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To cite this article: Cristina Alves Ribeiro, Andr Paixo, Eduardo Fortunato & Rui Calada (2014): Under sleeper pads in
transition zones at railway underpasses: numerical modelling and experimental validation, Structure and Infrastructure
Engineering: Maintenance, Management, Life-Cycle Design and Performance, DOI: 10.1080/15732479.2014.970203
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Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2014.970203
Under sleeper pads in transition zones at railway underpasses: numerical modelling and
experimental validation
Cristina Alves Ribeiroa1, Andre Paixaob*, Eduardo Fortunatob2 and Rui Calc adaa3
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP), R. Dr. Roberto Frias, Porto 4200-465, Portugal;
b
Department of Transportation, National Laboratory for Civil Engineering (LNEC), Av. do Brasil 101, Lisboa 1700-066, Portugal
(Received 14 February 2014; final version received 14 July 2014; accepted 17 July 2014)
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In railway lines, transition zones between different track support conditions normally evidence higher degradation rates,
thus requiring additional maintenance to ensure safety and service quality. Studies based on numerical simulations indicate
that under sleeper pads (USP) can minimise those degradation rates. The study presented herein focuses on the influence of
USP on the dynamic behaviour of transitions to underpasses, in an attempt to fill the gap between numerical and field
studies. To that aim, the authors used finite element method models, calibrated and validated with field measurements. These
models take into account the train track interaction and include all relevant track components and backfill geomaterials.
This study shows that soft USP have a significant influence over the tracks dynamic behaviour: amplifying rail
displacements and sleeper accelerations, and inducing abrupt variations in the track vertical stiffness and oscillations in
train track forces. To benefit from the use of USP, the authors highlight the need to carefully design stiffness properties of
USP and determine their arrangement at transitions. An improved design for the transition zone is proposed.
Keywords: railway underpasses; transition zones; numerical modelling; under sleeper pads; train track interaction
6.8
(soils) BC=5% 0.5 BC=5%
5.0
natural foundation natural foundation
embankment soils
0.6 embankment soils
UGM (0/31.5 mm)
3 1 1 3 embankment (soils)
2 UGM 1 CBM UP2 CBM 1 UGM 2
5.3
embankment (soils) BC=5% 0.5 BC=5%
natural foundation 5.0 natural foundation
embankment soils embankment soils
0.6
UGM - Unbound Granular Material; CBM - Cement Bound Mixture; BC - Binder Content
Figure 1. Track plan view and longitudinal profile of transition zones at UP1 and UP2 (Paixao et al., 2014).
account the traintrack interaction; it considers experimen- Vossloh W14 with elastomer rail pad model
tal data and 3D reduced models in an innovative calibration Zw700/148/165. Table 1 presents some characteristics of
procedure; and it uses less computational resources than full the resin-bonded rubber USP that were glued to the
3D modelling approaches and still provides accurate results. underside of the sleepers at UP1.
To illustrate the different track support conditions along
the transition zones, Figure 2 shows schematic track cross
2. Transition zone case studies sections at key locations identified as S1S4 in Figure 1.
A research project is currently underway in a Portuguese On the box culverts, only the layer of ballast was kept, with
railway line in order to assess the performance of the same minimum thickness of 30 cm under the sleepers.
transition zones from embankments to underpasses with
USP, taking into account both the dynamic train track
interaction and its long-term behaviour. The transition
zones to two similar underpasses of that line were selected 3. Numerical modelling
as case studies. The underpasses, denoted here as UP1 and 3.1 Description of the transition zone models
UP2, are reinforced concrete closed frame box culverts. To reproduce the dynamic behaviour of the train track
The authors have presented details on these transition system on the transition zones, 2D FEM models were
zones, including laboratorial and in situ characterisation developed utilising the ANSYS software. These models
during construction (Fortunato, Paixao, & Fontul, 2012; were calibrated and validated using field measurements, as
Paixao et al., 2014). The adjacent wedge-shaped backfills will be discussed later in Sections 3.2 and 3.3. The
were constructed with layers of unbound granular material
(UGM) and cement bound mixtures (CBM) with a binding Table 1. Characteristics of the under sleeper pads provided by
content (BC) of about 5%, as presented in Figure 1. The the manufacturer, CDM.
