Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
in Perspective
By Cynthia Barnes Gallagher
Table of Contents
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................................3
Description ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Overview ...................................................................................................................................................................4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
I. Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective: Learning Outcomes ...............................................................................6
1. Recognize aesthetical and cultural qualities of literature. ......................................................................................6
2. Apply approaches to their reading and critical analyses of rhetorical, literary, and aesthetical issues of
numerous genres. .......................................................................................................................................................6
3. Synthesize understanding for progressive education in respect to integrated aesthetical values within cultural
contexts. .....................................................................................................................................................................7
4. Demonstrate competency in respect to literary genre, philosophic foundation, and literary form ........................7
5. Consider and write about analytical characteristics of the psyche in terms of characterization, plot dynamics,
conflict, and aesthetic ................................................................................................................................................8
6. Objectively and persuasively “combine the rhetorical strategies of narration, exposition, persuasion, and
description” that demonstrates “a command of standard English and the research, organizational, and drafting
strategies of Writing Standard 1.0” (ICAS, 2002, 70). .............................................................................................. 9
7. Recognize and validate the language acquisition device associated with linguistic universals and
transformational grammar. ........................................................................................................................................9
8. Demonstrate understanding of the “innate knowledge of universals,” “linguistic experience,” and
“idiosyncratic, language-particular properties of a target language”—“the language of the mind”--from a
psycholinguistic approach (Radford, 1989, 37). ...................................................................................................... 10
9. Demonstrate an ability to “critique diction and syntax” to the purpose of oral communication and the impact of
words,” and “to analyze the technique used in media passages and to evaluate their effectiveness” (ICAS, 2002,
76). ........................................................................................................................................................................... 10
10. Recognize instances of subconscious, conscious, unconscious, and subliminal associative thought ................ 11
II. Exercises Involving the Classic Prose of Confucius ............................................................................................... 11
III. Exercises Involving the Classic Work of the Gilgamesh Epic .............................................................................. 13
IV. Exercises Involving the Classic Work of Homer................................................................................................... 14
V. Exercises Involving the Work of Christopher Marlow ........................................................................................... 14
VI. Exercises Involving the Classics of William Shakespeare .................................................................................... 15
VII. Exercises Involving the Work of Ben Jonson ...................................................................................................... 16
IIX. Exercises Involving the Work of James Joyce ..................................................................................................... 17
IX. Exercises Involving the Work of Dylan Thomas................................................................................................... 18
References ................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix A: Literary Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Appendix B: Syntactic Terms Essential to Universal Grammar .................................................................................. 22
Appendix C: Syntax Review ....................................................................................................................................... 22
1. Expletive Patterns ................................................................................................................................................ 22
2. Parallelism ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 3
Abstract
Aesthetics directly correspond with the study of ethical values, progressive philosophical values
symmetry, and ethical values that continue to merge across cultures, aesthetical qualities
influence semantics at all levels as specific groups of languages evolve and coalesce into a
perceptive learner will realize that words have evoked progressive and even contradictory
meanings since their origin; and that linguistic and aesthetic components are integrated into the
theories and ongoing history of all academic subjects. Of foremost importance, they become
Description
Aesthetics integrates values and progressive philosophy within all literature. Including
concepts that are important to linguistics and literature in cultural ways, aesthetics relates to
democratic universality of perception and insight that writers and speakers often convey in a
dramatic and creative unique style. Universality is the integral component that expands sympathy
and compassion across cultures, and the universal grammatical device essential to
Aesthetics and Universality introduces learners to important concepts that have initiated
and sustained academic schools since esoteric times of the ancients. The influence of Confucius,
hieroglyphs, the Gilgamesh epic, the Homeric epic and ode, William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson,
Christopher Marlow, James Joyce, and Dylan Thomas serve as precedents in a tradition or
inspiration of dramatic, politically inspiring, and philanthropic literature. The psyche of the
oppressed, the horrors of combat, and the sovereign mind serve as interesting case studies and
models. Before adult students can read aloud or silently profound and dramatic prose, and before
they can discuss the contents of such monumental literature, they should have an opportunity to
learn of the epic and dramatic history in the terms of Shakespeare‟s influences such as Seneca
and Euripides, for example, and the causes that compelled such work.
