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Alexandre Lima
Jan Bakker
Noninvasive monitoring of peripheral perfusion
Received: 21 February 2005 Abstract Background: Early hemo- sociated with an increase in capillary
Accepted: 4 August 2005 dynamic assessment of global pa- refill time. The temperature gradients
Published online: 17 September 2005 rameters in critically ill patients fails peripheral-to-ambient, central-to-pe-
Springer-Verlag 2005 to provide adequate information on ripheral and forearm-to-fingertip skin
tissue perfusion. It requires invasive are validated methods to estimate
monitoring and may represent a late dynamic variations in skin blood
intervention initiated mainly in the flow. Commonly used optical meth-
intensive care unit. Noninvasive ods for peripheral monitoring are
monitoring of peripheral perfusion perfusion index, near-infrared spec-
can be a complementary approach troscopy, laser Doppler flowmetry
that allows very early application and orthogonal polarization spec-
throughout the hospital. In addition, troscopy. Continuous noninvasive
This study was in part supported by mate- as peripheral tissues are sensitive to transcutaneous measurement of oxy-
rials provided by Hutchinson Technology alterations in perfusion, monitoring gen and carbon dioxide tensions can
and a grant from Philips USA. Both authors of the periphery could be an early be used to estimate cutaneous blood
received a grant US $12,000 from Philips
USA and $10,000 from Hutchinson Tech-
marker of tissue hypoperfusion. This flow. Sublingual capnometry is a
nology. review discusses noninvasive meth- noninvasive alternative for gastric
ods for monitoring perfusion in pe- tonometry.
A. Lima J. Bakker ()) ripheral tissues based on clinical
Department of Intensive Care, signs, body temperature gradient, Keywords Body temperature
Erasmus MC, optical monitoring, transcutaneous gradient Hemodynamic assessment
University Medical Center Rotterdam,
P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, oximetry, and sublingual capnometry. Noninvasive monitoring Peripheral
The Netherlands Discussion: Clinical signs of poor tissue perfusion Sublingual
e-mail: jan.bakker@erasmusmc.nl peripheral perfusion consist of a cold, capnometry Transcutaneous
Tel.: +31-10-4633629 pale, clammy, and mottled skin, as- oximetry
Validated method to estimate dynamic variations in skin blood At least two temperature probes required; does not reflect
obtainable using noninvasive monitoring techniques, thus
facilitating earlier initiation.
Easily obtainable; reflect real time changes in peripheral blood Not accurate during patient motion
processing (optical monitoring; transcutaneous oximetry;
sublingual capnometry). This review discusses several
available noninvasive methods to monitor peripheral
Clinical assessment
of perfusion
Limitations
between PslCO2 and arterial PCO2)
During circulatory failure the global decrease in oxygen
supply and redistribution of blood flow caused by in-
creased vasoconstriction results in decreased perfusion in
organ systems. Some organs, including the brain, heart,
and kidney, have vasomotor autoregulation that maintains
moglobin, HbO2 oxygenated hemoglobin, HbT total hemoglobin, StO2 tissue oxygen
peripheral-to-ambient, Tskin-diff forearm-to-fingertip skin-temperature gradient, PFI
of peripheral hypoperfusion
disease. Clinical signs of poor peripheral perfusion consist
of a cold, pale, clammy, and mottled skin, associated with
an increase in capillary refill time. In particular, skin
temperature and capillary refill time have been advocated consumption
as a measure of peripheral perfusion [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Advantage
responses
Capillary refill time (CRT) has been introduced into
the assessment of trauma, and a value less than 2 s is
flow
flow
Microvascular blood
Hb, HbO2, and HbT
variations
Psl-aCO2
Tc-index
Variable
FCD
StO2
flow
PFI
Body temperature
NIRS
patients has been found to be a good predictor of dehy- and the heat conduction from the core decreases, and
dration, reduced stroke volume, and increased blood therefore the central temperature rises and the dTc-p in-
lactate levels [6, 11]. In adult patients following cardiac creases. A gradient of 37C occurs in patients with stable
surgery no significant relationship between cardiac index hemodynamics [19]. Hypothermia, cold ambient temper-
and CRT was found during the first 8 h following ICU ature (<20C) [20], and vasodilatory shock limits the use
admission [7]. of dTc-p as an estimate of peripheral perfusion. Forearm-
Distal extremity skin temperature has also been related to-fingertip skin-temperature gradient (Tskin-diff) has
to the adequacy of the circulation. Kaplan et al. [9] also been used as an index of peripheral circulation to
compared distal extremity skin temperature (evaluated by identify the initiation of thermoregulatory vasoconstric-
subjective physical examination) with biochemical and tion in patients following surgery [21]. Fingertip tem-
hemodynamic markers of hypoperfusion in adult ICU perature is measured with the temperature probe attached
patients. This study found that patients with cold pe- to the ventral face of the finger. The use of Tskin-diff is
riphery (including septic patients) had lower cardiac based on assumption that the reference temperature is a
output and higher blood lactate levels as a marker of more skin site exposed to the same ambient temperature as the
severe tissue hypoxia. In another study Hasdai et al. [13] fingertip. It has been applied in conditions where an
showed the importance of the physical examination in ambient temperature is not stable, such as in patients
determining the prognosis of patients with cardiogenic undergoing surgery [21, 22, 23]. A change in ambient
shock. This study reported the presence of a cold and temperature therefore affects similarly forearm and fin-
