Gravitational Waves

Anushrut Sharma

I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND BASIC OUTLINE

In 1916, a year after he had formulated the field equations of gravity, Einstein predicted the
existence of gravitational waves as a consequence of GR[1]. The solutions to his field equations
in the weak field limit predicted the existence of waves propagating at the speed of light. More-
over, these were transverse waves travelling outward from the source and were a consequence of
the time variations of the mass quadrupole moment of the emitting source. There is no analog
of gravitational waves in Newtonian gravity and hence, the existence of gravitational waves has
been seen as a crucial test of GR.
Ill first give an overview of the basic physics of gravitational waves and then discuss some
interesting properties. I will also consider binary systems as sources of gravitational waves to
get an understanding of the energy these waves carry and the mechanism that is responsible
for generating them. Additionally, since the recent discovery of gravitational waves was from
a binary system of black holes, this calculation is particularly relevant. I shall be following
Gravitation by Misner, Thorne and Wheelerin for these sections[2]. In particular, I shall be
referring to chapters 18, 20, 35 and 36. Finally, I will briefly describe a few big experiments
looking for gravitational waves - LIGO, BICEP and eLISA.

II. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES FROM GR

To understand the physics of gravitational waves, we first study Einsteins theory in the weak
field limit, i.e., when

g = + h ; |h |  1 (1)

1
The field equations then become

h, + h, h, h, (h, h, ) = 16T (2)

with the following gauge invariance

h = h , , (3)

At this stage it is helpful to define

1
h h h (4)
2

The equations are then gauge invariant according to the following transformation

h = h , , + , (5)

The field equations then become

h, h, + h, + h, = 16T (6)

The first term in this equation is the usual flat space dAlembertian. We impose the following
gauge conditions to cancel the remaining terms

h , =0 (7)

As a consequence of this condition, it follows that

, = 0 (8)

Given a function that satisfies the above condition, we can always choose the Lorentz gauge.

2
These are the analog of Lorentz gauge A, for a second rank tensor. The field equations then
become

h, = 16T (9)

If we now set T = 0, then we can study the solution in vacuum. The simplest solutions to
the gauge condition and the field equations is

h = A exp(ik x ) (10)

Since these are the solutions to a wave equation, we associate A with the amplitude of the
wave and k with the wave vector. As a result of the field equations, k is a null vector

k k = 0 (11)

and the gauge conditions impose the following orthogonality condition

A k = 0 (12)

Here, A and k are constants and this solution looks exactly like a plane wave. Since k is a null
vector we know that these waves travel with the speed of light along the direction(1/k0 )(kx , ky , kz ).
There are 6 independent components of A after the orthogonality constraint. Further we can
make the following gauge transformations

= iC exp(ik x ) (13)

Because of the four arbitrary constants C , we are left with 2 degrees of freedom in A . The
Lorentz gauge
Now, by a specific transformation, we select a 4-velocity which is the same throughout the entire

3
spacetime and impose the following conditions

A u = 0 (14)

These are actually only 3 constraints since one of them k (A u ) = 0 is already satisfied. So
for the fourth constraint, we set

A = 0 (15)

We now have eight constraints A u = A k = A = 0 on the ten components of A . Thus,

there are two degrees of freedom in A . These represent the two polarizations of the wave.
We now set u0 = 1 and uj = 0. This choice of u implies

h0 = 0 (16)

hkj,j = 0 (17)

h=0 (18)

A symmetric tensor satisfying these conditions is called a transverse traceless tensor, since it is
traceless and if thought of as a wave, it is transverse to its direction of propagation (hij kj = 0).
This gauge is hence called the transverse traceless (TT) gauge. We shall summarize the above
conditions as following

h = hTT (19)

TT
Since h = 0, we have hTT = h . Here, repeated spatial indices are to be summed over even
when both are down. This analysis is valid for plane waves. For arbitrary gravitational waves,

4
we first resolve them into a superposition of plane waves and then introduce a global Lorentz
from with u = 0 . Since only the spatial components of h are non zero, we only need to
impose

hjk, = 0 (20)

In the TT gauge, the components of the Reimann tensor have have a pretty simple form

Rj0k0 = R0j0k = Rj00k = R0jk0 (21)

1 T
Rj0k0 = hTjk,00 (22)
2

For a gravitational wave in linearized theory we can always write h in the TT form. However,
when h is not radiative, this prescription fails.

