the antenna. You want a clear line of sight to maintain
signal strength, especially for 2.4 GHz wireless systems. This is because 2.4 GHz
waves are absorbed by water, like the water found in trees. Typically, 20% Fresnel
Zone blockage introduces little signal loss to the link. Beyond 40% blockage, signal
loss will become significant.

The angle between the directions, on either side of the axis, at which the intensity of
the radio frequency field drops to one-half the value it has on the axis.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth may be defined as the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies available for network signals. It is also used to describe the amount of
data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.

3dB bandwidth:The half-power bandwidth is defined as the interval between

frequencies at which the power spectral density has dropped to half power or 3 Db
below the peak value. Half-power bandwidth is also called the 3Db bandwidth.
Absolute bandwidth of a signal is defined as the range of frequencies over which the
signal has non-zero power spectral density.

A simpler and more widely accepted measure of bandwidth is first null-to-null

bandwidth. the null-to-null bandwidth is equal to the width of the main spectral
lobe.

SNR - Signal-to-Noise Ratio

The SNR or S/N (Signal to Noise Ratio) of the amplitude of the desired signal to the
amplitude of noise signals at a given point in time. SNR is expressed as 10 times the
logarithm of the power ratio and is usually expressed in dB (Decibel).

Front-to-Back Ratio (F/B Ratio)

Front to Back Ratio of an antenna is the ratio of the gain in a specified direction,
i.e., azimuth, usually that of maximum gain to the gain in a direction 180 from the
specified azimuth.

Handoff / Handover
A Handoff, or Handover, is the process in which a cellular phone is handed from
one cell to the next in order to maintain a radio connection with the network. The
variables that dictate a handover depend on the type of cellular system.

Handover due to (signalling)traffic reasons:

When the capacity of a cell nears its maximum, mobile stations in the periphery of
the cell may be handed over to neighbouring cell with lower traffic load.

Intra cell - Intra BSC handover

Inter cell - Intra BSC handover

Inter cell - Inter BSC handover

Inter MSC Handover

When there is an excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a handoff or when the
threshold is set too small for the handoff time in the system.

The ability to select between the instantaneous received signals from a variety of
base stations is called soft handoff.
Systems that assign different radio channels during handoff is called hard
handoff.

In synchronous handover the mobile has knowledge of the base stations timing.
In synchronous handover, the handset tries to find both power and synchronization
information from the base station.
In asynchronous (non-synchronous) the mobile first accesses the new base station
over the random access channel.

These handovers are occurred when request received from emergency services like
101,108 and 100,then preference is given to them rather than normal subscriber
calls.

Handover due to signal quality and strength

1.When a mobile subscriber is moving during a call, he may travel from one cell to
another.

2.Frequency resources of previous cells can not be used any more.

3.The mobile station is handed over to the new cell.

Mobile assisted handover (MAHO)

Network assisted handover (NAHO)
Vertical handover: redistributing mobile stations from one access network to anther

Ping pong effect occurs when the MS is handed over from oe cell to another but is
quickly handed backed to the original cell.

The BSC controlling the current cell makes the decision to perform a handover

The source MSC finds that the call needs to be handed over to a cell controlled by a
different MSC.

The source MSC and target MSC interact and then command the UT to move to the
new cell.

The target MSC informs the source MSC when the call has been successfully
handed over.

The source MSC releases the radio resources for the call. Note that the call is still
routed via the source MSC.

The mobile station sends the network a query as to whether the network can
support the handover by transferring the link data from the first mobile station to
the second mobile station. If the mobile station is informed that the network cannot
support the handover the mobile station makes the link data available to the second
base station.

GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying).BPSK requires wide band width for
transmission due to signal changes phase abruptly. This can be overcome by
GMSK.
PSK - Phase Shift Keying

Phase Shift Keying is a technique enabling digital information to be carried over an

analogue carrier such as a radio link. The process causes the phase of the carrier
wave to be manipulated in order to signify either a logical 0 or 1. There are
many variations of PSK allowing greater data transfer rates to be achieved.

FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

In Frequency Shift Keying the carrier frequency is shifted between distinct

frequencies. A common shift pattern is between two frequencies one representing a
zero and the other a one

A QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) modulated signal typically comprises a

signal of constant frequency which can have one of four phases, each phase
representing two bits. It can be generated by multiplying two binary information
signals, an in-phase signal I(t) and a quadrature-phase signal Q(t), by a carrier
signal at a phase of 0.degree. and 90.degree. respectively (i.e. a cosine signal and a
sine signal respectively). The resulting signals are then summed to form the QPSK
signal.

OQPSK (Offset QPSK) is another modulation scheme where the signal Q(t) or I(t) is
delayed by half a symbol when the OQPSK is modulated. In the subsequent
transmitted symbol, phase shifts are restricted to a maximum of 90.degree. at a
time. This gives OQPSK desirable properties over QPSK which can have phase
shifts of 180.degree.

MSK - Minimum Shift Keying

Minimum Shift Keying is a form of FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) used to carry
digital information on a radio carrier.

QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Modulation technique using two amplitude modulated RF (Radio Frequency)
carriers that are out of phase by 90 degrees. Information transfer is achieved using
a mixture of phase and amplitude changes. Since noise also appears as amplitude
variations QAM is prone to interference

PAM - Pulse Amplitude Modulation

This is a process of representing a continuous analogue signal with a series of

discrete analogue samples. The process is used in PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
during the conversion of an analogue signal into a digital representation.

PCM - Pulse Code Modulation

Pulse Code Modulation is a process in which an analogue signal is encoded into a

digital bit stream. The analogue is first sampled, then quantized and finally encoded
into a bit stream. The most common version of PCM enables one voice circuit to be
represented by a 64Kbps stream. Other versions of PCM exist such as ADPCM
(Adaptive Differential PCM) which enables lower bit rates to be achieved.

FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available transmission

bandwidth of a circuit is divided by frequency into narrower bands, each used for a
separate voice or data transmission channel. FDM enables multiple user channels to
be carried on one physical circuit.

TDM - Time Division Multiplexing

Digital Multiplexing technique in which two or more apparently simultaneous

channels can be combined to form a bit stream by interleaving bits or bit words
from different channels.

OFDM - Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

OFDM is a multi carrier transmission technique capable of supporting high speed

services whilst still being bandwidth efficient. It achieves this by forcing multiple
sub-carriers together thereby reducing the bandwidth required when compared to
more traditional FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) methods. However, to
ensure these adjacent sub-carriers do not cause excessive interference, they must be
orthogonal or 90 to one another
GPRS ---------GMSK and 8PSK

EDGE ---------8PSK

Cellular networks are more often limited by problems caused by interference rather
than by signal strength problems. Co-channel interference is caused by the use of a
frequency close to the exact same frequency. The former will interfere with the
latter, leading to the terms interfering frequency (I) and carrier frequency (C). The
GSM specification recommends that the carrier-to-interference (C/I) ratio is greater
than 9 decibels (dB). However, Ericsson recommends that 12 dB be used as planning
criterion.

Adjacent frequencies (A), that is frequencies shifted 200 kHz from the carrier
frequency (C), must be avoided in the same cell and preferably in neighboring cells
also. Although adjacent frequencies are at different frequencies to the carrier
frequency they can still cause interference and quality problems.
The GSM specification states that the carrier-to-adjacent ratio (C/A) must be larger
than -9dB. Ericsson recommends that higher than 3 dB be used as planning
criterion

RXQUAL - Received Signal Quality

In a radio system RXQUAL indicates the average signal quality received. Its range
is 0 to 7. In the GSM system the conventional quality measure (Rx Quality) is based
on the pseudo bit-error rate (pseudo BER) or an estimate of the BER made before
channel decoding, which is an estimate of the bit errors over the air interface.

Measurements taken over a full set of TDMA frame.

