Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Sewage sludge produced during wastewater treatment contains very little solids quantities. In order to
enable an economically and technically sensible operation of down-stream treatment processes a solids GERMAN
concentration accompanied by a volume reduction is indispensable. Therefore, thickening of sewage slud-
ge is one of the most important basic operations of sludge treatment. It is the easiest and cheapest way to
concentrate solids and to separate solids and liquids during the sludge treatment process. Sludge thicke-
ning is used at virtually every wastewater treatment plant.
DWA Rules and Standards
This Advisory Leaflet first and foremost addresses treatment plant operators as well as planning and opera-
ting engineers and technicians and gives recommendations for the dimensioning, realisation and economic
operation of aggregates for the thickening of municipal sludge. The Advisory Leaflet presents current know-
ledge on process fundamentals and process technology of the various thickening processes and informs
about operating experiences and costs of technically well-established processes.
October 2007
ISBN 978-3-941897-43-4
The German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste (DWA) is intensively involved with the development of reliable and
sustainable water management. Being a politically and economically independent organisation it operates specifically in the
areas of water management, wastewater, waste and soil protection.
In Europe the DWA is the association in this field with the greatest number of members and, due to its specialist competence
it holds a special position with regard to standardisation, professional training and information of the public. The members,
approximately 14,000 represent specialists and managers from municipalities, universities, consulting engineers, authorities
and businesses.
Imprint
Publisher and marketing: Translation:
DWA German Association for CLAUDIA MAYERL, Braunschweig
Water, Wastewater and Waste Printing (English version):
Theodor-Heuss-Allee 17 DWA
53773 Hennef, Germany
Tel.: +49 2242 872-333 ISBN:
Fax: +49 2242 872-100 978-3-941897-43-4
E-Mail: kundenzentrum@dwa.de
Internet: www.dwa.de Printed on 100 % recycled paper
DWA Deutsche Vereinigung fr Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser und Abfall e. V., Hennef 2010
German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste
All rights, in particular those of translation into other languages, are reserved. No part of this Advisory Leaflet may be reproduced in any
form by photocopy, digitalisation or any other process or transferred into a language usable in machines, in particular data processing
machines, without the written approval of the publisher.
Foreword
Thickening of sewage sludge is one of the most important basic treatment steps of the entire sludge treatment process.
For decades thickening of sewage sludge has been accomplished by using either gravity settling in thickeners or in a
flotation unit or by mechanical thickening. Flotation and mechanical thickening processes are almost solely used for the
thickening of waste activated sludge. In 1998 the former ATV Sub-Committee 3.2 "Stabilisation, Disinfection, Thicken-
ing, Dewatering and Conditioning of Sewage Sludges" presented the working report "Thickening of Sewage Sludge" [8].
The various procedures and their efficiency and cost-effectiveness have been updated and are now presented in this
Advisory Leaflet.
The DWA Sub-Committee AK-2 and its Working Group AK-2.4 have elaborated this Advisory Leaflet taking into consid-
eration the current state of science and technology, relevant legislation, and essential operational requirements. Thus a
guideline related to practice has been established.
This DWA Advisory Leaflet first and foremost addresses practicing professionals at wastewater treatment plants as well
as planning and operating engineers and technicians.
Authors
This Advisory Leaflet has been elaborated by the DWA Working Group AK-2.4 "Thickening and Dewatering" on behalf of
and with the assistance of the Sub-Committee AK-2 "Stabilisation, Disinfection, Conditioning, Thickening and Dewater-
ing of Sewage Sludge".
Content
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Authors ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Content ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
1 Scope....................................................................................................................................................... 6
8 Summary................................................................................................................................................. 34
Literature ................................................................................................................................................................ 35
List of Figures
Figure 1: Pre-thickening of waste activated sludge, related to the number of wastewater treatment plants ............ 11
Figure 2: Pre-thickening of waste activated sludge, related to population equivalents (PE) .................................... 12
Figure 3: Influence of solids content and temperature on the viscosity (apparent viscosity) of primary
and waste activated sludge ...................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 4: Batch operated gravity thickener (example) ............................................................................................ 14
Figure 5: Continuous-flow gravity thickener (example) .......................................................................................... 15
Figure 6: Settling zones of the thickening process ................................................................................................... 16
Figure 7: Mathematically released air quantity in dependency on temperature and differential pressure ............... 18
Figure 8: Schematic diagram of a dissolved air flotation system in a rectangular tank, recycle stream process ....... 19
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of a rotary drum screen ............................................................................................. 20
Figure 10: Schematic drawing of a rotary screw thickener ........................................................................................ 22
Figure 11: Schematic drawing of a belt thickener ..................................................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Schematic drawing of a disk thickener ..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 13: Schematic drawing of a thickening pump ................................................................................................ 25
Figure 14: Schematic drawing of a counter-current thickening centrifuge ................................................................ 26
Figure 15: Specific annual (net) costs of waste activated sludge thickening.............................................................. 33
List of Tables
Table 1: Dimensioning parameters for continuous-flow gravity thickeners ............................................................ 16
Table 2: Operating and dimensioning data for existing dissolved air flotation systems .......................................... 19
Table 3: Manufactured sizes of rotary drum screens .............................................................................................. 21
Table 4: Manufactured sizes of rotary screw thickeners ......................................................................................... 21
Table 5: Manufactured sizes of belt thickeners ..................................................................................................... 23
Table 6: Manufactured sizes of disk thickeners ...................................................................................................... 24
Table 7: Manufactured sizes of thickening pumps ................................................................................................. 24
Table 8: Manufactured size of thickening centrifuges ............................................................................................ 26
Table 9: Total solids content in the discharge [% TS], spec. flocculant demand and spec. energy
demand of various thickening processes .................................................................................................. 28
Table 10: Cost factors for comparing economic efficiency........................................................................................ 33
User Notes
This Advisory Leaflet has been produced by a group of technical, scientific and economic experts, working in an honor-
ary capacity and applying the rules and procedures of the DWA and the Standard ATV-DVWK-A 400. Based on judicial
precedent, there exists an actual presumption that this document is textually and technically correct.
Any party is free to make use of this Advisory Leaflet. However, the application of its contents may also be made an
obligation under the terms of legal or administrative regulations, or of a contract, or for some other legal reason.
This Advisory Leaflet is an important, but not the sole, source of information for solutions to technical problems.
Applying information given here does not relieve the user of responsibility for his own actions or for correctly apply-
ing this information in specific cases. This holds true in particular when it comes to respecting the margins laid down
in this Advisory Leaflet.
A growing interest in process optimization of sludge Authors Note: In addition, in the English translation
thickening, and management and treatment of resulting defined terms according to the Standard Methods for
process waters, can be observed. This growing interest is the Examination of Water and Wastewater (16th Edi-
last but not least due to cost pressure faced by treatment tion, American Public Health Association, American
plant operators. Water Works Association, Water Environment Federa-
tion, Washington DC, 1985) have been used.
This Advisory Leaflet presents recommendations for
dimensioning, installation and cost-efficient operation of
treatment units for municipal sludge thickening and 2.1 Definitions and Basic Information
addresses operators of wastewater treatment plants as
well as consulting engineers. It summarizes current
knowledge on principles and technologies of various 2.1.1 Sewage Sludge
thickening procedures and considers operational experi-
ences as well as costs of technically well-established Sludge produced during wastewater (sewage) treatment
treatment processes. (DIN EN 12832 [3]).
