Joining Methods for Plastics and Plastic Composites:

An Overview
VIJAY K. STOKES
GE Corporate Research and Development
Schenectady, New York 12301
Joining of plastics and plastic composites is becoming important because of the
emerging structural applications of these materials. While providing a n overview
of all joining methods, this paper emphasizes the welding of thermoplastic mate-
rials. Different welding techniques, together with their main advantages and
disadvantages, are briefly described. A selective bibliography, in which the 259
references have been arranged chronologically for each technology type, provides
a guide to the literature.

INTRODUCTION opment of a new generation of multiprocessing ma-

ecause plastic parts of sufficient complexity
B could be molded, joining of plastics did not re-
ceive much attention in the past. Important excep-
tions were high-performance composites made of
thermoset-resin-based unidirectional laminates,
mainly used by the aerospace industry, for which
adhesive bonding and mechanical fastening technol-
ogies have been developed. Now joining of plastics
and plastic composites is becoming important for
several reasons. First, such materials are increas-
ingly being used in complex structural assemblies, in
which joining considerations and cost are becoming
important. Second, the emerging structural (load-
bearing) applications of polymeric materials require
structural joints that must withstand static and fa-
tigue loads. Third, weldable filled and unfilled ther-
moplastic resins are being used in many structural
applications. A good example is the first all-plastic 8-
km/h (5-mph)bumper, made of unfilled thermoplas-
tic resin, which was fabricated by vibration welding
two injection-molded parts. Welding is also becoming
important because of the advent of high-performance
thermoplastic composites, the use of which may rev-
olutionize assembly techniques in aerospace appli-
cations.
The efficient use of plastics and plastic composites
requires that different parts of a structure be made
of materials-which may include metals-that op-
timize part performance. For example, thin-walled,
blow-molded structural parts can be stiffened by fill-
ing the cavity with low-density foam. Future auto-
mobile doors may satisfy design requirements
through the use of several different plastics and com-
posites in combination with metals. Such innovative
ways of using plastics will need new insights and
technologies for multimaterial part design, fabrica-
tion, and assembly. This need is driving the devel-
chines that can execute two or more plastics proc-
esses simultaneously or serially, in the same mold,
to fabricate multimaterial parts. Such emerging tech-
nologies will place increasing demands on joining
methods for attaching or bonding different types of
plastics to other plastics or metals. The emerging
need for efficient joining methods is bound to result
in the invention of new joining technologies.
Joint design depends on the materials being used,
on the required performance, and on the joining tech-
nology used and joint performance will depend on
the characteristics of the process used. In structural
applications, the important issues for joint perform-
ance are:
How strong is the joint under static loads?
0 How resistant is it to impact loads?
0 What is the effect of residual stresses?
0 How does the joint perform under fatigue loadingr
0 How does creep of the resin@)affect long-term joint
performance?
0 What effect does resin aging have on joint perform-
ance?
0 What is the effect of fillers such as particulates
and fibers?
0 How do environmental factors influence joint per-
formance?
Unfortunately, except for some aspects of mechan-
ical fastening and adhesive bonding, current joining
technology for plastics is not based on an under-
standing of the underlying fundamental processes.
Certainly, the welding processes are not well under-
stood, both from the viewpoint of process mechanics
and in the sense that the effects of process parame-
ters on joint performance have not been adequately
quantified. This will have to change if plastics are to
be used in demanding load-bearing applications.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief
overview of joining methods for plastics and compos-

1310 POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, No. 19
 Joining Methodsf o r Plastics and Plastic Composites
ites. This is a relatively new field in which the knowl-
edge base is small, but which is evolving rapidly. This
paper does not provide a critical review. Rather, it
focuses on the state of the art and highlights tech-
nology development needs for plastics joining.
After a brief description of plastics and their com-
posites, joining methods have been classified into
three broad groups: mechanical fastening, adhesive
bonding, and welding. These groups have then been
further classified into established technology groups,
each of which are then briefly discussed. However,
the bulk of the overview is concerned with welding
methods. Pertinent references have been given for
mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding.
Literature review has been a difficult task. Except
for mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding, the
bulk of the information on joining is in trade-maga-
zine articles and equipment-manufacturers bro-
chures, and does not relate to fundamental aspects
of process and joint performance. The selective bib-
liography does provide a guide to the existing litera-
ture. However, although nontechnical articles have
been kept to a minimum, a sufficient number of
articles pertaining to applications have been included
to provide information on relatively new processes
for which scientific literature is not available. The
selected references have been grouped by technology
type. In each group, the references are arranged in
chronological order. In order to provide easy access
to information, complete titles of articles and jour-
nals have been included. When available, English
translations of foreign-language articles have been
included in parentheses. Titles in English imply that
the paper is in English, both when the original is in
English or when a n English translation is readily
available. Most of these references have been ob-
tained from searches through several databases.
Every attempt has been made to provide complete
information on the original source of each paper.
PLASTICS AND THEIR COMPOSITES
Plastics fall into two broad categories: thermosets
and thermoplastics. In thermoset materials a chem-
ical reaction occurs during part processing in a mold.
This process is irreversible: once a thermoset part
has been made its shape can only be altered by
machining processes. In contrast to thermosets, ther-
moplastics soften and melt on heating, so that parts
can be reshaped by the application of heat. Thermo-
plastic parts can therefore be formed by a variety of
manufacturing processes, such as sheet stamping
and forging, that have been developed for metals.
Plastics are seldom used in the form of neat resins.
Instead, fillers are used for a variety of reasons, such
as reducing cost, increasing stiffness, increasing im-
pact resistance, enhancing performance at reduced
or increased temperatures, improving flame retard-
ance, etc.
Plastics and their composites can be classified into
several broad categories:
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, NO. 19
Neat resins, including those with small amounts
of impact modifiers or flame retardants
a Particulate-filled composites
a Chopped-fiber filled composites
Random continuous fiber mat composites
a Fabric mat composites
Unidirectional fiber composites (advanced com-
posites).
This sequence represents a progression of increasing
material stiffness and cost. This classification does
not include structural foams, which can have
chopped-fiber fillers.
Neat thermoplastics are normally ductile, while
thermosets tend to be brittle. The tensile moduli of
most thermoplastics lie in the range of 1 to 4 GPa
(150 to 600 ksi); those of thermosets lie in the range
of 2 to 10 GPa (300 to 1.500 ksi). Because of their
relatively low elastic moduli, neat resins are seldom
used in structural applications. Notable exceptions
are thermoplastic bumpers, without fillers, that can
withstand 8-km/h (5-mph)barrier impacts.
Particulate fillers can increase the stiffness of a
resin and reduce cost at the same time. For example,
while the modulus of neat polypropylene is 1.4 GPa
(200 ksi), that of a 40 percent talc-filled polypropyl-
ene is 2.8 GPa (400 ksi).
The use of chopped-fiber fillers, such as chopped
glass, can easily increase the stiffness of a resin by
a factor of three. Increased glass content does, how-
ever, reduce the impact strength of the resin. Fur-
thermore, molding processes, such a s injection mold-
ing, impart a nonhomogeneous orientation to the
chopped fibers. Because of this, the local material
properties in a part may both be nonhomogeneous
and anisotropic. Local fiber orientation can be ex-
pected to have a significant effect on joint design,
especially in welded joints.
Random continuous fiber mat composites, in
which the continuous fiber is primarily glass, have
elastic moduli comparable to chopped fiber compos-
ites. But, because of the continuous fibers, they ex-
hibit better impact resistance. In addition, random
continuous fiber mat thermoplastic composites can
be hot stamped into parts from sheet material. How-
ever, because the fibers are randomly laid, such ma-
terials are highly nonhomogeneous. The elastic mod-
ulus can vary by a factor of two over a 1-cm (0.5-in)
length scale. This nonhomogeneity must be taken
into account in joint design.