Overview
literature, and universal grammar function in unison. Due to the transparent communication of
interactive online structures, the concept of aesthetics in literature is important to the progressive
development of every learner. As infrastructures and linguistic patterns continue to coalesce into
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 5
a universal language that is readily distinguishable to every viable individual of the functional
work dynamic, adult learners must remain perceptive and knowledgeable to progressive change
of semantic and literary components. This project focuses on these integral systems.
Introduction
As they read aloud passages of dramatic works both of Confucius and of Renaissance
writers, for example, adult learners have an opportunity to participate in a kind of role play as
they identify with the authors, subjects, characters, cultural dynamics, atmosphere, conflict, and
aesthetics of uniquely different times and lands. Upon delivery of the dramatic presentations
noted here, the glossaries noted in Appendix A and Appendix B, and the lesson will serve as
important guidelines toward complete discussion about the open-ended questions regarding
culture and aesthetics. This is an introduction to questions pertaining to ancient and precedential
works, to the Ode--the vision, observations, and perspectives of today‟s combatant; a literary
work that must be preceded by a study in aesthetical literary issues and questions.
Regarding a Case Study and an open-ended question, the project will also feature a
mind of the ancient philosopher and the causes that motivate hostility and struggle. The analysis
further research and reading that pertain to aesthetics in literature, psychology, and the social
sciences, for example, and in the progressive learning, environment, and collaboration through
further adult-learner instruction. I have included appendices of glossaries and reading material to
assist in understanding and analyzing the dynamics of dramatic prose. The first simple lesson
will involve short classic works of Confucius. I include extra reading material that will
augment the objectives of the project, and that will enhance the reading experience of the adult
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 6
learner. As they read aloud dramatic classics, learners will be motivated to explore and to share
aesthetics from an authentic but universal domain as they identify with the author‟s voice.
Having followed and read the sequence of the program, adult learners shall be able to:
Associated with axiology, aesthetics involves the study of ethical values and value
judgments regarding truth, beauty, and symmetry which include cultural and ethical influences.
Original aestheticism involved the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who taught “l’art
pour l’art” (art for art‟s sake)—philosopher‟s and critics of all art forms, both literary and visual,
attempted to define the properties of rational understanding. Kant recognized that the concept of
beauty and of normality varied from culture to culture. Walter Pater (1839-1894) influenced
European Aestheticism with the idea that artistic style and moral effect must expand sympathies
Ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle had written that an object either
possesses a quality such as beauty with no regard to the culture through the object‟s observer. At
last, David Hume (1711-1776) taught that specific qualities of an object, such as beauty and
symmetry, were subjective—the qualities represented the perspective of the observer (or
beholder). The viewpoint of Kant resolves the conflict regarding cultural diversities—Kantian
philosophy involves aesthetics as subjective views that may be universally valid. These concepts
are presented in poetry, political treatises, biographies, histories, and in both fiction and
Reflecting on cultural distinctions, one may note unique aesthetic variables across
specific contexts that for thousands of years have remained the same, aesthetic variables that,
through transparent interest and communication, are becoming subjective and universal.