The main focus is on sludge thickening procedures Note: Sewage sludges mainly consist of a solid and a
which are commonly used at municipal wastewater liquid fraction and are thus suspensions.
treatment plants. Information and recommendations of
this Advisory Leaflet, however, to a large extent can be
used accordingly for the treatment of other sludges, e.g. 2.1.2 Sludge
sludges produced during drinking water treatment (see
[20]) or during industrial wastewater treatment. Then it Mixture of water and solids separated from various types
is above all the responsibility of the user to verify trans- of water as a result of natural or artificial processes (DIN
ferability of given recommendations in regard to special EN 1085 [2], DIN 4045 [1], DIN EN 12880 [5]).
characteristics of each individual sludge and in regard to
impacts on dimensioning and operation of the plant. Note: The objective of thickening is the accumulation of
the solid fraction (volume reduction by water removal)
in the sludge. In technical terminology the solid fraction
of sludge is generally called solids, suspended solids,
total solids or solids content.
2.1.3 Mixed Primary Sludge the digester) or of the sludge discharged from a gravity
thickener or a mechanical thickener is analysed as total
Sludge removed from primary treatment which con- solids concentration (% TS) of the unfiltered total sam-
tains other sludges, e.g. waste activated sludge (DIN ple according to DIN EN 12880 [5].
EN 1085 [2]).
At wastewater treatment plants with a strong industrial
influence, a possibly high concentration of dissolved
2.1.4 Raw Sludge salts (e.g. chloride) shall be taken into consideration.
The weight-related analysis of total solids determined
Non-stabilised sludge (DIN EN 1085 [2]) from the unfiltered sample also contains salts, while the
analysis of the concentration of total suspended solids
does not contain salts due to prior filtration of the
2.1.5 Thickened Sludge wastewater. In extreme situations, the salt content may
cause differences in concentration of 2 gTSS/l to
Sludge which has been treated using a thickening process 3 gTSS/l when analysing total suspended solids and
total solids. These differences shall be taken into consid-
eration when calculating solids-related specific floccu-
2.1.6 Sludge Liquor lant demand and the degree of separation. They also
shall be considered when analysing organic solids con-
Liquor separated from sludge (DIN EN 1085 [2]). tent and when determining the corresponding solids-
related total volatile solids. Furthermore, a high salt
Note: Depending on the treatment process used, sludge concentration may significantly affect the activity of the
liquor is also called e.g. supernatant liquor (thickener), flocculants used for sludge conditioning. Thus, floccula-
centrate (centrifuge) or filtrate (filtering processes). tion agent demand may rise considerably. In wastewater
treatment technology, salt concentration can be esti-
mated using the parameter electrical conductivity.
2.1.7 Sludge Conditioning
In order to prevent disagreements, analytical methods
Physical, chemical, thermal or other sludge treatment and evaluations shall be defined in detail for operational
processes for improving thickening behaviour and de- tests or for the invitation of tenders.
waterability (DIN EN 1085 [2])
Chemically bound water also called water of crystal- Percentage of filamentous microorganisms (e. g. Mi-
lisation (hydration water), bound by ionic bonds crothrix parvicella) because of their hydrophobic (wa-
ter-repellent) characteristics
The free water content represents the largest part of Percentage of EPS (extracellular polymeric substances,
water in a sludge suspension. Free water moves freely largely long-chain polysaccharide (carbohydrate) and
between the sludge particles, is not adsorbed by them, protein compounds) because of their slimy/viscous
not bound to them and is not affected by capillary characteristics
forces. This type of water can be separated by gravity or
mechanically by e.g. centrifugal forces or filtration. All During biological wastewater treatment und during
other types of water in general can only be separated sludge stabilization above all the fraction of colloidal
using thermal treatment processes. Advanced treatment and gel-like constituents with the exception of EPS is
methods such as conditioning or altering of the sludge reduced by degradation of organic substances.
structure (e.g. disintegration, chemical acid/base treat-
ment, hydrolysis processes) can change or shift the distri- According to their characteristics especially in regard
bution of the types of water.
to their water binding capacity sludges are generally
classified into three groups:
2.1.12 Water Binding Capacity
1. Easily thickenable/dewaterable sludges
According to recent investigations and studies, it must be Sludges with larger fractions of mineral substances
assumed that a significant amount of water in sewage (also from combined sewer systems) such as e.g. fine
sludge is bound in the form of gels (so-called hydrogels) sands.
[25]. Gel-forming substances can be found in aerobically
as well as anaerobically produced sludges. Especially 2. Averagely thickenable/dewaterable sludges
carbohydrates and proteins are among these gel-forming Typical primary sludges or digested sludges without
substances. These substances can be introduced into the noteworthy industrial fractions or gel-like sub-
sludge either with the inflowing wastewater or can be stances.
produced by wastewater bacteria (EPS). The existence of
these substances and their special characteristics in regard 3. Hardly thickenable/dewaterable sludges
to water binding capacity and their consequences for Activated sludge from the biological treatment step,
thickening and dewatering have been demonstrated in trickling filter sludge, hydroxide sludges from elec-
[31]. In their water-soluble form, polysaccharides and troplating plants or pickling plants, phosphate pre-
proteins have hydrogel structures, which may alter their cipitation sludges with a -value (mol precipi-
water binding behaviour under the following influences: tant/mol phosphorus) significantly above 1,5.
pH-value, temperature, salt content. A precise clarification
of this type of water binding force and its influence on the
thickening behaviour and dewaterability of sewage sludge
is left to be accomplished in future research work.
