COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Lecture 1

First Generation (1952 1958)

Awesome in size
Controlled by thousands of vacuum tubes or valves
Consumes great amount of power that often resulted in overheating and failure

Second Generation Computer (1959-1964)

Development of assembly or symbolic language

Development of high level language such as Fortran (1954) and Cobol (1959)
allowed programmers to give more attention to solving problems

Third Generation Computers (1965-1970)

Uses Integrated Circuit, commonly known as the silicon chip, which

revolutionized electronic

Fourth Generation Computer (1971-present)

Uses microprocessor, a chip which contains all the main electronic components of
a compound

500 BC the Chinese invented the Abacus, considered to be the first computer
device, which can perform simple addition and subtraction operations.
John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, invented the NAPIERS Bone a table of
logarithms made of ivory
William Oughtred, an English mathematician, invented the SLIDE RULE, a device
made of wood with movable scales arrange to slide opposite each other
Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented the PASCALINE the first
mechanical calculating machine
Herman Hollerith, an American statistician and founder of Tabulating Machine
Company (now called International Business Machine or IBM) invented the CENSUS
MACHINE
Charles Babbage also invented the ANALYTICAL MACHINE designed to perform
complex mathematical calculations. This was considered to be the first general
purpose computer
John Presper Eckert, Jr. and William Mauchly from the University of Pennsylvania
invented the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) that had the
capacity of 5,000 computations per second

GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out). Computer error may result from erroneously
entered input

Classification by purpose

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General-Purpose Computers - A computer that has the ability to store different
programs of instructions and thus to perform a variety of operations.
Special-Purpose Computers - A computer designed to perform one specific task

Classification by Type of Data Handled

Digital Computers a machine that specialize in counting of items that are distinct
from one another, e.g. Text, integers, morse code
Analog Computer machine that deals with quantities that are continuous variable.
This means that no individual elements can be identified from any other element,
e.g. Light, voice, and video
Hybrid Computers machine that combines the measuring capabilities of the
analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer

Classification of Computers
Medium-size Computers They can serve the needs of a university.
Large Computers They can be used in government agencies and in the
development of space technology
Supercomputers machines that have capabilities far beyond even the
traditional large-scale systems. They are essential for applications ranging from
nuclear weapon development to accurate weather forecasting

Lecture 2

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) the processing of data through the use of
computers
Data Processing the manipulating of data into a more useful form.

Data Processing Cycle

Input in this stage the initial data, or input data, is prepared in some
convenient form for processing.
Processing in this step the input data are charged, and usually
combined with other information, to produce data into more useful form.
Output here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected.

Classification of Data Processing

Business Data Processing characterized by the need to establish, retain,

and process files of data for producing useful information.
Scientific Data Processing involves a limited volume of input and many
logical or arithmetic calculations.

Data Processing Operations

Recording refers to the transfer on data into some form or document.

Verifying refers to the careful checking of the recorded data for any errors.
Duplicating refers to the reproduction of the data into many forms or
document.

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 Classifying refers to identifying and arranging items with likes
characteristics into groups or classes.
Sorting refers to arranging or rearranging data in a predetermined
sequence to facilitate processing.
Calculating refers to arithmetic manipulation of the data.
Summarizing or Reporting it is here where a collection of data is
condensed and certain conclusions from the data are represented in a
meaningful format that is clear, concise and effective.
Merging this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been
sorted by the same key, and puts them together to form a single sorted set of
data.
Storing refers to placing similar data into files for future reference.
Retrieving refers to recovering stored data and/or information when
needed.
Feedback refers to the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set in
advance, any discrepancy is analysed, corrected, and fed back to proper
stage in the processing operation.