Unidirectional fiber composites provide the highest
performance in terms of stiffness and strength. Parts
are fabricated from unidirectional fiber-impregnated
pre pregs, and therefore have a layered structure in
which the orientation in each layer may be different:
orientation can be used to attain desired directional
properties. The most commonly used fibers are of
glass, graphite, and Kevlar (Du Pont). In the past,
such high-performance composites have had ther-
moset matrices, the most common being epoxies.
More recently there has been a move to develop high-
performance thermoplastic composites. This is ex-
1311
 Vijay K. Stokes
pected to have a major impact on part joining tech-
nology.
Clearly, plastics and their composites cover a very
broad range of material types, with very different
morphologiesand mechanical properties. And joining
of these materials can therefore be expected to re-
quire very different technologies. In the past, mate-
rials design, through the use of additives and fillers,
for example, has focused on enhanced structural
performance, processability, and appearance fac-
tors. A s joining becomes an important element of the
part fabrication cost, materials design can be ex-
pected to include joinability issues.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINING METHODS
Joining of plastic materials and their composites
can broadly be divided into mechanical fastening and
bonding (Fig. 1 ) . Bonding can be further classified
into adhesive bonding, solvent bonding, and welding.
Mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding can be
used for joining all materials, including metals. And
the parts being joined need not be of the same mate-
rial. On the other hand, welding, which requires the
materials at the joint interface to melt, is only appli-
cable to thermoplastics.
Each of these joining methods is discussed in the
sections that follow. Separate, chronologically ar-
ranged selected references for each category are
given in the list of references.
MECHANICAL FASTENING
Mechanical fastening can either be permanent, or
consist of joints that can be opened and closed. Snap
fits, spring clips, screws, and metal inserts are used
to provide operable joints. Rivets and hot staking are
examples of methods used for achieving permanent
joints.
Snap fits provide a very versatile fastening mech-
anism that is ideally suited to the ease with which
geometric complexity can be molded into plastic
parts. A snap fit consists of a snap-on lug that can
lock on into a recess. The lug is kept in place by a
plastic spring, which is the plastic cantilevered arm
that attaches the lug to the body of the part. The
I ATTACHMENT AND JOINING
c
l J 0INING
Fasteners
- Rivets, screws. ...
- Spring clips
- Snap fits BONDING
- Metal inserts Requires Melting and
- Hot staking Solidification at Interface
-
Only applicable to
thermoplastics
Fig. 1 . Classtfication of joining rneth0d.s.
1312
number of times that such ajoint can be opened and
closed can be increased by designing the plastic
spring for fatigue. While snap-fit joints are conven-
ient for rapid assembly, they have not been used in
demanding load-bearing applications. Recent anal-
yses have attempted to improve the design of snap
fits to increase their load-carrying capacity and life.
More information on mechanical fastening issues
and on fasteners is given in the References listed
under this category. In particular, the annual (No-
vember) Fastening, Joining and Assembly Reference
Issue of Machine Design (4) always contains useful
information on mechanical fastening and other join-
ing techniques, and also on the major suppliers of
fasteners. Detailed information on performance and
recommendations for use in specific applications are
available from fastener suppliers.
ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive bonding offers the potential for joining
any two materials. It is particularly important to the
joining of thermoset plastics, which cannot be
welded. In the past, all high-performance plastic
composites had thermoset matrices. Joining needs
for demanding aerospace applications of such com-
posites have led to the development of a whole class
of structural adhesives. Adhesives have also been
developed, and are extensively used, for bonding met-
als to metals and nonmetals in the aerospace and
automotive industries. Structural adhesives are those
that can be used in the load-bearing applications.
Adhesives can be classified into two broad cate-
gories: 1)Two-component systems, in which the two
components are mixed just prior to use. The two
components react chemically during the cure cycle,
resulting in the desired bond. 2) Single component
systems. The most commonly used structural adhe-
sives are epoxies, urethanes and acrylics-which are
two-component systems-and the single-component
class comprising cyanoacrylates, anaerobics, and hot
melts.
Epoxies represent the most widely used class of
versatile adhesives. The two components are mixed,
in equal measure, prior to use. Epoxies require long
cures, or cycle times, that can be reduced by the
application of heat. Epoxy bonds tend to be rigid and
fail in a brittle manner. In contrast to epoxies, the
two components of acrylic adhesives are not mixed
before use. Rather, one component is applied to one
surface, and the second component is applied to the
second surface. The curing reaction occurs when the
surfaces are mated. Cure times are shorter than for
epoxies, and result in more flexible bonds.
Anaerobics are single-component adhesives that
cure by oxygen deprivation. Cyanoacrylates cure in
seconds at room temperature.
In adhesive bonding, the (parts) surfaces to be
joined are called adherents. Surface preparation of
adherents prior to the application of adhesives, in-
cluding a degreasing step, is crucial for joint strength
and reliability.
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, No. 19
 Joining M e t h o d sfor P l a s t i c s and P l a s t i c C o m p o s i t e s
Adhesive bonding is a relatively mature technology,
in which chemistry has played a n important role.
Special tests have been developed for characterizing
the strengths of adhesive joints. More recently, sig-
nificant effort has been applied in using mechanics
to characterize the mechanisms that affect joint
strength. This is a rather brief summary of an im-
portant, well-developed joining technique that has
been documented extensively. The three references
(8- 10)on adhesive bonding should, however, provide
an adequate guide to the literature on this topic.
SOLVENT BONDING
Solvent bonding only works for thermoplastics. In
this process, the plastic surfaces to be joined are
softened by using a layer of solvent. The parts are
then clamped together under pressure, which allows
polymer chains to diffuse across the joint interface.
Evaporation of the solvent results in the desired
bond. Cycle time is governed by the rate of solvent
evaporation, and can be shortened by the use of heat.
Instead of using pure solvents, solutions containing
the plastic to be joined can be used. This makes it
easier to fill mismatching surfaces. Solutions con-
taining the monomer of the plastic together with a
polymerizing catalyst are also used. The solution can
be tailored to effect polymerization at the joint inter-
face at room temperature or at higher temperatures.
Solvent bonding is a slow process, not suited to
large-scale manufacture. It is mainly used in spe-
cialty applications. It can also be useful in a one-of-
a-kind application.
The solvent bonding process has not been studied
in detail, as evidenced by the rather sparse literature
on this topic.
WELDING
Because welding requires a melting and subse-
quent freezing of the materials to be joined at the
joint interface, it is only applicable to thermoplastic
materials. Depending on how the heat for melting is
supplied, welding can broadly be classified a s (Fig.
2) 1) thermal bonding, comprising hot gas welding,
extrusion welding, hot-tool (hot-plate) welding, and
infrared heating, 2) friction (mechanical) welding,
I WELDING OF THERMOPLASTICS
I * +q+l(MECHANICAL)
I
I , I
. .
..
HOT GAS WELDING SPIN WELDING
.
EXTRUSION WELDING VIBRATION WELDING
. ( 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 Hz)
HOT-TOOL WELDING ULTRASONIC WELDING
- ( 2 0 - 4 0 knz)
INFRARED HEATING
Fig. 2. Classification of welding methodsfor thermoplas-
tics.
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, No. 19
comprising spin welding, angular vibration welding,
orbital welding, vibration welding, and ultrasonic
welding, and 3)electromagnetic bonding, which in-
cludes resistance (implant) welding, induction weld-
ing, dielectric heating, and microwave heating.
THERMAL BONDING
Hot Gas Welding
In the hot-gas welding method a thermoplastic filler
rod and the parts to be joined are heated by a hot gas
stream. In this respect it is similar to gas welding of
metals, but in contrast to metal welding, the filler
rod is not melted. Rather, the rod is pushed into the
joint and heated until it softens sufficiently to fuse
with the workpiece material. The process can be
automated.
The main advantage of hot-gas welding is its flex-
ibility. Simple, portable equipment can be used for
fabricating large, complex one-of-a-kind parts, or for
carrying out repairs of thermoplastic parts. I t is a
slow process that is difficult to control, especially in
the commonly used manual mode, and therefore is
not suited for mass production.