transition zone to UP2 comprises standard ballasted track;
Parameter Value
44 sleepers with USP were installed at UP1. The
maximum speed on the line for the Portuguese passenger Thickness 10 mm
tilting train (alfa pendular) is 220 km/h. The track has the Length 2.6 m
Iberian gauge (1.668 m) with continuously welded Maximum width 0.3 m
Static bedding modulus 0.155 N/mm3
UIC60E1 rails, resting on 2.6 m long concrete monoblock Dynamic bedding modulus 0.200 N/mm3
sleepers with 0.6 m spacing. The fastening systems are
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 3
rail rail
rail pad rail pad
S1 S2
sub-ballast: 30 cm sub-ballast: 30 cm
capping layer: 20 cm capping layer: 20 cm
embankment soils backfill with UGM
rail rail
rail pad rail pad
S3 USP at UP1 S4 USP at UP1
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ballast: 30 cm ballast: 30 cm
sub-ballast: 30 cm sub-ballast: 30 cm
capping layer: 20 cm
backfill with CBM
backfill with UGM
Figure 2. Schematic track cross sections from S1 S4 (see location in Figure 1).
relatively complex geometries of the transition zones were Delgado (2009), Banimahd and Woodward (2007), Shan,
taken into account, as depicted in Figure 3, and the train Albers, and Savidis (2013) and Varandas (2013).
track interaction was considered using a nonlinear contact The transition models of UP1 and UP2 have a total
algorithm. The main advantage of these 2D models is that length of 94.5 m (corresponding to approximately 157
they still provide accurate results, even though they sleepers) and a constant depth of 11.5 and 10.4 m below
require less computational resources than the 3D models the rail, respectively. The UP1 model consists of 26,271
used in other studies of transition zones, such as the ones nodes and 26,864 elements, and the UP2 model comprises
developed by Alves Ribeiro, Dahlberg, Calc ada, and a total of 27,882 elements and 27,131 nodes. They aim at
Ballast layer
UP1 UGM
box culvert CBM
Sub-ballast layer
Capping layer
CBM
UGM
UGM Natural foundation
Figure 3. Models of the transition zones and details of the finite element mesh.
4 C. Alves Ribeiro et al.
Table 2. Properties of the track materials after calibration. where Gi is the shear modulus, ri is the materials density
and si is given by
Young Poissons Rayleigh
Component modulus, ratio, damping, Density, r
or Ei vi bi ri 1 2 2vi
Si : 2
material (MPa) () (s 1023) (kg/m3) 21 2 vi
Sleepers 30 103 0.25 6360a
USP 1.3 0.00 0.5 800 To introduce these boundary conditions in the models,
Ballast 130 0.20 0.4 1530 normal and tangent damper elements (COMBIN14) were
Sub-ballast 200 0.30 0.4 1935 placed at the boundary nodes, with damping parameters
Capping layer 2820 0.30 2.6 1935 set in accordance with Equation (1) and considering the
UGM 1030 0.30 2.6 1935 size and width of the plane-stress elements.
CBM 10 103 0.30 0.4 2200
Embankment soils 80 0.30 2.9 2040 When modelling the effect of sudden changes in the
Natural Foundation 300 0.30 2.9 2040 track support conditions, as in transition zones, train track
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Box culvert 30 103 0.25 2500 interaction needs to be taken into account to avoid
a
An equivalent density value was calculated to obtain a total weight of
underestimating the resulting dynamic effects (Hunt,
315 kg for each sleeper. 1997; Varandas, Holscher, & Silva, 2014). In this study,
the wheel rail interaction was modelled as a node-to-
representing the full track cross section, thus both rails of beam contact using CONTA175 and TARGE169
the track were modelled as one continuous beam elements for the wheel nodes and rail beams, respectively
consisting of 7.5 cm long elements (BEAM3), with section which allowed sliding and loss of contact. The Penalty
properties equivalent to two UIC60 rails: a cross-section algorithm was considered and the full Newton Raphson
area of 2 7.7 1023 m2 and a bending inertia of 2 method was used to solve the nonlinear equations of the
30.55 1026 m4. Rails were assumed to have a Young problem. This train track interaction modelling approach
modulus of 200 GPa, a Poissons ratio of 0.3 and a density was thoroughly tested and validated in earlier works by
of 7850 kg/m3. The two rail pads on each sleeper were Alves Ribeiro (2012). To solve the well-known transient
modelled as three vertical spring damper elements dynamic equilibrium equations, the Newmark implicit
(COMBIN14) positioned alongside in order to simulate time integration method was used and time steps of 0.001 s
the width of the rail support on each sleeper. were considered.
