Book 1 Module 14 PROPULSION - AVIONICS JET ENGINE CONFIGURATION FADECAUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Nazbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 1QA UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax: (+44) 01296 330697 Email: info@licencebypost.com Website: licencebypost.com” ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE ALLIED SIGNAL ROLLS ROYCE ple for permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Jet engine principles The working cycle Combustion system Fuel system. Lubrication system Engine indicating parameters Jet engine configuration Fuel flow indicating systems Induction boost pressure Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ‘The V2500/CFM56 FADEC ‘The PW4000 FADEC Power management control system (Boeing) PAGE. wWIdAAanH 18 27 29 52 54 55HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK The engine instrument section for the B2 person (module 14) is published in two books. Book 1 (this book) covers engine configuration, fuel flow transducers, FADEC and electronic engine control. Book 2 covers the rest of the engine instruments. Both books are written specifically for the B2 engineer, although will make good reading for the B1 person taking the Jet Engine module licence examination. ‘This book is fairly straight forward, except possibly for FADEC. It might need a second or third read through (and careful study of the drawings) to obtain a reasonable grasp of the subject. In all cases you should be able to describe the operation of the systems, the maintenance and the fault finding procedures.PRINCIPLES OF THE JET ENGINE ‘The jet engine relies on the principle of taking in a mass of air and accelerating it rearwards. This means that according to Newton Laws of Motion a forward reaction will be produced. The two important laws for a jet engine are: Newtons 2n4 Law: This states that the force produced is proportional to the mass times the acceleration and can be written as: F « ma (« means “is proportional to”) Using SI units in can be written F = ma Where —-F = force in Newton's m = mass in kgs a = acceleration in m/s? Newton’s 3" Law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. (The schoolboy’s - or schoolgir!’s - favourite). Now how do these laws help us with the jet engine - or a propeller for that matter? ‘The jet engine causes the air in front of it to be drawn into the intake and accelerated rearwards via the exhaust. Thus we have “a” in Newton’s second law. Air has mass (1.2kg for each cubic metre at sea level ISA) so we also have “m” in the equation F = ma. Thus we have force - BUT it is in the “wrong” direction - BACKWARDS. Newton’s 3" Law states that for every action (the backwards force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (a forwards force acting on the engine). So we have forward thrust. For a pure jet engine a relatively small mass of air is given a high acceleration. For a propeller, a large mass of air is accelerated backwards relatively slowly. A fan engine lies somewhere in between. To increase the thrust of a jet engine the rpm is increased. This also applies to a fixed pitch propeller. For a Variable Pitch (VP) propeller the thrust can be increased by altering the pitch to make it coarser (take a deeper cut into the air) - but to keep the rpm constant the power setting to the engine must be increased also — increasing fuel burn. -1-—~ — q oe _ — TAKE AIRFLOW xuauer AIRFLOW Weveerry sme Arecrry = Vinee maces a km TIRFLOW AECELERATION =A com <——_-o—_> neaction peTiON=F= mA Fig. 1 THRUST THE WORKING CYCLE OF A GAS TURBINE By reference to figure 2, it can be seen that air is drawn from the atmosphere (ambient air) into a compressor. The compressor raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on the as shown on the Pressure Volume graph. As the pressure of the air is increased the volume is decreased. ‘The air passes to the combustion chamber and heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the graph (B to C) it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the gas turbine working cycle is known as a Constant Pressure cycle. In the combustion chamber the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the turbine section to drive the turbine(s), energy is extracted to drive the compressor/fan/propeller and the pressure decreases. ‘The gas passes via an exhaust unit via the propelling nozzle, which forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D). On a turbo-prop engine most of this thrust energy is extracted by the turbine to drive the propeller. You should study figure 2 and be able to recall the approximate pressure and temperature variations from inlet to exhaust. Inputs/Outputs ‘The inputs to the engine include: Air - its main working medium. Fuel - in general the control of the fuel is the main thrust control of the engine.Pilot - The pilot controls the thrust levers etc. Auto control ~ This may be selectable to produce automatic control of the engine within certain parameters. Electrical power — For operation of transducers, selection valves, starter motors etc. From aircraft batteries /electrical system. Pneumatic power for engine starting. B COMBUSTION - heat energy acsed —Te PRESSURE VOLUME GRAPH EXPANSION - through turbine and nozzle PRESSURE Zi COMPRESSION prescreened AMBIENT AIR . ' \ comBusTion INTAKE, \ CHAMBER TURAINE PROPELLING NOZZLE CENTRE LINE. deg ¢ [VEL mises name Pst 100 “10700 yaa + aac) - 72800 «SOHO 1D ‘THRUST DISTRIBUTION - EFFECTIVE FORWARD THRUST = 7500 Ibf Fig. 2: WORKING CYCLE OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINEAIRCRAFT FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM FUEL INPUT ELECT INPUT PILOT INPUT PNEUMATIC INPUT AUTO CONTROL INPUT OWL, COOLANT MAINTENANCE TASKS > ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINE PARAMETERS TRANSDUCERS PNEUMATIC, /}————> ELECTRICAL FEED BACK TO PILOT HYDRAULIC AND AUTO CONTROL, OUTPUTS SYSTEMS Fig. 3 ENGINE INPUTS/OUTPUTS ‘The outputs include: * ‘Thrust - the main purpose of the engine. * Pneumatic supplies for cabin air-conditioning and pressurisation ~ also for pneumatically operated components. Hydraulic power to operate flaps, landing gear etc. Electrical power - ac and/or de depending on aircraft. Engine operating parameters - this information sent to flight deck instruments for pilot monitoring and also sent to auto- control equipment. ‘The Working Cycle ‘The air goes through the following stages: 1. Induction through the intake. When the aircraft is flying this is assisted by “ram effect” and at any speed must be kept well below the speed of sound (Mach 1). The design of the intake is critical to the performance of the engine. 2. Compression. This is adiabatic and it gets hot. Compression ratios range from 4:1 for the early centrifugal compressors to 8:1 for a single 17 stage axial flow compressor. Combinations of compressors/multi spool arrangements will give higher values than this.Combustion. Usually carried out using kerosene type fuels, although almost any fuel will work. The fuel burns best at a air:fuel ratio of about 15:1 so the total amount of air used for the actual combustion is a small proportion of the total air entering the engine. Approximately 20% is used in the combustion process with the remaining air being used for cooling. Combustion is carried out in lined combustion chambers with the heated air leaving at high temperature (up to 1000°C) and high speed (up to 1500 ft/sec). Expansion. After leaving the combustion chamber the hot air is, made to do work on the turbine. Here, pressure and temperature drop as the energy of the gas is converted into mechanical energy of the turbine. Enough energy has to be taken out to drive the compressor, any engine driven accessories (generators, pumps etc), and allow for provision of air bleeds for cabin air conditioning, anti-icing etc. The remaining energy left in the gas stream flow is then allowed to exit the jet pipe to be used to provide thrust. For turbo-prop engines most of the energy is extracted to drive the propeller with only about 10% of the propulsive thrust coming from the jet efflux (residual energy). Exhaust. With a pure jet engine the efflux gases should have a high mass and