the perceptions which relate to the concept of universal form that is independent of specific
material qualities. Language and images that evoke perception and that goad the senses relate to
aesthetics, because aesthetics cannot prefer one culture over another for causes that reflect
preferences—aesthetics is oriented not about the physical but about the conditioning of cultural
humanities of musical and poetic literature expanded etiquette, the “li” of humanity; to Mozi,
musical and artistic literature were classist and harmful to common people. Associated with the
Yin and Yang, concepts of virtue, and the defined family-role in government, all of which
influence literary genre, philosophic foundation, and literary form, Confucianism and the Chou
dynasty impress us even today. Indian aesthetics include kavya, which can refer to procedures,
symbols, detailed spiritual states, and rasa aesthetics, the universal bliss of the self. These are
Reflecting on cultural distinctions within the multicultural domains of the internet, one
may note unique aesthetic variables across specific contexts that for thousands of years have
remained the same, aesthetic variables that, through transparent interest and communication, are
the impressions of physical influences, the perceptions which relate to the concept of universal
form that is independent of specific material qualities. Language and images that evoke
perception and that goad the senses relate to aesthetics because aesthetics cannot prefer one
culture over another for causes that reflect unsound or inhumane judgment which contradicts
conditioned values and preferences—aesthetics is oriented not about the physical but about the
constructivist impressions and insight rather than through the physical form alone. For example,
the Chinese did for many years attribute very small feet as a feminine quality while other
cultures have regarded voluptuousness as a sign of femininity. Some cultures advocate for
effective diplomatic relations and peace-keeping while others through history advocate for
highest military competencies. Some cultures emphasize the value of purity and compassion;
others, fire and the dragon. These cultural dimensions and affects are integrated with the learning
of learner, attributes that the progressive teaching philosophy continues to refine through
aesthetics, a subject that universal language and philosophy involve—the scope of my project.
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 9
language, a progressive philosophy merges from aesthetical impressions, qualities that are
instructive and that are part of the process of learner-centered education. The progressive
philosophy of education also is part of interdisciplinary studies that evoke an expansive inquiry
into cultural values, “the conceptual and historical foundations” of contemporary studies in
literature (Singer & Dunn, 2000, 3). Involving theoretical and analytical relevance of the
humanities, the sciences, the creative arts, and language, overt qualities of aesthetics are
influenced by culture. However, they relate to the aesthetic value of a literary text, teachers and
critics assume that relative treatment to be “as an autonomous object” isolated “from non-literary
values and disciplines” (Singer & Dunn, 2000, 3). These issues evoke an expansive inquiry into
cultural and aesthetic values for an inherent language that is universally motivated.
Aesthetics involves subjective views that are acquired through the individual‟s incipient
need to relate with environmental associations toward survival and development. That need
generates incentive required to sustain the self and to relate with environmental components
toward the achievement of such vital functions. This incipient individual need to relate with
provides some „genetic blueprint‟ of the range of possible languages” (Radford, 1989, 36).
Involving the linguistic universals of Universal Grammar with no a priori basis, the
genetic blueprint is associated with a “language acquisition device” (LAD) by which a child or a
developing language learner is endowed. As language learners “discount some potential rules as
schematic” toward linguistic competency, linguistic universals that include basic universal
syntactic structure also from one language to another (Radford, 1989, 35). This concept
regarding the language acquisition device and universal grammar recognized by Chomsky are
part of the aesthetical perception that learner-centered education and progressive philosophy of
oral communication and the impact of words,” and “to analyze the technique
used in media passages and to evaluate their effectiveness” (ICAS, 2002, 76).
The deep structure of sentences is defined by the standard theory that Radford and
Chomsky refer to as generative grammar. English existential statements include “there is.” In
Spanish, one will note “Hay”; in French, “Il y a,” and in German, forms of “haber” preceded by a
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 11
pronoun or proper noun. When the existential form is overused, the impact of words and of
meaning becomes hazy if not lost altogether (See Appendix B, Appendix C).
Conditioning begins while an individual is an infant, and the process is most complex by
the time an individual becomes an adult; however, some adults are more objective than others,
and some are able to substantiate their aptitudes and their open-mindedness as they are able to
control their environment and the expectations imposed by authoritative figures. Some parents,
one must bear in mind, are more universally minded and objective than other parents. For more
information regarding this subject, please refer to Steven Paglierani‟s coverage (Paglierani,
2005).