III. GEODESIC DEVIATION

Consider two points A and B that are infinitesimally close to each other in space. Our goal is
to find the change in the position of B in the reference frame of A. If we perform this calculation
in a TT frame such that xA j = 0

d2 xjB TT 1
2
= Rj0k0 xkB = ( 2 hTjkT /t2 ) (23)
d 2

Let the particles be at rest relative to each other before the wave arrives. Then
 
1 TT
xjB ( ) = xkB (0) jk + hjk (24)
2

5
This describes the oscillations of B as measured by A. In the special case when the particle
separation is along the direction of propagation of a plane wave, then

hTjkT xBk (0) hTjkT kk = 0 (25)

Thus, gravitational waves have no physical effect along the direction of their wave vector. They
are transverse waves.

IV. POLARIZATION OF A PLANE WAVE

Now consider a monochromatic plane wave travelling in the z direction. In the TT gauge,
the only non-vanishing components are

hTxxT = hTyyT = A+ ei(tz) (26)

hTxyT = hTyxT = A ei(tz) (27)

The unit linear polarization tensors are given by

e+ ex ex ey ey (28)

e ex ey + ey ex (29)

6
FIG. 1: This figure shows the deformation of a ring of test particles due to a plane wave that
is propagating perpendicular to the plane of particles. The first instance corresponds to a plane
wave with polarization e+ and the second case is for a plane wave of polarization e

In electromagnetism, the unit polarization vectors for circularly polarized waves are

1
eR = (ex + iey ) (30)
2

1
eL = (ex iey ) (31)
2

Similarly, in gravitation the unit tensors for circular polarization are given by

1
eR = (e+ + ie ) (32)
2

1
eL = (e+ ie ) (33)
2

7
FIG. 2: This figure shows the deformation of a ring of test particles due to a circularly polarized
wave that is propagating perpendicular to the plane of particles. The first instance corresponds
to a plane wave with polarization eR and the second case is for a plane wave of polarization eL

Unlike an electromagnetic wave, a gravitational wave is invariant when rotated by 1800 about
its direction of propagation. This is because the classical radiation field of a particle of spin
S is invariant under a rotation of 3600 /S and for a graviton, S = 2. Moreover, unlike the
orthogonal states of polarization of light which are at ans angle of 900 , for gravitational waves,
the orthogonal states are at an angle of 450 .

V. STRESS-ENERGY TENSOR FOR GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

Before explicitly writing out the energy momentum tensor for gravitational waves, I would
like to discuss a very interesting fact about the energy momentum tensor for gravitational fields.
A consequence of Einsteins equivalence principle is that one can always find a local frame in
which the local gravitational fields vanish which means the energy momentum tensor vanishes.
This would suggest that gravitational fields dont make a contribution to energy-momentum
tensor! The problem lies not with the existence of gravitational energy but the fact that gravi-
tational energy cannot be localized. Since the energy-momentum carried by gravitational waves

8
cannot be localized inside a wavelength, we talk in terms of an effective smeared-out energy
momentum tensor.

1
T = < hTjk,
T TT
hjk, > (34)
32

For a plane wave of the form

h = (A+ e+ + A e )ei(tz) (35)

The energy momentum tensor is given by

1 2
Ttt = Tzz = Ttz = (|A+ |2 + |A |2 ) (36)
32

VI. QUADRUPOLE NATURE OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

In this section, well analyze the luminosity of gravitational waves. To get an order of mag-
nitude estimate, we extend our analogy with electromagnetism with the substitution e2 m2
In electromagnetic theory, the luminosity is dominated by the electric-dipole. The gravitational
analog of the electric dipole moment is

X
d~ = mA ~xA (37)
A

The law of conservation of momentum implies

2 d~
=0 (38)
t2

Thus, there is no mass dipole radiation in gravitational physics. Next, we define the analog
of the magnetic dipole moments for gravity which takes Coulombs law to Newtons gravity.
Although we are treating gravity as if it were a vector field rather than a rank two tensor field,

9
it is instructive in giving an order of magnitude estimate.

X
= (xa (mvA )) (39)
A

This implies that the contribution of these dipole moments will also be zero due to the law of
conservation of angular momentum. There are no dipole radiations in gravitation. Thus, the
lowest order term corresponds to quadrupole radiation. In electromagnetism

1
Lelectricquadrupole = Qjk Qjk (40)
20

where
 
X 1 2
Qjk eA xAj xAk jk rA (41)
3
A

The corresponding term for gravity taking into account the correct factor that comes as a
result of tensor calculation is

1
Lmassquadrupole = < Ijk Ijk > (42)
5

where
 
X 1
Ijk mA xAj xAk jk rA 2 (43)
3
A

Here we have taken the average over several characteristic periods of the source in accordance
with the fact that localized gravitational fields make no sense.