Considering that the rail pads resonance frequency is The passenger tilting train was modelled as crossing
mostly dependent on their stiffness and damping, their the transition zones at 220 km/h. Figure 4 shows its axle
properties were estimated separately for each transition configurations and approximate loads. Given that this
model based on in situ receptance tests (Paixao et al., study focuses on the tracks dynamic behaviour, earlier
2014). As a result, a vertical stiffness (krp) of 130 and tests developed by the authors (Alves Ribeiro, 2012)
165 kN/mm and a damping value (crp) of 15 and 17 kN s/m determined that it is only necessary to model the trains
were determined for the rail pads at UP1 and UP2, bogies, rather than the full train model. Figure 5 depicts
respectively. Sleepers, USP, track bed layers, subgrade one of the 12 bogies that were considered in the models in
layers and box culverts were modelled using four-node order to simulate the effect of the full trains passage. The
plane-stress elements (PLANE42) that allow the definition parameters of the train model are provided in Table 3. The
of width in the perpendicular direction of the model. The bogie frame was considered as a rigid body.
width of the 2D elements was calibrated using reduced 3D Considering that the train has a length of about
static models, as addressed in Section 3.2. 158.9 m, and in order to reduce the size of the model and
The calibrated properties of the track materials calculation times, the passage of the train was simulated
adopted in this study are presented in Table 2. using the following method (Alves Ribeiro, 2012): (i)
In ANSYS 13.0, the Rayleigh damping coefficient a is initially, all bogies were stationary, weightless and located
the same for all materials; after calibration, the adopted at the same position, near one end of the model; (ii) in the
Rayleigh damping coefficient was a 8.52 s 21. subsequent time steps, axle loads and motion attributes
To minimise the effect of wave reflections, viscous were assigned to each bogie, one by one, according to the
boundary conditions were considered, in accordance with train speed and axle configuration (Figure 4); (iii) as each
White, Lee, and Valliappan (1977), using the following bogie reached the other end of the model, they were
damping matrix: stopped, one by one, and their axle loads were removed.
The studied railway line was opened to traffic by the
end of 2010 and inspection records of track geometry
p " #
8 Gi ri 18Si 2 2 20Si
3 indicate that the line still presented a very good quality by
0
C ; 1 2013. For that reason, a perfectly horizontal rail profile
15p 0 2Si 3
was considered on both transition zones.
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 5
3.85 2.70 16.30 2.70 4.20 2.70 16.30 2.70 4.20 2.70 16.30 2.70
129.8 133.2 132.6 129.2 131.5 134.9 134.9 131.5 128.8 128.8 128.8 128.8
2.70 16.30 2.70 4.20 2.70 16.30 2.70 4.20 2.70 16.30 2.70 3.85
132.7 132.7 132.7 132.7 133.2 136.6 136.6 133.2 130.2 133.6 134.2 130.8
Figure 4. Train configuration: distances between axles (in m) and approximate loads (in kN).
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Bogie
track support conditions found along the transition
zones (S1 S4), as depicted in Figure 2. The
reduced models consist of track segments of 30
sleepers with depths of 11.5 and 10.4 m regarding
UP1 and UP2, respectively, and a constant track
layout. The mesh pattern of the 2D models is very
Figure 5. Model of one of the 12 bogies of the train (see much similar to that of the full transition models
parameters in Table 3). and the mesh of the 3D models is somewhat
analogous, as depicted in Figure 7(a). The initial
estimates of the properties of the geomaterials and
3.2 Model calibration
track components were based on laboratorial
The calibration of the 2D models uses a novel procedure characterisation and filed measurements per-
(Alves Ribeiro, 2012) based on 3D and 2D reduced models formed by the authors (Fortunato et al., 2012;
and experimental data. Figure 6 illustrates a simplified Paixao, Fortunato, & Calc ada, 2013) or in
diagram of the calibration procedure that takes into accordance with other publications (UIC, 2008).