high velocity. The gases exit the system via a jet-pipe which may be fitted with a propelling nozzle (a narrowing of jet pipe as it gets to the end). Fig. 4 TYPICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBERCombustion Systems Combustion is normally arranged to be in a combustion chamber with. fuel supplied to a burner. On start-up ignition is provided by a high energy igniter, but once combustion is established it is self sustaining — only used again for re-start or put on continuously in emergencies (when there is a possibility of a flame-out). ‘The combustion chamber is double lined with an inner flame tube and may be fitted to the engine in one of several arrangements. Flame Cosing Flome Cosing Tube Tube ri eYo 6x0 O80 ‘b&b Multiple Cennulor Annular Fig. 5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER ARRANGEMENTS ‘The chambers may be arranged equally around the engine or may be of Cannular configuration where the flame tubes are separate with the chamber casing being continuous concentric inner and outer casings. In an Annular system the flame tube and casing are both concentric continuos structures making up one continuos combustion chamber. Fuel System ‘The fuel is pumped from the aircraft fuel tanks (bag type or integral with the wing structure) by electrically (usually 3 phase) operated fuel pumps (sometimes called boost pumps). These supply fuel via filters and shut- off/by-pass valves to the engine driven fuel pump. This pumps fuel to the fuel control valve which is controlled directly by flightdeck throttle position or electrical commands from an engine electronic control system/FADEC. Note. The fuel control valve/control systems are usually very complex to include servo valves, governors etc.PRESSURE», PUMP. Fig. 7 DRY SUMP SYSTEM - PRINCIPLE ‘The fuel coming from the tank pump is called low pressure (Ip) fuel and the fuel from the engine driven pump is called high pressure (hp) fuel. Both pumps are usually of the spur gear type and the tank pump is there to supply the engine pump with a positive supply of fuel. If the engine pump was to try and suck fuel all the way from the tanks it would suffer from severe cavitation which would cause rapid erosion of the pump gears, so boost pumps are fitted. Lubrication System A lubrication system is required to provide a lubricant film of oil to reduce bearing contact, wear and heat. The system will have components such as: A tank - for topping-up and fluid level check purposes. Air or fuel cooled oil coolers. Pumps - engine driven spur gear types - usually. Filters/strainers. De-aerators. Pressure relief valves. Oil pressure transducers ~ usually of the pressure differential type. J Low oil pressure/low oil level warnings.In general the pump will draw oil from the tank through strainers. This pressure oil then goes to all bearings requiring lubrication passing the differential oil pressure switch and low pressure warning switch on the way. After lubricating the consumer services it is returned via oil coolers, filters and de-aerators to the tank. | =}-8 }-=}-8 Low pressure, Fig. 8 TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC Oil systems may be of the following types: Wet Sump System - where the oil is kept in the sump of the engine. Dry Sump System - where the oil is kept in a tank ~ typical for most jet engines. Pressure Relief Valve System. This system controls the pressure to the bearings by the use of a spring controlled pressure relief valve - when operated allows oil directly back to the tank. The oil supply pressure is not affected unduly by engine rpm. Full Flow System. For engines where bearing chamber pressures can be high and the oil pressure has equally to be high (normally about 40psi higher). This system dispenses with the pressure relief valve and allows pressure pump delivery to supply the consumer services (bearings) directly allowing increasing pressure with increasing rpm. Fitted to turbo fan engines.Total Loss System. Sometimes called an expendable system and used on engines that run for short periods of time. It is lighter as the system requires no return lines, no oil cooler, no scavenge pumps or filters. After use the oil is collected in a collector tray and ejected into the gas stream or kept until the engine is shut down, then dumped overboard. aoa TACHOMETER | Bauer aes Sa aro vers tran OUR Menniorc MONITORENG come aoa ESOME myore cute CONVERTER resurione sain, vasguon = cote Fig. 9 ENGINE PARAMETER TRANSDUCERS PW4000 FITTED TO THE B777 Engine Parameters Monitored (Figures 9 to 14) Pressure. May be sensed at various stages in the engine depending on type, eg Pl, P2, P4, P7. Used for engine condition monitoring, Engine Electronic Control(EEC)/FADEC and also for calculating EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio) - the ratio of pressure, say, between P1 and P7 ~ check the AMM. RPM (Revolutions Per Minute), The rotational speed of the engine is picked up by sensors and fed back to cockpit indicators and engine monitoring equipment (EEC/FADEC) (N1 for a single spool engine, N1 and N2 for a twin spool and N1, N2 and N3 for a three spool engine). Helicopter engines will usually have Ng for the engine as it is considered a gas generator, and some propeller driven aircraft will have propeller rpm indication.EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature). Again this data is used for pilot information and feedback to engine monitoring systems (EEC/FADEC). AVB (Airborne Vibration Monitoring). Vibration monitors fitted to the engine casing to send vibration data to flight deck instruments and monitoring systems (EEC/FADEC). ‘Torque Transducers. For propeller driven aircraft and for helicopters, these provide the only true indication of engine output power. For phase Gisplacement systems taken from the power shaft to the propeller/rotor shaft, For helical gear type transducers taken from the helical gear in the gear box. Pressure. Flow. Quantity. Temperature. Position. These additional monitoring systems may be found on the engine fitted to equipment such as: Engine oil systems. Hydraulic systems. Pneumatic systems. Fuel systems. ‘Thrust reverses. VP propeller position Motorised valves - position. Figure 9 shows the sensors as fitted to PW4000 series engines, and figure 10 shows the locations. REMOTE CHARGE CONVERTER, ACCELEROMETER EGT (v4.05) & EPR (PA4.95) PROBES, Ni spEED PMA ‘TRANSDUCER Fig. 10 TRANSDUCER LOCATION - PW4000 E10Fig. 12 JT9D INSTRUMENTATION -1-TEMPERATURE ® Tt 1 8 1%] 15 16 17 RPK pressure > Pt P2 3 pees] PsP? wp, | cont on |conPiesson! cH ser Pre a te compe: . TURBINE Fig. 13 N, P, & T - EXAMPLE LOCATIONS Figure 11 shows the equipment as fitted to an RB211 whilst figure 12 shows the instrumentation of the twin spool JT9D. Figure 13 shows a general arrangement of the locations of N, P and T. Figure 14 shows the instrumentation layout of the Turbomecca engine with the following indications: Ng - gas generator rpm. NTL - free turbine rpm. 14 - gas temperature. Oil pressure. Oil temperature. Low oil pressure warning light. General warning panel. Aaapeye Fig. 14 TURBOMECCA ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION -12-When the engine is fitted to a helicopter additional parameters are included such as: Torque indication. Power loss warning. Cycle calculator. Preventative maintenance calculator. JET ENGINE CONFIGURATION ‘The jet engine can vary considerably in design although they all use the same basic principle of taking air in via a compressor, mixing it with fuel and after combustion expelling the products rearwards. OuELE sioeD, CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Fig. 15 JET ENGINE WITH A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Figure 15 shows the earliest type of jet engine. It used a centrifugal compressor driven by a single turbine. It has a double air entry intake supplying air to a double entry centrifugal compressor. The auxiliary gearbox is fitted to the front of the engine. Air is fed through grills into the eye of the compressor then thrown out by centrifugal force into the combustion chambers. On combustion it accelerates rearwards to give some of its energy up to the turbine to drive the compressor. In the quest for