MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AT LAGUNA

Academic Year 2014 - 2015

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
SENSORS

Lea Fe A. SANGLITAN
GRP. # 1
MARCH 25, 2015

ENGR. JIPCY MAURRIS NARVAEZ

ECE135P/A21
I. INTRODUCTION

It is expected that some new types of sensors will be developed in the future. Passive sensors
detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from natural sources, while active sensors
detect reflected responses from objects which are irradiated from artificially generated energy
sources, such as radar.

A sensor is classified as a combination of passive, scanning, and imaging are classified further into
image plane scanning sensors, such as TV cameras and solid state scanners, and object plane
scanning sensors, such as multispectral scanners and scanning microwave radiometers. And for a
sensor that is classified as an active, non-scanning and on-imaging sensors is a profile recorder such
as a laser spectrometer and laser altimeter.

The most popular sensors used in remote sensing are the camera, solid state scanner, such as the
CCD (Charge Coupled Devices) images, the multi-spectral scanner and in the future the passive
synthetic aperture radar.

Laser sensors have recently begun to use more frequently for monitoring air pollution by laser
spectrometer and for measurement of distance by laser altimeters.

Those sensors which use lenses in the visible and reflective infrared region, are called optical
sensors.

Figure 1.1 summarizes the types of sensors now used or being developed in remote sensing.

Figure 1.1 Classification of Sensors

 Types of sensors that are used to measure basic physical phenomena including:

1. Acceleration - Shock & Vibration.

2. Angular / Linear Position
3. Chemical/Gas Concentration
4. Humidity
5. Flow Rate
6. Force
7. Magnetic Fields
8. Pressure
9. Proximity - Spatial Presence
10. Sound
11. Temperature
12. Velocity

Factors to consider when choosing a sensor.

Accuracy - The statistical variance about the exact reading.
Calibration - Required for most measuring systems since their readings will drift over time.
Cost
Environmental - Sensors typically have temperature and/or humidity limits.
Range - Limits of measurement or the sensor.
Repeatability - The variance in a sensor's reading when a single condition is repeatedly
measured.
Resolution - The smallest increment the sensor can detect.

II. METHODOLOGY

Background Suppression Photoelectric Switch

When using photoelectric sensors in simple diffused mode (a.k.a. proximity mode), the sensor uses
the target to reflect light back to itself, eliminating the need for a secondary device such as a reflector.

But the ability to precisely control the sensing range is not possible even if the sensor offers a
sensitivity adjustment. In many applications this can cause significant problems because shiny objects
well beyond the sensors specified sensing range are erroneously detected. In fact it is not uncommon
for a standard diffused mode sensor with a specified range of 15 inches to falsely detect a piece of
metal, Plexiglas or other highly reflective object that is 6 feet or farther away from the sensor.

Targets can vary greatly in color and this will directly affect the range of the sensor. This varying
sensing distance is known as black-white differential. The black-white differential is simply the
difference in distance between where a diffused sensor detects a 90% reflective white card vs. a 6%
reflective black test card under the same conditions. Sensor manufacturers normally provide black-
white differential data in the form of a graph so that customers have a guideline when applying them
to the application.
 Figure 2.1 black-white differential graph for a standard diffused mode sensor

Color significantly affects sensing range for a diffused mode sensor, as the black-white
differential for the sensor is approximately 190mm. The dramatic reduction in sensing range is due to
the fact that standard diffused sensors recognize a target based on the light reflected back to the
sensors receiver. The received light must be strong enough to overcome any ambient light or any
electrical noise at the sensors receiver. If the target is black, it absorbs large amounts of energy and
therefore must be close to the sensor in order to return enough of the emitted light to be detected.

Polarized Retro-reflective Photoelectric Switch

Retro-reflective mode is the second primary mode of photoelectric sensing. As with diffused
mode sensing, the transmitter and receiver are in the same housing, but a reflector is used to reflect
the light from the transmitter back to the receiver. The target is detected when it blocks the beam
from the photoelectric sensor to the reflector. Retro-reflective mode typically allows longer sensing
ranges than diffused mode due to the increased efficiency of the reflector compared with the
reflectivity of most targets. The target color and finish do not affect the sensing range in retro-
reflective mode as they do with diffused mode.