Extrusion Welding
Extrusion welding is similar to hot-gas welding
except that in place of a filler rod molten filler mate-
rial is extruded into the joint. Hot gas is still needed
to heat the joint region in the workpiece. This process
is preferred for the automatic welding of large assem-
blies.
Hot-Tool (Hot-Plate) Welding
In the hot-tool welding process, the surfaces to be
joined are brought to the melting temperature by
direct contact with the matching surfaces of a heated
metallic tool. The molten surfaces are then brought
together, and the interface is allowed to cool and
solidify under controlled pressure, resulting in a
weld. In many applications, such as the joining of
plastic pipes, the surfaces to be joined are flat, so
that the hot tool is a hot plate. This was true of most
early applications and is the reason this process is
also called hot-plate welding. However, in many ap-
plications, such as automotive headlamps and rear
lights, the doubly-curved joint-interface surface re-
I quires complex tools that allow the hot surfaces to
match the contours of the two halves to be joined.
The applicability of this process to complex joint
geometries is one of the major advantages of this
ELECTROMAGNETIC
process.
The hot tool element is made of metal and is heated
J
by internal tubular heaters or heating cartridges. The
RESISTANCE (IMPLANT)
WELDING
use of temperature sensors makes it possible to ac-
INDUCTION WELDING
- ( 5 - 2 5 MHz) curately control the surface temperature of the tool.
DIELECTRIC HEATING
-(1-i00MHz) To prevent the molten layer of plastic from adhering
MICROWAVE HEATING
- (1.100 GHrl to the tool, the tool surface can be coated with a layer
of PTFE. Flat hot plates can be covered by PTFE-
coated glass cloth. However, the use of such coatings
1313
 Vijay K. Stokes
limits the maximum tool surface temperature to
about 26OOC (500F).
In some materials, the molten film has a tendency
to adhere more to the hot-tool surface than to the
film itself. This can cause a large portion of the
molten film to adhere to the tool when the part being
heated is separated from the tool. In such cases, the
polymer surfaces can be heated by radiation and
convection (129).However, this process is difficult to
control, and the uneven heating can result in non-
uniform weld quality.
The hot-tool welding process currently in use can
be described in terms of the four phases schemati-
cally shown by the pressure-time graph in Fig. 3. 1)
In phase 1, the part surface is brought in contact
with the hot-tool surface. A relatively high pressure
is used to ensure that the part surface matches the
tool surface. This pressure is maintained until the
molten plastic begins to flow out laterally. 2) In phase
2 the interpart-tool pressure is reduced. This allows
the molten film to grow. The rate of film thickness
growth is controlled by heat conduction through the
film. 3)When a sufficient molten film thickness has
been achieved, the part and tool are separated. This
is phase 3. 4) The molten interfaces of the parts to
be joined are then brought in contact and held under
pressure until the interface solidifies. During this
fourth phase the molten film flows laterally while
cooling. The duration of phase 3 should be kept to a
minimum to prevent cooling of the molten-film sur-
faces. The important welding parameters for this
process are then:
0 Hot-tool temperature
0 Pressure and duration of phase 1
0 Melt pressure and duration of phase 2
0 Change-over time
0 Weld pressure and duration of phase 4.
Although considerable progress has been made in
understanding the process phenomenology and its
t been developed for handling large-diameter pipes on
I !
f additional components onto thermoplastic panels.
--D
TIME (1)
Fig. 3. Schematic pressure-time graph showing the f o u r
p h a s e s of the hot-tool welding process [Adaptedf r o m Ref.
136).
1314
simulation (98, 100, 111, 137). the process is yet to
be completely understood. In particular, the effects
of process parameters on weld strength have not
been satisfactorily quantified. An understanding and
quantification of the process phenomenology is im-
portant for several reasons. First, if the right tool
temperature is not used, the interface material can
degrade. Second, the cooling rate in phase 4-which
is controlled by the initial film thickness, the initial
film temperature, and the weld pressure-deter-
mines the rate of crystallization in semicrystalline
polymers. Third, the amount of lateral flow in phase
4 will influence the amount of orientation induced in
the weld zone.
In principle, any polymer that melts on heating can
be welded by the hot-wool welding process. By using
different surface temperatures for two halves of a n
assembly it is also possible to weld dissimilar mate-
rials (101, 102, 126-128). However, this area also
has not been explored systematically. Taillight auto-
motive assemblies represent important applications
of the welding of dissimilar plastics.
Hot-tool welding is a relatively simple process. Its
main advantages are:
0 It is forgiving: surface inaccuracies can be taken
into account during phases 1 and 2.
It can handle joints with complex geometry.
By controlling the hot-tool surface temperature,
the temperature of the molten film in phase 2 can
be accurately controlled. This is especially impor-
tant in materials that begin to degrade at temper-
atures slightly above those required to obtain a
molten film.
0 Any plastic that melts on heating can be welded.
0 Selected dissimilar thermoplastics can be welded.
The main disadvantage of the process is that it is
relatively slow. Weld times range from 10 to 20 s for
small items to 30 min for large pipes.
Hot-tool welding is the technology of choice for
joining large-diameter plastic pipes (83,91,105, 113,
116, 123, 124, 130, 135). Special machines have
site. This process could also become the technology
of choice for assembling large thermoplastic panel
structures for construction and housing applications.
In such applications, the development of small, port-
able hot-tool devices could aid the on-site welding of
FRICTION WELDING
Spin Welding
Spin welding, also called friction welding, can be
used for welding components along plane, circular
mating surfaces. In this process, the parts to be joined
are rotationally rubbed relative to each other, under
pressure, about a n axis normal to the plane surfaces
to be joined ( F i g . 4 ) . The resulting frictional heating
at the plane interface causes the plastic to heat and
melt. When the relative motion is stopped, the molten
film solidifies under pressure, resulting in a weld.
The main process parameters for spin welding are
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, NO. 79
 Joining Methodsfor Plastics and Plastic Composites
I 0
t t t
T t Pt
I 2kb
\w
Fig. 4 . Schematic representation of part geometry and
motion in spin welding.
the weld (relative rubbing) speed, the weld pressure,
and the weld time (145, 149, 150).That high-quality
welds can be achieved is known. But how these pa-
rameters affect weld strength has not been studied
systematically. The process phenomenology for spin
welding is similar to that for vibration welding, so it
should be possible to estimate the effects of process
conditions on spin welded joints from similar infor-
mation on vibration welded joints.
The main advantage of this process is its simplicity
and speed. Drill presses and lathes can easily be
modified to make prototype parts.
The main disadvantage of the process is that it can
only be used for bonding circular cross-sectioned
parts that do not require angular alignment. Variants
of this process can be used when angular alignment
is important, or when the parts do not have a circular
cross section. Instead of unidirectional circular mo-
tion, the parts could be rubbed via a n oscillatory
rotary motion. In another variant, called orbital weld-
ing, each point on the moving component executes a
small-radius circular motion, such that all the points
move in phase.
Vibration Welding
In vibration welding, also called linear welding and
linear friction welding, frictional work done by vi-
brating two parts, under pressure, along their com-
mon interface is used to generate heat to effect a weld
[Fig. 5). This process is ideally suited to the welding
of thermoplastic parts along relatively flat seams.
The process can also accommodate seams whose out-
of-plane curvature is small.
In this process, the parts to be joined are placed in
fixtures and then brought together under pressure.
The parts are then vibrated in the plane of the inter-
face until the interfacial material melts. The vibra-
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, NO. 19
a WELD AMPLITUDE
n WELD FREQUENCY
pg WELD PRESSURE
.D INTERFACE
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of part geometry and
motion in vibration welding.
tory motion is stopped, and the molten film is allowed
to solidify, under pressure, resulting in a weld.
The main process parameters are the weld fre-
quency of the oscillatory motion, its amplitude, and
the weld time. Most industrial machines operate at a
fixed weld frequency of 120-Hz, although 240-Hz
machines are also available. The amplitude of vibra-
tion is normally less than 5 mm (0.2 in) and the weld
time varies from 1 to 10 s. In most industrial ma-
chines the vibratory motion is obtained by exciting a
tuned spring-mass system, either by means of elec-
tromagnets or hydraulically. A s a result, the ampli-
tude of vibration cannot conveniently be independ-
ently controlled and requires a change in the mass of
the oscillating components.