account: (1) the static calibration of the reduced 2D models (2) Static calibration: Vertical loads of 132 kN were
based on the results obtained with 3D models and (2) the applied on the rail at the centre of the reduced 3D
dynamic calibration of the 2D models using receptance test models and the vertical profile of vertical
curves obtained in the field. These non-destructive tests displacements under the rail was calculated. The
were described in Paixao et al. (2014) and allowed the same loads were applied on the reduced 2D
characterisation of the tracks dynamic behaviour in the models and the width of the four-node plane-stress
frequency domain between about 20 and 450 Hz. finite elements were adjusted using an iterative
The main steps of the calibration were performed as procedure developed in MATLAB, interacting
follows (Figure 6): with ANSYS in batch mode (Alves Ribeiro, 2012)
so that the reduced 2D models returned almost
(1) Before the development of the full transition identical vertical displacements profiles. The
models, four pairs of 3D and 2D reduced FEM application of this procedure resulted in a rather
models (see Figure 7) were prepared for each linear increasing variation of the elements width
transition zone, taking into consideration its as depth increased, with a maximum value of 16
geometry and aiming at representing the different and 14 m at the base, respectively, for UP1 and
UP2. Figure 7(b) shows an example of the good
agreement between the displacement contours of
the reduced 3D and 2D static models.
Table 3. Characteristics of the bogie model (see Figure 5).
(3) Dynamic calibration: Considering the elements
Parameter Value width calculated in step 2 and using the reduced
2D models, a MATLAB optimisation algorithm
Bogie mass (without axles), Mb 4932 kg
Primary suspension stiffness, Kp 1600 kN/m was developed (Alves Ribeiro, 2012) using the
Primary suspension damping, Cp 17.5 kN s/m lsqcurvefit function from the Optimisation Tool-
Axle mass, Ma 1800 kg box of MATLAB, interacting with ANSYS in
Hertzian wheel rail contact spring 1.24 106 kN/m batch mode to determine the material par-
stiffness, Kh
ameters (Young modulus and damping ratios of
6 C. Alves Ribeiro et al.
Geometry of the
transition zones and
adopted element mesh 3D models for
Width values of
static calibration of
plane-stress elements
Initial estimate of the 2D models(b)
geomaterials properties
and track components(a)
(a) Initial estimates based on laboratorial characterization and field measurements by the authors (Fortunato et al.,
2012; Paixo et al., 2013b), or other publications (UIC, 2008).
(b) MATLAB iterative procedure, interacting with ANSYS in batch mode, to determine width of plane-stress elements
in order to match relative displacements between static 2D and 3D models (Alves Ribeiro, 2012).
(c) MATLAB optimization algorithm lsqcurvefit, interacting with ANSYS in batch mode, to determine material
parameters that best fit experimental receptance curves, using the least-squares method (Alves Ribeiro, 2012).
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the procedure adopted for the calibration of the numerical models.
the geomaterials, and stiffness and damping of the Each iteration of the algorithm included a short
rail pad) that best fitted the experimental dynamic analysis of an impulse load (see Figure 8)
receptance curves, in a least-squares approach. applied on the rail in the reduced 2D models.
rail
(a) rail pad
sleepers
USP
ballast
sub-ballast
capping
soils
(b) MN
MX
Figure 7. Reduced models used in the calibration: (a) detailed views of the meshes and (b) example of the vertical displacement
contours after static calibration.
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 7
(a) 2000 have the same value in the subsequent sections. The initial
lower and upper limits used in the calibration of the
material parameters, also presented in Table 4, were
Force (N)
10
of the rail and sleepers on the track layers), lies usually
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x 108 x 108
S1: Open track UP1:field S1: Open track UP2:field
Receptance (m/N)
UP1:num. UP2:num.
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
x 108 x 108
UP1:num. UP2:num.
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2 2
1 1
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
x 108 x 108
UP1:num. UP2:num.
2 2
with USP
1 1
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
x 108 x 108
UP1:num. UP2:num.
2 2
with USP
1 1
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Figure 9. Experimental (Paixao et al., 2014) and numerical receptance curves for sections S1 S4 after dynamic calibration.
numerical receptance curves. Nevertheless, some exper- but showed higher values at UP2: between 344 and 373 Hz
imental curves were better fitted than others. The authors (see Table 5). These differences in frequency indicate
somewhat expected this outcome given the known variations in the stiffness of the rail pads along each
variability of the mechanical properties of the geomater- transition zone. Moreover, the higher range of frequencies
ials and of the track components (Oscarsson, 2002). For at UP2 also suggests that the rail pads at that underpass
instance, at UP1, field frp ranged between 304 and 327 Hz, may have been installed with higher preloads than the rail
Table 5. Comparison of field and numerical track resonant frequencies ft and frp (in Hz).