Retro-reflective mode photoelectric sensors are available with or without polarization filters. A
polarization filter only allows light at a certain phase angle back to the receiver, which allows the
sensor to see a shiny object as a target and not incorrectly as a reflector. This is because light
reflected from the reflectors shifts the phase of the light, whereas light reflected from a shiny target
does not. A polarized retro-reflective photoelectric sensor must be used with a corner-cube reflector,
which is a type of reflector with the ability to accurately return the light energy, on a parallel axis,
back to the receiver. Polarized retro-reflective sensors are recommended for any application with
reflective targets.
 Figure 2.2 Retro-reflective mode photoelectric sensors

Non-polarized retro-reflective photoelectric sensors usually allow longer sensing ranges than
polarized versions, but can falsely identify a shiny target as a reflector.

Capacitive Proximity Switch

Capacitive sensing is a noncontact technology suitable for detecting metals, nonmetals, solids,
and liquids, although it is best suited for nonmetallic targets because of its characteristics and cost
relative to inductive proximity sensors. In most applications with metallic targets, inductive sensing is
preferred because it is both a reliable and a more affordable technology.

Capacitive proximity sensors are similar in size, shape, and concept to inductive proximity
sensors. However, unlike inductive sensors which use induced magnetic fields to sense objects,
capacitive proximity generate an electrostatic field and reacts to changes in capacitance caused when
a target enters the electrostatic field. When the target is outside the electrostatic field, the oscillator
is inactive. As the target approaches, a capacitive coupling develops between the target and the
capacitive probe. When the capacitance reaches a specified threshold, the oscillator is activated,
triggering the output circuit to switch states between ON and OFF.
 Figure 2.3 Capacitive Proximity Operation

The ability of the sensor to detect the target is determined by the targets size, dielectric
constant and distance from the sensor. The larger the targets size, the stronger the capacitive
coupling between the probe and the target. Materials with higher dielectric constants are easier to
detect than those with lower values. The shorter the distance between target and probe, the
stronger the capacitive coupling between the probe and the target.

Inductive Proximity Switch

Inductive proximity sensors are designed to operate by generating an electromagnetic field and
detecting the eddy current losses generated when ferrous and nonferrous metal target objects enter
the field. The sensor consists of a coil on a ferrite core, an oscillator, a triggersignal level detector
and an output circuit. As a metal object advances into the field, eddy currents are induced in the
target. The result is a loss of energy and a smaller amplitude of oscillation. The detector circuit then
recognizes a specific change in amplitude and generates a signal which will turn the solidstate output
ON" or OFF."
 Figure 2.3 Principles of Operation for Inductive Proximity Sensors
A metal target approaching an inductive proximity sensor (above) absorbs energy generated by
the oscillator. When the target is in close range, the energy drain stops the oscillator and changes the
output state.

Limit Switch

A limit switch is an electromechanical device that consists of an actuator mechanically linked to a set
of contacts. When an object comes into contact with the actuator, the device operates the contacts to make
or break an electrical connection.

Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their ruggedness, ease
of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence or absence, passing,
positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define the limit of travel of an object;
hence the name Limit Switch.

The electrical advantages of limit switches are:

Suitable for switching higher power loads than other sensor technologies (5 A at 24V DC or
10A at 120V AC typical vs. less than 1 A for proximities or photo-electrics)
Immunity to electrical noise interference
Immunity to radio frequency interference (walkie-talkies)
No leakage current
Minimal voltage drops
Simple normally open and/or normally closed operation
 III. DATA AND RESULTS
EXERCISE NO. 1: INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

ANSWERS TO PROCEDURE QUESTIONS:

1. TABLE. 1-1 Visible Red and Infrared Light Beams

PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS VISIBLE RED INFRARED

BACKGROUND SUPPRESSION
PHOTOELECTRIC SWITH, MODEL
6373
POLARIZED RETROFLECTIVE
PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCH, MODEL
6374

