Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Special Report
Fritz Leonhardt
Professor Emeritus
Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. h.c. mull.
Consulting Engineer
Stuttgart, FRG
124
portance. Laboratory test data con-
ducted by H. Busch were analyzed
statistically. As presented in Ref. 1, this Synopsis
analysis furnished the following re-
Simple design rules are presented
lationships for the mean direct tensile to control cracking in concrete struc-
strength, f tm , related to the 28-day
tures. Causes of cracking and its ef-
compressive cylinder strength f,' of con-
fect on serviceability and durability are
crete:
discussed. The paper is primarily ap-
plicable to large structures such as
fcm = 2.1 (fc)z (psi)
/3
compression
+ +G = OT a T Ec
GT
tension
Internal stresses
in equilibrium
ment among different types of cements. concrete, as it was done years ago, is not
The cement content of concrete should recommended.
be kept as low as possible by good 4. Precooling This is a necessity for
grading of the aggregates. Heat de- large massive concrete structures such
velopment can also be reduced by ad- as dams. For more usual structures, in
ding fly ash or using slag furnace ce- which shortening after cooling can take
ment. place without creating significant re-
2. Curing Evaporation of water straint forces, precooling is expensive
must be prevented by using curing and unnecessary. In this case, thermal
compounds or by covering the concrete insulation is preferable and it also has
with a membrane. Rapid evaporation the benefit of accelerating concrete
can lead to plastic shrinkage cracking. strength development. An exception
3. Curing by thermal insulation - may be made in very hot climates since
Rapid cooling of the surface must be precooling can keep concrete workable
prevented. The degree of thermal insu- for a longer period of time.
lation depends not only on the climate, Often shrinkage is considered as a
but also on the thickness of the concrete cause of early cracking. However, this is
member and on the type of cement used. not true under normal climatic condi-
Spraying cold water on warm young tions. Shrinkage needs time to produce a
126
Table 1: Heat of hydration of various types of
cements.*
Type of
cementt 1 day 3 days 7 days 28 days
IV 50 81 94 117
V 58 88 101 124
Internal Stress
5 10 15 20 h
Concrete hardening time, hours
I I I
I MDT
Moment Diagram
VAT
Shear Diagram
128
Table 2. Recommended cross section temperature
differentials for bridge design in Europe.
Top of
cross section
warmer than
bottom (F) 18 27 14.4 21.6
Bottom of
cross section
warmer than
top(F) 9 14.4 7.2 10.8
Note: 1.0 A N' _ (9/5) AC.
equilibrium over the cross section and pansion for concrete. Cooling causes
produce no action forces. These tensile stresses in areas near extremities
stresses, which also exist in statically of the section.
determinate structures, can be calcu- For bridges in Europe, the AT values
lated by imposing equilibrium condi- given in Table 2 are recommended. In
tions and considering that: addition to temperature, restrained con-
crete creep and shrinkage can cause
JcT = AT3aTEc stresses. Shrinkage often leads to cracks
between connected members of signifi-
where a T is equal to 6 x 10 -6 / 0 F cantly different sizes. Stress due to re-
(10-5 / C), the coefficient of thermal ex- strained creep and shrinkage can be cal-
rig. 4. uivision of temperature aiagram into its constant, unear ana noniinear parts.
compressive G
due to DL+w LL+ P
plan A-A
H
'_'-- cracks due to
AT, AS and ACr
culated in the same way as stresses due the linear theory of elasticity, consider-
to temperature. ing the structure initially uncracked. In
Transverse cracks due to temperature, these calculations, f,s should be taken as
creep and shrinkage effects are fre- the tensile strength of the concrete. In
quently found in the relatively thin the tension side of a beam, cracking will
bottom slabs of box girders despite the occur in areas where bending moments
fact that calculations show considerable due to service loads and restraint cause
longitudinal compressive stresses due to stresses in the extreme tensile fiber
prestressing. Compressive stresses tend above f15 . As bending increases, the
to shift towards the thick webs which depth of cracking can be calculated by
undergo less creep and shrinkage strains considering a maximum concrete tensile
as illustrated in Fig. 5. strain of 0.015 percent as shown in Fig.