clammy skin to be an independent predictor of 30-day gertip temperature, producing little influence in the gra-
mortality in patients with cardiogenic shock complicating dient. Basically, when vasoconstriction decreases finger-
acute myocardial infarction. tip blood flow, finger skin temperature decreases, and
The findings of these studies show that skin tempera- Tskin-diff increases. Experimental studies have suggested
ture together with CRT are a valuable adjunct in hemo- a Tskin-diff threshold of 0C for the initiation of vaso-
dynamic monitoring during circulatory shock, and should constriction, and a threshold of 4C for severe vasocon-
be the first approach to assess critically ill patient. Not striction in anesthetized patients [22, 23].
much is known about the clinical applicability of these The body temperature gradient was first applied to
variables after the patient has been admitted to the in- assess patients with circulatory shock and to differentiate
tensive care unit [14]. central heat retention caused by fever from peripheral
vasoconstriction [15, 16, 24]. A number of studies have
examined the correlation between body temperature gra-
Temperature gradients dient and global hemodynamic variables in hypovolemic,
septic and cardiogenic shock, but these have produced
Since Joly and Weil [15] and Ibsen [16] studied the toe conflicting results [15, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Hen-
temperature as an indicator of the circulatory shock, body ning et al. [28] studied dTp-a in patients with circulatory
temperature gradients have been used as a parameter of failure associated with hypovolemia and low cardiac
peripheral perfusion. In the presence of a constant envi- output. An increase in dTp-a to more than 46C over
ronmental temperature a change in the skin temperature is 12 h was observed in survivors, and a good relationship
the result of a change in skin blood flow [17]. The tem- between the lowest dTp-a and the highest blood lactate
perature gradients peripheral-to-ambient (dTp-a) and levels was found in hypovolemic patients at time of ad-
central-to-peripheral (dTc-p) can better reflect cutaneous mission. In assessing the potential value of dopamine as a
blood flow than the skin temperature itself. Considering a therapeutic agent to treat circulatory shock Ruiz et al. [25]
constant environment condition, dTp-a decreases and showed that survival is associated with an increase in
dTc-p increases during vasoconstriction. The peripheral dTp-a of more than 2C, and that dTp-a is correlated to
skin temperature is measured using a regular temperature increases in cardiac output and a reduction in blood lac-
probe attached to the ventral face of the great toe. This tate levels. In examining the value of dTp-a for assessing
site is more convenient for peripheral temperature mea- peripheral perfusion in cardiogenic shock Vincent et al.
surement because of the negligible local heat production [27] found that a cardiac index below 1.8 l/min1 m2 is
and the distal location from other monitoring devices associated with a decrease in dTp-a below 5C, and that
[18]. The concept of the dTc-p is based on the transfer of the increase in dTp-a occurs earlier than the increase in
heat from the body core to the skin. The heat conduction skin oxygen partial pressure during recovery; this corre-
to the skin by the blood is also controlled by the degree of lation was not found in septic shock. No relationship has
vasoconstriction of the arterioles and arteriovenous been observed between dTc-p and cardiac output in adults
anastomoses. High blood flow causes heat to be con- with diverse causes of shock [31] or in children after open
ducted from the core to the skin, whereas reduction in heart surgery [26, 29, 30]. One reason for the inaccurate
blood flow decreases the heat conduction from the core. relationship between body temperature gradient and
During vasoconstriction the temperature of the skin falls global hemodynamic parameters could be related to an
1319
Optical monitoring
Optical methods apply light with different wave lengths
directly to tissue components using the scattering char-
acteristics of tissue to assess various states of these tissues
[35]. At physiological concentrations the molecules that
absorb most light are hemoglobin, myoglobin, cyto-
chrome, melanins, carotenes, and bilirrubin. These sub-
stances can be quantified and measured in intact tissues
using simple optical methods. The assessment of tissue Fig. 1 The pulsation of arterial blood causes a pulsating volume
variation. Peripheral perfusion index (PFI) is calculated as the ratio
oxygenation is based on the specific absorption spectrum between the arterial pulsatile component (IP) and the nonpulsatile
of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2), deoxygenated hemo- component (INP). I0 Source light intensity; I light intensity at the
globin (Hb) and cytochrome aa3 (cytaa3). Commonly detector
used optical methods for peripheral monitoring are per-
fusion index, near-infrared spectroscopy, laser-Doppler
flowmetry, and orthogonal polarization spectral. calculated as the ratio between the pulsatile component
(arterial compartment) and the nonpulsatile component
(other tissues) of the light reaching the detector of the
Peripheral perfusion index pulse oximetry, and it is calculated independently of the
patients oxygen saturation (Fig. 1). A peripheral perfu-
The peripheral perfusion index (PFI) is derived from the sion alteration is accompanied by variation in the pulsatile
photoeletric plesthysmographic signal of pulse oximetry component, and because the nonpulsatile component does
and has been used as a noninvasive measure of peripheral not change, the ratio changes. As a result the value dis-
perfusion in critically ill patients [36]. Pulse oximetry is a played on the monitor reflects changes in peripheral
monitoring technique used in probably every trauma, perfusion.