higher specific fuel consumption figures with increased power outputs the axial flow compressor was developed (figure 16). It produces a higher compression ratio, and hence increased efficiency. It has a single stage turbine and an 11-stage compressor (each stage consists of a rotor and a stator), although the actual number of stages depends on the manufacturer. -13-High pressuae RATIO AXIAL FLOW ‘COMPRESSOR STATORS BURNERS CAN ANNULAR ‘GOMGUSTION SYSTEM ice vetocrry SET EFFLUX BEVELGEAR — gcceSsonYORWE SINGLE STAGE TURGINE ‘DRIVING COMPRESSOR Fig. 16 SINGLE SPOOL JET ENGINE WITH AN AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR Figure 17 shows a twin spool engine. This was brought about by the need for greater pressure ratios with increased performance. To obtain these figures with a single spool engine required a large engine that was slow to accelerate, suffered airflow disturbance resulting in surge and stall. ‘The compressor of the twin spool engine is divided into two, or sometimes three - each driven by its own set of turbines. This allows them to operate at their own speed giving greater flexibility, higher pressure ratios and greater power outputs. LP COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY TWO ‘STAGE TURBINE HP COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY SINGLE STAGE TURBINE ‘TWO CONNECTING SHAFTS Fig. 17 TWIN SPOOL JET ENGINE To improve the specific fuel consumption still further high by-pass engines were developed. Figure 18 shows a low by-pass ratio, twin spool engine where some of the compressed air from the low pressure (Ip) compressor by-passes the main combustion section of the engine. pittsFigure 19 shows a high by-pass ratio, three-spool engine similar to the Rolls Royce RB211. The fan of this type of engine can be considered as a multi-bladed propeller within a duct - it is not of course, but the engine does produce a very high specific fuel consumption. The three spools allow each to operate at the most efficient speed ~ it does, of course, increase manufacturing costs. The fan is driven by the Ip turbine with the ip compressor being driven by the ip turbine. Speeds (N1, N2 and N3) are usually picked off by the use of tacho-probes (pulse type rpm probes). Some engines have a reduction gearing between the turbine and the fan to allow the fan to rotate at its optimum speed (figure 20). LP COMPRESSOR He COMPRESSOR BYPASS TURBINE AR BEARINGS, BEARINGS, BEARINGS Fig. 18 LOW BY-PASS RATIO JET ENGINE IP COMPRESSOR IPTURBINE LP TURBINE HP COMPRESSOR L sraBluuneo verona saecans PN (PCOMPRESSOR) CASING ao Fig. 19 THREE SPOOL HIGH BY-PASS RATIO JET ENGINE -15-wo stack: SUPERCHARGER py PASSA ACCESSORY GEARTOX Fig. 20 ALLIED SIGNAL FAN ENGINE WITH MIXED CENTRIFUGAL & AXIAL COMPRESSORS & REDUCTION GEARING TO FAN For turbo prop and helicopter engines a different layout is used. Figure 21 shows a direct drive turbo prop configuration. The (in this case) two-stage turbine drives the compressor and the propeller. Because the engine rpm would be too high for the propeller it is driven via a reduction gearbox. In some cases the propeller, or the main rotor drive shaft of a helicopter (which also drives the tail rotor through bevel gearing), is driven by a separate set of turbines (a free power turbine). This extracts most of the energy from the gas stream flow converting it into shaft power (Shaft Horse Power - SHP). Again a reduction gearbox is used (figure 22). PROPELLER U REDUCTION GEARING APPROX 10% RESIDUAL THRUST Fig. 21 DIRECT DRIVE TURBO PROP ENGINE ‘The turbine that drives the propeller/rotor head is sometimes called the Power Turbine and the other turbine/compressor spool is called the Gas Generator. For best efficiency the majority of the power should be used across the Power Turbine (free turbine). ooPROPELLER DRIVEN BY A FREE TURBINE. COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY ‘TURBINE: *” Fig. 22 FREE TURBINE TURBO PROP ENGINE Figure 23 shows an arrangement used on some helicopters. It consists of a three-stage turbine driving a single sided centrifugal compressor and a reduction gearbox. The output from the reduction gearbox is to the rotor head gearbox to drive the rotor head and tail rotor. The fuel is injected into the annular combustion chamber by a rotating slinger ring (which is unusual), this improves atomisation and gives more even flame propagation. SINGLE SIDED CENTRIFUGAL GEARSOX AND DRIVE TO ROTOR REDUCTION COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY A HEAD GEARING THREE STAGE TURBINE. FUEL INJECTOR ROTATING. SLINGER RING. Fig. 23 DIRECT DRIVE TURBO SHAFT ENGINE Most engines are now constructed on the modular concept which means that major components such as the fan, fan casing, compressor assemblies, turbines ete can be changed as complete units - in may cases whilst the engine is “on the wing”. -17-FUEL FLOW INDICATING SYSTEMS We shall consider three main types: a Rotating Vane Type * Motor Drive Type Magnetic Pick-up type Variable Transformer type * — Motorless Type Rotating Vane Type (Figures 24 & 25) ‘The transducer consists of two sections in one unit, one section - the flow measuring chamber and the other the data transfer section. The flow measuring chamber is completely sealed from the data transfer section. ‘The transducer is supplied with 400Hz 26Vac. It has a cast body with fuel inlet and outlet connections. When fuel enters the unit it impinges on a metering vane and moves it against a calibrated spring about a pivot. This movement causes it to rotate within a volute shaped chamber so the gap between the end of the vane and the chamber wall becomes wider. Thus with increasing fuel flow the vane is caused to move further round the volute curve to allow the fuel through the increasing gap. BYPASS VALVE Fig. 24 VANE TYPE FLOW TRANSDUCER So as the flow increases the vane is caused to move to a greater angular displacement against the action of the control spring. The vane is mounted on a shaft carried in two bushed plain bearings, one in each cover plate enclosing the metering chamber. SiaTurbulence in the fuel is reduced by the provision fixed guide vanes at the inlet. Should the moving vane become jammed or blocked then provision is made for a spring loaded pressure operated by-pass valve to open to allow fuel to bypass the volute chamber. The fuel will then go direct to the engine fuel burners. Automatic by-pass provision is a mandatory requirement for all fuel system components ~ should they fail or become biocked in any way. Some transducers have a viscosity valve fitted. This is to allow a small quantity of extra fuel to pass through the valve when the viscosity gets too high. It is a small plate cut within the by-pass valve. The position of the plate is controlled by a small bi-metallic spring. As the temperature of the fuel falls the spring will contract and cause the plate to open (at about 10°C) allowing some extra fuel through to the engine. CALIBRATED «og SPRING | > 2 & a 3 GAUGE MAGNETIC COUPLING Goad ‘ 26V ac ‘TRANSMITTER INDICATOR Fig. 25 ROTATING VANE TRANSDUCER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM At one end of the casing the shaft protrudes through the bearing and carries a 2 pole ring magnet which forms part of a magnetic coupling between the vane and the data transfer unit. The shaft of the data transfer unit also carries a two pole magnet. This arrangement ensures a complete seal between the flow measuring chamber and the data transfer unit and provides a “magnetic lock” between the moving vane and the rotor of the torque receiver synchro of the data transfer unit. She‘The torque receiver synchro transmits the movement of the vane in the flow indicator using normal synchro system action. Indication in the flight deck being in Ib/min or kg/min of kg/hour. Motor Drive Type ‘These can vary in design and we have described two types here. ‘The main advantage of this type of flow transducer is that it automatically compensates for any changes in the fuel density (due to temperature change) and can therefore indicate more accurately the mass of fuel per unit time being consumed by the engine. (The mass of fuel burnt governs the amount of heat produced more accurately than the volume). This