3. Development view of the Reflective Block

1 UNDERSIDE 4 SHINY METTALIC SURFACE

2 DEPOLARIZING RETROFLECTIVE SURFACE 5 BLACK plastic SURFACE
3 - MATTE BLACK METTALIC SURFACE 6 WHITE WOODEN SURFACE

6. YES

7. Yes. The red pilot light turns on when an object is placed against the sensing face of the Capacitive Proximity
Switch. When the sensor detects the presence of an object, current flows through the relay coil, causing the relay
contacts to switch to the activated mode, causing the red pilot light to turn on

8. When lamp L1 turns on, lamp L2 turns off. When the sensor detects the presence of an object, current flows
through the relay coil. This switches the NC relay contacts to the activated mode, causing lamp L2 to turn off.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. HOW DO PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS DETECT THE PRESENCE OF OBJECT?

They use a light beam to sense the presence of objects.

2. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIGHT SENSING AND DARK SENSING?

Light sensing means the receiver detects the presence of the light beam, while dark sensing means the
receiver detects the absence of the light beam.

3. WHAT ARE THE THREE TYPES OF PHOTOELECTRIC SENSING MODES?

Diffuse-reflective, through-beam, and retro-reflective

4. WHAT IS MEANT BY EXCESS GAIN RATIO WHEN DESCRIBING PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES?

The ratio of light intensity available at a given distance of a sensor to the light intensity needed to trigger
the sensor

5. WHAT IS MEANT BY HYSTERISIS WHEN DESCRIBING PROXIMITY SWITCHES?

Hysteresis is the difference between the "operating point" and "releasing point".
EXERCISE NO. 2: BACKGROUND SUPPRESION PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCH

3. Table 2-1

SURFACE DETECTED NOT DETECTED

BLACK WOODEN SURFACE
WHITE WOODEN SURFACE
MATTE BLACK METTALLIC SURFACE
SHINY METTALIC SURFACE
DEPOLARIZING RETROREFLECTIVE

4. The Background Suppression Photoelectric Switch is capable of detecting objects placed in front of a very
reflective background.

5. The power indicator (green LED) turns off when the sensor output is activated.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT ARE THE BACGROUND SUPPRESSION SWITCHES DESIGN FOR?

Background suppression photoelectric switches are designed for short range applications where the
background behind the target is very close and very reflective.

2. HOW DO THE BACKGROUND SUPPRESSION PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES IGNORE THE BACKGROUND

BEHIND THE TARGET?
Background suppression photoelectric switches do not ignore the background. Rather, they use
sophisticated electronics to detect its presence actively

3. NAME TWO ADVANTAGES OF BACKGROUND SUPPRESSION PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES.

Their simplicity and their ability to detect targets placed in front of shiny surfaces

4. EXPLAIN HOW BACKGROUND SUPPRESION PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES CAN DETECT OBJECTS IN FRONT
AND BEHIND THE NOMINAL SENSING DISTANCE OF THE SWITCH.
They use two sensing elements. One element detects reflections from in front of the nominal sensing
distance, and the other detects reflections from behind the nominal sensing distance.

5. AT WHICH DISTANCE SHOULD THE TARGET BE DISTANCED FROM THE BACKGROUND TO OBTAIN A
RELIABLE OPERATION?
For reliable operation, a minimum separation of 10% the maximum sensing distance is recommended
between the target object and the background.

EXERCISE NO. 3: POLARIZED RETROREFLECTIVE PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCH

4. table 3-1

SURFACE DETECTED NOT DETECTED

BLACK WOODEN SURFACE
WHITE WOODEN SURFACE
MATTE BLACK METTALLIC SURFACE
SHINY METTALIC SURFACE
DEPOLARIZING RETROREFLECTIVE
5. The Polarized Retroflective Photoelectric Switch detects only the retroreflective surface. The other surfaces of
the Reflective Block do not depolarize the light beam.