10
VII. BINARY STARS AS SOURCES FOR GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

Two stars of masses m1 and m2 circling each other at a separation a have an angular frequency
given by
r
M
= ; M = m1 + m2 (44)
a3

The kinetic energy of this system is given by

1 m1 m2
T = (45)
2 a

The power radiated in the form of gravitational waves can be roughly estimated by L
(kinetic energy). Thus,

2 M 3 m1 m2 c5
LGW L0 ; = , L 0 = (46)
4a5 M G

The exact calculation has a factor 30. Further, there is a dependance on the eccentricity()
of the orbit as well which is given by

32 2 M 3
LGW = f ()L0 (47)
5 a5

where f() is a dimensionless correction given by

 
73 37
f () = 1 + 2 + 4 [1 2 ]7/2 (48)
24 96

As this system radiates gravitational waves, it loses energy and the two stars start to spiral
toward each other. For a circular orbit, E = 12 m1 m2 /a = 12 M/a and

dE 1 da
= (M/a2 ) (49)
dt 2 dt

11
This should be the same as LGW . Thus we get a first order differential equation in a which
has the solution

5 a40
a(t) = a(0)(1 t/0 )1/4 ; 0 = (50)
256 M 2

In the absence of any other forces, the two stars will spiral into each other at t = 0 . The
luminosity of gravitational waves decreases as the fifth power of separation. Thus, as the stars
come close they radiate more and more gravitational waves . This theory obviously breaks
beforea = 0 since quantum gravitational effects would become crucial at small enough length
scales.

VIII. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES FROM INFLATION

Gravitational waves would be a crucial test for the theory of inflation. While the CMB is from
roughly 300,000 years after the big bang and nucleosynthesis is roughly few minutes after the
big bang, gravitational waves could have been produced as early as 1024 seconds after the big
bang[3]. Our best known predictions about the energy in gravitational wave background come
from inflation. In inflation, The initial density perturbations start out as quantum fluctuations
in the scalar field which are then accompanied by tensor fluctuations in gravity[4]. Depending on
the model of inflation, we get different predictions for the ratio of scalar to tensor components.
According to the standard inflationary models, the spectrum of GW should be independent
of frequency whereas other models allow it to increase or decrease with frequency. It would
therefore be important to measure the gravitational wave background over a wide range of
frequency. Additionally, the gravitational waves created in these theories should be dominated
by b modes [3].

12
IX. LIGO EXPERIMENT

The Laser Interferometry Gravitational Wave Observatory is a well known project whose
aim is to detect and observe gravitational waves. The basic idea of using Laser interferometry
to observe gravitational waves was conceived by the American scientist Joseph Weber [5] as
well as by the Soviet scientist Mikhail Gertsenshtein [6]. In 1968, Kip Thorne began laying the
theoretical foundations for gravitational waves and their sources [5]. The organizational setup
for LIGO began back in the 80s and LIGO began its operations in 2002. The initial operations
from 2002 to 2010 were unsuccessful in detecting gravitational waves. This was followed by a
shutdown during which the detectors were improved and the new detectors were operational in
February 2015.
There are two observatories in LIGO - one in Livingston, Louisiana and one in Richland, Wash-
ington - separated by roughly 3000km. Through trilateration, the difference in the arrival time
of the wave to the two detectors helps us in determining the source of the gravitational wave.
The interferometer is L shaped with the length of each arm being 4km. A gravitational wave
passing through the interferometer would change the effective length which can be measured
[7].

FIG. 3: This is a basic schematic of LIGOs interferometers. An incoming gravitational from

above would change the effective path length of both the arms. The polarization of the wave in
general leads to different strains along the two arms of the interferometer[15]

13
 In September 2015, the LIGO observatories detected gravitational waves radiated by a bi-
nary black hole system that merged into a single black hole. The initial black hole masses were
32M and 29 (ignoring the uncertainties in the observation). The final black hole mass was
62M and hence 3M c2 energy was radiated away in the form of gravitational waves with a
peak luminosity of 200M c2 . The frequency of the gravitational waves was between 35 and 250
Hz and the maximum gravitational wave strain was 1021 [7].
In the figure below, we see how closely the results of numerical relativity coincide with observa-
tions. Since the source loses a considerable amount of energy through gravitational waves, the
amplitude and frequency of the gravitational waves emitted evolves as function of time and we
dont end up getting a periodic wave. Moreover, as a gravitational wave propagates through a
spacetime with curvature, its wavefronts and wavelengths change analogous to the refraction of
light.