is achieved by measuring the “momentum” of the moving fuel. ‘Momentum is a function of velocity (v) and density (p) (rho). The principle involves the swirling of the fuel in a circular motion and allowing this swirling fuel to impinge onto a turbine. This will displace the turbine against a spring and the amount of displacement is proportional to the momentum of the fuel. Magnet ‘The transducer unit consists of two cylindrical drums housed in a casing placed within the fuel line to the engine burners. The outer drum is driven by a synchronous motor at an accurate constant speed (typically 100rpm). The inner drum, called an impeller, has fluid passages cut into it to allow the pick- up of the angular velocity of the fuel. The two drums are connected to each other by a linear spring and will rotate together but with the inner drum “lagging” the outer drum by a certain angle - depending on the fuel flow rate. ‘Attached to both drums are magnets and attached to the unit casing are pick- off coils. As the magnets pass the coils so two signals are generated. These are passed to individual pulse amplifiers and then to a bi-stable transistorised switch — all contained in within an electronic module on the unit. Operation With no fuel flow through the unit the inner and out drums will rotate together with no phase displacement between the magnets and they will pass their respective coils at the same time. -20-The outer drum magnet will pass its coil and induce an emf into it which will switch the transistor ON. As the inner drum magnet passes its coil the induced emf will switch the transistor OFF. As there is no phase displacement the transistor is switched on and off simultaneously. In reality there is always a slight angular difference but this can be calibrated for. ‘The fuel enters the unit via straightening vanes to remove any possibility of existing angular velocities. The fuel then enters the rotating outer drum where a constant angular velocity is imparted to it. This fuel will then impinge onto the impeller and cause it to rotate but phase lag the outer drum. This angular phase lag displacement being proportional to fuel flow rate. This angular difference means that the outer drum magnetic pulse will switch the transistor ON, followed shortly by the OFF signal from the inner drum. ‘This means that the bi-stable switch will produce a series of pulses (one per revolution of the unit) the width of each pulse being proportional to the phase displacement of the outer and inner drums and hence proportional to flow rate. * Low fuel flow rate - small angular displacement between outer and inner drum - transistor switched on for a short time interval ~ pulse width small. * High fuel flow rate - large angular displacement between drums - transistor switched on for a longer time interval ~ longer pulse width. ‘Thus the transducer is producing a series of pulses which are fed toa computer. ae 2, not ea = a 3 J as “Hees hermmsoush Fig. 26 FUEL FLOW RATE COMPUTATION -21-‘The flow rate section of the computer consists of a signal comparator (SC), @ modulator and an amplifier. ‘The flight deck indicator is driven by a 2 phase servo motor, with the indicator pointer being attached to a potentiometer which controls a signal to the time base section. The signal from the time base section is effectively a negative feedback signal to the computer SC. The pick-off signals from the fuel line transmitter (figure 26) are fed to the signal comparator in the computer and if there is any difference between the feedback signal and the transmitter signal then a command signal is sent to the gauge motor (via the modulator and amplifier). As the gauge is motored so its feedback signal will change to “catch-up” the transmitter signal and null the command signal, stopping the gauge pointer at the, new, correct position. The fuel consumed section of the computer (the centre section in figure 26) consists of an inhibitor, gate and divider. The inhibitor blocks low fuel flow signals - typically 300kg/hour or less so that no signal reaches the indicator at no flow rates. The transmitter signals are passed through the inhibitor and gate. The gate is “opened” by the transmitter signals and an oscillator “injects” signals into the transmitter signal - the number of pulses from the oscillator being a measure of the fuel flow rate, ie each pulse represents a certain mass of fuel flow. Fig. 27 FUEL FLOW INDICATING SYSTEM - BOEING The number of pulses are divided by the divider (unmarked block next to the gate) to represent a unit mass of fuel — in fact, for this system, divide by 1920 for 1kg of fuel per hour. The output is fed to the pulse amplifier and pulse counter to indicate fuel consumption rate. AricThe pointer indicator also has a solenoid actuated 5 drum digital counter and pulse amplifier. A reset button is provided to reset the system to zero. Some flight decks have electronic display gauges and data may also be shown on colour CTR monitors - this signal coming from a Symbol Generator (SG). Figure 27 shows a system fitted to a Boeing aircraft. You should be able to understand its basic operation by studying the drawing but there is no need to commit the details to memory. Variable Transformer Type (Figure 28) ‘This uses the principle of rotating the fuel to impart energy to it and causing it to impinge upon a (nearly) stationary turbine. The turbine is pulled against a calibrated spring and its position picked-off by a rotating core transformer. ager ES Fig. 28 FUEL FLOW RATE TRANSDUCER SYSTEM - BOEING -23-‘The impeller is caused to rotate at an accurate rpm by a two phase motor controlled by a motor control module. The rotation of the impeller induces a rotational movement into the fuel and this will be felt by the turbine as the fuel passes through it. The turbine will be displaced by the energy of the fuel pulling it against a calibrated spring. This will change the position of the transformer core and hence change the transformer output. The output signal is sent (via line 7 in figure 28) to the flight deck indicator where it is amplified and used to drive a gauge motor. This in turn drives the gauge pointer via a magnet and drag-cup assembly. FUEL FLOW INDICATOR Indicates fuel consumption rate in kilograms per hour, Digital readout gives total fuel consumed per engine since last reset. Fig. 29 EXAMPLE OF A FUEL FLOW INDICATOR Motorless Type (Figure 30) ‘The general principle is similar to the two previous types described except that the swirl of the fuel is induced by a fixed set of swirl vanes and there is no power requirement for a motor. The transducer unit includes a fixed swirl generator, rotor, turbine and two electromagnetic coils housed in a single unit. It also incorporates a flow director which is a set of double spring fingers. These fingers allow accurate flow measurements at low fuel flow rates, and “open up” for higher flow rates, to prevent restriction. The unit is powered by the kinetic energy of the fuel flowing through Operation As the fuel is pumped through the unit by the fuel system pumps it establishes a vortex flow which is caused by impinging on the fixed swirl generator. This rotating motion of the fuel acts on the rotor and causes it to rotate. The rotating movement of the fuel is felt on the turbine which is restraining by a spring. ~ 24 -‘Two permanent magnets on the rotor induce pulses in a “start” coil and a “stop” coil. The start pulse is induced as the first magnet passes the start coil whose axis is perpendicular to the fuel flow direction. The stop pulse is generated as the second magnet passes the signal blade which is attached to the turbine. SAS (over thas TY () saat Fig. 30 FUEL FLOW INDICATION SYSTEM - BOEING ‘The position of the signal blade will depend on how far the turbine has been rotated by the force of the fuel. Therefore the time gap between the start and stop pulses is directly proportional to the mass flow rate. These pulse signals are transmitted to a computer for conversion to flow rates. In the drawing, an EICAS computer is shown (EICAS = Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System - Boeing). Maintenance Practices on Fuel Flow Measuring Equipment Reference to the AMM will give