critically ill and surgical patient. The principle of pulse Studies with body temperature gradient suggest that
oximetry is based on two light sources with different PFI can be a direct indicator of peripheral perfusion. A
wavelengths (660 nm and 940 nm) emitted through the PFI of 1.4 has been found to be correlated best with hy-
cutaneous vascular bed of a finger or earlobe. The Hb poperfusion in critically ill patients using normal values
absorbs more light at 660 nm and HbO2 absorbs more in healthy adults [36]. A good relationship between
light at 940 nm. A detector at the far side measures the Tskin-diff and PFI is observed in anesthetized patients to
intensity of the transmitted light at each wavelength, and identify the initiation of thermoregulatory vasoconstric-
the oxygen saturation is derived by the ratio between the tion [37]. The PFI reflects changes in dTc-p and Tskin-
red light (660 nm) and the infrared light (940 nm) ab- diff and therefore vascular reactivity in adult critically ill
sorbed. As other tissues also absorb light, such as con- patients [36, 38]. Another study has shown that PFI can be
nective tissue, bone, and venous blood, the pulse oximetry used to predict severity of illness in neonates, with a
distinguishes the pulsatile component of arterial blood cutoff value of1.24 [39]. The inclusion of PFI into the
from the nonpulsatile component of other tissues. Using a pulse oximetry signal is a recent advance in clinical
two-wavelength system the nonpulsatile component is monitoring. However, more studies are needed to define
then discarded, and the pulsatile component is used to its clinical utility.
calculate the arterial oxygen saturation. The overall he-
moglobin concentration can be determined by a third
wavelength at 800 nm, with a spectrum that resembles Near-infrared spectroscopy
that of both Hb and HbO2. The resulting variation in in-
tensity of this light can be used to determine the variation Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) offers a technique for
in arterial blood volume (pulsatile component). The PFI is continuous, noninvasive, bedside monitoring of tissue
1320
Fig. 2 A Diagram of a distal tip of the NIRS optical cable. B With 25 mm spacing (d) between emission and detection probes, approx.
95% of the detected optical signal is from 23 mm of tissue penetration
oxygenation and detect a compartment syndrome [48, 49, Orthogonal polarization spectral
50, 51, 52]. The use of NIRS in deltoid muscle during
resuscitation of severe trauma patients has recently been Orthogonal polarization spectral (OPS) is a noninvasive
reported [48, 49]. Cairns et al. [49] studied trauma ICU technique that uses reflected light to produce real-time
patients and reported a strong association between ele- images of the microcirculation. The technical character-
vated serum lactate levels and elevated cytaa3 redox state istics of the device have been described elsewhere [54].