A typical vibration weld for a thermoplastic has
four phases (160, 161). In the first phase, Coulomb
friction generates heat at the interface, raising its
temperature to the point at which the polymer can
undergo viscous flow. In the second phase, the inter-
face begins to melt and the mechanism of heat gen-
eration changes from solid Coulomb friction to vis-
cous dissipation in the molten polymer. The molten
polymer begins to flow in a lateral direction, resulting
in a n increase in the weld penetration-the distance
by which the parts approach each other as a result
of lateral flow. In the third phase, the melting and
flow are at a steady state, and the weld penetration
increases linearly with time. When the machine is
shut off, the weld penetration continues to increase
because the weld pressure causes the molten film to
flow until it solidifies. This is phase 4. These four
phases, which are schematically shown in the pene-
tration-time plot in Fig. 6,are also typical of spin-
welding. Of course, in contrast to vibration welding,
heat is generated in the first three phases of spin
welding by a continuous, unidirectional rotational
motion.
Tests on a range of polymers have shown that the
most important parameter affecting the strengths of
welds of the same material is the weld penetration
(162, 163). Very high weld strengths, equal to those
1315
 Vijay K. Stokes
t 8
TIME (t)
Fig. 6. Schematic penetration-time graph showing the
four phases of vibration welding.
of the resin, can be achieved for penetrations greater
than a threshold value. This threshold is probably
the penetration at which a steady state is achieved.
This process has several potential advantages for
joining large, flat-seamed, thermoplastic parts: 1)rel-
atively short cycle times, 2) simple equipment, and
3) insensitivity of the process to surface preparation.
In contrast to hot-tool welding, in which the inter-
faces to be welded are heated conductively, the heat-
ing is very localized. This process is very controllable
and is much less likely to cause material degradation
at the interface because of overheating. The main
disadvantage of this process is that it is limited to
flat-seamed parts. Also, this process is not suited to
welding low-modulus thermoplastics, such as some
thermoplastic elastomers.
Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding uses high-frequency (20 to 50
kHz), low-amplitude (15 to 60 pm, 0.5 to 2.5 X
in) mechanical vibrations to cause localized heating
to effect welds in thermoplastic materials. The parts
to be joined are held together under pressure and
then subjected to ultrasonic vibrations (168, 200).
Although the precise mechanisms causing localized
heating are not well understood, heat generation is
believed to occur by a combination of surface and
intermolecular friction (180, 188, 194, 204, 210,
212,213,234).
Two types of joints are made by this process (Fig.
7). In the first and main type, the ultrasonic vibra-
tions occur in a direction normal to the surfaces to
be joined. This joint type is unsuitable for welding
flat contact surfaces. Instead, one of the surfaces to
be joined has a wedge-shaped protrusion, called a n
energy director, whose apex contacts the flat surface
of the second surface. In the second joint type, called
a shear joint, a major component of the ultrasonic
vibrations is parallel to the mating surfaces. Energy
directors are not used in such joints. Heat generation
1316 POLYMER ENGINEERlNG AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, VOL 29, NO. 79
DIRECTION OF VIBRATION
(20-40 kHZ)
DI RECTOR
BUTT JOINT SHEAR JOINT
Fig. 7 . Schematic diagram showing butt and shearjoints
used in ultrasonic welding.
can be assumed to occur mainly by frictional (shear)
forces at the interface.
Ultrasonic vibrations required by this process are
generated by electronically exciting disk-shaped pie-
zoelectric or magnetostrictive transducers that are
clamped under pressure between metal blocks (168).
The transducer-metal assembly is designed to reso-
nate at the desired frequency. The transducer assem-
bly is ridigly attached to a metallic rod, called a
booster, in which a reduced cross section results in
a n amplification of the vibratory amplitude. The tool
(attached to the booster) that transmits this booster
motion to the workpiece is called a horn, or a sono-
trode. In addition to transmitting the vibratory energy
and the contact force, the sonotrode is designed to
effect an additional amplification of the amplitude.
Further, the working end of the sonotrode is designed
to mate with the workpiece geometry. For forming
operations, such as upsetting and riveting, the son-
otrode shape determines the end part geometry.
Proper sonotrode design and tuning are crucial to
this process.
In ultrasonic welding the welding-head assembly,
comprising the transducer-booster-sonotrode assem-
bly, is lowered under pressure onto the workpiece
held in a n anvil, or fixture (168).While maintaining
this pressure at the sonotrode-workpiece interface,
the ultrasonic transducer is turned on. The energy
director in the workpiece weld-interface melts and
flows out laterally. Of course, during this process,
the sonotrode moves downwards with the workpiece,
thereby maintaining the desired pressure at the in-
terface. The transducer is then turned off, and the
molten film is allowed to cool under pressure, finally
resulting in a weld.
The distance between the sonotrode-workpiece in-
terface and the joint interface affects the weld proc-
ess and weld quality. Ultrasonic joints are therefore
further classified into two categories: In near-field,
or direct ultrasonic, welding the sonotrode-workpiece
interface is closeto the joint interface: say within
6 mm (0.25 in). In far-field, or indirect ultrasonic,
welding this distance is large; say, larger than 6
mm. One reason for this distinction is that the larger
 Joining Methodsfor Plastics and Plastic Composites
this distance is, the greater will be the attenuation of
the ultrasonic motion caused by damping, resulting
in a reduction of the energy arriving at the joint
interface. More important is the effect of part reso-
nance on the amplitude of motion at the energy di-
rector, and the consequent effect on heating and
melting (188,231, 232).
During welding, the workpiece undergoes very
complex motions. The transmission of ultrasonic vi-
brations through the workpiece sets up standing
wave patterns in which there are nodes with zero
displacements, and other regions with high-ampli-
tude motion (188).The current view is that the joint
interface must be placed in regions of maximum
stress, which are not in the regions of maximum
motion. Thus, in ultrasonic welding, part geometry
plays a crucial role in the transmission of energy to
the joint and in how it affects the heatingmelting
phenomenon at the joint interface. This points out
the importance of proper joint design for achieving
good welds.
Currently, ultrasonic welding is the most widely
used welding method for thermoplastics. Cycle times
are short, typically on the order of a second. The
equipment is compact and lends itself to automation.
I t s major shortcoming is that current technology does
not permit the welding of large seams. Also, it is not
suited to welding low-modulus thermoplastics, such
as some thermoplastic elastomers.
ELECTROMAGNETIC BONDING
Resistance (Implant)Welding
In this process a n electrically conductive wire or
braid is placed within the joint interface and resis-
tively heated by the passage of a n electrical current.
The heat causes the surrounding plastic to melt, and
a weld is effected by subsequent cooling. The metal
wire or braid remains within the joint, and can there-
fore affect its strength. The use of such inserts also
increases the overall cost. The main advantage of
this process is its simplicity and its applicability to
complex joints in large parts. Weld times are short,
less than 30 s even for the largest parts.
A variant of resistance welding, called electrofu-
sion, is being used for joining small diameter (C180
mm) pipes. The ends of pipes to be joined are covered
by a specially prepared sleeve whose inside is covered
with a heating element. The passage of a n electrical
current causes the plastic to melt and fuse together,
creating a joint. This is an expensive process because
of the special sleeve required. However, it requires
very simple, portable equipment, and is therefore
useful in confined spaces.
Induction Welding
Induction welding is a n important variant of im-
plant welding in which a ferromagnetic implant is
induction-heated by a high- (radio-) frequency elec-
tromagnetic field. In early versions of this process a
sacrificial metallic implant was inserted in the joint
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, No. 19
area. During the welding process the joint was pres-
surized and the metallic insert heated by a n RF field
with a frequency in the range of 200 to 500 kHz.