various procedures such as: * Equipment removal and fitment. BIT testing. * Equipment testing - transducers, indicators, power supplies, computers, data transmission lines etc. * System testing including engine ground running. orhiaRemoval /Fitting - Transducer Units This will include checking and inspection of all connections ~ pipelines, power and signal cables, bonding cables etc. Checking the unit for damage and verifying correct part number, serial number, title etc against the IPC/JAA form 1 or similar. If transducers can be fitted the wrong way round in the pipeline (not made Murphy Proof) - check for correct fitment orientation. Some transducers are transported fuel filled - so check. Transducer Testing Carried out on an engine run with a known serviceable indicator. Check fuel system is bled of all air. Indicator Testing On some systems various current values are applied to the system and the readings noted. These are checked against the AMM - tolerances will be stated. On other systems an audio oscillator is used to simulate fuel flow. Various frequencies are imputed into the system with each one representing a specific fuel flow rate. Larger/more complex aircraft will have on-board maintenance checking systems. Test facilities may be available as BIT at each computer/LRU (LRU = Line Replacement Unit). These on-board checks may include checking for: * Short circuits in cables, PCBs, motors, transmitter circuits etc (PCB = Printed Circuit Board). * Faults in the indicator and checking for accuracy. ‘The Engine Run In general will require the engine to run at idle, checking for leaks and noting fuel flow rate. This is carried out at various engine speeds with the flow rates checked against the AMM. Check engine to engine figures also. On many aircraft the barometric pressure and outside air temperature (OAT) must be noted and recorded. These figures are used to convert recorded readings to standard values. a6INDUCTION MANIFOLD PRESSURE No likely to be seen much on aircraft over 5700kg but it is in the syllabus. Manifold pressure is the pressure in the intake manifold of a piston engine. In a normally aspirated engine this pressure is below atmospheric due to the induction stroke/s of the pistons in the engine. As the efficiency of the engine depends on the amount of charge (air and fuel vapour) that can be got into the cylinders if we can boost the charge pressure to get more charge into the cylinders then the efficiency and power of the engine can be increased. In a supercharged piston engine the manifold pressure is increased to a level above 30 in Hg to provide high power for take-off and to sustain maximum power at high altitudes. ‘This supercharging, or boosting, is carried out by increasing the pressure of the charge by the use of a centrifugal compressor (supercharger) fitted between the carburettor and the cylinders — driven by the crankshaft ‘The manifold pressure gauge is an absolute pressure gauge. It consists of two bellows, one connected to the intake manifold (between the supercharger and the cylinders) of the engine, and the other is a sealed aneroid capsule which is evacuated and fitted internally with a controlling spring. HAIR SPRING ‘OPEN, BELLOWS CONTROL SPRING INDUCTION PRESSURE POWTER EVACUATED BELLOWS Fig. 31 MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE -27-It indicates the boost pressure in absolute terms above zero in the manifold. When pressure is fed to the open bellows it expands to cause the pointer to move over the scale (calibrated in inches of mercury). With increasing altitude it will tend to expand too far because the atmospheric pressure around it is decreasing and an incorrect reading will result. However the sealed bellows which is sensing the change in atmospheric pressure will expand in opposition to the open bellows movement. ‘The two forces will eventually balance and the pointer movement is taken from between the two bellows to give the reading on the gauge. Thus the sealed bellows cancels out any changes of atmospheric pressure around the open bellows ie, gauge reads absolute pressure (atmospheric + pressure in the induction manifold). In effect the gauge is a barometer and when the engine is stopped it should read the local barometric pressure. Normally only fitted to supercharged piston engines. Fig. 32 BOOST GAUGE DIAL FOR A TWIN ENGINED AIRCRAFT eaeFADEC (FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL) ‘The FADEC system eliminates the problems experiences with hydro- mechanical engine control systems such as wear in control rods, valves and shafts, Fully integrated with other systems such as the Electrical Flight Control System (EFCS) and the Automatic Flight System (AFS) the duplicated FADEC systems control the engines. FADEC is connected to these units via the aircraft digital data bus and is fully compatible with fly-by-wire systems. The thrust levers (throttles), located on the centre pedestal in the flight deck, have detents, informing the FADEC of the current phase of flight. They are moved manually and connected to the FADEC system electrically using analogue signalling. The FADEC accordingly controls engine thrust, providing automatically the optimum output with minimum fuel burn. Fig. 33 FADEC CONTROL SYSTEM - OVERVIEW ‘The FADEC is duplicated for each engine and the system may be used on any suitably designed jet turbine engine. Its advantages include: Reduced weight. Improved engine performance. Lower fuel consumption. Reduced pilot workload. Reduced maintenance costs. Simpler on wing maintenance. -29-Each engine is equipped with a dual/dual FADEC system. The “brain” of the system is the EEC (called an ECU on some installations) mounted on the fan case and is a digital control system that provides complete engine management. ‘The FADEC is a system of components that will use the following peripherals: A HMU (Hydro-mechanical Fuel Unit). An ignition and starting system. A thrust reverser system. A fuel re-circulation system. Engine sensors. ‘The FADEC system is made up of: Thrust levers. ‘Thrust lever feel unit. ‘Thrust lever position transducers. Electronic Engine Control computer (EEC). Engine Relay Unit (ERU). Engine Interface and Vibration Monitoring Unit (EIVMU). Dedicated power supply from a Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA). * Wiring harness. FLIGHT DECK CONTROLS Thrust Levers The thrust levers are used as conventional throttles and as thrust rating limit selectors when they are in one of the detents. Each thrust lever is fitted with a thrust reverser control lever. (ON OVHO PANEL ENG mn stat (ON PEDESTAL T z Fig. 34 ENGINE CONTROL PANEL a0An autothrust instinctive disconnect pushbutton is provided outboard of each control lever. The throttle control system is fully electrical; it includes separate throttle control lever assemblies, one for each engine. Each throttle control lever drives one throttle control unit, which indicates the Throttle Resolver Angle (TRA) and is located under the centre pedestal. Each channel of the Electronic Engine Control (EEC) receives the position signal from a dedicated resolver of the throttle control unit, in analogue form. ‘The ENG/MASTER switch controls the: - energising of the HP fuel shut-off valve solenoid - energising of the LP fuel shut-off valve solenoid, which can also be controlled by the associated ENG FIRE pushbutton switch. - re-set of the EEC, channels A and B. A dedicated discrete signal informs the EIVMU of the position of the ENG/MASTER switch. The EIVMU then transmits the information to the EEC in digital form. The EEC also receives the position of the ENG/MASTER switch through its hardwired inputs. The red indicator light is activated in case of engine fire and the amber FAULT light is activated in case of start abort or HP fuel shut-off valve disagree. Engine Start Panel ‘The rotary selector is used to initiate a start sequence or to select continuous ignition and to initiate an engine crank sequence. After engine start or crank sequence, the selector has to be set to the NORMAL position. FADEC Ground Power Panel When the engine is not running, the FADEC can be electrically powered from the aircraft network by using the Engine FADEC Ground Power pushbutton. The