0
0.5
0
0.5
1 UP2; S1
Figure 10. Comparison of rail displacements at S1: numerical results against field measurements from Paixao et al. (2014).
pads at UP1. The influence of fastening preloads on the displacements denote downward direction. A type II
stiffness of rail pads is well documented by Wu and Chebyshev filter with a cut-off frequency of 80 Hz was
Thompson (1999). To account for this aspect, the authors applied to time history records. The cut-off frequency was
established different values for the calibration of rail pad determined based on the fact that the passenger trains
parameters in each transition zone, as mentioned earlier travelled at about 220 km/h which induced important
(see Table 4). excitation frequencies up to about 50 Hz (Paixao et al.,
2014) and considering that the dynamic response for
high frequencies due to the short-wave irregularities of the
rails and wheels (which are outside the scope of this study)
3.3 Model validation with experimental measurements are of random nature. The application of this filter also
To validate the numerical models, the authors compared made easier the interpretation of results.
numerical results with field measurements performed on As mentioned earlier, different stiffness and damping
the track, at sections S1 S4 (see Figure 1), when trains values were considered for the rail pads at UP1 and UP2.
crossed the transitions (Paixao et al., 2014). Immediately The analyses of various field measurements determined
after calibration, there was a very good agreement between that the amplitudes of the rail sleeper relative vertical
the field measurements and the dynamic results of the UP2 displacements (an estimate of the rail pad deformation)
model. However, at first, it was not possible to validate the were different in the two transitions (see Figure 14). These
UP1 model because the numerical results seemed to results supported the authors decision to consider
underestimate the field measurements in sections with different values for the rail pad parameters at each
USP. In fact, some drawbacks were expected, considering transition. With this consideration, it was possible to
that the adopted models are not able to fully account for achieve a good agreement between the numerical and the
the complex and nonlinear contact established between the experimental results, as depicted in Figure 14.
USPs underside and the ballast grains. While it may be It was also possible to validate the vertical accelera-
reasonable to consider USP with the full area of the tions calculated at the sleepers. Figures 15 18 show
sleepers underside for the dynamic calibration of the comparisons of numerical and experimental vertical
models (small load impulse on the rail), when trains load accelerations of the sleepers near sections S1 S4, at
the track (significantly higher loads) the effective contact both transitions (after applying type II Chebyshev 80 Hz
area of USP becomes smaller and concentrated under the low-cut filters). In general, a very good agreement was
rails. Using the numerical model, the authors determined obtained. Calculations of sleeper accelerations near S3 at
that with an effective contact area of approximately 0.3 m2 UP1 (Figure 17) somewhat overestimate the acceleration
(about 45% of the actual area of the sleepers underside), it peaks. At S2 of UP1, the numerical results were also
was possible to obtain a good agreement with the field slightly different from the track measurements the later
measurements at UP1. have relatively higher negative peaks. These observations
Figures 10 13 present a comparison between numeri- at S3 and S2 of UP1 are probably related to the
cal and experimental rail vertical displacements of disturbances in the train track interaction caused by the
sections S1 S4, in both transitions. Negative values of transition between sleepers with USP and without USP, as
10 C. Alves Ribeiro et al.
0.5
0.5
1 UP2; S2
Figure 11. Comparison of rail displacements at S2: numerical results against field measurements from Paixao et al. (2014).
0.5
Rail vertical displacement (mm)
UP1; S3
1
field
1.5 num.
0.5
UP2; S3
1
field
1.5 num.
Figure 12. Comparison of rail displacements at S3: numerical results against field measurements from Paixao et al. (2014).
0.5
Rail vertical displacement (mm)
UP1; S4
1
field
1.5 num.
0.5
UP2; S4
1 field
1.5 num.
Figure 13. Comparison of rail displacements at S4: numerical results against field measurements from Paixao et al. (2014).
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 11
0
0.1
UP2
0.2
field
0.3 num.
