Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1508-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Geochemical characteristics of surface efflorescence
on the seventh century stone pagoda in Republic of Korea
Dong Sik Lee Chan Hee Lee Jiyoung Kim
Hee Jae Yang
Received: 27 April 2008 / Accepted: 1 August 2008 / Published online: 19 August 2008
Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract This study presents detailed description and
geochemical characteristics of the efflorescence caused by
interaction of water and the concrete on the surface of the
seventh granitic stone pagoda in Republic of Korea. The
pagoda comprised light gray medium-grained biotite
granite with partial porphyritic texture, and it has been
repaired for the destroyed parts using concrete in the 1910s.
The surface of the pagoda was found to be contaminated by
efflorescence at present. As a result of the study, the
efflorescence is more concentrated within the areas of
water pathway and the northern faces, and in the time of
winter season. The efflorescent pollutants were mainly
composed of carbonates. Through the extraction experi-
ment, inorganic components of the efflorescence were
quantitatively analyzed and discussed for an application
with regard to the surface cleaning. The cleaning solvent
with pH 6.2 is more effective than pH 5.0 to remove the
efflorescent pollutants in general, however, the pH 5.0
solvent showed better results only for anions. Cleaning
using chemical agents should be conducted only for small
spots with sufficient water washing. And the cleaning
effectiveness shows the maximum with the duration of 1 h
in which soluble elements dissolve in the solvent the most.
C. H. Lee (&)
J. Kim
Department of Cultural Heritage Conservation Sciences,
Kongju National University, Gongju 314-701,
Republic of Korea
e-mail: chanlee@kongju.ac.kr
D. S. Lee
H. J. Yang
Iksan Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda Conservation Team,
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritages,
Iksan 570-911, Republic of Korea
Keywords Efflorescence
Extraction experiment

Salt decay
Mireuksaji stone pagoda
Introduction
The Iksan Mireuksaji site in Korea was a Buddhist temple
based on the faith of Miitreyas birth, and was built in the
era of King Muwang of Baekje Kingdom (AD 600641)
with a prayer for nations peace. It comprised three pago-
das and three main halls. After the Baekje Kingdom
collapsed, most of the structures such as wooden pagoda
and a lecture hall were burnt down, and restored in the era
of Koryo Kingdom (ninth to thirteenth century in Korea)
when Buddhism regained the popularity as the religious
praying for the national defense (CHA 2006).
The Mireuksaji temple, however, reportedly began los-
ing its function as a temple in the era of Joseon Dynasty
(fourteenth to nineteenth century in Korea) because the
government repressed Buddhists for nations policy. It
originally had two stone pagodas, east and west ones that
the former was completely destroyed at unknown time
while the latter remained in part only.
The current Mireuksaji temple site has been designated
as a national historic site of Korea with the west stone
pagoda registered as a national treasure no. 11. The west
stone pagoda is the largest one among stone pagodas in the
East Asia. Only the part of the structure up to the sixth
platform remains today. As time went by, the stone pagoda
has been repaired and renovated from time to time. It is
unknown when the pagoda was reshaped, but it is definite
that the pagoda was restored with the concrete to prevent
from deformation in the 1910s (Fig. 1).
The concrete patch composed of Portland cement,
aggregate, sand and additives was applied to the crack, gap
123
198
Fig. 1 Photographs of
remaining six-storied
Mireuksaji stone pagoda. a A
western view of the pagoda
before reconstruction in the
1910s. b An eastern view of the
pagoda after reconstruction on
the 1910s. c A current view
from northeastern side
and broken parts. It caused the stone surface being in-
crusted with white gray precipitates. The original texture
and color of the stone pagoda became hardly distinguished.
As quicklime particularly is an insoluble material causing
efflorescence, some dregs of lime still have resided on the
surface (Fig. 2).
This study was carried out to analyze the lime residuals
incrusted on the surface of the pagoda stones, as well as to
identify the soluble inorganic pollutants by means of
extraction experiments. Furthermore, cleaning chemicals,
methods and their effect were examined to apply to the
stone cultural heritages. The results will finally contribute
to develop prevention and controlling methods for the
efflorescence.
Background and methodology
General backgrounds
The pagoda site was designated as Korean historic site no.