during 12 h of shock resuscitation and development of Light from a source passes through the first polarizer, and
multiple organ failure. More recently Mckinley et al. [48] it is directed towards the tissue by a set of lens. As the
showed a good relationship between StO2, systemic light reaches the tissue, the depolarized light is reflected
oxygen delivery and lactate in severely trauma patients back through the lenses to a second polarizer or analyzer
during and after resuscitation over a period of 24 h. A and forms an image of the microcirculation on the charge-
recent study with septic and nonseptic patients used NIRS coupled device, which can be captured through a single
to measure both regional blood flow and oxygen con- videotape (Fig. 4). The technology has been incorporated
sumption after venous occlusion [53]. In this study septic into a small hand-held video-microscope which can be
patients had muscular oxygen consumption twice that of used in both research and clinical settings. OPS can assess
nonseptic patients, but oxygen extraction was similar in tissue perfusion using the functional capillary density
both groups, emphasizing oxygen extraction dysfunction (FCD), i.e., the length of perfused capillaries per obser-
in sepsis. Another study observed no relationship between vation area (measured as cm/cm2). FCD is a very sensi-
forearm blood flow, measured by NIRS, and systemic tive parameter for determining the status of nutritive
vascular resistance in septic shock patients [41]. These perfusion to the tissue and it is an indirect measure of
findings demonstrate the ability of NIRS to reflect mi- oxygen delivery. One of the most easily accessible sites in
crocirculatory dysfunction in skeletal muscle in septic humans for peripheral perfusion monitoring is the mouth.
shock. The potential to monitor regional perfusion and OPS produces excellent images of the sublingual micro-
oxygenation noninvasively at the bedside makes clinical circulation by placing the probe under the tongue.
application of NIRS technology of particular interest in Movement artifacts, semiquantitative measure of perfu-
intensive care. sion, the presence of various secretions such as saliva and
blood, observer-related bias, and inadequacy of sedation
1322
sures can be measured in transcutaneous tissue. Normally patients with shock. These authors reported that at cardiac
the skin is not very permeable to gases, but at higher index values higher than 2.2 l min1 m2 the tc-index
temperatures the ability of the skin to transport gases is averages 0.79, at 1.52.2 l min1 m2 it is 0.48, and at
improved. Oxygen sensors for transcutaneous electro- values lower than 1.5 l min1 m2 it is 0.12. However, the
chemical measurements are based on polarography: a relationship between tc-index and cardiac index may not
typical amperometric transducer in which the rate of a exist in hyperdynamic shock. Reed et al. [75] studied
chemical reaction is detected by the current drained PtcO2 at different cardiac indices. In this study 71 mea-
through an electrode. The sensor heats the skin to 43 surements were made in 19 patients, and a low tc-index
45C. The skin surface oxygen tension is increased as a was seen in 71% of the patients with a cardiac index
result of three effects: (a) heating the stratum corneum higher than 4.2l min1 m2. PtcO2 and PtcCO2 monitoring
beyond 40C changes its structure, which allows oxygen has been used as an early indicator of tissue hypoxia and
to diffuse faster; (b) the local oxygen tension is increased subclinical hypovolemia in acutely ill patients [77, 78].
by shifting the oxygen dissociation curve in the heated Tatevossian et al. [78] studied 48 severely injured patients
dermal capillary blood; and (c) by dermal capillary hy- during early resuscitation in the emergency department
peremia. These transcutaneous sensors enable us directly and operating room. The sequential patterns of PtcO2 and
to estimate arterial oxygen pressure (PaO2) and arterial PtcCO2 were described throughout initial resuscitation.
carbon dioxide pressure (PaCO2), and it has been suc- Nonsurvivors had lower PtcO2 values and higher PtcCO2
cessfully used for monitoring PaO2 and PaCO2 in both values than survivors. These differences were evident
neonates and in adults [69, 70, 71]. Newborn infant is even early after the patients arrival. The authors reported
suitable because of its thin epidermal layer. However, in a critical tissue perfusion threshold of PtcO2 50 mmHg for
adults the skin is thicker, and differences in the skin cause more than 60 min and PtcCO2 60 mmHg for more than
the transcutaneous oxygen partial pressure (PtcO2) to be 30 min. Patients who failed to avoid these critical
lower than PaO2. The correlation between PtcO2 and thresholds had 89% to 100% mortality. This technology
PaO2 also depends on the adequacy of blood flow. The has not gained widespread acceptance in clinical practice
low blood flow caused by vasoconstriction during shock as the time needed for calibration limits its early use in
overcomes the vasodilatory effect of PtcO2 sensor. This the emergency department, and critical PtcO2 and PtcCO2
causes a mild tissue hypoxia beneath the PtcO2 sensor. values have not been established.
The lack of the PtcO2 ability to accurately reflect the
PaO2 in low flow shock enables us to estimate cutaneous
blood flow through the relationship between the two Sublingual capnometry
variables. Some studies have suggested the use of a
transcutaneous oxygen index (tc-index), i.e., the changes Measurement of the tissue-arterial CO2 tension gradient
in PtcO2 relative to changes in PaO2 [69, 72, 73, 74, 75]. has been used to reflect the adequacy of tissue perfusion.