FIG. 4: These are the observations of the two LIGO observatories[7]

14
X. BICEP

The Background imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization is an experiment that specif-

ically aims to observe the B-modes of polarization in the Cosmic Microwave Background thus
hoping to study the signatures of inflation in the CMB[8]. The BICEP experiment is located
at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. The experiment began in 2002 at Caltech in col-
laboration with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The BICEP1 telescope was positioned at the
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 2005. BICEP2 used the same telescope but different
detectors and was deployed in 2009.
In March 2014, the BICEP2 experiment claimed that they had detected B modes in gravita-
tional waves produced from inflation[9]. Subsequently, it was found that the signal could have
been a consequence of cosmic dust and, since the tensor to scalar ratio contradicted limits from
the Planck data, it was considered to be the most likely explanation [10].
In March 2015, combining the data with the Keck Array and Planck, a limit of r < 0.12 was set
on the scalar-to-tensor ratio [11].

XI. ELISA

The Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna is an experiment whose aim is to accurately
measure gravitational waves. The principle of measuring gravitational waves for this experiment
is also laser interferometry, however, unlike the LIGO experiment, eLISA is a space based
detector. The concept of LISA is to have a constellation of three spacecrafts in an equilateral
triangle the arm size of the order of a million km[12]. A gravitational wave passing through
would change the relative length of these arms by the ripples it produces in spacetime which
would help detect gravitational waves. LISA is sensitive even in the low frequency band of
gravitational waves and would be capable of observing signals from binary stars in the Milky
Way[13]. LISA and ground detectors are thus complimentary to each other since both are
sensitivity to different frequencies. Compared to ground based detectors, LISA has such larger
arms for the interferometer and does not have to bother with seismic noise. Interference due to

15
nearby masses is also not an issue.

FIG. 5: LISA[14]

XII. FUTURE WORK

The recent discovery of gravitational waves has opened up the universe to us in a way that
few had thought would ever be possible(Einstein was also one of the pessimists!). Careful mea-
surement of gravitational waves will help advance a lot of physics. In theoretical areas like
inflation, gravitational waves will play a crucial role in testing theories. Additionally, gravita-
tional waves will help us study some phenomena in which the only source of information might
be gravitational waves. They could thus help advance our knowledge towards a quantum theory
of gravity while at the same time helping us to answer some long standing questions like the
Cosmic Censorship Conjecture[16]. The detection also poses a lot of challenges and new areas
for experimentalists and engineers and this new born field gravitational wave astronomy looks
very promising.

XIII. REFERENCES

.
[1] A. Einstein, Sitzungsber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1, 688 (1916).
[2] C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne, J.A. Wheeler, Gravitation, W.H. Freeman and Company

16
(1973).
[3] B.S. Sathyaprakash, Bernard F. Schutz, Physics, Astrophysics and Cosmology with Gravi-
tational Waves,(2009), arXiv:0903.0338v1[gr-qc].
[4] B. Allen, Stochastic gravity-wave background in inflationary-universe models?, Phys. Rev.D,
37, 2078?2085, (1988).
[5] Committee on Setting Priorities for NSF-Sponsored Large Research Facility Projects, Com-
mittee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, Policy and Global Affairs, Board on Physics
and Astronomy, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences, National Research Council.
Setting Priorities for Large Research Facility Projects Supported by the National Science Foun-
dation. National Academies Press. p. 109-117. ISBN 0-309-09084-9. (2004)
[6] M.E. Gertsenshtein, Wave Resonance of Light and Gravitational Waves. Journal of Ex-
perimental and Theoretical Physics 14: 84. (1962)
[7] B.P.Abbott et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration), Observation of
Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger, PRL 116, 061102 (2016)
[8] BICEP: Robinson Gravitational Wave Background Telescope. http://bicep.caltech.edu/public/
[9] BICEP2 Collaboration, Detection of B-Mode Polarization at Degree Angular Scales by BI-
CEP2, PRL 112, 241101 (2014).
[10] Raphael Flauger, J. Colin Hill, David N. Spergel, Toward an Understanding of Foreground
Emission in the BICEP2 Region, arXiv:1405:7351v2 [astro-ph] (2014).
[11] BICEP2/Keck and Planck Collaborations, Joint Analysis of BICEP2/Keck Array and
Planck Data, PRL 114, 101301 (2015)
[12] eLISA Consortium, eLISA, The First Gravitational Wave Observatory in Space.
https://www.elisascience.org/articles/elisa-mission/elisa-mission-gravitational-universe
[13] Gijs Nelemans, The Galactic gravitational wave foreground, Classical and Quantum Grav-
ity 26 (9): 094030. arXiv:0901.1778 (2009) [14] http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28041
[15] http://www.ligo.org/images/faq-ifo.png [16] H. Iguchi, T. Harada, K.Nakao, Gravitational
Radiation from a Naked Singularity, Prog.Theor.Phys.101:1235-1252,1999

17