Methods of Processing Data

Batch Processing a technique in which data to be processed are collected
into groups to permit convenient, efficient, and serial processing.
On-line Processing a technique that uses devices directly connected to
the CPU either for entry or inquiry purposes.
Real-time Processing a method which has the capability of a fast
response to obtain data form an activity or a physical process.
Distributed Processing it generally consists of remote terminals linked to
a large central computer system to help the user conduct inquiries about
accounts, process jobs, or other data processing operations.
Elements of an EDP System
I. Hardware the physical equipment that make up a computer system.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) heart and brain of the computer

system.
Parts of CPU
Main Memory (Primary Storage) data and instructions are
stored here. Sometimes known as the internal memory of the
computer.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) accomplishes the arithmetical
and logical operations.
o Accumulator a kind of holding area which retains
answers that are produce by adders.
o Adders add the bits coming from the memory and
produces a 1 or 0 depending upon the components of the
received bits (contraction for binary digit).
Control Unit supervises all the activities based on a set of
instructions programs stored in the main memory. It selects,
interprets and executes the instructions.

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 o Registers functions as temporary storage devices
during process of computation.
Input/Output Devices
Input Devices physical equipment which reads or
translates data consisting of alphabets, numbers, or symbols
into a form that can be understand by the computer.
Output Devices physical equipments which translate the
outcome of the computations and related activities carried
out in the CPU.
Types of Computer Memory
Internal Memory contained in the silicon chip and can
hold instructions and data which the computer is currently
working on or information which the CPU needs to work very
rapidly because the speed of the CPU is very high and
acquires information to be readily available.
Random Access Memory (RAM) stores instructions
which later can be erased or changed. All information
stored here are lost and erased when computer is
turned off.
Read Only Memory (ROM) contains permanently
stored instructions that a computer is required to keep
able to perform its basic routine operations. Part of
CPU.
External Memory uses tapes and disk to store
information. External memory is physically separated from
CPU.
II. Software the tangible element composed of programs that instruct the computer
what to do.

Types of Software
A. Systems Software the programs or instructions which direct
the internal operations of the computer. Also called operating
software and are normally contained in a disk pack or floppy
diskette or already embedded on a chip.
Classification of System Software

1. Operating System most important type. It is a group of

related programs that supervises or monitors the execution
of an application program and provides services such as
language translation, input/output control, and job
scheduling.
2. Language Translators programs which convert human
readable form into a series of binary pattern of zeroes and
ones.
Low Level Language Machine Language, Assembly
Language difficult to learn, coding was tedious, and
difficult to correct and find error in programs.
High Level Language COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN,
RPG or PASCAL

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 3. Utility or Service Programs use for specialized data
process problems.
B. Application Software Provides a solution to a specific
business, scientific, engineering or research problems, or which
perform specific operations or applications.
Types of Application Software
Customized a program developed to solve a specific
problem peculiar to a particular company or user.
Packaged Pre-written programs for common
applications that can be used by a number of users with
little or no changes.
o Word Processing (e.g. MS Word) a text editing
program which allows the user to type, compose and
correct manuscripts without the need to retype when
errors or changes on such manuscript are made.
o Spreadsheet (e.g. Excel) allows the user to do
what if problems. These are powerful; business tools
for budget reporting, financial projections and cost
estimating.
o Database (e.g. Access) allows the user to create and
store information based on his own requirements. Also
called electronic filing.
C. Peopleware this refers to the people who work with the
computer so that it can be used to find solutions to problems.
Also, these refer to persons who used the information generated
by the computer.
System Analyst primarily responsible for the analysis,
design, development and implementation of systems for
such applications as payroll, inventory control, accounts
receivable, and sales analysis.
Database Administrator designs, creates, and
maintains the organizations database.
Data Communication Specialist designs and
maintains computer networks that link computers and
terminals for data communications.
Computer Programmers write programs or perform
programming.
Application programmers translate
specifications given by system analyst and prepare
programs for applications.
System Programmers develop and maintain
system software.
Operations Personnel
Data encoder responsible for transferring data
from the source document (e.g. Time cards) into a
form which the computer can understand.
Data controllers verify and check whether the
data prepared are accurate and complete.