Measurements taken over a subset of TDMA frame. If even one frame is not
transmitted in the measurement period, then it is considered as a sub set

SQI stands for speech quality index. Its range is -22 to +30.
SQI is measured by the FER.
BSIC - Base Station Identity Code

This is a code in GSM which is broadcast on the SCH (Synchronization Channel) in

order to identify the NCC (Network Colour Code) and the BCC (Base Station
Colour Code).

AMR - Adaptive Multi Rate

A codec offering a wide range of data rates. The AMR is used to lower the codec
rate as the interference increases and thus enabling more error correction to be
applied. The AMR codec is also used to harmonize the codec standards amongst
different cellular systems.

Handover failure
SDCCH drop
TCH drop

Radio link time out counter

After completion of RF survey we go for drive test for

measuring radio parameters,
assesses speech quality, and decodes air interface messages.

Monitors the air interface between the base

station and the test mobile station.

When camped on a cell, the mobile shall regularly search for a better cell according
to the cell reselection criteria. If a better cell is found, that cell is selected. This
process is identified as the C2 in the GSM system .
C1 is the path loss criterion, which is used to estimate the balance between uplink
and down link
C2 measurements are used to optimize and prioritize cell reselections.

GSM call re-establishment service allows a mobile station to resume a call in which
the radio link has been temporarily interrupted due to interference or bad signal
(which is referred to as an interrupted call). This service increases end user
satisfaction and network quality perception

Short call drive test is for ACCESSIBILITY and

Long call drive test is for RETAINABLITY.

Call Setup Success Rate:. Number of the unblocked call attempts (setup) divided by the
total number of call attempts

105. What is RSSI?

RSSI - Received Signal Strength Indication is the measured power of a received

signal.

RXLEV - Received Signal Level

In a radio system RXLEV indicates the average signal strength received.

RXQUAL - Received Signal Quality

In a radio system RXQUAL indicates the average signal quality received.

In digital transmission, the quality of the transmitted signal is often expressed in
terms of how many of the received bits are incorrect. This is called Bit Error Rate
(BER). BER defines the percentage of the total number of received bits which are
incorrectly detected. Channel coding is used to detect and correct errors in a
received bit stream. It adds bits to a message. These bits enable a channel decoder to
determine whether the message has faulty bits, and to potentially correct the faulty
bits.

BER - Bit Error Rate

This a variable indicating the ratio between the total number of bits received to
those that were errored during transmission. This ratio is typically employed when
expressing the QoS (Quality of Service) of a particular bearer.
FER is useful to estimate quality under frequency hopping conditions.
BER is made before channel decoding where as FER made after channel decoding.

The mobile station is used for storing information on at least one

subscriber-specific base station, the cell served by the base station
being the mobile subscriber's home cell, office cell or the like, and the
mobile station is used for changing the determined level of the signal
of at least one selected radio channel on the basis of information on
the subscriber-specific base station

A method for handing over a link between a mobile station and a network from a
first base station to a second base station of the network. In the case of an existing
link, link data for the link are stored in the base station in question and resources of
the base station are held in reserve for the link. When a link is handed over, the link
data initially remain stored in the first base station and the resources of the first
base station initially remain held in reserve. At a later time point the link data are
deleted and the resources are freed up.
The mobile station sends the network a query as to whether the network
can support the handover by transferring the link data from the first mobile station
to the second mobile station. If the mobile station is informed that the network
cannot support the handover the mobile station makes the link data available to the
second base station.
.

A wireless network providing global paging of a mobile station serviced by the

mobile switching centers (MSC), for servicing mobile stations within a specified
service area of said wireless network i.e. for paging a mobile station that is
registered in a cell with the network a Home Location Register (HLR) for storing
administrative information associated with the mobile station.

GPRS - General Packet Radio Service

GPRS is defined by 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) and is employed

to connect mobile cellular users to PDN(Public Data Network). Within the GSM
network it shares the network databases and radio access network and employees
functions known as the PCU (Packet Control Unit), SGSN (Serving GPRS Support
Node) and GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) to provide packet switching data
services across the fixed and radio network.