The succeeding exercises involve concepts that have influenced aesthetical values and
Acquainted with literary terms, aesthetical qualities, and linguistic components, the
individual will consider and meaningfully respond to simple exercises in respect to a review of
Confucius and related teachings that align with Benjamin Bloom's Revised Taxonomy Pyramid
Table, "the six levels of the Cognitive Process" (Forehand, 2005) para. 12). Remember that, with
its origin in the Chou dynasty (1027-256 B.C.), Confucianism is a teaching and official Chinese
creed that recognizes Confucius (551?-479 B.C.) as an exemplary writer. Although many of his
works have vanished, he remains a universal model whose name does call to our attention his
do maintain its powerful influence. Distinct from Buddhism and Taoism that one may understand
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 12
through its important relationship with jen (humanity), its reverence for ancient sages, moral
instruction, personal virtue within government, and its holistic rational philosophy,
Confucianism has influenced universal aesthetics, philosophy, and social domains. The first set
of learning exercises should encourage the adult learner to continue to develop original responses
focus on the domain of a sage (the wise), the distinct recognized role of family and social
terms of government.
Apply--Derive a theory as to why the writer or artist addressed the meaning or moral
admonishing of everyone who reads or hears his work to consider the rights and needs of
others.
Analyze--Differentiate between the main scene or dynamics and the way you would
construct the main scene or dynamics: An example of a relevant response may include
reference to a current civil case such as that of Oscar Grant so as to compel, in parallel to
Confucius, the sympathy and compassion from the reader or audience required to
injustice that does compel concern to focus on wisdom and government as per the
Create: Compose lyrics, dramatic prose, or a poem to convey the same meaning or
moral lesson in a new structured form. An example of a relevant response may include
the sharing of a newly written poem or song that includes Confucian qualities.
A major literary work inscribed into tablets during about 2000 B.C., those Assyrian
hieroglyphs that were originally preserved in clay tablets were discovered in the library of Assur-
Bani-Pal between 668-626 B.C. as noted in the link provided to the Epic in the References
Section (Assyrian International News Agency, n.d.). An example of a relevant response about
the Epic may include the (1) remembering of the Sumerian King, a mortal seeking immortality,
subjects of mythology. One may (2) understand and (3) apply the need to escape a disaster with
the relevant reference to another flood, national disaster, or major accident by living in
spacecraft. One may (4) analyze the dynamics with a relevant response pertaining to the
relationship of viability and sustainability. An example of a relevant (5) evaluation of the epic
could include a reference to a figure such as Ponce de Leon who sought the fountain of youth.
An example of a relevant analogy, or fictitious or original story could serve as a learning (6)
creation about mortal struggle in quest of eternal dimensions, a concept of universal proportions
Although The Battle of the Frogs and Mice, the Homeric Hymns, and some of the Epic
Cycle works are accredited by contemporary scholars to Homer (900-800 B.C.), one may provide
a relevant response to the recollection of Homer‟s work by (1) remembering these works as
original legends that some Unitarians believe are compilations of several transcribers. One may
relevantly learn also by (2) understanding that the Trojan War of the Iliad and the Odyssey
occurred over 400 years, and that collections of history, folk stories, and legends of the literary
works were maintained by rhapsodes and bards for many generations (Fox, 2006). Further
understanding is important regarding the rebuttals over the Illiad as a work that represents the
style indicative of only one intelligence source. To (3) apply this dramatic history, one may
consider the analytic school and arrange for consideration a practical verse for recitation, (4)
analyzing the relevancy to contemporary and progressive events and issues in respect to
diplomatic relations, justice, health, industry, and commerce. One may (5) evaluate the work
with a relevant response about the affect of the work through responses and commentary of the
audience, (6) creating important notes about flashback, parallel dynamic lines, and analysis as
components of the writing portfolio that enhance the learning, instructional, and assessment
cycles. These exercises involve concepts that have influenced aesthetical values and principles of
Visionary colossal creatures that defy every convention, and that only “the minde may
move,” the characters and concepts of Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) evoke the classical
mythological muse. His immortal invocations are effected by “Circe‟s wand,” and the nectar of
the Roman god “Jove” (short for Jupiter, the god of light, sky, weather, the state, welfare, and
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 15
laws) (University of Oxford, 1999, 73-74). Marlowe animated the conventionally Elizabethan
academic tragedy even before Shakespeare. Examples of relevant (1) remembering of Marlowe
include the evoking of or reference to The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus, the visceral stoic
times of Seneca (4-65: Roman statesman, dramatist, and philosopher), and the mortal combat of
the times of emperors, Persian Xerxes, Caesars, Holy Wars, and Viking-Pirate conquests. To (2)
understand Marlowe is to ponder the fiercest consequences of mere fantasy that can compel an
emperor to order war and unjust execution, paralyzing tribulations that impressed the original
Renaissance drama for which Marlowe is accredited. Immortal beauty and passion that one may
(3) apply as a reference to the immortality, powerful eternal sovereignty that may be (4)
analyzed as a search for universal wholeness and eternal consciousness, the exploration for
justice and longevity. As one (5) evaluates Marlowe, one can sense his rapport with Shakespeare
and Thomas Nashe (1567-1601) over superhuman powers of several mutually functional
characters rather than of one main character. To create (6) a drama or another literary work with
the magnificent compassion of Marlowe is to recall moments like those of Leander whose
“quivering breast…breathless spoke something, and sighed out the rest” (University of Oxford,
1999, 74).