Melting and subsequent solidification of the plastic
around the insert resulted in the weld. Plastics are
not affected by RF electromagnetic fields in this fre-
quency range.
In current versions of electromagnetic welding the
metallic insert is replaced by a preformed "gasket"
made of ferromagnetic particulate filler in a thermo-
plastic matrix (240, 250). The thermoplastic matrix
for the implant is the same as that of the workpiece.
If the two halves of the workpiece are made of dissim-
ilar materials, then the matrix consists of a blend of
the two materials. The filler consists of fine, micron-
sized particles of ferromagnetic materials, such as
iron, stainless steel, or ferrite. Dependingon the filler
material used, the RF field used must have a higher
frequency in the range of 3 to 10 MHz. Metallic fillers
heat up by a combination of hysteretic and eddy
current losses. Nonductive ferromagnetic materials,
such as ferrite, heat up by a process of molecular
friction.
The main part of the equipment consists of the 3
to 10 MHz power supply, typically having a power
rating of 1 to 5 kW. The most important parts of the
tooling are the induction coils that transmit the RF
field to the workpiece joint area. These coils are
generally made from copper tubing (round or rectan-
gular cross section) or machined copper plates, and
must be water cooled. The geometry of the coils is
important: it determines the uniformity of the RF
field in the joint area. Because of this, each welding
application requires a specifically tailored coil design.
During welding, the workpiece must be held under
pressure by fixtures made of a material that does not
absorb or distort the RF field.
The two main advantages of the process are that it
can handle very complex geometries, and that once
made, a joint can be opened by induction reheating
in the same equipment. This makes it possible to
repair defective joints or to open a n assembly for
internal repair or part replacement. The amount of
resin introduced in the joint by the "gasket" material
can be controlled by the matrix-to-filler ratio used.
This could be important in the welding of high-fiber-
loaded thermoplastic composites, in which resin-poor
surfaces may require more resin for producing good
bonds. Also, this process can be used for welding
low-modulus thermoplastics.
The main disadvantage of the process is its high
cost because of the recurring cost of the insert ma-
terial. Furthermore, the presence of the ferromag-
netic filler can adversely affect the mechanical per-
formance of the joint.
Dielectric Welding
In this process a 13 to 120 MHz, high-frequency
electromagnetic field is used to directly heat the plas-
tic via dielectric heating. The technique is most ef-
fective in materials with a high dielectric loss factor
1317
 Vijay K . Stokes
such as ABS and PVC, but does not produce good
welds in materials with low loss factors, such as
polyethylene and polystyrene. Contacting electrodes
are used to transmit the high-frequency current to
the weld seam. The process is mainly used for bond-
ing films and thin sheets, and is readily automated.
It is a fast process, but uses relatively high-cost
equipment.
CONCLUSION
In addition to mechanical fastening and adhesive
bonding-which can be used for joining all mate-
rials-an array of welding methods can be used for
joining thermoplastic and thermoplastic composite
parts. But although these methods have been in use
for over 25 years, they are not well understood. Very
little is known about the effect of process parameters
on the static strengths of welded joints in plastics
and plastic joints. Even less is known about the
fatigue strength and long-time performance of such
joints. This will have to change if joining is to become
an integral part of assembly techniques for plastic
parts used in structural applications.
Before standards can be developed for determining
the strength of plastic welds made by a particular
process, the effects of the process parameters in-
volved on joint performance must be understood and
quantified. Then, and only then, will it make sense
to specify standard weld specimen shape and weld
test procedures for evaluating joint performance.
Once joining processes and their effects on joint
performance have been sufficiently characterized,
optimal joint designs suited to particular joining
methods can be developed. Joint design can then
become an integral part of the design and manufac-
turing process for plastic and plastic composite parts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special thanks are due to Julia A. Kinloch for her
help and patience during the preparation of this pa-
per. In particular, her help in organizing the list of
references is greatly appreciated.
SELECTEDREFERENCES
In the references, the following abbreviations have
been used:
SPE ANTEC: Society of Plastics Engineers Annual
Technical Conference.
DVS Berichte: Deutscher Verbarid fur Schweis-
stechnik Berichte.
ZIS Mitteilungen: Zentralinst Schweisstech DDR
Mitteilungen.
Welding Production: English translation of Svar-
ochnoe Proizvodstvo.
Soviet Plastics: English translation of Plasticheskie
Massy.
Welding in the World: Le Soudage dans le Monde.
Soviet Applied Mechanics: Prikladnaya Mekhan-
ika.
1318 POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 7989, Vol. 29, No. 79
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1319
 Vijay K . Stokes
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gange beim Heizelementstumpfschweissenvon Ther-
moplasten [Heating and Flow Processes in Butt-Weld-
ing of Thermoplastics with the Use of Hot Plate
Method), Plaste und Kautschuk, 19, 521-522
(1972).
85 G. Diedrich and E. Gaube, Geschweissten und Lang-
zeit-Schweissfaktoren von Zeitstandfestigkeit Rohren
und Platten aus Hart-Polyathylen und Polypropylen
(Creep Rupture Strength and Long-Term Welding Fac-
tors of Welded Pipes and Sheets Made of HDPE and
PP),Kunststoffe, 63, 793-797 (1973).
86. K. P. Gormann, Stumpfschweissen von Thermoplas-
ten durch Strahlung (Butt Welding of Thermoplastic
Materials by Radiation), ZIS Mttteilungen, 15, 798-
806 (1973).
87. W. A. Mack and W. Neubert, Weldingof Thermoplas-
tic Pipe, SPE 31st ANTEC Proceedings, 321-326
(1973).
88. G . Menges and E. Alf, Die Festigkeit der Schweiss-
verbindung thermoplastischer Kunststoffe bei Kurz-
zeitbeanspruchung Sowie Statischer und Schwingen-
der Langzeitbeansprunchung (Strength of Welds of
Thermoplastics in Short-Time Loading as Well as in
Static and Repeated Long-Time Loading), Plastica,
26.72-80 (1973).
89. I. F. Istratov. Influence of Stickout of the Welding
Tool on the Joint Penetration Zone in the Heated-Tool
Welding of Thermoplastics, Welding Production, 20,
52-55 (1973).
90. K. 1. Zaitsev, Method of Calculating the Temperature
Field in Resistance-Thermal Welding of Surface-Rein-
forced Polymer Films, Welding Production, 20, 5-8
(1973).
91. P. Barber and J. R. Atkinson, Use of Tensile Tests to
Determine the Optimum Conditions for Butt Fusion
Welding Certain Grades of Polyethylene, Polybutene-
1 and Polypropylene Pipes. Journal of Materials Sci-
ence, 9. 1456- 1466 (1974).
92. G. Menges and D. Pieschel, On the Technology of the
Contact Welding Methods (Heated Tool Welding-Im-
pulse Sealing), SPE 32nd ANTEC Proceedings, 62-
65 (1974).
93. H. Schwarz and W. Tobias, Festigkeitserhohung von
Plast-Stumpf schweissverbindungen Durch Profilierte
Heizelemente (Strength Increase of Butt-Welded Plas-
tics Joints by Using Profiled Heating Elements),
Plaste und Kautschuk. 21, 768-770 (1974).
94. W. Tobias, Festigkeitseinfluss von Fliessbewegungen
in Heizelement-Plastschweissn&ten (Effect of Plastic
Flow on Strength Properties of Heated-Tool Welded
Joints of Plastics), ZIS Mitteilungen. 16, 859-864
(1974).
 Joining Methodsf o r Plastics and Plastic Composites
95. G. Menges and D. Pieschel, Grundlagenuntersuchun-
gen zum Heizelementschweissen von thermoplas-
tischen Kunststoffen (Fundamental Studies of Ther-
moplastic Welding with Heated Elements), Kun-
ststofftechnik, 13, 165-170 (1974).
96. I. F. Istratov, Effect of the Extension of the Welding
Tool on the Strength of the Welded Joint in the Weld-
ing of Thermoplastic Materials, Welding Production,
22.55-59 (1975).