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0.4
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (s)
Figure 14. Comparison of rail sleeper relative displacements: numerical results against field measurements from Paixao et al. (2014).
will be addressed later. It is also possible that the track near prominent peaks in the plots are related to the trains
sections S2 and S3 at UP1 has undergone some signature, as was analysed in Paixao et al. (2014).
degradation, thus affecting the dynamic response of the
track, which the model cannot reproduce. In addition, it
should be noted that the accelerations were measured on
the end of the sleepers, near one of the rails. Because the 4. Analysis of train track interaction along the
model is bi-dimensional, it cannot simulate the tri- transition zones
dimensional response of the track that might be causing Using the two validated models, the vertical displacements
those differences, such as slight rotations of the sleepers of the first axle of the train were calculated, as presented in
around the track longitudinal axis caused by uneven Figure 20. The figure also shows the results that were
support conditions. obtained after improving the design of USP at UP1, which
Figure 19 compares frequency contents of numerical will only be addressed later in this section. On both
results and field measurements near sections S1 S4 at UP1 transitions, a smooth variation of rail deflections is visible
and UP2. The presence of USP is evidenced by the increase between the embankment with soils and the wedge-shaped
in the amplitude of the frequency peaks in the two bottom backfills (at about 30 23 m from the box culvert). At UP2,
left plots (S3 and S4 of UP1). In general, the results show a a relatively smooth ride is also observed over the backfills
relatively good agreement, although numerical results near (on UGM and CBM) and onto the box culvert, with minor
S3 at UP1 seem to be somewhat overestimated. The stiffness increases over its walls. This indicates that the
10 UP1 near S1
Sleeper vertical acceleration (m/s2)
0
field
5 num.
10 UP2 near S1
5
0
field
5 num.
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (s)
Figure 15. Numerical results and field measurements of the vertical accelerations of the sleeper near S1 from Paixao et al. (2014).
12 C. Alves Ribeiro et al.
10 UP1 near S2
5 field
5 field
num.
0
5
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Figure 16. Numerical results and field measurements of the vertical accelerations of the sleeper near S2 from Paixao et al. (2014).
backfill of UP2, by itself, can provide a gradual variation (1) Although results at UP2 are not influenced by the
of the track vertical stiffness as the train approaches the direction of the train, it slightly influences the
structure. Comparing the two displacement profiles results at UP1, namely when entering or exiting
presented in the figure, it can be observed that at UP1 the track section with USP, causing small
there is an increase in the vertical displacement of the axle oscillations in the vertical displacement of the
by 3 3.4 times where USP were installed. This evidences axle (Figure 20).
the influence of USP on the reduction of the track vertical (2) The vertical displacement profile of the second
stiffness. The axle displacement changes abruptly (in a axle of each bogie is similar to that of the first
three sleeper-span) when entering or exiting the track axle, although marginally higher in magnitude
section with USP (at about 13 m from the box culvert), (1 4% more) on the track section with USP.
which indicates a sharp stiffness transition. The relatively
Although the dynamic analyses of the passage of the
higher axle vertical displacements obtained on the
entire train through the transition zones are relatively fast
embankment with soils at UP1, when compared with the
to compute considering a total of 3850 time steps of
results at UP2, are due to the higher depth of the
0.001 s (about 7 h using a desktop computer with a quad-
embankment soils at UP1 (see Figures 1 and 3).
core processor and 16 GB of RAM), the authors found that
With the consideration of the train track interaction,
it was possible to reduce hard disk usage and calculation
the authors were able to draw additional observations:
times even further. In this case study, it was observed that
10 UP1 near S3
5 field
Sleeper vertical acceleration (m/s2)
num.
0
10 UP2 near S3
5 field
num.
0
Figure 17. Numerical results and field measurements of the vertical accelerations of the sleeper near S3 from Paixao et al. (2014).
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 13
10 UP1 near S4
5 field
10 UP2 near S4
5 field
num.
0
5
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Figure 18. Numerical results and field measurements of the vertical accelerations of the sleeper near S4 from Paixao et al. (2014).