6. Yes. The Polarized Retroflective Photoelectric Switch detects the presence of fingers because they are large
enough to break the entire light beam emitted by the photoelectric switch.

7. No. Lamp 1 turns off when the photoelectric switch detects an object. This sensor operates in the LO mode and
lamp L1 is supplied through the NO contact of the photoelectric switch.

8. YES, IT STILL CAN DETECT.

9. YES, IT STILL CAN DETECT.

10. THE SENSOR IS EXPERIENCING HYSTERISIS AND ONLY THE ORANGE LIGHT IS ON.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. FOR WHICH APPLICATIONS ARE THE RETROREFLECTIVE PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS DESIGNED?

Retro-reflective photoelectric sensors are intended primarily for use in applications where an opaque
target will completely block the light beam between the sensor and the reflective surface. They can detect
most objects including shiny objects.

2. NAME TWO REASONS WHY POLARIZED RETROREFLECTIVE SENSORS OFFER A SHORTER DETECTION
DISTANCE THAN STANDARD RETROREFLECTIVE SENSORS.
Polarized retro-reflective sensors offer a shorter distance than standard retro-reflective sensors because
they use a less efficient visible red LED, and because of the additional light losses caused by the polarizing
filters.

3. WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF THE FILTERS IN A POLARIZED RETROREFLECTIVE SENSOR?

The filters polarize the light.

4. NAME THE TYPE OF RETROREFLECTOR THAT PROVIDES THE HIGHEST SIGNAL RETURN.
The corner cube retro-reflectors provide the highest signal return.

5. EXPLAIN WHY RETROREFLECTIVE SENSORS ARE NOT WELL SUITED TO DETECT SMALL OBJECTS.
Because the light beam must be completely blocked for the sensor to be activated.

EXERCISE NO. 4: CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY switch

5. Table 4-1

SURFACE DETECTED NOT DETECTED

BLACK WOODEN SURFACE
WHITE WOODEN SURFACE
MATTE BLACK METTALLIC SURFACE
SHINY METTALIC SURFACE
DEPOLARIZING RETROREFLECTIVE

6. YES

7. YES
8. Table 4-2

MATERIAL DETECTED NOT DETECTED

PAPER
PLASTIC
CARDBOARD
GLASS

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT TYPES OF MATERIAL DO CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SWITCHES DETECT?

Capacitive proximity switches detect the presence of both metallic and nonmetallic objects.

2. WHAT ARE THE FOUR MAIN SECTIONS OF A CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH?

The four main parts of a capacitive proximity switch are the capacitive probe, oscillator, rectifier (detector
circuit) and transistor (output circuit).

3. NAME TWO PARAMETERS THAT AFFECT THE SENSING DISTANCE OF A CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH.
The sensing distance of capacitive proximity switches depends on the size of both the probe and dielectric
constant of the target object.

4. EXPLAIN WHY THE CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SWITCHES MUST BE SPACED FROM SURROUNDING SURFACES
AND/OR OTHER SENSORS.
Because surrounding surfaces and/or other sensors may falsely trigger the sensor.

5. EXPLAIN WHY THE MOST CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SWITCHES ARE EQUIPPED WITH A SENSITIVITY
ADJUSTMENT.
Because they measure a dielectric gap, being able to compensate for target and application conditions is
important.

EXERCISE NO. 5: INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH

4. Table 5-1

SURFACE DETECTED NOT DETECTED

BLACK WOODEN SURFACE
WHITE WOODEN SURFACE
MATTE BLACK METTALLIC SURFACE
SHINY METTALIC SURFACE
DEPOLARIZING RETROREFLECTIVE

5. NO

6. YES

7. 0125 in.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT TYPE OF MATERIAL DO INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCHES DETECT?