97. K. de Zeeuw and H. Potente, Determination of Weld-
ing Parameters in the Hot Plate Welding of Large-
Diameter Pipes of Rigid Polyethylene, SPE 35th AN-
TEC Proceedings, 55-58 (1977).
98. H. Potente, Theoryof Heating Element Butt Welding,
Kunststofle, 67, 17-19 (1977).
99. H. Potente and F. Brinken, Improved Efficiency by
High-Temperature Heated-Tool Welding. Welding in
the World, 17, 19-25 (1979).
100. C. B. Bucknall, I. C. Drinkwater, and G. R. Smith, Hot
Plate Welding of Plastics: Factors Affecting Weld
Strength, Polymer Engineering and Science, 20,
432-440 (1980).
101. K. Gabler and H. Potente, Weldabilityof Dissimilar
Thermoplastics-Experiments in Heated Tool Weld-
ing,Journal of Adhesion, 11, 145-163 (1980).
102. H. Potente and K. Gabler, Schweissen unterschied-
licher Thermoplaste (Welding of Different Thermo-
plastics),Plastuerarbeiter, 31, 203-207 (1980).
103. E. Rohrl and G. Schmelzer, Temperature Distribution
in Hot Plate Welding,Kunststo~e. 70. 13-14 (1980).
104. H. U. Zasada and W. Beitz, Tragfahigkeit Ges-
chweisster Kunststoff-Verbindungen (Strength of
Welded Plastics), Konstruktion Im Maschinen-Ap-
parate- und Geratebau, 32, 217-226 (1980).
105. J. R. Atkinson and G. W. DeCourcy, The Assessment
of Fusion Joint Quality and Some Evidence for the
Presence of Molecular Orientation in Butt Fusion
Welds in Polyethylene Pipes, Plastics and Rubber
Processing and Applications, 1,287-292 (1981).
106. W. Colditz, Schweissen von Thermoplastrohren
(Weldingof Thermoplastic Pipes),Z l S Mitteilungen,
23,744-750 (1981).
107. H. Herforth, Eignung der Faltbiegepriifung zur Op-
timierung der Schweissparameter beim Heizelements-
chweissen von PP-Rohren [Suitabilitv of the Bending
Test for Optimizing the Welding Parameters in thg
Heated-Tool Welding of PP Pipe), Plastuerarbeiter,
33, 1467- 1469 ( 1 982).
08. W. Colditz, Probleme des Schweissens von Plasten
. . . (Problems in the Welding of Plastics Using Filler
Material).21s Mitteilungen, 24, 703-71 1 (1982).
09. V. Horn, Was geschiet beim Heizelement-Stumpf-
schweissen .. ., ZlS Mitteilungen, 24, 759-764
(1982).English translation, What Happens in Heated
Tool Welding in Semi-crystalline Plastics?, Welding
Institute Translation 752, Abington. UK (1987).
10. K. I. Zaitsev, B. F. Vindt, V. F. Lyashenko, and I. V.
Lure, Examination of the Flash Removal Process in
the Heated-Tool Butt Welding of Plastic Pipes, Weld-
ins Production, 29. 10-12 119821.
11 1. U.-Egen and G. W. Ehrenstein, Structure of Heated
Tool Weld Seams, Vortrige der Internationalen Ta-
gung (Dusseldorf).DVS Berichte, 84, 49-52 (1983).
112. V. Horn, Gefiigeauswertung in Plastschweissnaten
(Structure Evaluation of Plastics Welded Joints),
Schweisstechnik, 33, 268-270 (1983).
113. H. Potente, Analysis of the Heated Plate Welding of
Pipes Made of Semi-crystalline Thermoplastics,
Kunststoffschweissen und -kleben, Vortriige der In-
ternationalen Tagung (Dusseldorf),DVS Bertchte. 84,
41-49 (1983).
114. A. A. Adamenko, G. N. Korab, and V. P. Repa, Ront-
gengrafie fur die Untersuchung . . . (Radiography for
Investigation of Rheological Processes During Heated
Tool Welding of Plastics),ZIS Mitteilungen. 26.494-
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, M/D-OClOBER 1989, V d . 29, No. 19
496 (1984).
115. K. Alexiev, L. Kamenova, E. Doitschinov, W. Colditz,
and H. Schicha, Schweissen von Thermoplasten . . .
(Weldingof Thermoplastics by a Combination of Heat
Pulses and Light Beam Welding),21s Mitteilungen,
26,489-493 (1984).
116. J. R. F. Andrews and M. Bevis, The Butt-Fusion
Welding of PVDF and Its Composites-Part 1: The
Butt-Fusion of PVDF Pipe Systems,Journal of M a -
terials Science, 19, 645-652 (1984).
117. J. R. F. Andrews and M. Bevis, The Butt-Fusion
Welding of PVDF and Its Composites-Part 2: The
Reinforcement and Welding of PVDF with Short Car-
bon Fibers, Journal of Materials Science, 19, 653-
671 (1984).
118. W. Colditz. Einfluss der Abkuhlzeit auf die Schweiss-
nahth bei Polyolefinen (Effect of Cooling Time on
Welded Joints in Polyolefins),ZIS Mitteilungen. 26,
714-717 (1984).
119. L. Kamenova. K. Alexiev, B. Simeonova, and E. Dim-
itrov, Temperaturabhangigkeit der Festigkeits . . .
(The Temperature Dependence of the Strength and
Deformation Properties of Plastics and Their Welded
Joints),21s Mitteilungen, 26, 958-968 (1984).
120. K. I. Zaitsev, V. F. Lyashenko, and B. F. Vindt, A
Procedure for Calculating the Depth to Which the
Ends of Plastic Pipes are Penetrated During Welding,
Automatic Welding (English translation of Autorna-
ticheskaya Suarka), 37.39-40 (1984).
121. J. Hessel and E. Mauer. Appearance of Fractures in
Welded Joints Made of Plastics Following Bending
Tests, Schweissen und Schneiden, 37, 76-77
(1985).
122. L. Maine and T. G. Stafford, P. E. Jointing Tech-
niques, 6th International Conference on Plastics
Pipes Proceedings (York, UK), Plastics and Rubber
Institute, London (1985).
123. R. Parmar and J. Bowman, Failure of Butt Fusion
Joints in Polyethylene Pipe Systems, 6th Interna-
tional Conference on Plastics Pipes Proceedings (York,
UK), Plastics and Rubber Institute, London (1985).
124. H. Potente and P. Tappe, Heated Tool-Butt Welding
of Polyethylene Pipes-Parameters and Testing Tech-
nique,Materials and Design, 5 , 273-280 (1985).
125. M. Wolters and B. Venema, Butt Welding of Polyeth-
ylene Pipes, Welding in the World, 23, 202-207
(1985).
126. N. El Barbari. J. Michel, and G. Menges, Weldability
of Dissimilar HDPE Pipe Materials for Heated Tool
Butt-Welding,Kunststoffe, 76, 20-22 (1986).
127. N. El Barbari, J. Michel, and G. Menges, Testing of
Mixed-Material Welding of Different HDPE Pipe Ma-
terials, Kunststoffberater, 31, 63-66 (1986).
128. H. Muschik, M. Radax, H. Dragaun, and F. Eichinger,
Welded Bonds Between PP Homopolymer and PP Co-
polymer: Structure and Mechanical Properties,Kun-
ststoBe, 76, 23-24 (1986).
129. E. Pecha. Weldingof Plastics Parts by the Hot Plate
Method,IPE International, Industrial & Production
Engineering, 10, 120- 124 (1986).
130. U. Egen. Microstructure in Tool-Butt-WeldingJoints
in Polypropylene Pipes, SPE 45th ANTEC Proceed-
ings, 794-799 (1987).
131. B. Haworth, T. C. Law, R. A. Sykes, and R. C. Ste-
phenson, Factors Determining the Weld Strength of
Window Corners Fabricated from Impact Modified
UPVC Profiles,Plastics and Rubber Processing and
Applications, 9, 81-89 (1988).