supply is automatically limited to 5 minutes. Fire Pushbutton Panel When the engine FIRE pushbutton is released out, the low pressure valve closes and the Engine Interface and Vibration Monitoring Unit (EIVMU) cuts off the aircraft electrical supply to the FADEC system and ignition system. eae| UMITING THRUST PARAMETER (NT FOR CFMS6, EPR FOR V2500) COMPUTED BY FADEC SELECTION OF THRUST LIMIT MODE OBTAINED DIRECTLY BY THROTTLE POSITION IN DETENT THRUST AX TO. 1.0.) MGT CL IDLE__REVERSE ‘COMMAND 1 TA ig ., le 8 e K ie baa 2 is 8 g rwornsieen _[e Hd fee "ANGLE = is Fig. 35 THROTTLE LEVER ANGLE Engine Manual P/B (Push Button) ‘The Engine Manual Start pushbuttons are used to open the start valve during an engine manual start or a crank sequence. N1 Mode Selector P/B When the EPR parameters are lost, the FADEC automatically switches over to the N1 rated mode. It is possible to manually select the N1 rated mode by using a dedicated N1 mode selection pushbutton. THROTTLE CONTROL UNIT ‘The throttle control unit transduces the mechanical movement into electrical signals. It encloses the drive mechanism of the potentiometers and resolvers which are protected within two cases. There are four electrical connectors. Movement of the throttle is transmitted through a coupling shaft to the toothed quadrants, which engages with the pinion. When the pinions turn they cause the shaft of each resolver to turn and drive the shaft of the potentiometer unit. -32-covet sare arvana, bse rite porentvonerens, —REEOLVER Fig. 36 THROTTLE CONTROL UNIT ‘The relationship between the throttle control lever angle (TLA) and the reverse lever angle (RLA) and the throttle resolver angle (TRA) is specified. The accuracy of the throttle control unit (error between the input lever position and the resolver angle) is 0.5 TRA. The maximum discrepancy between the signals generated by the two resolvers is 0.25 TRA. - 33 -The TLA resolver operates in two of four quadrants: * The first quadrant serves for positive angles. ‘The fourth quadrant serves for negative angles. * The other two quadrants are not used. Each throttle has two resolvers that send the throttle position (angle) electrically to the EEC. If the two resolvers disagree, or both fail: On the ground. Engine is limited to idle thrust. In flight. Engine thrust will stay at the last valid throttle input level. If the engine is shutdown and re-started, thrust will be limited to idle. Operation With one FADEC faulted, the N1 mode is selected for both FADEC’s to prevent throttle stagger. Operation with the FADEC(s) in N1 mode is like a conventional system; there is no EPR command and the engines can be over- boosted (firewall thrust). Before selecting the N1 mode, both throttles are retarded below 1.1 EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio) to prevent possible over- boost. Over-Speed Protection An N1 or N2 rpm over-speed of 5% over the red line will cause the associated FADEC to reduce the fuel flow to minimum flow. This may or may not be enough to keep the engine at idle, so that electrical and pneumatic power is still available. If required, the over-speed can be reset by placing the start lever OFF, then restarting the engine. ‘The EEC interfaces with two throttle resolver angles (TRA), one dedicated to each channel of the EEC. Each channel of the EEC provides excitation for and accepts inputs from its throttle control unit resolvers. Each throttle control unit is connected to the EEC with a six-wire cable, with two wires for excitation and four wires for outputs. Thrust Limit Selection A thrust limit is selected when the thrust lever is in a corresponding detent. The limit and its value are displayed on the Engine and Warning Display. When the thrust lever is between two detents, the limit displayed corresponds to the upper detent limit. -34-Thrust Ratings These are as follows: Idle, Max climb (CL)/de-rated climb, Max continuous (MCT)/flexible take-off (FLX), Max take-off (TO)/go around (GA). Autothrust Function ‘The thrust computation is sent to the EEC via the FCU and the EIVMU. The Flight Management Guidance and Envelope Computer (FMGEC) computes the thrust according to the data inserted into the MCDU, the Flight Control Unit (FCU) and also the engine parameters from the Electronic Engine Control. Autothrust Active In flight, the autothrust function is ensured when the autothrust is engaged and active. Normally, in flight, the thrust levers should be in the MAX CLIMB detent. Alpha Floor When an Alpha Floor condition is detected, the FMGEC sends a single to the Electronic Engine Controls to drive the engines to ‘TAKE OFF thrust regardless of thrust lever position, autothrust engaged or not. avcnary | enaanes SMSO Teac 1 Eimatee 1\—] sin cot ms Saal] oma Lu en Ba ave 2 pana] oa Fig. 37 THROTTLE CONTROL/EEC INTERFACE -35-ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL (EEC) ‘The EEC interfaces with aircraft and engine control components through electronic, hydraulic and pneumatic subsystems. The vibration isolated, air cooled EEC is 23in (5841mm) long by 16 (4063 mm) wide and weighs 511b (23.1kg). It has: - dual electronic control channels (A and B) with seven electrical connectors for each channel six pressure sensing ports for Pamb, anti-ice, P2, P4.95, Pb, and P2.5 air - a test connector = an EEC programming plug connector - a ground strap connection - four shock/vibration mount connectors - ahandle for removal and installation. ‘The EEC is used for basic engine control functions such as: p starting - idle - acceleration schedules - deceleration schedules - stability = fuel flow control ~ automatic thrust setting computations = manual management of power dependant on throttle positions and automatic power settings. Automatic engine start sequence and monitoring is provided using: - the start (ON/OFF) valve - the hp fuel valve - ignition ON/OFF - monitoring N1, N2, (N3) FF and egt - abort and recycle schedules on ground. Manual engine start sequence similar to above with passive monitoring of engine following the actions of the pilot. Thrust controls including: - flex take-off, de-rated take-off, de-rated climb modes - intake anti-ice - thrust reverser - airflow blocker doors and engine settings. BIsGh‘The EEC improves engine efficiency by controlling: - compressor bleeds ~ variable bleed valves (vbv) - variable inlet guide vanes (vigv) - cooling airflows - controlling turbiné clearance engine oil cooling IDG oil cooling - nacelle cooling - fuel heating and fuel re-circulation. ‘The EEC improves operational reliability of the engine by using: - two channel control - automatic fault detection - automatic fault compensation - redundant inputs and outputs. It also provides engine limit protection on engine over-speed for N1 and N2 (and N3). Also monitors egt. ‘The EEC makes engine maintenance easier by using engine system: = monitoring 7 self-tests - fault isolation - detection, isolation and memory storage of failures and parameters for engine health monitoring. The EEC: receives the Throttle Resolver Angle (TRA) computes the engine thrust limit parameter adjusts the actual engine thrust parameter accordingly. In manual thrust setting mode (autothrust function not active in the EEC) the throttle control lever controls: * the engine level of thrust * the thrust limit mode. In automatic thrust setting mode (autothrust function active in the EEC) the throttle control lever controls the thrust limitation (except in alpha floor condition). -37-Power Supply ‘The EEC has its own electrical power supply via an accessory gearbox mounted Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA) at > 5% rpm (some engines it is 15%). With engine shut-down, low speed or alternator failure, the ECU is powered from the aircraft electrical supply. The EEC is mounted on the fan case and incorporates dual independent electronic channels (A and B). Each channel has its own processor, power supply, memory, input sensors and output actuators. ‘The cast aluminium EEC housing is cooled by natural convection. When fully operational, the EEC acts in an active/standby mode where all engine functions are controlled by one channel. Upon detection of an output failure, the EEC acts in an active/active mode