A Toxicological and Environmental Review of

Depleted Uranium use by the Military in The

Gulf War and Balkan War
*
Jacob C Donton*
University of Idaho, Department of Chemistry, Environmental Chemistry 418, Dr. Wandruszka, 20 February 2013

Abstract

The use of depleted uranium (DU) as a tactical weapon has yielded promising results as
far as armor-penetration is concerned. However, DU is a highly toxic heavy metal and is also
inherently radioactive. Upon contact with hardened armors, the DU chemically ignites to
extremely high temperatures, melting the target area while forming an aerosol of lethal uranium-
oxides UO2+x and U3O8-z.[11] The aerosols make the DU a mobile threat to the environment as it
collects in the dusts and soils of the region it was used. The fact that it is a low-level alpha and
beta emitter is a major concern, not for when in contact with the skin, but when it is inhaled. The
regions in which DU is used are permanently contaminated unless thoroughly removed, which is
nearly impossible since it may spread via air, dust, or water table. A targeted region is effectively
condemned not only for the denizens, but the soldiers who are administering the DU. If it is
used, all parties are affected by it.
______________________________________________________________________________

Introduction element
Depleted uranium emerged as a Percentage of isotopes 238U (99.75%), 235U
pollutant since its advent in warfare; by (0.25%), 234U (0.005%)
primarily for the use of munitions and weight
Melting point 2070 F, (1132 C)
ammunition. The United States military Density 18.9 g cm3 (65% more
considered the physical properties of dense than lead)
depleted uranium, DU, to be akin to Specific activity 14.8 mBq mg1
tungsten. The use of a byproduct Forms and water Uranium hexafluoride
compliments its cost-effectiveness and solubility (very
tactical benefits for the US military; given soluble), uranyl acetate
that it is used as an alternative to tungsten (medium), uranium oxide
for armor-penetration purposes.[18] Uranium (low)
was first found as pitchblende and was used Radioactivity It emits alpha (primarily)
for various applications that range from and beta particles and
gamma rays(low)
glassblowing to making paints for ceramics.
[13] Other Highly pyrophoric
Germany was predominantly responsible (ignites
for ushering uranium into the scientific when it fragments)
realm, wherein its properties where Fig.1 [1]
systematically discovered.[13] Its currently
known properties are as follows in figure 1: Notable features of DU are the
density and the pyrophoric nature.
Nature Heavy metal and
radioactive

*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 1

Combined, the DU is highly effective as a The figure suggests that its radioactivity is
fissile missile. not the main concern for bodily damage but
Background: DU was first introduced in the rather its chemical toxicity. However, once
Gulf War (1991) and in the Balkans, namely ingested, the surrounding human tissues are
Kosovo (1999) and Bosnia-Herzegovina subject to a 30 micron sphere of the alpha
(1994).[8] It has been controversial in the particle[2] and affect the respecting tissues.
sense that it is a radioactive material and the Once the particles have become stationed in
implications are ones of emotion rather than the body, they will be subject to the blood
practical application.[6] The Gulf War flow and will reside in the kidneys. [16][12][7]
syndrome, a well-known ordeal that owes its Uranium oxides in the form of
source to the Persian Gulf War and aerosols are of cardinal concern when
differentiates itself from PTSD and dealing with DU and its toxicokinetic and
disorders alike in its particular pharmacokinetic viability as a hazardous
psychosomatic affects.[19] The difficulty of material.[16] The dangerous aerosols form
proving that DU is a culprit for this disorder when the munitions ignite upon contact of
sources from the fact that it is hard to prove the hardened target, forming the following:
how long a soldier or civilian must be
exposed and just how much can affect the (UO2)xOy+ (UO2)x-1Oy-1+ + UO3
human body and its faculties. Denotes:
Psychosomatic and physical effects are UO2+ (+UO3) U2O5+ (+UO3) U3O8+ (+UO3)
U4O11+ (+UO3) U5O14+ (+UO3)
perceived in different ways.[18][16][19]
U6O17+ (+UO3 ) U7O20+ (+UO3 ) U8O23+
____________________________________ (+UO3 ) U9O26+ (+UO3 ) U10O29+ (+UO3 )
U11O32+ (+UO3 ) U12O35+
1. Toxicology Fig. 3 [16]
Depleted uranium is alone; a toxic
heavy metal much like lead, but it is a low-
level alpha and beta emitter. In this gaseous state, the area of
effect is as large as the wind will take the
A comparison of the activities of a material. Concentrations will thusly vary
few radioactive materials: and become more diluted the further from
the impact it is measured from.
iodine 131 4'598'000'000'000'000
Bq/g 1.1 Pharmacokinetics
cesium137 3'206'000'000'000 Bq/g
plutonium239 2'298'000'000 Bq/g
The kidneys, aforementioned, are the major
natural uranium with 50'000 Bq/g source of detection and damage from DU.
its daughter products The kidneys are targeted when the DU is
ca. soluble and can move through the
depleted uranium with 40'000 Bq/g bloodstream.[12] Concordantly, the damage
its daughter products done by the aerosol form of the DU oxides
ca. and solubility levels can be related. The
Fig. 2 [20] radioactivity may not be the main cause for
Figure 2 shows the relative concern, even when emitting alpha and beta
radioactivity of DU in comparison to other particles, they are far and few between.[20] If
radioactive isotopes. The significance lays the uranium is in the soluble form of a
in its long half-life of 4.5 billion years [21] uranyl ion UO22+, it will form a bond with
and a pulmonary half-life of 4 years [8][11]. proteins, bicarbonates, and albumin[10] . This