1.5 1.5
all the bogies produced the same dynamic response. Thus,
Acceleration (m/s2/Hz)
UP1 near S1 UP2 near S1 instead of modelling all 12 bogies of the train, the same
num. num. result could be obtained by calculating only one bogie and
1 field 1 field
then superimposing its effect 12 times, spaced in time,
0.5 0.5 according to the train speed and axle configuration. With
this simplification, the number of required time steps and
0 0 calculation time were reduced in about 67%. This
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
conclusion may be particularly relevant for simulation-
1.5 1.5 based optimisation, where a large number of runs are
Acceleration (m/s2/Hz)
0.5
UP1 improved design
1.0
UP1
1.5 train direction USP at UP1 UP1 improved
UP2
2.0 C B A B C
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Figure 20. Vertical displacement of the first axle of the train crossing transition zones UP1 and UP2.
track. In fact, the use of USP was responsible for the sleepers underside and the angularities of the ballast
reduction of about 33% of the maximum rail seat loads. particles (reducing ballast crushing and abrasion) and may
In practice, this results in lower contact forces between the contribute to reduce track degradation rates in that section.
Because the numerical model only considers the
(a) 0.1 transient dynamic response of the traintrack system and
not the long-term behaviour, the authors cannot draw further
Axle vertical displacement (mm)
0.0
conclusions regarding the benefit of USP to reduce track
0.1 degradation rates at transition zones. In order to investigate
this aspect in more detail, further research is needed, for
0.2 example, to determine the allowable variation of the train
track interaction forces that may trigger rapid track
0.3
degradation.
0.4 Considering the complexity involved in the contact
12x1 bogie between the sleepers and the particles of ballast, other
0.5
12-bogie train numerical techniques, such as the discrete element method
0.6 (DEM), seem to be a more adequate approach to assess in
2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 greater depth the benefit of USP to reduce ballast
Time (s) degradation. However, the application of DEM to study
large segments of the track, with the consideration of train
(b) 4
models and the train track interaction, is yet impractical
Sleeper vertical acceleration (ms2)
150 USP
UP1
140
130
120
110
Train-track contact force (kN)
150
UP1 improved design
140
130
C B A B C
120
110
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150
train direction
140 UP2
130
120 Static axle load = 133 kN
110
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Figure 22. Interaction forces between the first axle of the train and the rails.
assessing the amplitude of the contact forces of the ballast significant influence on the track dynamic behaviour. The
particles and their force chains under the sleepers. contrasting results may be related to the fact that different
As mentioned earlier, previous numerical studies also studies focused on USP with very distinct stiffness
suggest that USP influence the tracks behaviour (Lundq- properties. This suggests the caution is necessary when
vist et al., 2006; Witt, 2008). However, some field drawing conclusions regarding the use of USP at transition
measurements (Lozano del Moral & Cuellar, 2009) and a zones and indicates that further studies are required.
numerical study by Insa et al. (2013) suggest that USP have Johansson et al. (2008) highlight that the stiffness
a minor influence on the tracks behaviour at transition properties of USP should be carefully determined for
zones. Track measurements reported by the authors (Paixao plain track; the same certainly applies to transition zones.
et al., 2014) along with the numerical results presented in In this study, the results indicate that the adopted USP
this paper clearly demonstrate that USP can have a at UP1 are too soft and introduce sharp stiffness
50 UP1
Maximum rail seat load (kN)
train direction
UP1 improved
40
no USP at UP2 UP2
30
20
USP at UP1
10 UP1 improved design
C B A B C
0
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Figure 23. Maximum rail seat loads on the transition zones to UP1 and UP2.
16 C. Alves Ribeiro et al.
With the aim to improve the design of the transition calibrated using a fast procedure that included 3D and 2D
zone with USP, a parametric study was carried out using reduced models and track receptance curves obtained in
the numerical model of UP1. The study aimed at previous field works.
determining a more adequate design so that the axle Dynamic analyses were then performed with the full
vertical displacement of the train, across the transition models, considering the passenger tilting train crossing
zone, remained close to the value observed in plain track through both transitions at 220 km/h. Trains were
(about 0.9 mm) an uniform track vertical stiffness. It was modelled as 12 independent bogies and the train track
found that using at least three sets of USP, with different interaction was taken into account using nonlinear contact
stiffness in specific track sections, produced significant algorithms in the wheel rail interface. Extensive vali-
better results. The best design of the parametric study dation of the models was possible using a large set of track
comprised the following three different track sections measurements performed earlier by the authors. From the
(identified in Figures 20, 22 and 23): numerical study presented here, the following main
remarks and conclusions can be drawn:
. Section A (up to about 23 m from both sides of the
(1) In general, a very good agreement was obtained
box culvert centre line) 2 78 sleepers with USP with
between the numerical results and the field
a stiffness 2.2 times greater than the USP in the case
measurements at different sections along both
study.
transition zones under study.