which allows both channels to manage different engine functions at the same time. Fig. 38 FADEC SYSTEM = 38-Power to the EEC is supplied by the gearbox driven PMA. In case of a dual channel power failure the backup power is supplied by aircraft power via the EIVMU. Extensive self test and fault isolation logic is programmed into the EEC and used continuously. EEC Test Connector The test connector is supplied for making special EEC tests and is covered and lockwired. EEC Programming Plug ‘The EEC programming plug selects the applicable schedules in the EEC for: engine thrust rating engine serial number EPR modification data engine performance package variable stator vane schedule The programming plug is mounted on the EEC channel A housing, and belongs to the engine. Channel B receives the information via a cross-channel data link from channel A. * The EPR modification data is shown by a class number identification. * The EEC programming plug class number and part number are stamped on the data plug and on the identification plate. * If the programming plug disconnects in flight, the EEC will use the programming information stored in the EEC memory. * ‘The engine serial number is input through the EEC programming plug for use with engine condition monitoring. NOTE: If the EEC programming plug is not installed, the EEC will not allow the engine to start. Loss of information in flight reverts to Nl UNRATED MODE. -39-EEC Pneumatic Connectors ‘The pneumatic connectors are identified on the EEC housing. Each pressure signal goes to a transducer in a single channel. The electrical signal is then sent to channel A and B. The inputs are: *P4.95 _ A transducer in the channel B housing receives the pressure signal from the combination P4.95/T4.95 probes. *P2 ‘A transducer in the channel B housing receives the pressure signal from a combination P2/T2 probe. *Pb Burner pressure is transmitted to a transducer in the channel A housing. *Pamb A transducer in the channel A housing receives the two pressure signals from the pick-up in the forward fan cowl. *P2.§ ‘The pneumatic input is through tubing from the N1 probe to the EEC channel housing. * Panti-ice A transducer in the EEC channel B housing receives the pressure from the anti-ice duct for feedback of the anti-ice valve position. The EEC assembly has two independent control channels - channel A and channel B - with their own inputs, outputs and power supply. In addition to input/output redundancy (for comparison and backup), data is sent between the two channels by a data link. Channel B gets control if channel A cannot command its output devices. EEC channel A and B are housed in one assembly but are physically divided by a two piece modular design. Each channel module has two printed circuit board modules, the input/output interconnect modules, and two mini-sensors with printed circuit boards. Seven electrical connectors are used in each channel module to hold wiring from the engine, aircraft, and nacelle. The control channels have electrical harnesses identified by colours - blue for channel A, green for channel B. ‘The EEC assembly has a connector to test the unit and a connector for the EEC programming plug. Power is supplied to the EEC by the dedicated, dual channel PMA. - 40 -Tenust us: + aveeo STATUS + para PROGE HEAT sraTus s ANTHCE STATUS + PRESSURE ALT FROM A0c 1082, J—= rau werening vatve eal | crn conan -TAT leon Gace: [= Actua ern [MNO TOC THROTTLE ANGLE, Agecs ruraine case Saoune tes seas roan near rane Tog Ot ENGINE Oo ReeCreahenanne | [= eg roan near Fea = ae SLATS posimon |_._ on cooueruet neater Fo rn even aren SERN sancncuno vos ee corvae ++ INTERNAL PRESSURES: Earaeaees mio durenes sas even = + FUEL TEMPERATURE ova Ot TEMPERATURE ENGINE FIRE HANOLE [= v2 29 avteos TURBINE exrAUsT TEMPERATURE (eg }— car cace stance ( mm | enciwe oara paetaune on ne oe i W108 wa ovenseeeo Nose come _l Gx OvER neo cn roms, ( un mes J wicace nessune ruseua exuust evawe ea F—— Pressure men INLET) reupenaTune, ft ourwen PRESSURE POWER aN __ea anew N2APM Gace. ALTERNATOR Fig. 39 PW4000 FADEC INPUTS & OUTPUTS Extensive self-test and fault isolation logic is programmed into the EEC and used continuously. Self-test routines make on-wing troubleshooting and shop maintenance easier by finding and isolating faults in the EEC and its input and output devices. Using data supplied by the EEC and an aircraft-supplied readout device, the line mechanic can quickly identify and replace a defective line replaceable unit. Data from the EEC also permits shop maintenance procedures to be simplified. -41-‘oureut as 2 SR LIRTTE EPR LMT] eonputarton storrue remorse | tag{ SELECTION A n Epa raaorree| naec ConPUTATION EPR ACTUAL, EPR TARGET Hew cou --——> UigtrarsoM nine, 429 evn cancer, exw => ihe aus NsTaNTIvE 9t5¢proraUET tiie TA ruxcTaoN aeriveri0u ENGEE_A/THR ENGAGEMENT Fig. 40 THRUST SETTING BLOCK DIAGRAM ‘The EEC interfaces with the Engine Relay Unit (ERU) junction box. The ERU divides and sends single-source aircraft signals to the two EEC channels. The EEC is a Line Replaceable Unit (LRU). POWER SUPPLY ‘The EEC is powered according to various conditions. Power N2<5% ‘The EEC is supplied with power from the aircraft network when N2 is below 5%. -42-Each channel is independently supplied by the 115Vac through the EIVMU. The aircraft power permits: - Auto ground check of the FADEC when engine is not running - Engine starting (EEC is powered from the master lever or from the mode selector) - EEC operation in case of PMA fault. Power N2>5% As soon as the engine is running above 5% N2, the dedicated PMA supplies the EEC direct. The PMA supplies each channel with 28Vdc. Switching between the aircraft 115Vac and the PMA supply is done automatically by a transformer in the EEC. fore oe [or] |_| EEC Fig. 41 POWER SUPPLIES 1 aseAuto De-energisation ‘The FADEC is automatically de-energised on ground, through the EIVMU, after engine shutdown. ‘The auto de-energisation occurs on ground: - 5 minutes after aircraft electrical power up - 15 minutes after engine shutdown = § minutes after FADEC ground power supply if not in the CMS menu mode - at any time when the ENG FIRE pushbutton is released out. NOTE: The EIVMU failsafe powers the EEC even when its not powered itself. rec enan Sor} —__—__i* at A 118Vs a i ee we EEC Ch A 28vdc- 7 > a ote. [Bane a 2 sonar BSE" —]—----— a Nwoual = —]- < a pores ee eee Te S =o ‘(F brag bya Tae eva TCO ‘CHANNEL B| AIRCRAFT ENGINE Fig. 42 POWER SUPPLIES 2 -44-Ground Power For maintenance purposes and MCDU engine tests, the engine FADEC GRD PWR panel allows FADEC power supply to be restored on ground, with engine shutdown. When the related FADEC GRD PWR pushbutton is pressed ON, the EEC recovers its power supply. NOTE: The EEC is also energised as soon as the mode selector is set to IGN/START or CRANK position or when the master lever is set to ON. ENGINE RELAY UNIT ‘The engine relay unit permits EEC-controlled relay switching for engine components energised by 115Vac from the aircraft bus. The ERU is also used to divide and send single-source aircraft signals to EEC channel A and B. The ERU has: a convection cooled aluminium housing * six electrical connectors (three for channel A and three for channel B) The FADEC system ERU is used for relay switching of aircraft supplied 115 Vac to both ignition exciters (two relays) and P2/T2 probe heater (one relay). ADIRU/EEC INTERFACE Each EEC channel receives digital data from the two ADIRUs (Air Data and Inertial Reference Units) through the ERU bus splitter. ADIRU data is preferred to the FADEC sensors. The ADIRUs also send data on probe heating to the EEC. The EEC validates the ADIRU inputs (connected static pressure ~ Ps, TAT and Pt) by comparison with its own FADEC/ENGINE sensor (PAMB, T2 & P2). Comparison is also carried out between the two ADIRUs. The EEC uses the most appropriate signal for engine rating and control. (EPR is based exclusively on P2 and PS engine sensors). When both ADIRU inputs are validated ADIRU 1 data is used. ADIRU data with heating can be used provided it is validated by the EEC. To maintain engine to engine isolation at least one validated (T2 or PAMB) is required to remain in the EPR mode. Loss of T2 or PAMB