132. V. Horn and B. Friedrichs, ControlDesign for Joining
Plastics Using Hot Tool Butt Welding (English trans-
lation from ZIS Mltteilungen. 29, 749-752 (1987));
Welding International, 2,384-385 (1 988).
133. H. Potente, J. Kreiter. and A. Mohrmann. Heated-
Tool Butt Welding with Constant Welding Speed,
Kunststoffe, 78, 29-30 (1988).
1321
 Vtjay K. Stokes
34. H. Potente and P. Tappe, Scale Up Laws in Heated
Tool Butt Welding of Semicrystalline Thermoplastics,
Welding in the World, 26. 18-25 (1988).
35. S. M. Pimputkar, The Dependence of Butt Fusion
Strength on Joining Conditions for Polyethylene Pipe,
SPE 47th ANTEC Proceedings, 455-457 (1989).
36. H. Potente and J. Natrop, Computer Aided Optimiza-
tion of the Parameters of Heated Tool Butt Welding,
SPE 47th ANTEC Proceedings, 458-463 (1989).
137. P. Tappe and H. Potente, Scale-Up Laws in Heated
Tool Butt Welding of HDPE and PP,SPE 47th ANTEC
Proceedings, 450-454(1989).
138. M. N. Watson and M. G. Murch, Recent Developments
in Hot Plate Welding of Thermoplastics, SPE 47th
ANTEC Proceedings, 446-449 (1989).
Friction (Spin)-Welding
139. A. Pauer. Reibschweissen von Plasten mittels Rei-
belement (Friction Welding of Plastic Materials by
Means of a Friction Element),ZIS Mitteilungen, 12,
844-851 (1970).
140. R. Schaefer, Reibschweissen von Kunststoffen (Fric-
tion Welding of Plastics),Schweissen und Schnei-
den, 22,56-62 (1970).
141. H. Frehsel, Reibschweissen von Kunststoffen (Fric-
tion Welding of Plastics),WT (Werkstattstech),2 Ind
Fertigung, 61,493-498 (1971).
142. K. G. Chandiramani, P. D. Muraka, and D. Krishna
Murty, Friction Welding of Thermoplastics, Journal
of the Institution of Engineers (India),55. 184-187
( 1 975).
143. S.Noeckel and W. Schuld, Reibschweissen von Plas-
trohren (Friction Welding of Plastic Pipes), Schweis-
stechnik, 25, 164-166 (1975).
144. H. U. Zasada, Stoffschliissiges Verbinden thermo-
plastischer Kunststoffe Mittels Reibschweissens
(Joining of Thermoplastics by Friction Welding),
Konstruktion im Maschinen-Apparate-und Gerate-
bau, 29,397-403(1977).
145. R. J. Crawford and Y. Tam, Friction Welding of Plas-
tics, Journal of Materials Science, 16,3275-3282
(1981).
146. E. I. Kulik and R. F. Lokshin, Friction Welding of
Plastics, Welding Production, 29,5-6 (1982).
147. W.Land, Reibschweissen Nach dem Rotations- und
Vibrationsverfahren (Friction Welding of Plastics by
Rotating and Vibrational Techniques),Plastverar-
beiter, 34,698-699 (1983).
148. T. J. La Bounty, Spin Welding Up-Dating a n Old
Technique, SPE 43rd ANTEC Proceedings, 855-856
( 1985).
149. V. K. Stokes, Analysis of the Friction (Spin)-Welding
Process for Thermoplastics, Journal of Materials
Science, 23,2772-2785 (1988).
150. P. Tappe and H. Potente, New Fi.ndings in the Spin
Welding of Plastics, SPE 47th ANTEC Proceedings,
710-715 (1989).
Vibration Welding
151. J. Behnfeldt and J . V. Bouyoucos, Soudure par Vi-
bration: La Frequence Variable (Weldingby Vibration:
Variable Frequency),Revue Generale d e s Caoutch-
oucs et Plastiques. 59,41-44 (1982).
152. J. Panaswich, Advances in Vibration Welding Tech-
nology,SAE Special Publications SP-566,39-44,So-
ciety of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa.
(1984).
153. J. Panaswich, Vibration Welding Joins Thermoplas-
tics, Automotiue Engineering. 92.40-44 (1984).
154. C.M. Cox, Automated Infrared Inspection of Linear
Welded Thermoplastic Bumper Assemblies, Proceed-
ings of the Fifth Infrared Information Exchange, Book
11, 31-37 (1986).
1322 POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, Vol. 29, No. 19
155. H.Potente, P. Michel, and B. Ruthmann, An Analysis
of Vibration Welding,KunststofJe, 77,31-34(1987).
156. V. K. Stokes, Phenomenology and Analysis of the
Vibration Welding Process, SPE 45th ANTEC Pro-
ceedings, 907-91 1 (1987).
157. V. K. Stokes, Analysis of the Vibration Welding Proc-
ess, 20th Midwestern Mechanics Conference Pro-
ceedings, Development in Mechanics, 14, 394-399
(1987).
158. A. K. Schlarb and G. W. Ehrenstein, Vibration Weld-
ing: A Materials Technology View of a Mass-Produc-
tion Method, Kunststoffe, 78. 30-32 (1988).
159. V. K.Stokes, The Strength of Vibration Welded Ther-
moplastic Butt Welds,SPE 46th ANTEC Proceedings,
871-874 (1988).
160. V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part I: Phenomenology of the Welding Process, Poly-
mer Engineering and Science, 28.718-727 (1988).
161. V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part 11: Analysis of the Welding Process, Polymer
Engineering and Science, 28,728-739 (1988).
162. V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part 111: Strength of Polycarbonate Butt Welds, Poly-
mer Engineering and Science, 28,989-997 (1988).
163. V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part IV: Strengths of Poly(Buty1ene Terephthalate),
Polyetherimide, and Modified Polyphenylene Oxide
Butt Welds, Polymer Engineering and Science, 28,
998-1008(1988).
164. H. Potente and H. Kaiser, Process Data Acquisition
in Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics, SPE 47th
ANTEC Proceedings, 464-469 (1989).
165. A. K. Schlarb and G. W. Ehrenstein, The Impact
Strength of Butt Welded Vibration Welds Related to
Microstructure and Welding History, SPE 47th AN-
TEC Proceedings. 474-478 (1989).
166. V. K. Stokes, Thickness Effects in the Vibration
Welding of Polycarbonate,SPE 47th ANTEC Proceed-
ings, 479-481 (1989).
167. V. K.Stokes and S. Y. Hobbs, Strength and Bonding
Mechanisms in Vibration Welded Polycarbonate to
Polyetherimide Joints, SPE 47th ANTEC Proceed-
ings, 470-473 (1989).
Ultrasonic Welding
168. Anonymous, Ultrasonic Assembly of Thermoplastic
Mouldings and Semi-finished Products-Recommen-
dations on Methods, Construction and Applications,
ZVEI (German Electrical Manufacturers Association),
Frankfurt.
169. L. N. Matsyuk and A. V. Bogdashevskii, Ultrasonic
Welding of Polymeric Materials, Soviet Plastics, No.
2 (1960).
170. H. Deans, A Guide to Ultrasonic Sealing Equipment,
Modern Plastics, 38, 95-102,165-166 (1961).
171. R. Pohlman, Ultraschall-Schweissen und -Priifen
von Kunststoffen, Industrie-Anzeiger, 7 , Ausgabe
Schweisstechnik, 1, 110-1 13 (1961).
172. W. Lehfeldt. Ultraschalschweissen, lndustrie
Rundschau, 19,55-61(1964).
173. A. V. Mordvintseva and N. V. Drizhinin, Ultrasonic
Welding of Polyethylene Disposable Syringes, Soviet
Plastics, No. 9 (1964).
174. T. J. Scarpa, JoiningPlastics with Ultrasonics, P l a s -
tics Technology, 8, 22-25 (1962).
175. E. G. Obeda, How to Get Good Ultrasonic Welds,
ModernPlastics, 41,130-132,137-138 (1964).