150, and the three-stepped systematic excavation began in
1980 and finished in 1995. The stone pagoda was made of
medium-grained biotite granite which was quarried in the
neighboring mountains (Yang et al. 2006). The top of the
pagoda except the eastern part had been collapsed and
Fig. 2 The concrete patch applied to the pagoda for reconstruction
123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
repaired by concrete in the 1910s. The shape at the time
lasts today.
This stone pagoda assumes a quadrangular form having
four pillars at the angles in imitation of traditional wooden
building. Every directional face of the first platform is
partitioned into three subfaces with two entasis pillars
(Jeong 1998). The middle part inside the pagoda comprises
a cross-shaped gallery with a square pillar in the center.
The girders and upper walls are crossing each other above
the gatepost and the upper walls have three-stepped sup-
porting stones which are imitative bracket sets of the
traditional wooden building supporting a roof structure.
The girders and walls are omitted above the first platforms,
while side walls and pillars become remarkably short
adjusting the height between the platforms (Jeong 1998;
NRICP 2003).
The roof stones are thin and wide, and the four corners
are raised to be appeared higher so that the upside surface
of the roof stones has a curve. This is intended the rain-
water flowing to diverse directions and the lower stones
never being eroded by centralization of raindrops. The side
wall stones are trimmed with an acute angle in the top and
the bottom, and the stones naturally incline toward the
acute corner, inside the pagoda. Also, the pillars are
chamfered to prevent the wall stones from breakaway.
Experimental methods
The efflorescent aspects of the stone pagoda showed sim-
ilarity over the whole. Sampling procedures have been
carried out for efflorescent rock pieces and have done
within the limit of a minimum damage on the pagoda. For
chemical analysis of the rocks, we conducted an induc-
tively coupled plasma spectrometer (ICPOES, ICPMS)
and an instrumental neutron activation analyzer (INAA).
To investigate mineralogical properties of the stones, a
polarizing and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were
used.
A relative content of rock-forming minerals were cal-
culated using a modal analysis of Orthoplan (071948)
microscope equipped with automatic counter by Leitz for
the thin section of each rock sample. The model of elec-
tron microscope was Shimatzu SIS-SX-40 equipped with
Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
energy dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDXA, PV 9100/60).
The sample was coated with gold. Also, X-ray diffraction
patterns were obtained with Rigaku Model D/Max-IIB, and
X-ray was CuKa with 30 kV and 15 mA, calculated by
refracting 2h with 2/min from 3 to 60.
To identify soluble pollutants deposited on the stone
surface, the efflorescent deposits were collected from the
pagoda and sliced off in 20 g. All samples were dried at
35C. Then, they were agitated in 100 ml of distilled water
with pH 6.2 and 5.0 water added an infinitesimal amount to
adjust the acidity for pH 5.0, which is an usual degree of
acidic rain in Korea. After , 1, 2, 3 and 5 h agitation, and
30-min settlement, water specimens for anion and cation
analysis were collected.
The specimens for cation analysis were bottled in a glass
container and maintained cold storage during the analysis
after filtration with 0.45 lm membrane. And 1 ml of 6 N
HNO3 was added to the water specimens to prevent the
metal ions from deposition on the surface of glass con-
tainer. All the pretreatment procedures for extraction
experiment followed the standard test method for soil
pollution regulated by Ministry of Environment of Korea
because verified standard methods for stone monuments do
not exist until today.
The dissolved cations by 10,000 K plasma with argon gas
were quantitatively analyzed using inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometer (ICPMS; Perkin-Elmer (USA),
model Elan 6000). The anions were submitted to ion chro-
matography (IC; Waters Corporate Headquarter (USA),
model Waters 2690), and standard reference materials,
blanks and duplicates increased their accuracy and decreased
the error limit as well as.
Results and discussions
Stone materials
The stone pagoda was built by stacking granite blocks
without adhesives. The contact surface of the blocks was
roughly faced so that the stone blocks are firmly engaged
Fig. 3 Microphotographs and X-ray diffraction patterns of the stone
materials. a, b Micrographic textures and rock-forming minerals of
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and biotite. The feldspars are altered
199
together. As time went by, the structure of the pagoda has
been dismantled by structural instability. The stone mate-
rials mainly consist of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and
biotite with equigranular texture in consequence of litho-
logical and mineralogical investigations.
The feldspars were altered into clay minerals along the
twins and grain boundaries. The biotite was replaced with
FeMn hydroxides and chlorites along the cleavage plane.