. Section B (at about 23 28 m from both sides of the
(2) The USP installed at UP1 significantly influence
box culvert centre line) eight sleepers with USP
the tracks dynamic behaviour, increasing rail
with a stiffness five times greater than the USP in the
vertical displacements (lower track stiffness) and
case study.
vertical accelerations of the sleepers. Numerical
. Section C (at about 28 33 m from both sides of the
results of the vertical displacement of the axles of
box culvert centre line) eight sleepers with USP
the trains were 3 3.4 times greater on sleepers
with a stiffness 15 times greater than the USP in the
with USP. Important oscillations of the train-
case study.
interaction forces were observed (upto 7% and
With the improved design, it was possible to (i) even 2 12%) when entering or exiting the track section
the track vertical stiffness along the transition zone and with USP.
consequently limit the variations of the axle displacement (3) After comparing the results with and without USP,
(Figure 20); (ii) limit the oscillations of the train track it appears that excessively soft USP were used in
interaction forces down to about ^ 3% of the static axle the case study. The authors concluded that the
load (Figure 22); (iii) reduce rail seat loads throughout the stiffness of USP should be carefully determined
transition zone by at least 26%, in comparison with the for each transition zone before installation.
results in UP2 (Figure 23). (4) In the studied scenarios, it was found that the
Given that the track was only opened to traffic in recent influence of the trains direction is not significant
years, it was not possible to draw further conclusions when variations of track support conditions are
regarding the long-term behaviour of the transition zones relatively smooth. However, a small influence was
with USP. Moreover, considering that the numerical observed when the train entered or exited track
models were developed for transient dynamic analyses and sections with USP.
to reproduce the in situ measurements, they cannot predict (5) Given the short calculation times and the good
the track degradation or the plastic deformation of the agreement with field measurements, the presented
track elements. approach seems to be very efficient for dealing
Structure and Infrastructure Engineering 17
number of sleepers with USP) in order to improve the the 9th International Conference on Railway Engineering,
design of the transition zone. The best solution that was London.
found comprised sleepers with gradually increasing stiffer Banimahd, M., Woodward, P.K., Kennedy, J., & Medero, G.
USP at different track sections of the transition zone. The (2012). Behaviour of train track interaction in stiffness
improved design allowed to (i) even the track vertical transitions. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers:
Transport, 165, 205 214.
stiffness, and thus the axle vertical displacement; (ii) limit Chen, C., & McDowell, G.R. (2014). An investigation of the
oscillations of the train track interaction forces; and (iii) dynamic behaviour of track transition zones using discrete
most importantly, reduce rail seat loads (consequently element modelling. Proceedings of the Institution of
loads between the sleeper and ballast) by at least 26%, Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid
which indicates that USP can contribute to reduce the Transit. doi:10.1177/0954409714528892
DAguiar, S.C., Arlaud, E., Potvin, R., Laurans, E., &
degradation of the ballast layer at transition zones.
Funfschillling, C. (2013). Railway transitional zones: The
The railway track at transition zones is a very complex challenges of very high speeds. Paper presented at the
system, and more studies are still required to better WCRR 2013 World Congress on Railway Research,
understand the mechanisms that control its dynamic short- Sydney, Australia.
and long-term behaviour. Considering what was mentioned Dahlberg, T. (2010). Railway track stiffness variations
above, the authors are encouraged to use the presented Consequences and countermeasures. International Journal of
Civil Engineering, 8(1), 1 8.
modelling approach, and its respective calibration pro- De Man, A.P. (2000). Pin pin resonance as a reference in
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the long-term behaviour of transition zones to minimise the European Rail Research Institute (1999). Bridge ends
development of hanging sleepers and defective geometries, Embankment structure transition, State of Art Report,
D230.1 Committee. Utrecht: Author.
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of unbound granular materials in railway sub-ballast layer.
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Geotechnics II, Hokkaido University, Japan.
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research project by the Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil doi:10.1006/jsvi.1995.0564
(LNEC) and the Faculty of Engineering of University of Porto Hunt, H.E.M. (1997). Settlement of railway track near bridge
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