Inductive proximity switches detect the presence of metallic objects only.
 2. WHAT ARE THE FOUR MAIN PARTS OF AN INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH?
The four main parts of an inductive proximity switch are the wire coil, oscillator, rectifier (detector circuit)
and transistor (output circuit)

3. WHAT ARE THE MAXIMUM SENSING DISTANCE OF AN INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH TO BE REALATIVELY
SHORT?
Because the magnetic field associated with the induced eddy currents is quite small, the maximum
sensing distance of an inductive proximity switch is also quite small.

4. EXPLAIN WHY INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCHES MUST BE SPACED FROM SURROUNDING METALLIC
SURFACES AND/OR OTHER SENSORS.
Because surrounding metallic surfaces and/or other sensors may falsely trigger the sensor.

5. NAME TWO PARAMETERS THAT AFFECT THE SENSING DISTANCE OF AN INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH.
The sensing distance of an inductive proximity switch depends on the size of the coil and the target
composition.

EXERCISE NO. 6: LIMIT SWITCH

1. NORMALLY OPEN, NORMALLY CLOSE AND ANY COMBINATION OF THE TWO.

2. ROTARY LEVER ACTUATED.

3. RED LIGHT IS OFF.

6. WHEN THE SWITCH IS PRESS, THE RED LIGHT TURNS ON.

7. YES

8. YES

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT PRECAUTION MUST BE TAKEN TO PREVENT ARCING OR WELDING OF THE CONTRACTS OF A LIMIT
SWITCH?
Do not connect a Single Limit Switch to two power supplies that are different in polarity or type. Do not
design a circuit where a difference of voltage exists between contacts, otherwise contact welding may
result?

2. NAME THE TWO TYPES OF LIMIT SWITCHES.

Inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, and ultrasonic.

3. WHAT SHOULD BE DONE IF THE LOAD CURRENT EXCEEDS THE CONTACT RATING OF THE LIMIT SWITCH?
Switch off or limit certain electrical currents.

4. WHAT IS THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A LIMIT SWITCH AND A PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCH?
Proximity switches open or close an electrical circuit when they make contact with or come within a
certain distance of an object. Limit switches are most commonly used in manufacturing equipment,
robotics, and security systems.
5. ON WHICH PRINCIPLE DOES THE ROTARY LEVER-ACTUATED LIMIT SWITCH WORK?
A limit switch is a switch that is actuated by a moving part of some machine. Its operation is much like any
other switch in that there are contacts that move when a plunger or lever on the outside of the switch is
pushed. Internally there is an over center spring mechanism that snaps the switch open or shut in
response to a gradual motion of the plunger or lever.

IV. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

History has shown that advancements in materials science and engineering have been
important drivers in the development of sensor technologies. For instance, the temperature
sensitivity of electrical resistance in a variety of materials was noted in the early 1800s and
was applied by Wilhelm von Siemens in 1860 to develop a temperature sensor based on a
copper resistor. The high resonance stability of single-crystal quartz, as well as its
piezoelectric properties, have made possible an extraordinarily wide range of high
performance, affordable sensors that have played an important role in everyday life and
national defense. More recently, a new era in sensor technology was ushered in by the
development of large-scale silicon processing, permitting the exploitation of silicon to create
new methods for transducing physical phenomena into electrical output that can be readily
processed by a computer. Ongoing developments in materials technology will permit better
control of material properties and behavior, thereby offering possibilities for new sensors
with advanced features, such as greater fidelity, lower cost, and increased reliability.

A sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a change in a physical

condition, such as temperature or thermal conductivity, or to a change in chemical
concentration. Sensors are particularly useful for making in-situ measurements such as in
industrial process control.

Sensors are an important part to any measurement and automation application. The
sensor is responsible for converting some type of physical phenomenon into a quantity
measurable by a data acquisition (DAQ) system.

V. REFERENCE

http://www.engineershandbook.com/Components/sensors.htm
http://www.automation.com/library/articles-white-papers/sensors-sensing-
technologies/background-suppression-with-photoelectric-sensors
http://www.ab.com/en/epub/catalogs/12772/6543185/12041221/12041231/Capac
itive-Proximity-Sensing.html
https://www.labvolt.com/downloads/cwa8036_40.pdf