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 Computer operators actually handle the
machine; responsible to load and unload the
programs, mount the data tapes, disks, or cards;
prepare to receive the output data from printer.
Librarian a person who catalog, monitor, and
control the distribution of disks, tapes, system
documentation, and computer-related literature.
Computer Instructor conducts the training sessions.
Lecture 3

Basic Concepts of Computer Hardware

Input/Output (I/O): Refers to the process of getting information into and out of the
computer.
Input: Those parts of the computer receiving information to programs.
Output: Those parts of the computer that provide results of computation to
the person using the computer.
Sources of Data for the Computer
Two types of data stored within a computer:
Original data or information: Data being introduced to a
computing system for the first time.
Computers can deal directly with printed text, pictures,
sound, and other common types of information.
Previously stored data or information: Data that has already
been processed by a computer and is being stored for later use.
These are forms of binary data useful only to the computer.
Examples: Floppy disks, DVD disks, and music CDs.
Input Devices
Two categories of input hardware:
Those that deal with original data.
Those that handle previously stored data.
Input hardware: Those that deal with original data.
Keyboard
Mouse
Voice recognition hardware
Scanner
Digital camera
Digitizing: The process of taking a visual image, or audio recording and
converting it to a binary form for the computer.
Used as data for programs to display, play or manipulate the
digitized data.
Connecting Hardware to the computer:
Hardware needs access through some general input/output
connection.
Port: The pathway for data to go into and out of the
computer from external devices such as keyboards.
There are many standard ports as well as custom
electronic ports designed for special purposes.
Ports follow standards that define their use.
SCSI, USB: Multiple peripheral devices (chain).
RS-232, IDE: Individual peripheral devices.
Peripheral device: A piece of hardware like a printer or disk
drive, that is outside the main computer.
Hardware needs software on the computer that can service the
device.
Device driver: Software addition to the operating system
that will allow the computer to communicate with a particular
device.
Common Basic Technologies for Storing Binary Information:

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 Electronic
Magnetic
Optical
Electronic Circuits
Most expensive of the three forms for storing binary
information.
A flip-flop circuit has either one electronic status or the other.
It is said to flip-flop from one to the other.
Electronic circuits come in two forms:
Permanent
Non-permanent
Magnetic Technology
Two parts to most of the magnetic forms of information
storage:
The medium that stores the magnetic information.
Example: Floppy disk. Tiny spots on the disk are
magnetized to represent 0s and 1s.
The device that can read that information from the
medium.
The drive spins the disk.
It has a magnetic sensing arm that moves over
the disk.
Performs nondestructive reading.
Optical
Uses lasers to read the binary information from the
medium, usually a disc.
Millions of tiny holes are burned into the surface of
the disc.
The holes are interpreted as 1s. The absences of holes
are interpreted as 0s.
Secondary Memory Input Devices
These input devices are used by a computer to store information
and then to retrieve that information as needed.
External to the computer.
Commonly consists of floppy disks, hard disk drives, or CD-
ROMs.
Secondary memory uses binary.
The usual measurement is the byte.
A byte consists of 8 binary digits (bits). The byte is a
standard unit.
The four most important characteristics of storage devices:
Speed and access time
Cost / Removable versus non-removable
Capacity
Type of access
Speed (Access time) - How fast information can be taken
from or stored onto the computer memory devices medium.
Electronic circuits: Fastest to access.
40 billionths of a second.
Floppy disks: Very slow in comparison.
Takes up to 1/2 second to reach full speed
before access is even possible.
Cost
Megabyte: A Million bytes.
Gigabyte: A billion bytes.
Two parts to a removable secondary storage device:
The cost of the medium. (Cheaper if bought in
quantity)
The cost of the drive.
Examples: Cost for drive Cost for medium
Floppy drive (1.4MB) 59.00 .50
Zip 100 (100 MB) 99.00 10.00

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 CD-WR (650 MB) 360.00 and up 1.00
Capacity - The amount of information that can be stored on
the medium.
Type of Access
Sequential - Obtained by proceeding through
the storage medium from the beginning until
the designated area is reached (as in magnetic
tape).
Random Access - Direct access (as in floppy
and hard disks).