pH pH - pH-value
2.2 Abbreviations and Symbols
PAM PAA - Polyacrylamide
Abbreviations Unit Explanation PS PS - Primary sludge
m/
Polymeric active substance qA qA Surface loading rate
(mh)
AS WS - for calculating flocculant
demand Qair L l/m Air quantity
Surface area of the Qair/TSS LTS l/m Specific air feed
Athickener AE m
thickener
QS QS m/h Sludge quantity
CFR k - Capital recovery factor
TSA kgTSS/
D D m Diameter SLR Solids loading rate
(BA) (md)
Dair DL m Mean size of air bubbles ml/g
SVI ISV Sludge volume index
or l/kg
DFT DFB m Flotation tank diameter
T T C Temperature
DS FS - Digested sludge
td tA d detention time
mS/cm
EC LF Electrical conductivity
or S/m Total solids
TS TR % (content/concentration)
Exopolymeric substances
(g TS/kg sludge sample)
EPS- EPS- or extracellular polymeric
mg/kg
content Gehalt substance
Total suspended solids
(proteins, polysaccharide) TSS0,45 AFS kg/m (filtered with filter paper
0,45 m)
Flocculant/flocculation
FA FHM -
agent
Total suspended solids
kg/m
Total height of the TSS TS (filtered with filter paper
g/l approx. 20 m)
H H m continuous flow thickener
(H= HW + HS + HR)
Influent total suspended
TSSIn TSZu gTSS/l
hFT hFB m Flotation tank depth solids
HR HR m
Depth of the raking zone, TSSCe TSZe gTSS/l Centrate/filtrate total
height of the scraper blade suspended solids
statisch
gravity+++
gravity
mechanical
maschinell
mechanical
gravity
statisch
gravity 2,6 %
44,1 %
centrifuge
Zentrifuge
centrifuge
4,7 %
rotary drum
screen thickener
drum thickener
Siebtrommel
9,6 %
belt thickener
thickener
Bandeindicker
belt
5,1 %
Figure 1:
flotation
flotation Pre-thickening of waste activated sludge,
none
keine
none Flotation
other
Sonstige
other 0,3 %
related to the number of wastewater treat-
32,6 %
0,9 % ment plants (WWTP);
data basis: 2 843 WWTP [24]
keine
none
none
12 %
12
other
Sonstige
other gravity
gravity
statisch
1%
1 %
33 %
33
flotation
Flotation
flotation
5%
5
belt thickener
Bandeindicker
belt thickener
9%
9 gravity+++
statisch
gravity
mechanical
mechanical
maschinell
rotary drum 8%
drumSiebtrommel
screenthickener
thickener
15 %
15 centrifuge
Zentrifuge
centrifuge
17 %
17
1500
berschuschlam m sludge,
waste activated , T = 10
berschussschlamm, T=TC
10 CC
10C
= 10
1250 berschuschlam m sludge,
, T = 20
berschussschlamm,
waste activated T=TC
20 CC
20
= 20C
[mPas]
scheinbare Viskositt * [mPas]
[mPas]
berschuschlam m sludge,
waste activated , T = 35
berschussschlamm, T=TC
35 CC
= 35C
30
mPas
(shear rate: D = 128 1/s)
1/s)
1000
Prim rschlam m , T =sludge,
primary 10 CT =
Primrschlamm, T 10 CC
10C
= 40
128
D =*
primary
m , T =sludge,
Primrschlamm,
Prim rschlam T 20
20 CT = = 20C
20
CC
viscosity
750
(Schergeflle
primary
m , T =sludge,
Primrschlamm,
Prim rschlam T 35
35 CT = 35
CC
= 35C
apparent
500
waste activated sludge
berschussschlam m
(thickening with
(Eindickung m it centrifuge)
Zentrifuge)
250
primary
Prim sludge
rschlam m
0
0,0
0,0
0.0 1,5
1,5
1.5 3,0
3,0
3.0 4,5
4,5
4.5 6,0
6.0 7,5
7,5
7.5
TS
TR [%]
[%]
Figure 3: Influence of solids content and temperature on the viscosity (apparent viscosity) of primary and waste
activated sludge [21]
Apparent viscosity is influenced by the percentage and In order to prevent operational problems, viscosity shall
the diameter of the smallest solid particles. Especially be taken into consideration for friction loss in pipes,
high-speed machinery (e. g. centrifugal pumps, centri- selection of pumps for the conveyance of thickened
fuges, macerators, disintegration devices) can increase sludge and for the design of agitation devices in sludge
the fraction of very fine particles in the sludge. In addi- stabilisation plants.
tion, [28] proves that apparent viscosity is also influ-
enced significantly by the fraction of extracellular poly-
meric substances (EPS). However, no significant
dependency between rheological characteristics and
organic solids content (TVS, loss on ignition) and parti-
cle size distribution could be detected [28].
Gravity thickeners are normally constructed from rein- The volume of a batch-operated gravity thickener equals
forced concrete or steel. Machinery equipment consists sludge production of one day plus a safety margin. Thick-
of sludge pumps, scrapers and supernatant removal eners which are not equipped with scrapers generally are
devices. Measuring and control technology is limited to emptied sufficiently at a floor slope above 60 degrees.
the measuring of the sludge content in the thickener and
the height of the sludge interface. Sludge feeding can be Equipment for the removal of supernatant liquor shall be
accomplished by lateral or central inlets. For reducing constructed in such a way that only relatively small
inflow velocity and for even distribution of the influent, solids concentrations are discharged with the super-
baffles, feed wells or other inflow systems can be in- natant. This can be achieved by using telescopic tubes,
stalled. The supernatant liquor is removed either using floating intake systems or cascade withdrawal systems.
fixed overflow sills or adjustable outlets. Outlets are
normally installed on the tank edges. In order to prevent Using turbidity measurements in the supernatant effluent,
uncontrolled discharge of floating scum to the effluent, supernatant removal can be automatised. Often, however,
normally scum boards are used. Fixed outlet systems are direct observation of the operating personnel is sufficient.
among others circular overflow weirs or overflow Since higher solids concentrations accumulate in the cone
troughs. The supernatant flows over them into an efflu- end of the thickener, homogenization of the thickened
ent channel or an effluent pipe. sludge using a mixer or a pump can be useful.
influent
influent
distribution trough
distribution trough
floatingsupernatant
floating supernatant influent
influent
intake system
extraction distribution pipe
distribution pipe
supernatant
supernatant
dischargepipe
discharge pipe
sludgefeed
sludge feed
level measuring
level measuring sludge
sludge
discharge
discharge
flushingconnection
flushing connection
turbidity measuring
turbidity measuring
device
device
If turbidity measuring devices are used to determine 4.1.2 Gravity Thickening Continuous
solids concentration, discharge of thickened solids can
also be accomplished before supernatant is removed.
Operation
Then homogenization of the thickened sludge is not
The process step of gravity thickening can also be oper-
possible and if discharge velocities are too high, the risk
ated as a continuous-flow process with continuous
of the formation of a cone of depression exists.
sludge feed, supernatant removal, and thickened sludge
discharge. Then the point for thickened sludge removal
Generally batch-operated gravity thickeners are dimen-
shall always be located at the point of highest solids
sioned according to the following parameters:
concentration the cone end. This is an advantage in
Daily sludge quantity comparison to batch-operated thickeners, where the
thickening concentration at maximum can equal mean
Number of thickeners results from the operating solids concentration of the sludge zone.
cycle, an optimal configuration allows for daily
change between filling thickening processing.
Unavoidable scum formation shall be counteracted by
adequate scum removal or flushing equipment or the
installation of scum boards should be dispensed with.
Scum shall be returned to an appropriate point in the
treatment system e.g. before the bar rack.
drive unit
unit
Rumerantrieb
drive
supernatant removal
Schlammwasserberlauf
supernatant removal Kontrollsteg
walkway
walkway
Einlaufzylinder
feed well
feed well
Zulauf
influent
influent
Schlammrumer
scraper
scraper with
with
mit Eindickstben
vertical
vertical pickets
pickets
Dickschlammentnahme
thickened
thickened sludge removal
sludge removal
Continuous-flow gravity thickeners with mechanical The picket fence, which normally is equipped with vertical
sludge removal equipment have sloped floors, similar to pickets spaced in a distance of 30 to 50 cm and moves
round primary sedimentation tanks, with a slope of with the scraper blade, can open up channels for pore
possible more than 1,7 in 1 (according to DIN 19552 water to escape and can thus improve the settling process.
[6]) and a central sludge hopper. For the thickening of A time-break-control switch should be used to prevent
waste activated sludge mostly travelling bridge collec- that the entire sludge mass in the thickener is moved.
tors with an external drive and submersible scraper
blades, mounted on pulleys are used. For a flexible ap- In the sludge zone, which can be separated into the
plication, also for sludges with high thickening ability, sedimentation and the compression zone, the raking
scrapers with a central drive unit are to be preferred, zone is found directly above the floor of the thickener.
which are attached to a fixed concrete or steel bridge Here the thickened sludge is moved by the scraper blade
spanning the tank. For construction details DIN 19552 to the sludge hopper located directly under the centre
[6] is referred to. feed well. From there the sludge is withdrawn for fur-
ther treatment.
In general, continuous-flow gravity thickeners are fed
with sewage sludge using a centre feed well. Sludge
should be distributed as evenly as possible and should
be fed to the upper supernatant zone. The solids parti-
cles settle in the tank while the supernatant rises and is
discharged behind protruding scum boards if existent
to the circumferential effluent channel at the tank edge.