When blood flow is adequate, PtcO2 and PaO2 values are The gastric and ileal mucosal CO2 clearance is been the
almost equal, and the tc-index is close to 1. During low primary reference for measurements of regional PCO2
flow shock the PtcO2 drops and becomes dependent on gradient during circulatory shock [79]. The regional PCO2
the PaO2 value, and tc-index decreases. A tc-index greater gradient represents the balance between regional CO2
than 0.7 has been reported to be associated with hemo- production and clearance. During tissue hypoxia CO2 is
dynamic stability [69, 72, 74, 75]. Transcutaneous carbon produced by hydrogen anions buffered by tissue bicar-
dioxide partial pressure (PtcCO2) has been also used as an bonate, which adds to the amount of CO2 produced by
index of cutaneous blood flow. Differences between normal oxidative metabolism. The amount of CO2 pro-
PaCO2 and PtcCO2 have been explained by local accu- duced, either aerobically or because of tissue hypoxia,
mulation of CO2 in the skin due to hypoperfusion. Be- will be cleared if blood flow is maintained. In low flow
cause of the diffusion constant of CO2 is about 20 times states CO2 increases as a result of stagnation phenomenon
greater than O2, PtcCO2 has been showed to be less [80]. Gastric tonometry is a technique that can be used to
sensitive to changes in hemodynamics than PtcO2 [76]. assess the adequacy of gut mucosal blood flow to me-
One of the main limitations of this technique is the ne- tabolism. The methodological limitations of gastric to-
cessity of blood gas analysis to obtain the tc-index and nometry required a search for a tissue in which PCO2 can
PaCO2. In addition, the sensor position must be changed be measured easily in a noninvasive approach. Compa-
every 12 h to avoid burns. After each repositioning a rable decreases in blood flow during circulatory shock
period of 1520 min is required for the next readings, have been also demonstrated in the sublingual tissue
which limits its use in emergency situations. PCO2 (PslCO2) [81, 82]. The currently available system
The ability of PtcO2 to reflect tissue perfusion in for measuring PslCO2 consists of a disposable PCO2
critically ill adult patients has been applied using the tc- sensor and a battery powered handheld instrument. The
index. Tremper and Shoemaker [72] found a good cor- instrument uses fiberoptic technology to transmit light
relation (r=0.86) between tc-index and cardiac index in through the sensor placed between the tongue and the
1324
sublingual mucosa. Carbon dioxide diffuses across a this technique includes the necessity of blood gas analysis
semipermeable membrane of the sensor and into a fluo- to obtain PaCO2. In addition, normal vs. pathological Psl-
rescent dye solution. The dye emits light that is propor- aCO2 values are not well defined.
tional to the amount of CO2 present. This light intensity is
analyzed by the instrument and displayed as a numeric
PslCO2 value. Conclusion
Clinical studies have suggested that PslCO2 is a reli-
able marker of tissue hypoperfusion [83, 84, 85, 86]. Weil The conventional systemic hemodynamic and oxygen-
et al. [86] applied PslCO2 in 46 patients with acutely life ation parameters are neither specific nor sensitive enough
threatening illness or injuries admitted to the emergency to detect regional hypoperfusion. In clinical practice a
department or ICU. In this study 26 patients with physical more complete evaluation of tissue oxygenation can be
signs of circulatory shock and high blood lactate levels achieved by adding noninvasive assessment of perfusion
had higher PslCO2 values, and a PslCO2 threshold value in peripheral tissues to global parameters. Noninvasive
of 70 mmHg was predictive for the severity of the cir- monitoring of peripheral perfusion could be a comple-
culatory failure. Similarly as PCO2 in the gut mucosal, mentary approach that allows very early application
PslCO2 is also influenced by PaCO2 [87]. Hence the throughout the hospital, including the emergency depart-
gradient between PslCO2 and PaCO2 (Psl-aCO2) is more ment, operating room, and hospital wards. Such approach
specific for tissue hypoperfusion. This was shown in the can be applied using both simple physical examination
study by Marik and Bankov [85] who determined the and new current technologies, as discussed above. Al-
prognostic value of sublingual capnometry in 54 hemo- though these methods may reflect variations in peripheral
dynamic unstable critically ill patients. In this study Psl- perfusion with certain accuracy, more studies are needed
aCO2 was a sensitive marker for tissue perfusion and a to define the precise role of such methods in the man-
useful endpoint for the titration of goal-directed therapy. agement of the critically ill patients. Finally, evidence for
Psl-aCO2 differentiated better than PslCO2 alone between clinical and cost effectiveness of these methods is an
survivors and nonsurvivors, and a difference of more than important aspect that needs a formal technology assess-
25 mmHg indicated a poor prognosis. One limitation of ment.
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