Primary Memory
Primary storage or memory: Is where the data and program that are
currently in operation or being accessed are stored during use.
Consists of electronic circuits: Extremely fast and expensive.
Two types:
RAM (non-permanent)
Programs and data can be stored here for the
computers use.
Volatile: All information will be lost once the computer
shuts down.
ROM (permanent)
Contents do not change.

The Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit ( CPU)
Often referred to as the brain of the computer.
Responsible for controlling all activities of the computer system.
The three major components of the CPU are:
1. Arithmetic Unit (Computations performed)
Accumulator (Results of computations kept here)
2. Control Unit (Has two locations where numbers are kept)
Instruction Register (Instruction placed here for
analysis)
Program Counter (Which instruction will be performed
next?)
3. Instruction Decoding Unit (Decodes the instruction)
Motherboard: The place where most of the electronics including
the CPU are mounted.

Output Devices
Output units store and display information (calculated results and other
messages) for us to see and use.
Floppy disk drives and Hard disk drives.
Display monitors: Hi-resolution monitors come in two types:
Cathode ray tube (CRT) - Streams of electrons make
phosphors glow on a large vacuum tube.
Liquid crystal display (LCD) - A flat panel display that uses
crystals to let varying amounts of different colored light to
pass through it.
Developed primarily for portable computers.
Audio Output Devices

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 Windows machines need special audio card for audio output.
Macintosh has audio playback built in.
Audio output is useful for:
Music
CD player is a computer.
Most personal computers have CD players that can
access both music CDs and CD-ROMs.
Voice synthesis (becoming more human sounding.)
Multimedia
Specialized tasks (i.e.: elevators floor announcements)
Optical Disks: CD-ROM and DVD
CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory)
By its definition, CD-ROM is Read Only.
Special CD drives burn information into blank CDs.
Burn: A laser is used to burn craters into the surface
to represent a binary 1.
Two main types of CDs:
CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable)
CD-WR (Compact Disk - ReWritable)
It takes longer to write to a CD-R than a hard drive.
Special software is needed to record.
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
Allows up to 17 gigabytes of storage (from 4.7 GB to 17 GB).
Compatible with older CD-ROM technology.
The four versions of the DVD:
Storage Requirements: How much storage capacity is needed for
One keystroke on a keyboard. 1 byte (8 bits)
One page single-spaced document. 4.0 K
Nineteen pages formatted text. 75 K
One second of high-fidelity sound. 95-110 K
Complete word processing program. 8.4 MG
Storage Capacity: How much data can be stored on
One inch of 1/2 in. wide magnetic tape. 4K
One 3 1/2 floppy disk, high density. 1.4 MG
One Compact Disk. 650 MG
One DVD. up to 17 GB

Moving Information Within the Computer

How do binary numerals move into, out of, and within the computer?
Information is moved about in bytes, or multiple bytes called words.
Words are the fundamental units of information.
The number of bits per word may vary per computer.
A word length for most large IBM computers is 32 bits:
Bits that compose a word are passed in parallel from place to place.
Ribbon cables:
Consist of several wires, molded together.
One wire for each bit of the word or byte.
Additional wires coordinate the activity of moving
information.
Each wire sends information in the form of a voltage pulse.

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 Example of sending the word WOW over the ribbon cable
Voltage pulses corresponding to the ASCII codes would pass through
the cable.

Packaging the Computer

The many physical forms of the general purpose computer:
All follow general organization:
Primary memory
Input units
Output units
Central Processing Unit
Grouped according to speed, cost, size, and complexity.

Software Tools for Maintaining Your Computer Hardware

Utility Programs exist that can help diagnose and solve computer
hardware problems.
Four major problem areas where utility programs are helpful:
Finding and fixing problems.
Testing Input/Output peripherals.
Testing RAM, motherboard, video cards.
Recovering deleted files or fixing damaged disks.
Improving computer performance.
De-fragmenting a disk (Packs all files closer together).
Preventative maintenance.
Troubleshooting.
Locates incompatible programs.