Thickeningbyby Concentration
Concentration - Pressure curves
Eindickung
Thickening Druckkurven
Pressure curves
increase
increase
zunahme
discrete
discrete
freies settling
settling
Absetzen
hindered settling
hindered settling
hydrost.
hydrost. overpressure
Hydrost.overpressure
berdruck
increased
Zunehmende
increased due
due to dissolved
to
durch dissolved substances
substances
gelste Stoffe
compression
compression
due
Abbauto decreased
due to decreased
der durch
due
due gelste und
to dissolved
to dissolved and
and
suspension
Suspension
suspension suspendierte
suspended Stoffe
substances
suspended substances
Mechanischer
mechanical
mechanical Druck
pressure
pressure
weight of
weight of dissolved
dissolved and
and
solid substances
Stoffesubstances
solid unter Wasserunderwater
under water
complete
volle mechanische
complete mechanical
mechanical
pressure
pressure transfer
transfer
Druckbertragung
%%
% TRTS
TR mbar
Blade angle, height, and arrangement of scraper blades If thickeners are very deep, very high total solids con-
as well as scraping velocity affect achievable solids con- tents can be achieved. However other sludge characteris-
tent of the thickened sludge. In order to prevent solids tics (incipient digestion, gas emission etc.) limit this
from sticking to the sides of the sludge hopper, the statement for digestible sludges. Table 1 shows typical
scraper can be equipped with an additional scraper dimensioning parameters for continuous-flow gravity
blade for the sludge hopper. thickeners.
If sludge characteristics are given, achievable solids When dimensioning continuous-flow gravity thickeners,
content depends on the following factors: the required surface Athickener [m] is calculated by the
added sludge quantity QS [m/h], the influent solids
The retention time in the sludge zone, which deter-
content TSSIN [kgTSS/m] and the solids loading rate
mines sedimentation and compression time. The
SLR [kgTSS/(md)] selected from Table 1.
pressure ratio in the sludge zone, which largely de-
pends on the density of the sludge particles and on
QS TSSIn
the height/depth of the sludge zone. Athickener [m] (2)
SLR
The use of additives/aids such as lime/iron products
The solids loading rate shall be smaller than the particle
or polymeric flocculation agents, whose effect on
settling velocity of the sludge solids. This is generally the
downstream treatment steps e.g. dewatering shall be
case, if solids loading rates from Table 1 are used.
taken into consideration.
The depth of the thickener is calculated by adding the Sensor measuring systems are in use, which detect the
depth of the raking zone, the sludge zone, and the super- sludge interface level according to the following methods:
natant zone. The depth of the sludge zone is especially
important, since it defines the solids retention time. For Generation, transmission and reception of ultra sound
raw sludges a detention time or mean cell residence time waves; the attenuation of the ultra sound waves, which
of no more than 1,5 days should be chosen, since other- is significantly higher in sludge, is measured.
wise formation of biogas interferes with the settling proc-
ess. For determining detention time and with it the vol- Generation, transmission and reception of visible (tur-
ume of the sludge zone, a mean solids content should be bidity measurement) or infrared light; light attenuation
used that amounts to about 75 % of the final solids con- due to absorption and diffusion, which is significantly
tent of the thickened sludge (at the discharge point in the higher in sludge, is measured.
cone end of the sludge hopper). The height of the sludge
zone HS [m] is calculated using the solids loading rate SLR Such sensor measuring systems have a transducer and a
[kgTSS/(m2d)], the solids content of the thickened receiver in a defined distance from each other. Sensors
sludge TSSthick [kgTSS/m3], and the detention time td [d] are installed below the surface of the supernatant above
of the sludge in the sludge zone: the sludge. Then the solids content of the sludge inter-
face is defined and the measuring signal is calibrated
SLR td accordingly.
HS [m] (3)
0,75 TSSthick
Fixed as well as moving sensors are used. A moving
A minimum height of 0,3 m or a height equal to the sensor is a turbidity measuring sensor attached to a
height of the scraper blade shall be assumed for the cable which is kept close to the sludge interface. If the
raking zone HR. For the supernatant zone a height HW of sludge interface rises or falls, the motor-driven measur-
about 1.0 m is necessary. The total height of the con- ing sensor moves along.
tinuous-flow gravity thickener thus amounts to
H = HW + HS + HR, measured at the outer circumfer- Measuring systems up to a measuring range of 30 m are
ence of the thickener. available. Measuring signals can be calibrated in a range
of ca. 0,3 % up to ca. 10 % total solids content in the
Also non-uniform influent and effluent flows to and sludge or in the suspension. Operational experience with
from the continuous-flow gravity thickener should not the various systems is not always positive. Thus, it is
considerably alter the selected detention time in the recommended, to conduct field tests on location before
sludge zone, since otherwise the achievable solids con- making a purchase decision. For optical measuring sys-
tent of the thickened sludge decreases. tems one shall pay attention to good cleaning options in
regard to possible interfering substances (e.g. grease)
Solids contents achieved in continuous-flow gravity contained in the sludge.
thickeners can vary greatly for different plants. This is
due to sludge characteristics, actual sludge quantities,
which may deviate from quantities assumed for dimen- 4.1.3 Thickening Using Flotation
sioning and last but not least to mode of operation. Processes
During flotation processes small gas bubbles are gener-
4.1.2.1 Measurement of the Sludge ated, which attach to the suspended particles thus causing
Interface the particle to rise to the surface of the liquid. Flotation is
a significantly faster process for solids separation than
For the operation of a continuous flow thickener the gravity sedimentation. In municipal wastewater treatment
most important parameter is the sludge interface. It dissolved air flotation is used. Vacuum flotation, induced
defines the detention time of the solids in the sludge gas flotation, electro-flotation and mechanical induced
zone and thus achievable total solids concentration. If gas flotation are usually not used here. During dissolved
the interface is too low, lower solids concentration in the air flotation a water stream, which has been saturated
thickened sludge must be expected. If the interface is too with air under high pressure, is pressure released. Thus
high, solids retention time will promote a beginning very fine air bubbles are produced. The solubility of gas in
degradation of the sludge (formation of biogas bubbles water in dependency on pressure has been known. Ac-
at the thickener surface) thus reducing dewatering re- cording to Henry-Dalton's law it is proportional to the
sults. At the same time odour nuisances can occur. For partial pressure of the gas above the liquid (Figure 7).
controlling or monitoring sludge and supernatant with- During pressure release spontaneously micro bubbles are
drawal from the thickener, measuring of the sludge produced, which have a diameter between 30 m and 80
interface level is useful. m. Dissolved air flotation systems can be constructed as
circular or rectangular tanks (see Figure 8).
3
l/m
3
air
Recycle stream processes.
Q
In the external stream process, additional water is intro-
duced to the gas injection unit. Thus the wastewater
quantity is increased. At wastewater treatment plants
this process is normally not employed. In the partial or
complete stream process, wastewater or liquid sludge or
a partial stream of them is introduced to the gas injec-
tion unit. This risks pollution of the pressurizing tank
and clogging of the depressurizing valve. Additionally
differential pressure (bar) sludge particles are subjected to strong shear forces,
which leads to smaller floc size and reduces floating
Figure 7: Mathematically released air quantity in depend- ability. The recycle stream process, where clarified efflu-
ency on temperature and differential pressure ent from the flotation unit effluent is returned to the gas
injection unit, has proven to work best. Necessary recy-
The main components are: cle water quantities can be calculated (see [16]). Addi-
tionally it may be reasonable to feed part of the recycle
Gas injection unit, where the liquid (e.g. recycled stream to the flotation unit influent as dilution water for
water) is saturated with air under pressure adjusting solids content. The entire recycle stream then
One or more pressure-reducing vales amounts to 50 % to 200 % of liquid sludge feed. For
floated sludge conveyance, positive displacement pumps
Flotation tank with surface skimmers for the float are suitable, which can withdraw the air-enriched
blanket and scrapers for the bottom sludge. floated sludge.
