Formula Description

-Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency () or wavelength (). These two properties in a
=
medium are related by this equation
-Wavelengths carry energy, not thermal radiation

C = the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium

=
Co = 2.9979x10^8 m/s, the speed of light in a vacuum
N = The index of refraction of that medium
N = 1 for air and most gases, n = 1.5 for glass, and n = 1.33 for water

c
e = h = h -Photon of frequency n is considered to have an energy of e. The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to

its wavelength.
2
-Plancks Constant (6.626 1034
)

Eb (T)= T4 (W/m2) Stephen Boltzmann Law:

-Total Emissive Power emitted by a Black Body at a particular temp over o to infinity (Eb refers to the radiation
energy emitted by a blackbody: Blackbody emissive power)
= 0.1718 108 2 4
-A blackbody emits the maximum amount of radiation by a surface at a given temperature.
= 5.667 108 -A blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
2 4
-A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.

[2 2 ]5 Spectral blackbody emissive Power:

Eb =
1 The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at a thermodynamic temperature T per unit time, per
: Wavelength (m) unit surface area, and per unit wavelength about the wavelength .
T: Absolute Temperature (K)
h: Plancks Constant (6.626 ()4
C1 = 2 2 = 3.74177 108 ( )
2 2
1034 )
C2 = = 1.43878 104 ( )

k: Boltzmanns Constant (1.38
2 k = 1.38065 1023 ()
1023 2 5.6678 2 4 )
c: Velocity of Wave Propagation (3 On an Eb chart, the area under a curve for a given temperature represents the total radiation energy emitted

108 ) by a blackbody at that temperature.

[1 ]5 Plancks Law must be in m

Eb = 2
1
()2
C1 = 2 = 1.1870 108 (
2
)
2

C2 =
= 2.5896 104 (() ) 2
maxT Wiens displacement law as the temperature increases, the peak of the curve shifts toward a larger wavelength.

= 2897.8 This wavelength at which the peak occurs for a specified temperature is given by Weins Displacement Law

Figure 12-9 p. 721
= 5215.6
[1 ] 5 If you want to, at any T, find Eb at which the curve peaks
Eb max = 2
(5215.6)5 ( 5215.6 1) Derivation in notes 8.1.3

= 1.288 1011 5 ( )
2 ()

= 2.161 1013 5 ( )
2 ()

Radiation in a specified wavelength See Example #13

Emissivity of Real Surface The ratio of the total radiation energy radiation energy emitted by the surface to the radiation emitted by a
(,) (,) blackbody of the same surface area at the same temperature 0 1.
( ,T) = ()
= 4
=
For a blackbody = 1
The emissivity of a real surface varies with the temperature of the surface as well as the wavelength and the
direction of the emitted radiation.
The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength is called spectral emissivity . The emissivity in a specified
direction is called directional emissivity theta where theta is the angle between the direction of radiation and the
normal of the surface

Emissivity of Gray Surface A surface is said to be diffuse if its properties are independent of direction, and gray if its properties are

0 (,) independent of wavelength
(T) = 4 Gray Surface is a function of temperature only. At every wavelength, the ratio is the same
Diffuse reflection: Radiation is reflected equally in all directions.

Electrical Conductors (polished aluminum, polished copper) are well represented by gray body behaviour
Electrical Non-conductors (white tile, white fire clay) are not well represented by gray body behaviour but use
gray body behaviour anyways

Table A-18 has of different surface

Absorptivity and Reflectivity Absorptivity () and Reflectivity ()

+ =1
Kirchhoffs Law The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength, direction, and temperature is always equal to its
(T) = () absorptivity at the same wavelength, direction, and temperature.

Isothermal enclosure: constant temperature walls and the air inside is at constant temperature
Surface obeys gray body behavior

Radiation Intensity
Diffuse surfaces radiate according to
Lamberts law which says that the
intensity of radiation is:
View factor
Fij
For infinitely long surfaces:
Use the Cross Strings method
=
= the emissive power, in one direction, perpendicular to the surface
A purely geometric quantity and is independent of the surface properties and temperature
The fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j directly
The view factor ranges between 0 and 1.
Allows us to express the fraction of radiation leaving a surface that strikes another surface in terms of the
orientation of these two surfaces relative to each other.
That is, it is the case when the surfaces are isothermal and diffuse emitters and reflectors and the surfaces are
separated by a nonparticipating medium such as a vacuum or air.

Reciprocity relation Plane Surface: F1j = 0

A1F12 = A2F21 Convex Surface: F22 = 0
Concave Surface: F33 0

Summation Relation The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must
equal unity.
= 1
=1
Superposition Rule The view factor from a surface i to view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view
F1(2,3) = F12 + F13 factors from surface i to the parts of surface j

Symmetry Rule Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that
Fij = Fik and Fji = Fki surface.
If the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then

Radiation heat transfer: = ( 1 2)

12
black surfaces (W) ( 2 1)
= 1 1 12 2 2 21 (A1F12 = A2F21 and Eb= T4)
A is SURFACE AREA 12 = 1 12 (14 24 )
A negative value of Q indicates that net radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to 1
The net radiation heat transfer from 21 heat transfer from any surface i of an N surface enclosure is


= (4 4 )
=1

Radiation heat transfer: Radiosity: Sum of the radiation emitted and reflected. The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit time
Gray Surfaces and per unit area (W/m^2)
For a surface i that is gray and opaque ( = and + = 1)
Note: each surface of the enclosure is = ( ) + ( )
isothermal, and both the incoming and =
outgoing radiation are uniform over = (1 )
each surface. Radiosity for a blackbody: The radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive power since radiation coming from
a blackbody is due to emission only ( = 1)
G: Incident Radiation = = 4

Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from = ( ) ( )

a Surface: = ( )
Gray and Black Surfaces
= ( )= ( )
1 1
Surface Resistance:

=

1
=

The surface resistance to radiation for a blackbody is zero since = 1and J =

Reradiating surface: (W/m^2) = = 4

Some surfaces are modeled as being
adiabatic since their back sides are well
insulated and the net heat transfer
through them is zero.

Net Radiation Heat Transfer between The net rate of rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i to surface j is
Any Two Surfaces = ( )
( )
In W = (Applying reciprocity AiFij = AjFji)
= ( - )
TABLE 133 p. 789
=

 Space Resistance:
1
=

To add:

Combined conduction, convection, radiation

Assumptions:

1. In this course, all mediums are considered to be transparent

2. In this course, surfaces will be considered to be grey unless they are black. (Black is a special case of grey; black surfaces have an emissivity () of one)
3. In this course, all surfaces will be assumed to be opaque (transmitted, = 0). Therefore, a beam of energy is either absorbed or reflected
4. In this course, all surfaces are assumed to obey Kirchhoffs law ( = )
5. In this course, it will be assumed, that all surfaces have diffuse characteristics
6. In this course, all surfaces follow Lamberts Law