Lecture 4 Hardware and Software Basics

Types of Devices
Digital versus Analog
A digital device uses discrete data.
Discrete data is distinct or separate.
Ex: Numbers or digits.
Most computers today are digital. Their circuits have only two possible
states, such as Off and On or 0 and 1.
An analog device operates on continuously varying data. Continuously
varying data has an infinite number of possible states.
A digital thermometer will give a specific numerical reading when used to
measure someones body temperature.
An old fashioned mercury thermometers reading of someones body
temperature could be interpreted differently by different users.

Computer Hardware
Central Processing Unit - also called The Chip, a CPU, a processor, or a
microprocessor
Memory (RAM)
Storage Devices
Input Devices
Output Devices

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CPU Types
CPU or microprocessor is often described as the brain of a computer.
CPU is an integrated circuit or chip which processes instructions and data.
CPU types.
Intel Pentium II, III, IV
Intel Celeron
AMD Athlon
CPU speed is measured by the number of completed instruction cycles per
second
Currently, CPU speeds range from 600 megahertz (MHz or million cycles per
second) to 4 gigahertz (GHz or billion cycles per second).
Always check new softwares requirements for CPU type and speed before
purchasing

Microcomputer Platforms
All microcomputers are based on a small number of designs (interior
architecture) or computer platforms.
PC architecture is based on the first IBM microcomputers. Generally, PCs use
Microsoft Windows as their operating system.
Apple computers or Macs are based on proprietary architecture manufactured
exclusively by Apple Computer, Inc.
Compatibility refers to computers that operate in essentially the same way.
Compatibility across platforms is limited! You must know which platform your
computer runs on before purchasing software.
All software is designed for a specific platform.
Windows, Mac or Unix versions

Memory (RAM)
RAM or Random Access Memory
Waiting room for computers CPU.
Holds instructions for processing data, processed data, and raw data.
Ram is measured by:
Capacity (in Megabytes or Gigabytes)
Speed (in Nanoseconds)
Amount of RAM installed will determine.
Which software applications will run (efficiently)?
How many software applications can be open simultaneously
(multitasking ability)?
RAM upgrades are cost-effective and easy to install.
Check your computer manual for RAM type (DIMM, SDRAM) and
speed (100, 90ns).
All software applications will have RAM specifications listed on their
packaging.
Many applications list both a minimum and a recommended amount of
RAM necessary to run the software.
Be cautious about buying software for a system based on minimum
requirement.

Storage Technology

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 Electronic devices that store, retrieve, and save instructions and data.
Todays microcomputers or PCs include several types of storage devices.
Capacity and speed are important considerations when selecting a new
storage device for a PC.
Magnetic storage devices store data by magnetizing particles on a disk or
tape. They have a limited life-span of 1 to 5 years, depending on the device.
Optical storage devices store data as light and dark spots on the disk
surface. They have an unlimited life-span.
Hard Disk Drives
Capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB or billions of bytes).
Typically permanently installed.
Used to store operating system, application software, utilities and data.
Magnetic storage device.
Floppy Disk Drives
Capacity is 1.44 to 2.0 megabytes (MB or millions of bytes).
Storage device with the smallest capacity
Most portable storage media
Magnetic storage device.
CD-ROM Drives
Typically installed on all new computer systems. (Were add-on device
until the mid 1990s).
Capacity is 600 to 750 megabytes
(MB or millions of bytes).
Most mass-produced commercial software is packaged on a CD.
Used more often now for backup storage as CD-RW (read/write)
technology has become less expensive.
Data is read from CD by a laser.
Optical storage device.
Other Types of Drives
Zip Drives Several different capacities are available.
Tape Drives Generally used for system backups, becoming less
common.
DVD drives Can also read CDs, now more common as a standard
device on new computer systems.

Input Devices
Input is all information put into a computer. Input can be supplied from a
variety of sources:
A person
A storage device on computer
Another computer
A peripheral device
Another piece of equipment, such as a musical instrument or
thermometer
Input devices gather and translate data into a form the computer
understands.
Primary input device:
Keyboard - Most common input device; used to type in commands
and data.