The gas injection unit as well as the pressure release
system determine bubble formation in the flotation tank. A dissolved air flotation system with a pressurizing unit
Standard pressures in the gas injection unit are between is a complicated system in regard to process and auto-
3 and 5 bar, in former times up to 6 bar. Energy-saving mation technology. Several equipment manufacturers
flotation systems use low pressures since energy demand therefore use newly developed multiphase pumps,
increases with gas injection pressure. Pressure-reducing where added air (ambient air or pressurized air) is bro-
valves should be installed in such a way that they can be ken into bubbles and dissolved in water. The pressuriz-
exchanged individually and cleaned easily during opera- ing unit and its periphery are not necessary anymore,
tion. In a flotation tank, the retention time of the floated when using this process technology.
sludge in the float zone decides the quality of the thick-
ening result, since the float sludge will rise above the Further operating experience is discussed in Clause 5.3.
water level at sufficiently long retention time and will
then thicken further. Therefore it is an advantage, if the Table 2 presents operating and dimensioning data for
float sludge removal velocity and the float blanket existing dissolved air flotation systems according to
height are adjustable in reference to the water level. [12].
float sludge
sludge
Flotationsschlamm
float
waste
waste activated-
activated
berschuss
sludge
sludge
schlamm
Flotationsschlamm
float sludge
float sludge
Bodenschlamm
bottom sludge
bottom sludge
Klarwasser
clarified effluent
clarified effluent
Druck-
pressurizing
pressurizing
erzeuger
unit
unit
Sedimentabzug
sediment
sediment
air
Luft
air removal
removal
Figure 8: Schematic diagram of a dissolved air flotation system in a rectangular tank, recycle stream process
Table 2: Operating and dimensioning data for existing dissolved air flotation systems according to [12]
agitator
agitator
flocculation unitunit
flocculation
fabric cleaning
fabric cleaning
polymer
polymer
sludge
sludgefeed
feed
filtrate effluent
filtrate effluent
discharge
discharge thickened sludge
thickened sludge
4.2.2.2 Rotary Screw Thickeners the wedge wire drum and is collected in a tank and in a
discharge pipe. At the discharge of the rotary screw
In a rotary screw thickener (Figure 10), the sludge is thickener, the thickened sludge is transported via a
pre-conditioned in a flocculation unit and is fed to the hopper to the thickened sludge pump.
thickener by overflow. Filling height is constant and
independent from inflow. The rotary screw thickener Control options for rotary screw thickener operation:
consists of an inclined (about 30) stationary cylindrical Rotational speed of the screw flight
wedge wire drum with an inner screw flight for sludge
conveyance. Due to variable, slow rotation of the screw Mixing energy in the flocculation unit
flight, a continuous conveyance and turning of the
sludge takes place, which improves water release. In the
Flocculant dosage
context of process engineering, it is not considered a Sludge feed capacity per unit of time
pressing procedure. In order to prevent deposits on the
inner side of the drum brushes are installed in the spi- Frequency of spray nozzle cleaning.
rals of the screw. Additionally a rotating spray nozzle
system is installed for cleaning the wedge wire drum During operation variable parameters are optimized for
from the outside. The spray system is operated in inter- particular sludge types and characteristics taking into
vals, which are adjustable according to sludge character- consideration thickening objectives.
istics. In comparison to other thickening equipment,
which utilizes natural gravity, very little quantities of Rotary screw thickeners are offered in varying sizes (see
spray water are required. The filtrate is drained through Table 4).
Capacity m/h 8 90
Solids capacity kg/h 40 750
Diameter of the wedge wire drum mm 300 1 200
Length of the wedge wire mm 1 200 1 900
Rotational speed of the screw flight 1/min 1 12
Figure 10: Schematic drawing of a rotary screw thickener (Rotamat, Huber Technology, Inc.)
Control options for the operation of belt thickeners: 4.2.2.4 Disk Thickeners
Belt speed
Disk thickeners (Figure 12) are continuously operated
Mixing energy in the flocculation unit thickening devices, where the conditioned sludge is dis-
tributed evenly on a filter disk and is thickened by gravity
Thickness of the sludge layer, regulated by the height
drainage. The inclined disk, which consists of a perforated
of the ramp at the discharge chute
carrier disk covered by a filter cloth with uniform mesh
Sludge feed capacity per unit of time size, rotates slowly and is completely enclosed by a
stainless steel casing. The filter disk separates the casing
Flocculant dosage. into two zones which are sealed off from each other.
Sludge is thickened in the zone above the filter disk, while
At belt thickeners a visual control of the sludge, which is filtrate is collected in the zone below the disk.
conveyed on the belt, is possible thus the quality of floccu-
lation and the degree of thickening can be monitored. The sludge is pre-conditioned in a flocculation unit and
Belt thickeners are offered in various sizes (see Table 5). is fed floc-friendly to the surface of the filter disk by
overflow. The conditioned sludge settles on the filter
Table 5: Manufactured sizes of belt thickeners disk. Free water drains through the filter cloth, is col-
lected in the filtrate trough and is discharged via a bot-
Unit from to tom drain.
drive
filtrate
Filtrat
feed and maturing feed of flocculated
chamber sludge discharge
suspension
Zulauf geflockte Suspension belt wash water chute
Table 6: Manufactured sizes of disk thickeners Sludge feed capacity per unit of time.
process water
process water
flocculant solution
flocculant solution
spray wash
spray washwater
water
pump
pump
liquid sludge
liquid sludge
feed flocculation
flocculation
feed unit
unit
filtrate
filtrate
In centrifuges (Figure 14) mechanically generated artifi- Control options for the operation of centrifuges:
cial gravity is used to separate the "liquid" phase from
the "solid" phase of the sludge. As a consequence of Rotational speed of the bowl
generated centrifugal forces, water binding forces are
Rotational speed difference between bowl and scroll
overcome using artificial gravity. Therefore centrifuges
can be operated until the desired degree of thickening is Pond depth
achieved also without addition of flocculants. If very
high degrees of separation are required, small quantities Flocculant dosage
of flocculatants shall be used. Because of their continu- Sludge feed capacity per unit of time.
ous mode of operation solid bowl centrifuges (decant-
ers) are preferred for thickening sewage sludge. It must If flocculants are used for improving the degree of sepa-
be mentioned however that centrifuges have a relatively ration, they have to be selected according to type and
high maintenance and inspection demand (according to quantity and particular sludge characteristics. In contrast
accident prevention regulation "Grundstze der Prven- to thickening aggregates which use natural gravity,
tion (Basic prevention regulations)" BGV A1 dated Janu- centrifuges require a very low specific flocculant quan-
ary 1, 2004 with reference to Betriebssicherheitsverord- tity for conditioning. Inexpensive powder flocculants can
nung (German Operational Safety Act) [33]). be used as well. During operation variable parameters
are optimized for each type of sludge and for specific
Sludge is fed through a feed pipe into the rotating cen- sludge characteristics taking into consideration thicken-
trifuge drum. Centrifugal forces cause the solids to con- ing objectives.
centrate on the inner bowl wall, while the sludge liquor
(centrate) forms an inner ring above the solids layer. If the objectives are
Pond depth (depth of the liquid and the solid phase) is
high sludge feed capacity,
defined by weir plates. A helical scroll, spinning at a
slightly different speed than the bowl, moves the accu- high degree of thickening with regard to subsequent
mulated sludge towards the tapered end where the sludge treatment steps or
sludge is then discharged.
high degree of separation possibly without the addi-
tion of flocculants,
solids centrate
discharge sludge
discharge
feed
then control and regulation of the rotational speed dif- The rotational speed of the bowl, which is optimized
ference or the height of the weir plate is useful as well according to sludge characteristics and machine effi-
as monitoring of the centrate quality. If, in dependency ciency, as a rule is much lower for thickening than for
on sludge characteristics and utilization ratio, the degree dewatering centrifuges. When operating thickening
of separation in the centrate is unsatisfactory (e.g. less centrifuges with addition of flocculants, the centrifuge
than 80 %), then flocculants shall be added. Already if can be operated generally at a much lower rotational
relatively small quantities of flocculants are added, the speed, which significantly reduces energy demand and
degree of separation or the possible sludge feed capacity wear and tear in the centrifuge.
per unit of time increases significantly.