Envisioning and debating ethereal dimensions and downfalls through the Elizabethan
and early Jacobean perspective, literary conceits (fanciful or startling analogies), perception,
influence. One might (1) remember him for his references to the Ides of March and Epiphanies,
for example, in MacBeth and Twelfth Night, respectively. To understand (2) the Renaissance
contemplation and celebration of the pardonable or condemned psyche, one might share
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 16
Shakespeare‟s poem The Phoenix and the Turtle, for example (University of Oxford, 1999, p.
78-81). Why does he refer to a bird that is resolved but to ashes? This (3) application of
Renaissance tradition may encourage one to (4) analyze the Elizabethan psyche that bears
“every foule tyrant wing [to] save the Eagle feath‟red King” “so strict” (University of Oxford,
1999, p. 79) in terms of dramatic oppression in need of philanthropic assistance. As one (5)
evaluates the Renaissance nature through Shakespeare, one may detect an anathema for the
forces. One may (6) create important artifact notes, analogies, and new work in reference to
barbarism and bloodshed recalled by the stage, the masque, fervent praise, poetry, lyricism, and
the encomium. To (2) understand Jonson‟s masque, one must envision the pantomimes,
dances, costumes, and theatrical masks that thespians and playwrights might port to royal courts
so as to garnish support, dress styles and performances that one may a (3) apply in a practical
skit before an audience or classroom. To (4) analyze Jonson‟s work, one must consider the
masque‟s golden age, a quest for lyrical grace and sumptuous royal splendor, in addition to the
interlude which in the comic antimasque parodied the predominant plot in mesmerizing yet
taunting words. For example: “Death‟s selfe is sorry…when Fates turn‟d cruell; Yet three fill‟d
Zodiackes work had he beene…The stages jewell…” (University of Oxford, 1999). An (5)
evaluation of Jonson reveals his study and following of Seneca, a penchant for the adamant
passion for the extension of drama even since Marlowe and Seneca, the adamant need for a
impressed by the superhuman mind that is as he terms, the “soul” of the age. Jonson‟s encomium
to Shakespeare is most striking. To Jonson, not even Chaucer, Spenser, or Beaumont can match
Shakespeare‟s outstanding dedication as a playwright and poet. To (6) create notes about lasting
words such as Jonson‟s can truly be an asset to the writer‟s portfolio. Shakespeare as “a
monument” ever living “without a tomb” that can shake forever the stage—more so than Latin or
To remember (1) James Joyce, one must ponder the revolutionary and innovating
literary style, such as the stream of consciousness. To (2) understand this concept, one might
consider William James who coined the term in his Principles of Psychology (1890) to describe
the inner flow of experience. To (3) apply the description to Joyce about the psychological
process of thought and sensations that flow through a persona for no rational cause, one may
analyze the conception and consciousness of a character such as Stephen Hero. As Joyce had
adapted the interior monologue through published French works, he influenced other twentieth
century authors such as Virginia Wolfe and William Faulkner who also enabled thought and
syntax. One may (4) analyze this style for inherent supernatural powers. Such a propensity to
search the psyche certainly must reflect the author‟s quest for universality in the terms of an
inherent consciousness or immortal dimension is a subject that one might (5) evaluate through
the author‟s biography. Joyce‟s aesthetics includes a balance between his discontent with Irish
nationality and with Jesuit Catholicism in an ironic manner. The author expresses an adventurous
yearning for the innovative evocation of insight, the “sudden spiritual manifestation” (epiphany)
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 18
of The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and an original version of the classic Ulysses. One
might create (6) a work in this style to add to ones writing portfolio.