Box sections are indeterminate struc- 7.
tures. Therefore, restraint moments are Calculation of possible maximum
developed when the section is heated bending moments due to restraint
on one side by the sun. This leads to should be based on f 5 . As shown in Fig.
vertical cracking in bridge piers and 8, consideration of such moments in-
tower shafts as shown in Fig. 6. Ref. 8 creases the areas in which cracking may
shows examples of temperature cracks be expected to occur.
in prestressed concrete structures. Bending moments due to restraint
define only the location and quantity of
reinforcement or prestressing necessary
Determination of Areas
to limit the crack width for serviceability
Likely to Crack purposes. As proven long ago by
Cracking occurs whenever the princi- Priestley, and illustrated in Fig. 9,
pal stresses due to service loads or due these moments do not decrease the ul-
to restraint forces or due to a combina- timate strength of the structure because
tion of service loads and restraints ex- they are reduced and finally disappear
ceed the tensile strength of concrete. due to cracking and plastic deformation
These stresses can be calculated using as service loads are increased until the
130
deflection line
vertical cracks
-MAT
II
+ +MOT
+ MAT
-EG
XII
-O,015/.
cracked
Zone of web
rLE 7,5db
+ill
flange Zone S
limit state is reached. However, the ments due to service loads in sizing of
structure must be checked for possible main reinforcement. It must, however,
brittle failure of the compression zone if be observed that restraint due to pre-
a relatively high degree of prestressing stressing does not decrease on the way
is used, especially for continuous T- up to limit state.
beains. Therefore, to satisfy strength re- Restraint forces decrease beginning
quirements, bending moments due to with the first crack since the stiffness of
restraint should not be added to mo- the structure is progressively reduced
M AT 1,75 MDL
effect of AT effect of 1,5T
M DL+ LL
MDL
0 Curvature 4 D Curvature
OT OT
132
Ag. 10. Crack width at the surface is used as a measure of
the effect of cracking on concrete members.
Fig. 11. Stress-strain diagram of a reintorced concrete member under direct tension.
134
DESIGN OF tension between cracks, re-
ferred to as tension stiffening
REINFORCEMENT effect (see Fig. 11)
Reinforcement can be designed to As indicated in Ref. 9, AE S can be ex-
control crack widths using information pressed as:
presented in the following sections.
AE 8 = (1/E 3 ) ( o2scr / a ) (3)
Basic Analysis where
The following presentation follows = reinforcement stress immedi-
(T ,.
the 1978 CEB-FIP Model Code and the ately after cracking
1983 CEB Manual. The material is mss' = steel stress in cracked state
based on theoretical considerations and E s = Young's modulus for the rein-
experimental results. forcement
Fig. 11 shows a plot of steel stress ver-
sus longitudinal strain over a given The strains E and A E S are significantly
length, 1, of a reinforced concrete ele- affected by concrete strength and rein-
ment in direct tension. As the load in- forcement ratio.
creases, cracks are assumed to occur The mean crack spacing can be ex-
within this length. The crack spacing pressed as:
and the longitudinal mean strain define
s c ,.m =2(c+s/10) +k,kzd b /p e(4)
the mean crack width:
where
Wm = S can E m (1) c = concrete cover in mm
s = bar spacing in mm
where
w m = mean crack width k l = 0.4 for deformed reinforcement,
= mean crack spacing considering bond strength
Em = mean strain = Al/l k2 = 0.125 for bending members,
considering shape of E diagram
As the load increases, reinforcement = 0.25 for members under direct
stress at a potential crack location varies tension,
linearly. When the crack occurs, rein- < 0.125 for combined bending and
forcement stress at the crack, o- $ , in- compression
creases suddenly without a significant db = bar diameter
change in the mean strain. As the load P e = effective reinforcement ratio,
continues to increase and more cracks A s /A Cei where A, is the effective
appear, the relationship between the concrete area around the bar
mean strain, E m , and reinforcement defined as indicated in Fig. 13.
stress at the crack, a-8 , approaches that of
Using the equations presented, the
the reinforcement alone, as indicated in
mean crack width, Wm, can be calcu-
Fig. 11. Conditions before cracking will
lated. The 90 percentile of w can be as-
be referred to as State I and conditions
sumed to be:
assuming the reinforcement working in
a cracked section will be referred to as
w so = k4 W m (5)
State II:
where k 4 is given in the Eurocode as 1.3
E,n= ES' AEg (2) and 1.7 for restraint forces and service
loads, respectively. The author recom-
where
mends k 4 = 1.5 for all cases. The effect of
E'',' = steel strain in State II repeated loads can be considered by re-
AE s = strain reduction by concrete in ducing the value of A E g in Eq. (2):
L i E v
o 1
r ( ^
l I c=2 cm
(0.8 in.)
i ) Ec
/
O M 18cm 3
(a2)db=4.2mm
d b 6mm
J1 ( (7 y / 1 \ ` f I s= 15 cm db=26mm
J ` l 1 I1 `l (6in.) (it8)
Fig. 12. Crack pattern on T-beam with large bars near extreme tension fiber and light
reinforcement in the stem.