If waste activated sludge is thickened in centrifuges with-
Centrifuges have a large range of application. They are out the addition of flocculants, the flow behaviour of the
suitable for thickening and dewatering of all types of thickened sludge changes considerably in dependency on
sludges. Construction and equipment with various ancil- sludge characteristics and degree of thickening. Viscosity
lary components shall be adapted to each particular of the thickened sludge increases strongly and it can be-
application. come pasty. This shall be taken into account for planning
and dimensioning of the entire plant especially for dimen-
Centrifuges are offered by various manufacturers in sioning of pumps and pipes for thickened sludge.
varying sizes (see Table 8).
Reliability and availability of centrifuges can be en-
Table 8: Manufactured size of thickening centrifuges hanced by using high-alloy steel for rotor and scroll.
These materials are advantageous especially for aggres-
sive sludges and longer dead times.
Parameter Unit From To
Economic efficiency of centrifuges can possibly be in-
Capacity m/h 5 200 creased by using the same aggregate for thickening and
dewatering. Then, however, one shall take into consid-
Sludge feed capacity kg/h 20 3 000
eration that mechanical thickening cannot be accom-
Bowl diameter mm 250 1 400 plished at optimum efficiency in a dewatering centri-
fuge. Due to the geometric construction one shall
Bowl length including possibly expect increased flocculant demand for thicken-
mm 600 4 200
conus ing and unsatisfactory thickening results. Since normally
Rotational speed of the different flocculant are used for thickening and dewater-
1/min 700 3 000 ing, two flocculation units are necessary. Also, addi-
bowl
tional flushing and start-up periods shall be considered.
The overall cost efficiency of this process alternative
shall be evaluated in each individual case.
The objective of the varipond system is to achieve a The specific flocculant demand for thickening of waste
constant discharge concentration of solids at a constant activated sludge given in Table 9 is related to the poly-
feed capacity but fluctuating solids feed concentrations. mer-active substance (AS) of an accordingly prepared
The throttle plate is normally controlled manually or by solution with a specific concentration. The polymer-
a continuous measuring of scattered light/turbidity, active substance (polymer content) specifies the poly-
which monitors solids concentration in the discharged meric fraction of the product. One must note however
thickened sludge. that the term active substance may be misleading, since
the overall effectiveness of the delivered product (in-
cluding additional fractions e.g. water, paraffinic oil,
This type of cenrifuge has been in full-scale operation
emulsifier) shall be evaluated. Effectiveness of a product
for many years, but still so far very little data have been
shall be determined for each defined application taking
published for evaluating performance and economic
into consideration achievable and desired thickening
efficiency.
results (cost-performance ratio) [11].
Table 9: Total solids content in the discharge [% TS], spec. flocculant demand and spec. energy demand of various
thickening processes
continuous
operation belt thickener/
centrifuge
dissolved drum screen/
batch
air screw thickener/
operation
without with flotation disk thickener/ without with
floccu- floccu- thickening pump floccu- floccu-
lant lant lant lant
Waste activated
[% TS] 23 34 23 35 57 57 68
sludge
Specific flocculant
[kg AS/MgTSS] 0 0,5 3 0 0 37 0 1 1.5
demand
Specific. energy
[kWh/m3] < 0,1 < 0,1 - 0,6 1,2 < 0,2 1 1,4 0,6 1
demand
Specific. energy 180 100
[kWh/MgTSS] < 20 < 20 - 100 140 < 30
demand 220 140
For an unfavourable mode of operation of the thickening When evaluating thickening processes and performance
aggregate, non-optimal conditioning and unfavourable data, not only achieved discharge solids concentration
sludge characteristics, solids content in the sludge dis- but also flocculant demand, energy demand, water con-
charge can be significantly lower and specific flocculant sumption, flow rate and the degree of separation as the
demand significantly higher. parameter for overall performance are essential. For
evaluating economic efficiency also additional impacts
Specific energy demand, which shall be calculated with- on the costs of the entire treatment chain for wastewater
out taking into account required flocculant quantities, and sludge shall be considered.
shall be evaluated in dependency on machinery capacity,
overall performance and mode of operation of the ag- 5.3 Experiences and Recommendations
gregate as well as the desired degree of separation. If
sludge characteristics are extremely favourable, a thick- Gravity thickening of waste activated sludge is difficult
ening aggregate often can be operated at an accordingly and often leads to low solids contents in the thickened
high hydraulic flow rate, which further reduces quantity- sludge. Due to the very small difference in density of
related specific energy demand in comparison to values solids and water, already small convection cur-
given in Table 9. rents/density shifts can cause solids to rise (floating
sludge). The improvement of liquid/solid separation by
The solids-related degree of separation of the various adding flocculants is not always successful. Possibly, the
processes generally lies between ca. 92 % and 96 % in addition of suitable mineral additives can improve op-
dependency on sludge characteristics, degree of thicken- eration. A gravity post-thickening of digested sludges is
ing, and specific flocculant quantities. Only for the op- often not possible, if a mechanical pre-thickening of
eration of thickening centrifuges without the addition of waste activated sludge has been used, since solids con-
flocculants, a degree of separation between 85 % and tent is already high and free water has already been
92 % is to be expected in dependency on quantity- separated in the pre-thickening step.
related utilisation of the aggregate and the rotational
speed of the bowl. Flotation systems show good thickening results espe-
cially if solids feed concentration is in the range of
approx. 3kgTSS/m. If concentrations are higher, nor-
mally the degree of thickening and separation de-
creases and sludge flocs may be discharged uninten- Frequently, process water is used for spray washing of
tionally with the supernatant. For this reason sludge is filter media used in gravity thickeners. If the degree of
diluted with water if solids feed concentrations are separation is high, above 95 %, normally filtrate can be
high, e.g. if activated sludge has been wasted from the used as wash water. Especially if flocculant dosage is not
return sludge flow. Thus, activated sludge for thicken- regulated one shall prevent an over or under dosing
ing can be wasted directly from the effluent of the which affects filtrate quality. If qualified personnel are
aeration tank. Flotation systems can be operated with- employed plant performance can be improved and costs
out much effort, if thickening results of 4 % to are reduced. For investment decisions, operational reli-
4,5 % TS are sufficient. Slightly higher values between ability and availability of the aggregates are just as im-
5,0 % and 5,5 % TS can only be achieved by intensive portant as investment and operating costs. If the type of
supervision of the system e.g. by optimizing the height thickening process has not been decided beforehand by
of the float blanket and the velocity of the float skim- practical constraints, it is recommended to select an
mers. A selective removal of sediment without clarified aggregate by making thickening test. Meaningful results
water fractions is also important, since the sediment is can be obtained with full-scale machinery at best in
mixed with the thickened float sludge. Turbidity sen- the actually required future aggregate size -, which has
sors, which interrupt sediment removal if defined sol- been installed temporarily at the designated place of
ids concentrations are undercut, have proven useful. installation.