The quartz with seriate texture and feldspar with glom-
eroporphyritic texture were observed with biotite (Fig. 3a,
b). X-ray diffraction analyzer also detected quartz, mica,
plagioclase, orthoclase, chlorite and hornblende in the
stone samples (Fig. 3c).
Table 1 presents the chemical composition of the rock
sample. The contents of SiO2 and Al2O3 are variable in the
range from 64.15 to 74.90 wt.% and from 13.17 to
15.34 wt.%, respectively. They correspond to the contents
of general igneous rock. The compositional range of other
major elements is as follows: CaO 1.43 to 7.27 wt.%, Na2O
3.52 to 3.89 wt.%, K2O 4.05 to 5.02 wt.% and Fe2O3 0.57
to 2.16 wt.%. The rock material of the pagoda belongs to
acidic igneous rock close to the neutral.
Comparing to the general composition of granite
(Nockolds and Allen 1954), Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, TiO2 and P2O5 are enriched, while SiO2, MnO and
K2O are depleted. The depleted elements are explained by
the loss due to weathering. And the enrichment indicates
the external supply, for example, deposition of pollutants
on the stone surface. Particularly, CaO shows high con-
centration that is affected by quicklime from the concrete.
The contents of minor and rare earth elements are
similar to the ones of the general igneous rock. Sr, Y, Cr
and Ni were enriched, while Be, Co, Cu, Hf, Pb, Sc, V, Zn
and Zr were depleted (Pearce 1983). In case of rare earth
elements, the light ones are more enriched than heavy
elements comparing with the chondrite (Boynton 1984).
Based on the geochemical data, the chemical index of
alteration (CIA) and the weathering potential index (WPI)
were obtained. Generally, CIA represents the geochemical
change of the alkali elements against Al2O3, which is less
mobile than other elements. Thus, greater index values
into clay minerals along grain boundaries. c X-ray diffraction patterns
of the stone material
123
200 Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204

Table 1 Contents of major (wt.%), minor and rare earth elements 1984). The CIA of the granite showed the range of 47.32
(ppm) for host rock of the stone pagoda 56.02 (average 53.08), which is slightly higher chemical
No. MRS-1 MSR-2 MSR-3 weathering index than the fresh granite. The WPI was cal-
culated as 4.396.56 (average 5.60), which implies the stone
SiO2 64.15 66.60 74.90
pagoda has the high weathering potential (Table 1).
Al2O3 13.33 15.34 13.17
Fe2O3a 1.72 2.16 0.57
Formation of efflorescence
MnO 0.02 0.03 0.01
MgO 0.35 0.46 0.02
The efflorescence on the stone pagoda is mainly observed
CaO 7.27 3.65 1.43
on the exterior surface. As the components of the concrete
Na2O 3.52 3.79 3.89
dissolved in water during the curing process, lime residuals
K2O 4.05 4.66 5.02
as reaction products were deposited on the stone surface
TiO2 0.27 0.37 0.04
accelerating the erosion and damage to the pagoda
P2O5 0.10 0.12 0.02
(Fig. 4a). Even after the concrete has been cured, rainwater
LOI 4.95 2.24 0.99
kept running into the joint and generated carbonates
Total 99.73 99.42 100.10
growing into stalactite. Particularly, the compound of
CIA 47.32 55.90 56.02
quicklime added to the concrete to improve the curing
WPI 6.56 5.86 4.39
process caused acceleration of the efflorescence (Fig. 4b).
Ba 858 1230 25
The efflorescence on the stone pagoda shows micro-
Be 3 3 3
crystalline texture with white to light gray color. The
Cd \0.3 \0.3 0.5
pollutants by efflorescence were examined in SEM for
Co 6 5 2
microstructural investigation. It was observed that amor-
Cr 489 299 211
phous lime was extremely irregular in granule size and
Cs 5.8 4.3 4.3
features (Fig. 4c). Feldspars from the original rock mate-
Cu 9 4 \1
rials showed the irregular surface and the secondary
Hf 3.7 4.6 3.1
minerals were observed on the boundary with mica. Biotite
Ni 217 134 103
sheets were altered into uneven plates and chlorite. X-ray
Pb 23 25 32
diffractometer detected quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase,
Rb 189 167 226
amphibole, mica and calcite. The calcite is considered as
S 10 10 10
secondary products due to efflorescence.