As concerns regarding aesthetics that are culturally and ethically influenced and that must
coalesce fairly to form the perspectives of that which constitutes beauty (for example, symmetry
preferences, etc.), aesthetics influence literature, art, philosophy, and psychology. Aesthetical
values about incongruous effects also influence art, literature, film, and theatre through unnatural
combinations and juxtapositions, all which we consider in respect to Dylan Thomas (1914-1953).
Values that compel the ideals, principles, or practice of creating fantastic or asymmetric imagery
are also associated with the aesthetics, therefore, that one may (1) remember in respect to
Thomas.
evoke a supernatural world that encompasses and imbues the perceptive atmosphere of his work.
As one (2) understands “the force that through the green fuse” compels and gives physical form
that also rescinds, one can also sense another realm “that drives the water through the rocks” and
also his “blood…that drives the mouthing streams,” turning his blood “to wax” (University of
Oxford, 1999, 621). One might (3) apply the powerful surrealist light and power of Thomas to
visual images such as a painting of Salvador Dali (1904-1989) or the sudden flash of light
through a window that persists as an extended metaphor, “the limit of the globes,” as “daylights
the bone…when logics die” (University of Oxford, 1999, 622). As one (4) analyzes Thomas‟
powerful light, one may detect that Thomas does not believe that life must succumb to the
physical world, a value system expressed even in his titles alone, such as “And death shall have
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 19
no dominion.” As one (5) evaluates the imagery and surrealism of Thomas, one detects his use
of religious but analytical qualities that are psychoanalytic as per the definition and practice set
forth by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Pondering Thomas‟ “Do not go gentle into that good
night,” one might create (6) a sketch of a shepherd and a staff, or a sketch or description of a star
overhead beaming effulgence where only darkness should be. These are further concepts that
eternal world; one culture, social, or individual group seeking and fulfilling a mission for victory,
success, or amnesty.
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 20
References
Assyrian International News Agency (n.d.). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Retrieved July 15, 2010,
from http://www.aina.org/books/eog/eog.pdf
http://community.travelchinaguide.com/forum2.asp?i=468
Dunn, A., & Singer, A. (2000). Literary aesthetics: a reader. Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishers
Ltd.
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy
Fox, R. L. (2006). The classical work: An epic history from Homer. New York: Basic Books--A
Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS) (Spring, 2002). Academic literacy:
ca.org/Websites/icasca/Images/Competency/AcademicLiteracy2002.pdf
Paglierani, S. (2005, November 18). The conscious, subconscious, and unconscious--A new look
http://theemergencesite.com/Theory/Consciousness-Subconsciousness-2.htm
Shakespeare, W. (1991). William Shakespeare--The complete works (2nd ed.). Oxford OX2 6DP:
University of Oxford (1999). The Oxford book of English verse (Christopher Ricks, Ed.). Great
Before reading the literary work, please consider the literary terms which I include in my own
http://www.ancientskybridge.com/rosetta_stone_poem,_lit_review.htm
consider the syntactic terms essential to Universal Grammar that I include in my own
http://www.ancientskybridge.com/webquest.htm
1. Expletive Patterns
a) It patterns
Please note that the expletive it is frequently overused when alternate wording and syntactic form
would produce a strong and emphatic focus at the beginning of the sentence. For example
Functioning as the anticipatory subject of a phrase or clause that is in a succeeding place in the
sentence, the frequently used it produces obscure and muddy focus; thus, the sentence is not
easily read or understood. The following example of the “it pattern” should typically be avoided:
b) There patterns
The overuse of expletive patterns also results in poorly focused sentences. Sentences beginning
with there are called “existential sentences”—as Quirk and Greenbaum write, “when
unstressed, there is followed by a form of the verb be, the clause that expresses the notion of
existence.” There is simply means there exists, and if the main idea of the sentence is not the
Despite its inappropriateness, inexperienced writers tend to begin sentences with there. The
tendency appears in numerous forms; however, the most common are similar to the following
two examples:
Or
Once we translate the first kind of sentences into sentences based on the verb exist, the problem
is clear:
1. More security officers should exist appointed to patrol the streets after dark.
Clearly, the writers of these sentences did bear in mind not the idea of existence but the idea of
actions—in the first, the action of security officers being assigned; in the second, the action of
more trouble (that is) stewing. The sentences should be written as follows:
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 24
1. More security officers should be appointed to patrol the streets after dark.
We may discover the inappropriateness of the “there” beginnings through an important clue in
the original sentences which we observe to be the presence of the verbals—“appointed” and
“stewing”--that exist after the subjects of the sentences. When constructed in this manner, the
there invariably should be eliminated, and the verbal should be changed into a finite verb.
The second there problem is different. As we reread the sentence, we discover no verbal
following the subject “concerns.” If we change this sentence into one based on “exist,” the result
is an improved syntactic structure, one with a focus that is not hazed by unnecessary verbals:
Although a “concern” may exist, when one states that it exists among some group of people, one
is not focusing on the group but simply on its concern. The sentence should be written:
2. Parallelism
Parallel structure (parallelism) is important to syntax. Many sentences include lists of two, three,
or more words, phrases or clauses separated by commas. These compound nouns, phrases, or
clauses should be listed in parallel. These linked components should be in the same grammatical
form. Commonly involving the coordinating conjunction “and,” they may also involve other
coordinating conjunctions—“or,” “but,” or “yet.” The rule of parallel structure is that these
conjunctions should connect similar grammatical units used in the same way. For example, two
or more nouns used as subjects of a sentence, or two or more nouns used as objects of the same
verb or of the same preposition, or two or more prepositional phrases modifying the same noun
or the same verb, and so on. Usage may be to some degree permissive about this rule at times;
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 25
however, when deviation exists, the function of the units is more important than grammatical
form. For instance, the following sentences are typically considered to be correct even though
She hates dogs, cats, and whatever is eating her plants (a noun clause).
George did the work speedily (adverb) and with an eye to our convenience (adverbial).
The first example includes a conjunction that links a series of two nouns and a noun clause; all
three of the linked series function as direct objects of hates. The second sentence includes the
conjunction that joins the adjective, fascinated, with a noun, devotee; both are complements of
Martha. In the third example, the conjunction joins the adverb speedily, with the prepositional
phrase, with an eye to our convenience, but the prepositional phrase is adverbial, modifying did
in the same manner that speedily does. These are three exceptions to the rule as they do not
exemplify that structure always takes precedence over grammatical form. As the parallel
structure rule indicates, both structure and grammatical form usually must be the same.
Parallel structure requires that the component which follows the conjunction is like some
structure that precedes the conjunction. If one writes a simple noun + verb + direct object as a
sentence, for example, and utilizes the conjunction and, one could complete the sentences in only
three ways:
John bit the cat and the dog. (parallel direct objects).
John bit the cat and kicked the dog. (parallel verb phrases)
John bit the cat, and Mary kicked the dog. (parallel sentences)
Aesthetics and Universality in Perspective 26
Appendix D
In reference Confucius‟ work as translated by Ezra Pound, the title included in the
Nor retract.
Where Confucius
A crane resides -
He balanced infinitudes -
Worlds away