Solids content of the thickened sludge can possibly be
increased by the addition of flocculants. Generally, this Even with such tests, thickening results and costs can
is only possible if the system is supervised very closely. only be estimated within a certain range since sludge
characteristics can change. This is especially true for a
Thickening aggregates shall be thoroughly integrated change in sludge characteristics after the processes in
into the overall concept of the sludge treatment plant. the treatment plant have been altered e.g. to nitrifica-
The whole treatment chain shall be regarded and shall tion, denitrification and phosphrus removal or if, at
be adapted to existing sludge characteristics and to the times, massive growth of filamentous bacteria in the
solids content, achieved with the thickening aggregate. aeration tank occurs.
as well. This leads to a worsening of the thickening 6.2 Effects on Upstream Treatment
behaviour. High-speed centrifugal pumps are to be
avoided for sludge transport. Eccentric screw pumps or Steps
rotary piston pumps are more suitable.
The feedback effect of especially mechanical thickening
on upstream treatment processes and on the entire
In order to increase the thickening ability of the sludge
wastewater treatment process is not insubstantial. The
and to enhance the thickening efficiency, according to
higher the degree of thickening, the larger the recycled
process type organic flocculants (polyelectrolytes) are
fraction of sludge liquor will be and in turn the hydrau-
added. Electrostatic attraction promotes the agglomera-
lic return load. However, it only amounts to ca. 1 % of
tion of particles and a more favourable structure for
wastewater influent [13] to the treatment plant and thus
additional water release is created. If dosing quantities
only adds marginal hydraulic load.
are too low, no optimum thickening can be achieved. If
dosing quantities are too high, thickening results worsen
The recycled sludge liquor also causes a solids and pol-
as well, since excess quantities of positively charged
lutants return load. In dependency on characteristics of
flocculants hinder agglomeration with negatively
the sludge to be thickened, the type and operation of the
charged sludge particles by electrostatic repulsion. Filter
thickener, and the degree of separation, a return load of
media may clog due to overdosing of flocculants. In
solids and dissolved pollutants occurs. The degree of
drum screens or screw thickeners sludge is turned per-
pollution is determined mainly by possible degradation
manently and in general is thus thickened to a higher
processes of organic substances in the sludge. Since only
degree than in belt or disk thickeners. However, also the
process conditions of gravity thickening with long reten-
specific flocculant demand is higher. Especially if strong-
tion times or thickening with prior disintegration allow
smelling substances or substances with a high vapour
substance conversions, a noteworthy return load espe-
pressure are treated, a closed construction of the aggre-
cially of the nutrients phosphorus and ammonium is
gate is recommended.
only to be expected for these processes. Dissolved sub-
stances in the sludge liquor produced by mechanical
In centrifuges solid content of the thickened sludge and
dewatering of waste activated sludge show comparable
degree of separation are determined by the rotational
concentrations to wastewater treatment plant effluent, if
speed difference of scroll and bowl and the weir height.
no disintegration of the sludge has taken place. Return
Automatic control of the rotational speed difference in
loads of mechanical thickening of waste activated sludge
dependency on torque or on turbidity of the discharged
are not comparable to return loads of digested sludge
centrate (after previous degassing) is possible for digested
dewatering. Nevertheless it shall be observed that the
sludge thickening within limits. An automatic control of
solids which are recycled with the sludge liquor shall
the rotational speed difference using online measurement
again be separated and thickened and will influence the
of the solids content of the thickened sludge has been
solids mass balance (sludge age). This does not only
operated successfully. An automatic control of pond depth
increase sludge feed quantity of thickeners, but also
is also offered by one of the manufacturers and has been
flocculant and energy demand. Additional costs and
described above. Thus fluctuations of solids content in the
possibly occurring operation problems caused by unsat-
feed sludge can be compensated and a consistent solids
isfactory degrees of separation are often forgotten.
content in the discharged sludge, as desired for further
treatment, can be guaranteed. Since thickening aggre-
A degree of separation between 85 % and 90 % should
gates are dimensioned according to solids loading, regula-
be realised if need be with addition of flocculants in
tion and control of sludge feed for obtaining a certain
order not to impair operation and treatment efficiency of
solids feed load is advantageous. Flocculant addition also
the wastewater treatment plant [26]. Solids contained in
should be controlled according to feed loads and not feed
the centrate/filtrate in general are easily settleable.
quantities.
Therefore it makes sense to feed the sludge liquor from
thickening processes to the wastewater treatment plant
For flotation thickening it is important to control and
influent or to the influent of the primary sedimentation
optimise operating parameters such as e.g. feed air
tank. There the solids will settle and part of the colloidal
quantity, gas injection pressure, return ratio and deten-
substances will be bound adsorptively [22].
tion time.
If thickening processes with integrated sludge disinte-
gration are used, in parts considerable carbon i.e. COD
return loads are to be expected. The return load for a
high degree of disintegration is similarly high as the
return load for digested sludge dewatering. For disinte-
gration of (biological) sludges, e.g. in stirred ball mills
or with ultrasound, cell walls of microorganisms are
destroyed and highly polluted cell water is released. The
solids which consist of cell membranes and residues of
the destroyed microorganisms settle fairly easily accord-
ing to present knowledge and thus improve thickening
efficiency. Because of the increased fraction of very fine 6.4 Sludge Liquor Treatment
particles in the sludge, specific flocculant demand in-
creases substantially. Sludge disintegration technology is A separate treatment of sludge liquor from the thickening
still being developed. First full-scale tests have been process is only necessary if partial degradation or conver-
conducted and shall be evaluated specifically [15]. sion or extensive hydrolysis of organic substances takes
place during the thickening process. This is the case e.g.
for disintegration. For mechanical thickening with a suffi-
6.3 Application of Polymeric Floccu- ciently high degree of separation and an accordingly low
lants for Sludge Thickening concentration of solids in the filtrate/centrate, a direct
recycling of the sludge liquor to the wastewater treatment
The German Dngemittelverordnung (Fertilizer Ordi- plant influent is recommended. For gravity thickening in
nance) (Verordnung ber das Inverkehrbringen von general also no treatment and intermediate storage is
Dngemitteln, Bodenhilfsstoffen, Kultursubstraten und required, unless a noteworthy substance conversion and
Pflanzenhilfsmitteln (Ordinance on the bringing into an increased phosphorus redissolution is to be expected
circulation of fertilizers and other substances) DMV) on account of exceptionally high sludge retention times
enacted on November 26, 2003 [17] defines in 2 that and/or high temperatures.
sewage sludge is registered as fertilizer for agricultural
reuse if it fulfils the requirements of the Klr- For disintegration it shall be examined whether an in-
schlammverordnung (Sewage Sludge Ordinance). Accord- termediate storage or, if loads are high, a separate
ing to 2 and 3 of the DMV, fertilizer types are regis- treatment of sludge liquor is required. More information
tered under the requirement that "no polyacrylamides on options for sludge liquor treatment in mainstream or
(PAM) or mineral oils are used as conditioning agent in sidestream processes and on the selection criteria for
production and that no increased pollutant concentra- each process can be found in literature [14].
tions are caused by the use of other conditioning
agents". In addition, it shall be noted, that Annex 3
regulates the labelling of fertilizers which are not classi-
fied as EC-fertilizers, i.e. if a conditioning agent for 7 Costs for Waste Activated
fertilizer production exceeds a percentage of 0,5 %, it
shall be declared separately. A transition period of 10
Sludge Thickening
years has been fixed for the use of PAM in fertilizer
Costs for the various processes of sludge thickening shall
production (until December 4, 2013). Polyacrylamide
be considered separately for each individual case.