136
ii
16 in. (40cm)
Direct
7.5 d bi5ldp dA Tension
S
16 in.
Fig. 13. Definition of the effective concrete area according to CEB-FIP 1978 Model Code.
4 a` 12
3
a8
v
4
U,4 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2.0
percentage of reinforcement pe _As (ova)
138
Gs,cr
small p
0
largep
AGscr
l
} I_-nGc
Q)
500
(70)-
+N MandM,-N
(60)- ^^ M
400
N \ASI
E
I I As
E (50)- 1 _ As
z
\ p bd e/d =M/Nd
1 \
300 axial
1
(40), tension N,
Ln
a, pure cS
(30) bending
20C \ s;
a,
(20) ^o C2p
a a^^ 900PS!)
E 00
.' 10 C
M
^^50 (^2s
^ --
20 (2
Fig. 17. Diagram to obtain increase of steel stress at cracking under tension, bending or
bending with compression for varying eccentricity elh of resultant forf;,n = 1.2 (f,1 )2/3.
_ X
LJ T
L
Sizing Reinforcement for Bending
and Combined Bending and
T Compression
L
a, Members subjected to bending plus
compression require much less rein-
pO forcement for crack control than mem-
C
bers under direct tension. This can be
U O understood considering the sharp in-
N
crease in steel stress that occurs at
cracking. As indicated in Figs. 16 and
L V Z
3 W
17, the increase in steel stress depends
o on concrete tensile strength, f,, rein-
x AA forcement percentage, p, and type of
J)
a, stress distribution such as produced by
direct tension, or combined bending
(D C^ X and compression. It should be noted
x I
a that in Fig. 17 the reinforcement ratio
refers to the concrete area A, = bh.
L W V As can be seen from Fig. 17, there is a
significant difference between the stress
0
increase for tension compared to the in-
Ii)
crease for bending. For prestressed con-
crete structures, the stress increase is
w significantly reduced depending on the
}f L degree of prestressing. In Fig. 17 the
values of e/h = 1.0 and 0.4 corre-
spond to moderate and limited pre-
stressing levels, respectively, e/h =
0.17tofulprest ing.Evenmoderat
prestressing leads to low steel stresses at
cracking and, therefore, small per-
centages are sufficient for crack control.
For bending, and combined bending
Cn and compression, the diagram given in
Fig. 14 can be used to obtain Pe applying
the correction factor:
k5 = (h x ")lh
c
where x" is the depth of the neutral axis
U
for State II and under the cracking mo-
ment considering axial loads from re-
straint and prestressing, and including
reinforcement to satisfy strength re-
Fig. 18. Illustration of effective areas and quirements.
associated strain distributions under For sizing longitudinal crack control
cracking moment. web reinforcement, the correction factor
140
stresses before cracking
crack pattern due to loads to A T
Gc
neutr. axis
state II-
to i i 5
F 3tcr G'ct
crack width
E ct _ 0,4 to
fe w90 ~ 1000
*The steel stress Q'; and the nominal vertical shear and nominal torsional stresses v 0 and t o , respectively,
refer to the load specified for the serviceability limit state of crack control.
Note: 1.0 in. = 2.54 cm; 1.0 psi = 6.89 x 10 N/mm2.
b. Bending:
Minimum Reinforcement I',,i iii 0.5 J [95 /J
Minimum reinforcement should meet
where Pmin refers to the full cross-sec-
the following conditions:
tional area, A, = bh and f, is the yield
(a) Satisfy strength requirements It
strength of the reinforcement. If crack-
is noted in passing that in most Euro-
ing is caused by restraint forces due to
pean codes not only a maximum con-
temperature, creep, shrinkage or differ-
crete strain but also a maximum steel
ential settlement, then the A, can be
strain is specified for strength design.
limited to two to three times the effec-
(b) Prevent sudden failure when
tive area as indicated in Fig. 13. Table 5
cracking occurs This can occur when
presents minimum reinforcement re-
the force transferred from the concrete
quirements.
to the reinforcement is greater than the
(c) Satisfy serviceability requirements
strength of the reinforcement. Cracking
by controlling crack widths Minimum
can be due to applied loads or restraint
reinforcement should be used in all
forces. The minimum amount of rein-
areas where in the cracked state con-
forcement can be calculated as follows:
crete tensile stresses due to loads or re-
straint forces exceed ft5 . In these areas,
Table 5. Minimum reinforcement the minimum reinforcement can be ob-
percentage for f,, = 60,000 psi. tained from Fig. 14 using the k B factor
according to Fig. 18.