GPRS includes additional units than the GSM are

PCU (Packet Control Unit), SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) and GGSN
(Gateway GPRS Support Node) to provide packet switching data services across the
fixed and radio network.

GPRS sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This

increases the probability of correct decoding i.e. high data rate.

GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node

The Gateway GPRS Support Node supports the edge routing function of the GPRS
network. To external packet data networks the GGSN performs the task of an IP
router. Firewall and filtering functionality, to protect the integrity of the GPRS core
network, are also associated with the GGSN along with a billing function.

SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node

The Serving GPRS Support Node keeps track of the location of an individual MS
(Mobile Station) and performs security functions and access control.

Coding scheme

Coding Speed
scheme (kbit/s)
CS-1 8.0
CS-2 12.0
CS-3 14.4
CS-4 20.0

Transfer speed depends also on the channel encoding used. The least robust, but
fastest, coding scheme (CS-4) is available near a base transceiver station (BTS),
while the most robust coding scheme (CS-1) is used when the mobile station (MS) is
further away from a BTS.

Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0 kbit/s per time slot.
However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a
user speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage. Newer
network equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the
mobile location.

GPRS----------14.4 to 115.2Kbps
EDGE----------547.2Kbps
WCDMA-----------0.348 TO 2.0 Mbps
EDGE - Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution

EDGE uses the same spectrum allocated for GSM900 and GSM1800 operation.
Instead of employing GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying) EDGE uses 8PSK
(8 Phase Shift Keying) producing a 3bit word for every change in carrier phase.
This effectively triples the data rate offered by GSM. The use of EDGE enables
GSM to increase the data rates that can be offered to users of the GSM spectrum,
aligning the technology with 3G (Third Generation) systems

The BSS consists of BTSs and BSCs

Base Tranceiver Station (BTS)

responsible for communication with the MS

responsible for radio transmission and reception

includes antennas, modems, signal processing

Base Station Controller (BSC)

responsible for radio interface management of BTS and MS, i.e.

channel management and handovers

responsible for communication with the NSS

a single BSC typically manages 10-20 BTSs

NSS contains the switching functions of GSM, as well as

databases for mobility management

NSS contains

Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

 Gateway MSC (GMSC)

Home Location Register (HLR) - co-located with GMSC

Visitor Location Register (VLR) - co-located with MSC/GMSC

Signalling between MSC, GMSC, HLR, VLR

via SS7 signalling network, using specifically the mobile

application part (MAP) of Signalling System No 7 (SS7)

HLR
- contains administrative information of each subscriber
- current location of the mobile

VLR
- contains selected administrative information from the HLR
- authenticates the user
- tracks which customers have the phone on and ready to receive
a call
- periodically updates the database on which phones are turned
on and ready to receive calls

Authentication is the process of uniquely proving an identity to a certain service,

network or device and the verification of the given identity

EIR - Equipment Identity Register

The Equipment Identity Register is a database employed within mobile networks.

The database holds records for 3 types of mobile; namely black, grey and white.
When a mobile requests services from the network its IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment Identity) may be checked against the EIR, to assess which category of
mobile it falls into. Black mobiles are those reported stolen or whose operation on
the network will adversely affect network operation. These mobiles will not be
allowed to access the network. Grey mobiles are classed as non-conforming, but may
be used on the network. White mobiles are those that conform to requirements set
down by the network operator.

RBSN - Reduced Block Sequence Number

In GPRS each downlink RLC/MAC (Radio Link Control / Medium Access Control)
control block contains a Reduced Block Sequence Number bit. At the time that an in
sequence RLC/MAC control block is designated for transmission, the value of
RBSN is set equal to the value of the control send state variable.

T1 line can transmit 1.544 megabits per second, or can be used to transmit 24
digitized voice channels .

The line data rate for E1 is 2.048 Mbit/s (full duplex) which is split into 32 time slots,
each being allocated 8 bits in turn. It is a ideal for voice traffic because voice is
sampled at the same 8khz rate so E1 line can carry 32 simultaneous voice
conversions.