PAM is the main component of polymers (organic floccu-
According to experiences made in full-scale operation
lants) used for sludge conditioning. According to the
tests, cost factors listed in Table 10 should be taken into
ordinance, if sludge is to be reused in agriculture, then
account for economic comparisons.
PAM shall neither be used in wastewater treatment (e. g.
to prevent uncontrolled sludge discharge from the secon-
The following non-monetary factors are very important
dary settling tank) nor for thickening and dewatering in
for operation of the plant:
sludge treatment. For sludge incineration, no restrictions
for polymer conditioning are known at the moment [19]. Susceptibility to failure
Currently it is being clarified whether paraffin carrier oil
(white oil) used for the production of liquid flocculants Ease of operation
is to be considered a mineral oil in terms of the fertilizer Required expert knowledge for operation and main-
ordinance. tenance
INVESTMENT COSTS
LABOUR COSTS
spezifische
specific annual
specific annual
Jahreskosten
net costs
costs
net
netto
[[
/Mg
/Mg TSS]
TSS]
[ / Mg TS]
150
140
130 Flotation
flotation
flotation
120
statische
gravity
gravity
110
Eindickung
thickening
thickening
mechanical
mechanical
maschinelle
100 thickening
Eindickung
thickening
90
Figure 15: Specific annual (net) costs of waste activated sludge thickening
Compatibility of pollutant loads of sludge liquor (cen- [3] DIN EN 12832 (November 1999): Characterisation of
trate/filtrate) with the wastewater treatment plant sludges Utilisation and disposal of sludges Vocabu-
lary; Trilingual version
Compatibility/suitability of the dewatered and possi-
ble post-treated sludge for agriculture and landscap- [4] DIN EN 12255-8 (October 2001): Wastewater treatment
ing (soil, plants) or other downstream measures for plants Part 8: Sludge treatment and storage
reuse or disposal.
[5] DIN EN 12880 (February 2001): Characterisation of
At longer retention times of the sludge in the primary sludges Determination of dry residue and water content
sedimentation tank or the thickener, methane, which is
harmful to climate, strong-smelling substances (e.g. or- [6] DIN 19552 (December 2002): Wastewater treatment
ganic acids), and hydrogen sulphide can be generated due plants Circular tanks Settlement tanks with sludge
to starting pre-acidification or digestion. This fact shall be scraper, suction type sludge remover and thickener;
Types, main dimensions, equipment
evaluated carefully, taking into account explosion protec-
tion guidelines [7]. Furthermore, for activated sludge [7] Explosionsschutzverordnung (ExVO): Elfte Verordnung
systems with biological phosphorus removal an increased zum Gerte- und Produktsicherheitsgesetz (11. GPSGV)
redissolution of phosphorus can occur with the possible vom 12. Dezember 1996. Stand: zuletzt gendert durch
consequence of mass growth of filamentous bacteria. Artikel 18, Gesetz vom 06.01.2004, BGBl. I S. 2
During high-pressure cleaning of sludge treatment ag- [8] ATV: Eindickung von Klrschlamm. Arbeitsbericht des ATV/
gregates germ-infected aerosols can be generated. Ade- BDE/VKS-Fachausschusses 3.2. In: KA-Korrespondenz
quate measures for the protection of operating personnel Abwasser, 1/1998, S. 122134
are required.
[9] ATV: Entwsserungskennwerte. Arbeitsbericht des ATV/
BDE/VKS-Fachausschusses 3.1. In: KA-Korrespondenz
Only an overall view and consideration of technical- Abwasser, 3/1992, S. 401408
economical consequences make it possible to decide on
suitability of various thickening processes for a concrete [10] ATV-DVWK: Merkblatt ATV-DVWK-M 366 (Oktober 2000):
individual case. Maschinelle Schlammentwsserung. Hennef: Gesellschaft
zur Frderung der Abwassertechnik e. V. (GFA)
Low investment costs of a thickening system for example
might be contrasted by high operational and consequen- [11] ATV: Auswahl und Einsatz von organischen Flockungs-
tial costs (e.g. by multi-shift operation, post-treatment, hilfsmitteln Polyelektrolyten bei der Klrschlamment-
wsserung. Arbeitsbericht des ATV/BDE/VKS-Fachaus
wear and tear).
schusses 3.2. In: KA-Korrespondenz Abwasser, 4/1992,
S. 569580
It is important that operational tests are realised as far as
possible before selecting a process or an aggregate, since [12] ATV: ATV-Handbuch Mechanische Abwasserreinigung;
results from other treatment plants cannot be transferred Kap. 3.6 Feststoffabtrennung durch Flotation, S. 221. 4.
reliably. This is mostly also true for tests which have been Aufl. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn, 1997
conducted with machinery of insufficient size (scale-up-
effect). Guarantees given without extensive preliminary [13] ATV: ATV-Handbuch Klrschlamm. 4. Aufl. Berlin:
testing should be judged sceptically. Ernst & Sohn, 1996
[16] ATV: Feststoffabtrennung durch Entspannungsflotation. [31] ZHOU, J.; MAVINIC, D. S.; KELLY, H. G; RAMEY, W. D.:
Kurzfassung eines Arbeitsberichtes des ATV-Fachaus- Effects of temperatures and extracellular proteins on de-
schusses 2.5. In: KA-Korrespondenz Abwasser, 7/1999, waterability of thermophilically digested biosolids. In:
S. 11251126 Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science
1/2002, S. 409415
[17] Dngemittelverordnung DMV Verordnung ber das
Inverkehrbringen von Dngemitteln, Bodenhilfsstoffen, [32] ATV-DVWK-A 400 (Juli 2000): Grundstze fr die Erarbei-
Kultursubstraten und Pflanzenhilfsmitteln vom 26. No- tung des ATV-DVWK-Regelwerkes
vember 2003. BGBl. I S. 23732437
[33] BGV A1 (April 2005): Grundstze der Prvention vom
[18] DWA: Stand der Klrschlammbehandlung und -entsor- 1. Januar 2004. Aktualisierter Nachdruck April 2005.
gung in Deutschland Ergebnisse der DWA-Klrschlamm- Hrsg.: Hauptverband der gewerblichen Berufsgenossen-
erhebung 2003. DWA-Themen; Hennef, Oktober 2003 schaften (HVBG). Sankt Augustin
Sewage sludge produced during wastewater treatment contains very little solids quantities. In order to
enable an economically and technically sensible operation of down-stream treatment processes a solids GERMAN
concentration accompanied by a volume reduction is indispensable. Therefore, thickening of sewage slud-
ge is one of the most important basic operations of sludge treatment. It is the easiest and cheapest way to
concentrate solids and to separate solids and liquids during the sludge treatment process. Sludge thicke-
ning is used at virtually every wastewater treatment plant.
DWA Rules and Standards
This Advisory Leaflet first and foremost addresses treatment plant operators as well as planning and opera-
ting engineers and technicians and gives recommendations for the dimensioning, realisation and economic
operation of aggregates for the thickening of municipal sludge. The Advisory Leaflet presents current know-
ledge on process fundamentals and process technology of the various thickening processes and informs
about operating experiences and costs of technically well-established processes.
October 2007
ISBN 978-3-941897-43-4