Sc 1.7 2.1 0.5
The efflorescence is generated by water-dissolving ele-
Sr 546 515 107
ments of the concrete. The water also transports the soluble
Th 9.4 11.0 13.2
elements to the stone surface. It contains calcium, potas-
U 1.0 0.9 6.6
sium, sodium, magnesium, carbonate, sulfate, nitrate and
V \5 9 \5
chloride ions that come from the concrete and the atmo-
Y 6 6 29
sphere. The salts deposit on the stone surface along the
Zn 51 66 14
water pathway after the water dries out from the solution
Zr 121 147 24
(Fidler 2002; Lee and Yi 2007). As the salt accumulates
La 32.8 28.1 13.1
through numbers of reaction cycles, the efflorescence
Ce 49 58 26
occurs white to gray colors with adhesive solid substances.
Nd 17 18 11
General reaction processes are as follows:
Sm 3.4 3.1 4.9
Eu 0.9 1.0 0.4 Ca2 + 2HCO
3 ! CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2
Tb \0.5 \0.5 0.8 CaOH2 + CO2 ! CaCO3 + H2 O
Yb 0.5 0.5 2.7
Lu 0.07 0.07 0.40
CaCO3 + H2 SO4 ! CaSO4 + H2 CO3

CIA chemical index of alteration, WPI weathering potential index by 3CaCO3 + Fe2 SO4 3 + 6H2 O
Nesbitt and Young (1982) ! 2CaSO4 + 2FeOH3 + 3H2 CO3
a
Fe2O3, as total FeO
3CaCO3 + Al2 SO4 3 + 6H2 O
! 2CaSO4 + 2AlOH3 + 3H2 CO3
indicate more weathered rocks. On the one hand, WPI means
the sensitivity that the positive is more sensible to chemical The efflorescence depends on the environment such as
weathering than the negative (Nesbitt and Young 1982, humidity and temperature. For instance, the north side of

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
Fig. 4 Occurrence of efflorescence on the stone materials. a The lime residuals deposited on the exterior rock surface. b A flowing trace of white
carbonates on the rock. c A scanning electron microscopic image showing amorphous lime residuals with irregular grain size
the pagoda shows more intensive efflorescence than the
south side, which is more exposed to the sunlight than the
north. This is because the moisture content of the stone
surface in the north side is higher due to the poor
evaporation so that soluble salts can rise out with the
water continuously.
In the seasonal variation, the efflorescence tends to grow
intense in winter involving the reaction rate and the cli-
mate. The hydration rate of the cement slows down at low
temperature and the water transfer is activated as the open
pores in the concrete are not filled completely in this
season.
Analysis of soluble extracts
Based on the field observation of the efflorescence, the
chosen samples were conducted for the extraction experi-
ment. The results of the chemical analysis and the
physicochemical properties of soluble elements are present
in Table 2. The temperature, pH and electrical conductivity
(EC) revealed 29.230.8C (average 29.6C), 6.287.07
(average 6.68) and 22.232.2 ls/cm (average 27.4 ls/cm)
in the pH 5.0 water, respectively. The pH 6.2 water showed
the temperature 27.528.8C (average 28.2C), pH 5.89
7.15 (average 6.52) and the EC 6.024.8 ls/cm (average
14.14 ls/cm). These parameters were higher in the pH 5.0
water than the pH 6.2, whereas the Eh was reverse (average
18.6 mV in the pH 5.0 comparing the average 61.52 mV in
the pH 6.2). The Eh and EC showed negative and positive
slopes as the pH increased (Fig. 5).
The pH 6.2 solvent tended to have generally higher
major cation contents than the pH 5.0 solvent excepting
Na?. Other minor cations as Al3?, As2?, Ba2?, Co2?,
Cr2?, Mo2?, Rb2?, Se2?, Sr2?, Un? and Vn? also showed
higher content. For the anions, F- tended to be more
concentrated at the initial reaction only in the pH 6.2 sol-
vent, while Cl-, NO3- and SO42- had higher contents in
the pH 5.0 solvent. Illustrating the concentration of the
water-soluble elements toward pH, most cations in the pH
5.0 solvent were steadily increased as the pH increased.