176. R. B. Bicknall, Ultrasonic Welding of Rigid Thermo-
plastics, Industrial Electronics, 3, 410-413 (1965).
177. R. S. Soloff, New Concepts in Ultrasonic Sealing,
Modern Plastics, 41,269-273 (1964).
178. C. Schmidt, Schweissen von Kunststoffen mit U1-
traschall, Plastics, 12,586-590(1965).
179. D. J. Kolb, Assembly of Thermoplastics by Ultrasonic
 Joining Methodsfor Plastics and Plastic Composites
Vibrations, SPE Journal, 22, 11, 21-24 (November
1966).
180. M. A. Karamyshev and L. N. Matsyuk, Mechanism of
Ultrasonic Welding of Polymer Films, Souiet Plas-
tics, No. 2, 60-64 (1969).
181. G. Menges and H. Potente. Schallfelder und Ener-
gieumsetzungen beim Ultraschallschweissen von
Kunststoffen,Kunststoffe, 59, 369-474 (1969).
182. S.Joisten, Das Verbinden von Makrolon und Dure-
than BK mit Ultraschall (Ultrasonic Welding of Poly-
carbonate (Makrolon) and Nylon 6 (Durethan BK)),
Plastuerarbeiter, 21, 545-552 (1970).
183. G. Menges and H. Potente, Neue Erkenntnisse beim
Schweissen von thermoplastischen Kunststoffen, U1-
traschallschweissen (New Findings in Welding of
Thermoplastics. Ultrasonic Welding),Plastuerarbei-
ter, 21, paper V (1970).
84. V. S. H. Vigderman, L. E. Zheleznyak, V. K. Mytarev,
and N. 1. Nikishin. Dependence of the Strength of
Joints in Polymer Films on the Conditions of Ultra-
sonic Welding,Souiet Plastics, No. 11.25-26 (1970).
85. M. A. Karamyshev and L. N. Matsyuk, Effect of U1-
trasonic Welding on the Structure and Properties of
PETP Films, Souiet Plastics, No. 3, 48-49 (1971).
86. F. A. Kish, Ultrasonic Welding of Acetal Copolymer,
SPE 29th ANTEC Proceedings, 530-536 [ 1971).
87. G. Menges and H. Potente, Studies on the Weldability
of Thermoplastic Materials by Ultrasound, Welding
in the World, 9, 46-59 (1971).
88. H. Potente, Untersuchungen zur Schweissbarkeits
thermoplastischer Kunststoffe mit Ultrashall, Dis-
sertation RTH, Aachen (1971).
89. H. Potente, Zur Frage der Energieumwandlung beim
Ultraschallschweissen von Thermoplasten (Energy
Transfer in Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastics),
Plastuerarbeiter, 22, 556-562, 653-658 (1971).
90. J. G . Steger, Einfiihrung in die Ultraschalltechnik
(Introduction to the Technique of Ultrasonics), Kun-
ststofftechnik, 10, 299-304 (1971).
191. G. Menges, H. Potente, and D. Pieschel, Vorhersage
der Schweisbarkeit von Kunststoffen a u s bekannten
Werkstoffkenwerten, Gurnrni, Kautschuk, Kun-
ststoff, 25, 271-277 (1972).
192. K. Becker, L. Pungs, and K. Lamberts, Uber die Vor-
gange beim Ultraschall-Schweissen thermoplas-
tischer Kunststoffe (Processes Taking Place in Ultra-
sonic Welding of Thermoplastics), Kunststoffe, 63,
100-106 (1973).
93. G. Brinke. Amplitudenmessung an Ultraschall-
Schwingwerkzeugen (Amplitude Measurement on U1-
trasonic Swing Tools), ZIS MLtteilungen, 15, 753-
760 (1973).
94. B. Ya. Chernyak, Process of Heat Formation in the
Ultrasonic Welding of Plastics, Welding Production,
20,87-91 (1973).
95. E. Mori, S. Kaneko, M. Gakumazawa, and Y. Okawa,
Ultrasonic Welding of Plastics, Ultrasonics Interna-
tional Conference Proceedings (Imperial College, Lon-
don), pp. 16-19, IPC Science and Technology Press
Ltd., Guilford, England (1973).
196. S. Weber, Schalleinleitung beim US-Plastschweissen
(Sonic Wave Generation in Ultrasonic Welding of Plas-
tics), ZIS Mitteilungen. 15, 761-768 (1973).
197. I. V. Mozgovoi and V. V. Samchelkin, Ultrasonic
Welding of Polymethylmethacrylate with Preliminary
Surface Preparation, Russian Ultrasonics, 4, 106-
108 (1974).
198. A. N. Sovetov, S. S. Volkov, Yu. N. Orlov, and B. Ya.
Chernyak, Choice of the Size of Hard Plastic Parts
for Ultrasonic Welding, Russian Ultrasonics, 5,
137-143 (1975).
199. Yu. M. Ivanova, Technological Characteristics of
Welded and Glued/Welded Joints Produced Ultrason-
ically, Welding Production, 23, 51-53 (1976).
200. A. Shoh, Weldingof Thermoplastics by Ultrasound,
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-OCTOBER 1989, YO\. 29, NO. 19
Ultrasonics, 14, 209-217 (1976).
201. E. J. Frankel and K. K. Wang, Energy Transfer and
Bond Strength in Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplas-
tics, SPE 36th ANTEC Proceedings, 57-60 (1978).
202. W. Land, Untersuchungen zum Ablauf des Ultras-
challschweissens,KunststoJfe, 68, 233-237 (1978).
203. K. Gunther, R. Krause, and H. Moll, Progress in U1-
trasonic Welding Techniques, SME Technical Paper
(Series)AD n AD79-394 (1979).
204. E. J. Frankel and K. K. Wang, Energy Transfer and
Bond Strength in Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplas-
tics, Polymer Engineering and Science, 20, 396-
401 (1980).
205. L. A. Bekmurzaev, S. S. Volkov, and Yu. N. Orlov,
The Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Materials,
with the Tangential Introduction of Oscillations and
Relative Displacement of the Workpiece, Welding
Production, 28, 40-41 (1981).
206. Y. Yamaguchi and S. Amano, Effect of Stress Distri-
bution on the Strength of Joints in Ultrasonically
Welded Plastics, International Journal of Adhesion
and Adhesives, 2. 181-185 (1982).
207. S . Langrock and H. Abo-Bakr, Priifmoglichkeiten von
Uberlappschweissverbindungden a n Thermoplast-
dichtungsbahnen unter Beruecksichtigung der U1-
traschall-Priifung [Possibilities of Testing Lap-Welded
Joints in Thermoplastic Sealing Strips Taking into
Account Ultrasonic Testing), ZIS Mitteilungen, 25.
796-803 (1983).
208. W. Land, Ultraschallschweissen,DVS Berichte, 84,
34-38 (1983).
209. W. Thews, Ultraschallschweissen, Vibrations- und
Rotationschweissen, DVS Berichte, 84, 38-40
(1983).
210. M. N. Tolunay. P. R. Dawson, and K. K. Wang, Heat-
ing and Bonding Mechanisms in Ultrasonic Welding
of Thermoplastics. Polymer Engineering and Sci-
ence, 23, 726-733 (1983).
21 1. Anonymous, Ultraschallschweissen von SOLEF:
Versuche zur Erarbeitung Geeigneter Fiigebedingun-
gen (Ultrasonic Welding of SOLEF-Experiments
Aimed at the Elaboration of Proper Welding Condi-
tions),Plastuerarbeiter, 35, 52-54 (1984).
212. I. V. Mozgovoi, Role Played by Shear Strains in Heat
Generation in the Ultrasonic Welding of Polymers,
Welding Production, 31, 11-14 (1984).
2 13. H. Potente, Ultrasonic Welding-Principles and The-
ory, Materials & Design, 5, 228-234 (1984).
214. J. Tsujino, Studies on Ultrasonic Plastic Weldingwith
Two Longitudinal Vibration Systems,IEEE 1984 U1-
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