*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 2

is passed through the glomerulus and life is increased to 300 days. [10][9][1]
expelled within one day [6][12][13]. However, Concentrations found in rats after one day of
the kidney damage occurs if the proximal implantation of a DU pellet, were highest in
tubules form phosphate ligands, effectively the kidneys and the bones, as well as the
complexing the uranium and ceasing kidney liver, spleen, brain, muscle, and heart.[1]
function [10][2]. Permanent kidney damage Bone deposition of DU, especially, in
occurs when uranium inhibits both sodium- growing rats, showed major calcium
dependent and sodium-independent deficiencies, indicating DUs affinity to the
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) utilization and bone.[10] Once again displacing parts of
mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in biological matrices, forming phosphate
renal tubules[10][2][1], wherein dead tissue was complexes.[10]
found and was depended on the time of
exposure.[18][11][10][1] This type of chemical 1.2 Pharmacodynamics/Neurotoxicology
inhibition implies uraniums affinities for Rats are primarily used for the
the phosphorylative structures in the body. pharmacological datum. Human subjects
Levels of uranium in the body can be could only be observed on voluntary
measure by the following methods: analysis or circumstantial assays.[11][9][1][14][5]
As time passes from the first encounter with
Biological/ Method of analysis DU on the battlefield in 1991, Persian Gulf
environmental War, there have been reports of the Gulf War
matrix Syndrome affecting many veterans. Clinical
Rat plasma and Spectrophotometric studies have shown that there is more than
urine just a psychosomatic response to the DU
Urine and blood Kinetic phosphorescence
than had been initially reported.[19][5] The
analysis
Natural water Spectrophotometric DU affected the brain by oxidizing the
Human urine Inductively coupled lipids, altering the brain chemistry and with
plasma mass it, behavioral patterns.[5] Like the human
spectrometry (ICPMS) case studies, there is an overall perceived
Urine of Gulf War Kinetic phosphorescence difference in ionic and neurological
veterans analysis pathways in the brain.[5][3] However, the
Rat tissues and Kinetic phosphorescence uranium deposits itself as a heavy metal like
fluids implanted analysis lead or nickel will do; as a cumulative toxin.
with depleted [5]
uranium
Urine and Inductively coupled
freshwater plasma mass
spectrometry (ICPMS)
Urine of uranium High-precision kinetic
workers phosphorescence
analysis
Urine Radiochemical assay
Fig. 4 [1]
The pharmacodynamics are
predicted via the urinary tract and thus
tested for accordingly. Pulmonary
circulation of DU that does not make the
urinary excretion, is complexed and made
soluble by proteins or bone, where its half-
*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 3
 A logical association with uranium is
its teratogenicity given its use as a nuclear
weapon by many world powers.
Like many heavy metals, DU effects
the growth of organisms adversely.[8][3][6]

Fig. 5 [5]
The line crossing behavior is a
control where he rats must pass a specific
maze on an open field; social behaviors and
other documentable behaviors common to
rats are examine in vivo.[19] (Figure 5)
However small the correlation
between the accumulation of DU in the body
versus the effects it has on behavioral and
neurological faculties, DU cannot be ruled
out as a non-threat. Previously, the mention
of DUs affinity to phosphorylation sites in
the bone, displacing calcium, may have
other effects in tandem with the
electrophysiological systems.[5]
Solubilities:
Type F (fast) Type M (medium)
Uranium Uranium
hexafluoride (UF6) tetrafluoride (UF4)
Uranium Uranium trioxide
tetrachloride(UCl4 (UO3)
Fig. 7 [5]
A growth study on rats shows that
after exposed to the highest concentration of
DU, 150mg/L, after two weeks and six
months, gained the least amount of weight. [5]
(Figure 7) This is an indication of a lack of
organ growth varied by accumulation in the
tissues. However, the discussion states that
there is no significant comparable
differences in organ and brain weights for
the controls and the exposed rats.[5] Given
the limited human studies on the
Type S (slow)
nephrotoxicity of DU and the renal
Uranium
dioxide (UO2) functionalities and respective impairments,
Triuranium however is indicative of a neurotoxin.[8][2][14]
octaoxide(U3O8 [5]