Contents of the anions were fluctuated by the pH,
201
excluding Cl- which was obviously higher in the pH 5.0
solvent than in the pH 6.2 (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 illustrates ion contents by reaction time and pH
of the solvent. The pH 6.2 solvent was observed to elute
more cations at the initial reaction time, but it had less ion
contents 12 h later. However, the pH 5.0 solvent showed a
steady increase as the reaction time elapsed. Final con-
centration of cations at 5 h reaction time tended to be
similar between the pH 6.2 and 5.0 solvents. The content of
Cl- was higher in the pH 5.0 solvent, while the one of
SO42- was higher in the pH 6.2 solvent.
Most cation contents in the pH 6.2 water were concen-
trated at the initial 30-min reaction. And the elements of
which the contents were increased by the reaction time in
the pH 5.0 solvent are As2?, Ca2?, Fen?, K?, Rb2?, Si2?,
Sr2? and Un?. The cations that showed the highest contents
at the initial 30-min reaction are Ba2?, Cd2?, Cu2?, Ni2?,
Zn2? and Vn?. The anions generally appeared a good
water-solubility at the 2 h reaction time. The results of ion
contents against pH of the solvent and reaction time lead us
to consider the cleaning duration and the pH of the solvent
to remove the inorganic water-soluble pollutants on the
stone surface.
In consequence of the extraction experiment, it is con-
cluded that we can determine the preferential reaction time
and the solvent as what elements is objective to be
removed. The ions which showed the highest contents at
the reaction time of 30 min can be applied by means of
short cleaning hours. In addition, the removal of cations is
more applicable in the pH 6.2 solvent whereas the removal
of anions is more sufficient in the pH 5.0 solvent from the
stone surface (Fig. 7).
Prevention and cleaning of efflorescence
Typical Korean stone pagodas in old times had been
originally constructed by assembling stone blocks without
any adhesives. However, a number of stone pagodas has
been reconstructed and restored using bonding materials as
lime and concrete to prevent from being collapsed and
detached in modern times. Although the lime and the
123
202 Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204

Table 2 Concentration of soluble elements and physicochemical properties by extraction experiment of efflorescent pollutants
Solvent pH 6.2 pH 5.0
Time (hours) 1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5

Si (ppm) 4.612 3.034 2.725 2.884 3.083 0.506 0.555 0.761 0.799 0.912
Ca (ppm) 14.202 8.741 2.549 3.572 5.428 1.843 2.530 3.626 4.296 5.129
Fe (ppm) 0.051 0.037 0.016 0.018 0.024 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.022 0.026
K (ppm) 9.931 9.839 0.545 0.782 0.992 1.268 1.527 1.787 1.902 2.006
Mg (ppm) 0.276 0.232 0.032 0.037 0.043 0.155 0.161 0.176 0.167 0.151
Na (ppm) 10.763 10.051 0.217 0.263 0.414 1.380 1.605 1.779 1.768 1.768
Cl (ppm) 0.021 1.052 1.199 1.045 1.143 1.508 2.077 3.538 2.176 3.703
F (ppm) 0.390 0.516 0.646 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
NO3 (ppm) 0.032 nd 0.630 1.303 0.125 1.548 0.048 1.868 0.078 0.046
SO4 (ppm) 0.021 0.052 0.324 1.042 0.052 0.860 0.381 0.435 0.063 0.139
T (C) 28.5 28.0 28.2 27.5 28.8 29.3 29.2 29.4 29.2 30.8
Eh (mV) 63.8 40.3 20.6 15.2 13.9 40.0 29.2 14.0 0.3 9.8
EC (ls/cm) 6.0 8.5 13.8 17.6 24.8 28.0 22.2 25.1 29.5 32.2
pH 5.89 6.27 6.59 6.68 7.15 6.28 6.44 6.71 6.89 7.07
Al (ppb) 552.430 262.960 8.889 12.079 19.839 3.957 6.885 16.855 15.898 19.915
As (ppb) 2.165 2.126 0.479 0.593 0.945 0.278 0.386 0.565 0.688 0.812
Ba (ppb) 3.512 1.718 0.601 0.728 0.632 1.348 1.305 1.071 1.099 0.971
Cd (ppb) 0.056 0.002 0.040 0.018 0.023 0.162 0.122 0.060 0.063 0.033
Co (ppb) 0.278 0.067 0.784 0.387 0.436 0.278 0.337 0.411 0.440 0.380
Cr (ppb) 2.239 1.726 0.866 1.101 1.353 0.287 0.429 0.828 0.671 0.828
Cu (ppb) 2.451 4.439 3.186 2.344 5.296 8.710 4.398 5.775 5.200 5.461
Mn (ppb) 4.114 1.371 0.622 0.398 0.720 1.356 1.402 1.893 1.545 1.198
Mo (ppb) 0.876 0.765 0.152 0.195 0.183 0.196 0.256 0.327 0.279 0.326
Ni (ppb) 2.113 0.698 0.739 0.213 0.326 4.093 3.420 2.676 2.476 2.358
Rb (ppb) 15.313 13.941 1.273 1.633 1.974 1.077 1.471 1.994 2.268 3.024
Sn (ppb) 2.464 1.102 0.446 0.680 1.063 1.186 1.614 1.143 1.795 1.431
Sr (ppb) 28.731 25.186 5.475 6.868 9.097 5.816 6.920 8.061 9.070 11.408
U (ppb) 0.374 0.257 0.006 0.016 0.023 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.024
Zn (ppb) 7.435 0.957 1.639 0.984 0.886 6.003 3.485 3.179 1.995 1.596
nd not detected

concrete could be considered as the best materials to apply
for the conservation of the pagodas at that time, they
brought about the problem of efflorescence that damages
the stone heritages in aesthetic and physicochemical
weathering in the event.