Concrete
strength Related
f, (psi) 3000 5000 area ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Direct tension 0.76 1.08 A, = b h The author wishes to express his ap-
preciation to Dr. Walter Dilger and
Bending 0.15 0.22 A,= b h
Eduardo A. B. Salse for reviewing the
Note: 1.0 psi = 6.8 x 10 - 3 N/mm2. paper and for their helpful suggestions.
142
REFERENCES
1. Riisch, H., "Die Ableitung der charak- Transportation Research Board, Report
teristischen Werte der Beton-zugfestig- 276, September 1985.
keit," Beton, Heft, February 1975. 8. Leonhardt, F., "Ri/3schaden an Beton-
2. Widmann, R., "Massenbetonprobleme brucken, Ursachen and Abhilfe,"
beim Ban der Gewolbemauer Ko1n- Beton-und Stahlbetonbau, Heft, Feb-
brein," Lectures of Betontag, 1977, ruary 1979.
Deutscher Beton-Verein. 9. Schiessl, P., "Admissible Crack Width in
3. Kehlheck, F., "Einfluss der Son- Reinforced Concrete Structures," Pre-
nenstrahlung bei Bruckenbauwerken," liminary Report, V. 2 of IABSE-FIP-
Werner Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1975. CEB-RILEM-IASS, Colloquium, Liege,
4. Priestley, M. J. N., "Design of Concrete June 1975.
Bridges for Temperature Gradients," 10. Beeby, A. W., "Design Considerations,
ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 75, May In Debate: Crack Width Cover and Cor-
1978, pp. 209-217. rosion," Concrete International, V. 7,
5. Thurston, S. J., Priestley, M. J. N., and No. 5, May 1985, pp. 24-25.
Cooke, N., "Influence of Cracking for 11. Leonhardt, F., Vorlesungen fiber Mas-
Thermal Response of Reinforced Con- sivbau, 4, Teil, Springer Verlag, 1977.
crete Bridges," Concrete International, 12. Falkner, H., "Zur Frage der Ri/3bildung
V. 6, No. 8, August 1984, pp. 36-48. durch Eigen-und Zwangs-spannungen
6. Dilger, W., and Ghali, A., "Temperature infolge Temperatur in Stahlbeton-
Stresses in Composite Box Girder bauteilen," Deutscher Ausschu,6 fur
Bridges," Journal of Structural En- Stahlbeton, Heft, 208.
gineering, ASCE, V. 109, ST6, June 1983, 13. Schlaich, J., and Dieterle, H., "Versuche
p. 1460. mit Ferrozement," 15, Forschungskol-
7. Imbsen, et al., "Thermal Effects in Con- loquium des DAfStB in Stuttgart, April
crete Bridge Superstructures," U.S. 1984.
f.
mediately after cracking effective .2nsion zone of con-
= yield strength of steel rein- crete
forcement P to = minimum reinforcement ratio
144
APPENDIX B - DESIGN EXAMPLE
Given: A 12 in. (30.5 cm) square rein- 12'
forced concrete section in direct ten-
sion.
2.5"
f = 5800 psi (40 N/mmz)
f,= 60,000 psi (413 N/mmz)
14
12 7
N = 100 kips (445 N)
Cover, c = 2 in. (5 cm)
db = 0.875 in. (22 mm)
Solution: Fig. 14 provides a chart relat- (0.178 mm) is obtained. Since this value
ing bar diameter and effective rein- is less than the 0.012 in. (0.305 mm) re-
forcement ratio for various limiting quired crack width limit in this example,
crack widths and concrete strengths. the No. 7 bars provided are considered
Calculate effective area, Ace: adequate for crack width control in this
ACe = 6 x 6 = 36 in. 2 (232 cm2) case. Use of the chart is illustrated
c= 0.6/36 = 0.0167 or 1.67 percent below.
Entering the chart in Fig. 14 with A= From Fig. 14, a designer can also deter-
1.67 percent and No. 7 bar size, a crack mine that the steel stress at cracking is
width, w90 , of approximately 0.007 in. approximately 30 ksi (207 N/mm2).
00
*Obtained by
interpolation
N
v
m
Pe = 1.6 7 % .Qe