) )
Uranyl fluoride
(UO2F2)
2. Environmental Concerns
Uranyl nitrate Fallout from DU shells are in the
hexahydrate form of uranyl oxides (UO). The
(UO2(NO3)26 H20) embedding of UO is all but random when
Fig. 6 [4] coupled with how the shell hit the target, the
The response has implications of which are wind, the region, and the soil chemistry; the
difficult to localize given the many isotopes soils cation exchange capacity (CEC). The
of oxidized DU on the battlefieldhighly Balkan Task Force (BTF) estimated that for
dependent on the solubility.[12][20][10][2] every ten-thousand square meters and ten
1.3 Teratology kilograms of DU being completely dispersed
as an aerosol of UO, the initial activity
*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 4
would be 830Bq.[15] The Gulf War had been Fig. 9 [15]
shelled the most by DU rounds; 783,514
rounds of 30 mm DU ammunition
100 1 5
corresponding to 259 tons and 9,552 tanks
g/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
rounds, making 50 more tons.[4] The total
Inhal. dose 3 16
amount of DU munitions fired into the (Sv)
region totals to 321 metric tons of DU [4]. Average dose from inhalation at t=0 for different
642,000kg of DU was dispersed over the values of the dust loading parameter. Contaminated
Gulf, wherein some concentrations were soil thickness 10 cm
much higher than others. Fig. 10 [15]
Given the data and physical amount
of DU dispersed throughout the warring Figures eight through ten express the
regions of the Gulf, Kosovo, Bosnia- averaged amounts of contamination and
Herzegovina, there is undoubtedly whole activity based on soils deposition and depth.
undocumented regions wherein there are These are based on the report from the BTF
cases unknown but implied by the citizens that there is an estimated 830Bq/kg DU over
and soldiers alike. Depending on the soil 10000m2 area. This suggests that the soil
regions, the spreading of the UO aerosol in contains a short-term danger of inhalation
soil depends on the depth and tillage; but sure measurements cannot always be
anthropogenically or naturally. made.[15] The spreading of the aerosol
contaminates the topsoil in greater
WPID tmax Emax CH2O(Bq/l CPw concentrations. The hydrogeological nature
(m) (y) (Sv) ) (Bq/kg) of the region is the most critical aspect when
1 398 103 2.7 4.5 assessing the danger of toxicity, wherein
2 417 65 1.7 2.8 each site must be examined individually if
4 564 33 0.7 1.4
Maximum effective dose, Emax, for contaminated soil
concerned with inhalation or superficial
thickness 10 cm, unsaturated zone thickness 3.90 m, exposure.[15][5][6]
for different values of the well pump intake depth The body of data conveys the danger
(WPID). (CH2O and CPw are the concentrations of DU of DU as a heavy metal contaminating the
in the water and in the plants (water dep)) environment and should be treated with a
Fig. 8 [15] likewise protocol. The toxicity of a water
tmax (y) Emax table is dependent on the how well the soil
(Sv)
interacts and morphs with the clay in the
Prec. rate (0.91.1) m 537 43.0
presence of water. Each soil must be
435 44.1
Watershed area (106 105) 486 43.6 classified and treated accordingly. No soil is
m2 truly independent from water flow and the
Well pumping rate (200 486 43.6 intercalation of a water table is an
300) m3/y omnipresent threat. In this sense, it can be
Distributed coefficient Kd 215 0 11819 quarantined in a manner, and localized until
(20100) cm3/g thorough decontamination measures are
Maximum effective dose, Emax, varying some implemented.
hydrogeological parameters for contaminated soil
thickness 10 cm
3. Conclusion
Depleted uranium is a hazardous material due to its toxicity as a heavy metal rather than
its radioactivity. The data collected from both conflicts, regarding the dispersion of DU have
indicated that it has been effective as a tactile weapon but also has had unforeseen health

*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 5

consequence for the enemy, the US/UK/UN soldier, and civilians. The munitions have dispersed
a deadly aerosol that has cause significant neurological damage, wherein kidney damage and
organ damage were reported in lesser quantities. Uranyl oxides and acetates as well as the other
forms it can take, all prove to have different levels of danger. The more soluble the uranyl
compound is, the more kidney and renal damage is usually done; less is retained but the organs
have little defense when the urnayl compounds displace calcium groups and mimic the
phosphorylative structures. More studies need to be conducted as there are few human sample
groups to study. Rat subjects have been the most common way of studying the adverse effects of
uranium, and much of them are concordant with the relatively few human cases. This can be
paralleled with many reports of the Gulf War Syndrome wherein it was dismissed as a
psychosomatic disorder, when it is likely a physical ailment due to the DU ingestion.

*University of Idaho |Jacob C Donton 6

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