To prevent efflorescence, the source material concrete
should be basically removed from stone heritages. How-
ever, it is scarcely simple to remove completely and
recover the previous state before the application of the
concrete because it strongly adheres to the stone surface.
Therefore, it would be proposed to control other factors
such as water supply and climatic elements. These solu-
tions will reduce further efflorescence and minimize the
stone damage by the efflorescence.
The first solution controlling water supply is to add
agents reacting with a slake lime so that other kinds of
compound than salts will be generated. The products can
also fill open pores in the concrete and the water cannot
penetrate into it. Secondly, the surface hardening can be
applied to the stone heritages. The hardener makes a pore
network of the concrete denser. Finally, waterproof layers
can also block the water percolated through. These solu-
tions are considerably effective for the stone heritages
which already include the concrete. Controlling climatic
factors are very important as well. They have a direct
relationship with the water supply into the concrete. The
construction of a shelter is debated for stone heritages in
recent days.
The stone cultural heritages that are already damaged by
efflorescence require a cleaning process. When pollutants
on the stone surface are easily removable, general clean-
ing instructions verified by conservation scientists are

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
Fig. 5 Diagrams of T, Eh and
EC values against pH in the
water-soluble extracts. (filled
square) pH 6.2 solvent, (open
triangle) pH 5.0 solvent
Fig. 6 Diagrams of ionic
concentrations against pH in the
water-soluble extracts. (filled
square) pH 6.2 solvent, (open
triangle) pH 5.0 solvent
recommended. However, several pollutants may cause
another problem like discoloration, recontamination and
acceleration of biological colonization after cleaning, so the
procedure should be carried out with special care (Lee et al.
2003, 2005, 2006).
Werner (1989) suggested several methods and expressed
concerns over cleaning. McDonald et al. (1992) also rec-
ommended that surface grinding and chemical treatment
using an acid, alkali and H3PO4 should not be applied to
the stone monuments because these methods may cause
immediate or later damage. Chemical agents containing
phosphate derive prosperous growth of algae and lichen
after chemical cleaning (Young 1998). Accordingly, iden-
tification of the pollutants to be cleaned is required prior to
cleaning process.
In case of the Mireuksaji stone pagoda, the salts causing
the efflorescence are mainly composed of carbonates and
sulfates. These substances can be removed by physical and
chemical methods, or spraying high pressure water
and steam. A physical method includes steel-brushing and
sandpaper grinding with meticulous cares. When the salts
strongly adhere to the stone surface, chemical methods are
considerable that dissolve salts in 0.1 N oxalic acid,
203
trichloroethylene, methyl chloride or surfactants by soft
rubbing with a soaked cloth. This method is effective for
small spots but is not recommended for large areas.
After chemical cleaning, washing with distilled water
should be followed to prevent remaining agents. The
washing during the daytime allows the water to evaporate
in a short time and to avoid deep permeation into the stone
and the concrete. All the procedures should be performed
after scientific verification on safety, effectiveness and
efficiency of the methodology and the chemical agents.