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 Mouse or trackball enhances users ability to input commands,
manipulate text, images.
Joystick useful in education as an adaptive or assistive input device.
Scanners are peripheral input devices which allow users to import:
Text
Graphics
Images
Specialized software aids in translating information into a format the
computer can understand and manipulate.
Digital Cameras are peripheral input devices that allow users to create
pictures and/or movies in a digital format.
Some require specialized
software to import images
into the computer.
Some record digital images directly to a disk that can be read by the
computer.

Output Devices
Monitors are the most commonly used output device.
Most monitors use a bitmap display.
Allows user to resize the display.
Divides the screen into a matrix of tiny square dots called pixels.
The more dots a screen can display, the higher the resolution of the
monitor.
Monitors are connected to a computer system via a port integrated on the
video adapter or graphics card.
Graphics cards convert digital data output from software to analog data for
display on monitors.
Typically have additional memory chips on card, 4MB to 64MB.
Printers
Dot matrix
Seldom used in a classroom.
Still frequently used in business.
Bubble or ink jet
Laser
Projection systems or classroom TVs can display information from a computer
system on a larger screen for whole-class instruction.
Networks
A collection of computers and other devices that communicate to share data,
hardware, and software.
A stand-alone computer is called a workstation on a network.
A workstation provides access to:
Your computers local resources
Network resources
A server is a computer connected to a network that distributes and stores
resources for other network users.
With proper licensing, many network users can use the same applications and
data files simultaneously and share other resources, such as storage space or
a printer.
Local Area Network (LAN) a network located in a limited area.

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 LANs are found in most businesses.
Many campuses use LANs.
A network interface card (NIC) a key hardware component.
Connects a workstation to the network.
A circuit board that sends data between the workstation and the
network.
Wide Area Network (WAN) a network that covers a large geographical
area. TENET is a classic example.
All types of networks require special networking hardware and networking
software to allow different computers to communicate with each other.
The Internet - largest of all networks.
Communication standards called protocols allow for global exchange of
information.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Intranets are LANs or WANs that use these communication standards or
TCP/IP.
Special hardware (modem) and software (browser) are required.

Software
Instructions and associated data, stored in electronic format, that direct the
computer to accomplish a task.
System software helps the computer carry out its basic operating tasks.
Operating systems
Utilities
An Operating System (OS) is the master controller within a computer.
EX: Windows, MacOS, DOS, UNIX, Linux
An operating system interacts with:
All hardware installed in or connected to a computer system.
All software installed or running from a storage device on a
computer system.
Microsoft Windows
Most popular operating system.
Supports a vast array of application software and
peripheral devices.
MacOS
For Macintosh computers.
Proprietary system.
Does not have same functionality and support for
software and peripheral devices.
Network operating system (NOS)
Manages network resources.
Maintains security.
Tracks user accounts.
Handles communication between workstations and servers.
Popular network operating systems
Windows NT, Novell Netware, UNIX
Utilities
Utilities augment functionality of operating systems. Utilities
includes device drivers and Troubleshooting capabilities.

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 Utilities provide file management capabilities such as copying,
moving or renaming a file.
Norton Utilities includes an undelete function that can recover
deleted files.
Symantec and McAfee Virus checkers add protection for all
system and data files.
Application Software
Accomplishes specific tasks for users.
Enables a computer to become a multi-purpose machine.
Produce worksheets and reports.
Automate record keeping like attendance and grades.
Create flow charts and graphic organizers.
Communicate worldwide.
Productivity Software
Spreadsheets
Databases
Presentation Software
Document Preparation
Word Processing
Desktop Publishing
Project Management Software
Graphics Creation and Manipulation
Animation and 3D Graphics
Video Editing
Internet Connectivity
Website Creation and Management
Groupware
Financial Management
Educational Games and Tutorials

Programming Languages
Basic building blocks of any software.
Programming languages allow a programmer to write instructions that a
computer can understand.
Programming languages have some resemblance to the English language.
BASIC
Pascal
Fortran
C++
Java

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