Conclusion
1. The stone pagoda in the Mireuksaji temple site consists
of medium-grained biotite granite with a porphyritic
texture and a light gray color. The pagoda has been
weathered by decomposition of rock-forming minerals
and damaged by efflorescence and discoloration of the
stone surface. The CIA and WPI of the stone materials
are 47.3256.02 and 4.396.56, respectively, indicat-
ing the host rock of the pagoda is slightly more
weathered than fresh granite.
123
204
Fig. 7 Diagrams of ionic concentrations against stirring time in the
water-soluble extracts
2. The efflorescent pollutants on the stone surface did not
only damage the aesthetic but also accelerate rock
weathering of the pagoda. They have the origin in lime
residuals from the concrete reinforcement in the past.
The efflorescence is more concentrated in the water
pathway and northern areas, and in winter season.
3. On the basis of the extraction experiment, the pH 6.2
solvent is generally preferable for cleaning, however,
the pH 5.0 solvent is more effective for anion cleaning.
The pH of the solvents has a negative slope against the
Eh, and a positive slope against the EC.
4. To remove efflorescent pollutants, physical and chem-
ical methods can be carried out side by side. Cleaning
using chemical agents should be applied only to small
spots with sufficient water washing. And the cleaning
effectiveness shows the maximum with the duration of
1 h in which soluble elements dissolve in the solvent
the most.
123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:197204
Acknowledgments This study was supported by the Research and
Development Budget of National Research Institute of Cultural
Properties in Korea (NRICP) and in part of Star Project of Kongju
National University.
References
Boynton WV (1984) Geochemistry of the rare earth elements:
meteorite studies. In: Henderson P (ed) Rare earth element
geochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 63107
CHA (Cultural Heritage Administration) (2006) Detailed information
of cultural heritages in Korea. http://www.cha.go.kr. Accessed
26 Apr 2008
Fidler J (2002) Stone building, construction and associated compo-
nent system: their decay and treatment. Engl Herit Res Trans
2:1114
Jeong YH (1998) Stone pagoda of the Baekje Kingdom. Seoul
National University, Seoul, pp 1929
Lee CH, Choi SW, Suh M (2003) Natural deterioration and
conservation treatment for the granite standing Buddha of
Daejosa Temple, Republic of Korea. Geotech Eng Geol 21:63
77
Lee CH, Lee MS, Suh M, Choi SW (2005) Weathering and
deterioration of rock properties of the Dabotap pagoda (World
Cultural Heritage), Republic of Korea. Environ Geol 47:547557
Lee CH, Lee MS, Kim YT, Kim J (2006) Deterioration assessment
and conservation of a heavily degraded Korean stone Buddha
from the ninth century. Stud Conserv 51:305316
Lee CH, Yi JE (2007) Weathering damage evaluation of rock
properties in the Bunhwangsa temple stone pagoda, Gyeongju,
Republic of Korea. Environ Geol 52:11931205
McDonald J, Thomson B, Tonge KH (1992) Chemical cleaning of
sandstone comparative laboratory studies. In: Webster RGM (ed)
Stone cleaning and the nature, soiling and decay mechanism of
stone. Proceeding of the international conference, Edinburgh,
London, UK 1416 Apr 1992, pp 217226
Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1982) Early proterozoic climates and plate
motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature
299:715717
Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1984) Prediction of some weathering trends
of plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and
kinetic considerations. Geochem Cosmochem Acta 48:1523
1534
Nockolds SR, Allen R (1954) Average chemical compositions of
some igneous rocks. Geol Soc Am Bull 65:10071032
NRICP (National Research Institute of Cultural Properties) (2003)
The purpose and method of the disassembly survey. Report of
the stone pagoda in the Mireuksaji temple site I. Report of
National Research Institute of Cultural Properties of Korea, pp
129137
Pearce JA (1983) Role of sub-continental lithosphere in magma
genesis at active continental margins. In: Hawkesworth CJ,
Norry MJ (eds) Continental basalts and mantle xenoliths. Shiva
Publishing Ltd., Nantwich, pp 230249
Werner M (1989) Research on cleaning methods applied to historical
stone monuments. Science. Technology and European Cultural
Heritage, Bologna, pp 688691
Yang HJ, Lee CH, Choi SW, Lee MS (2006) Petrological charac-
teristics and provenance presumption for rock properties of the
stone pagoda in Mireuksaji temple site, Iksan, Korea. J Geol Soc
Korea 42:293306
Young ME (1998) Algal and lichen growth following chemical stone
cleaning. J Arch Conserv 4:4858