will cause the EEC to change to un-rated N1 back-up control mode. -45-FRONT ENGINE BLEED VALVE (eR) HGH PRESSURE. BLEED VALVE. AFT ENGINE {$6TH STAGE ‘MOUNT ‘ARMANFOLD Poses proves “TURBINE VANE anu (ve) on TaN baton. Eoous ‘setvo FUEL HEATER Fig. 43 COMPONENT LOCATION mount ouenessune SAAT 2a-staauiry BleeD VALVE waver : Saar Sait ENGINE CORE HARNESS ERU EEC PMA ENGINE FAN a Gomaited CASE HARNESS WIRING HARNESS. BIFURCATED CONDUIT P2 T2 Heating ‘The EEC is in control of this function which is cut-off if the fire pushbutton is pressed. A fault is declared if heat is commanded on and the current monitor indicates no current. Probe heat fault is latched only if engine sensed temperature is equal to or less than 7.2°C. With probe heat off or failed P2 signal is declared failed if it disagrees with ADIRU data. ‘With probe heat failed EEC will revert to un-rated N1 mode. -46-Engine Wiring Harnesses ‘These are in 3 groups: Engine Fan. Engine Core. + Nacelle. They are of open bundle construction and are repairable. They are shielded twisted pairs or triplets and the shielding is nickel-plated copper braiding grounded at both ends with enclosed backshells. Each EEC channel is colour-coded: Blue - channel A, Green — channel B. Grey wires connect to airframe circuits. Yellow wires are alumel-chromel temperature sensing circuits and splicing is not permitted. = . Fig. 44 WIRING HARNESSES -47-PERMANENT MAGNET ALTERNATOR ‘The PMA is an LRU that supplies each channel of the EEC with alternating power and an N2 signal. The PMA is a dedicated, dual-channel alternator which is rotor driven by the main gearbox layshaft and is installed on the middle front of the main gearbox. It has a rotor, a fan air-cooled stator and electrical connectors for each EEC channel. When the speed of the main gearbox-driven PMA rotor is approximately 5% N2, the PMA outputs electrical power to the EEC. The PMA then supplies the energised EEC with an N2 speed signal to EEC channel A and channel B. EIVMU (ENGINE INTERFACE & VIBRATION MONITORING UNIT) ‘The EIVMU functions are: - transmission of cockpit panel and aircraft computer data to the associated engine - processing of aircraft data signal - control of aircraft electrical supplies to the engine control system - engine to engine segregation and engine vibration monitoring and processing THE EEC INTERFACE WITH THE ENGINE ‘The EEC controls the following redundant solenoid systems: - Overspeed solenoid in the FMU (position feedback is from the dual LVDTs in the FMU). - 2.9 start bleed solenoid which controls pneumatic pressure to the 2.9 start bleed valve (position feed back is from a T/C inside the valve to EEC channel A). - 2.9 stability bleed solenoid which controls pneumatic pressure to the 2.9 stability bleed valve (a T/C inside the valve sends position feedback to EEC channel B). - Fuel ON solenoid and fuel OFF solenoid in the FMU (feedback is provided by a fuel on/off proximity sensor in the FMU). SteThe EEC controls the following non-redundant solenoid system: - Two turbine blade and vane cooling solenoids; each controls a turbine cooling air valve. The valve on the right side of the engine is controlled by EEC channel A; the valve on the left side is controlled by channel B. The EEC controls the following redundant relays: - Aircraft 115Vac power to both ignition exciters is individually controlled by the EEC through solid state relays in the ERU. Voltage monitors in the ERU send feedback to the EEC when 115 Vac is sent to an exciter. - Aircraft power to the P2/T2 probe is controlled by the EEC through a solid state relay in the ERU. A voltage monitor in the ERU sends feedback to the EEC when 115 Vac is sent to the probe. ‘The EEC controls the following redundant torque motor systems: - Fuel metering unit torque motor controls the metered fuel flow to the engine (position feedback is from a dual LVDT). - Stator vane actuator controls the position of the variable stator vanes (a dual LVDT sends position feedback to the EEC). - ‘The 2.5 bleed valve actuator controls the position of the 2.5 bleed valve (feedback is from a dual RVT). - The HPT turbine case cooling actuator is housed in the same unit with the LPT actuator. Each actuator has a dedicated torque motor and dual LVDT position feedback sensor. The actuators position the HPT and LPT cooling air valves that control fan airflow for cooling the turbine cases. - The fuel/oil cooler bypass valve is a torque motor operated two- position valve. The bypass valve sends engine oil around the fuel/oil cooler when fuel temperature is too high. Position feedback is from a dual LVDT. - The engine air/oil cooler valve controls fan airflow through the engine air/oil heat exchanger for cooling engine oil. A dual RVT sends position feedback to the EEC. -49-= The IDG air/oil cooler valve controls fan airflow through the IDG air/oil heat exchanger for cooling IDG oil. A dual RVT sends position feedback to the EEC. Idle Speed Minimum ground idle is achieved by setting the thrust levers to the idle position to cause the EEC to select the idle speed to satisfy the following parameters: N2 to prevent IDG cut-out N2 C2 for constant approach or taxi thrust N1 for engine ice protection Pb to support service and/or anti-ice air bleeds Wf/Pb ratios to prevent burner blow-out Minimum Wf for safe operation. Flight Idle (approach speed) is achieved by placing power lever to idle position with weight off wheels and flaps extended. An N2 C2 schedule based on altitude and 72 ensures capability for takeoff power for go-around. Reverse Idle speed is the same as Flight Idle speed and happens if thrust levers are in the reverse idle position and the aircraft has been on the ground for a few seconds. Reverse idle reduces to minimum idle speed after a fixed amount of time following touch down. EPR Mode A maximum power rating is calculated by the FADEC at all times for each throttle (TRA) detent (rating point). The rating points are take-off/go-around, maximum continuous/flex take-off, climb, and idle. The take-off ratings for take-off/go-around are: Maximum takeoff - set by the EEC Derated takeoff - selected using the autoflight system. The de- rated takeoff permits a take-off to by performed at a lower thrust Jevel than maximum take-off where a flexible take-off is not permitted. Note: There are six power level selections for de-rated take-off. * The take-off rating is used at or below 17000 feet. 250%‘The maximum continuous/flex take-off ratings are: 7 Maximum continuous used between 17000 and 26000 feet. * Flex take-off selected using the autoflight system. The flexible take-off permits a take-off to be performed at a lower thrust level than maximum take-off. This rating method is selected by setting the assumed temperature to a level higher than the current ambient temperature under specified conditions. The climb ratings are: Maximum climb. De-rated climb #1 - selected using the autoflight system. De-rated climb #2 - selected using the autoflight system. The climb ratings are used above 26000 feet. ‘The idle rating point is used for interpolation only. It gives a point lower than the climb point that can be used for interpolation. ‘The ratings are tabular and interpolation is made linearly between the rating points to obtain an EPR output. Engine operation cannot exceed the calculated maximum power level. NI RATED MODE If the FADEC loses P2 and/or P5 engine parameters it automatically reverts to the N1 rated mode. The transition from the EPR mode to the N1 rated mode is “pumpless’. ‘The FADEC is dispatchable in the N1 rated mode. The N1 rated mode gives: - The same thrust as the EPR mode during take-off for up to 25000 feet above the runway. - Power management for: * Maximum take-off/go-around. * Maximum continuous. * Maximum climb. -51-The N1 rated mode does not give: - Flex or de-rated take-off ratings. - Autothrust operation. Operation N1 power setting in the N1 rated mode is made by using the EPR calculations and reading a corrected N1. T2 is used to “uncorrect” N1. The uncorrected N1 is the N1 commanded in the N1 rated mode. In the N1 rated mode the FADEC controls fuel flow so that N1 command equals N1 actual. The N1 rated mode can be manually selected by pushing an N1 MODE SELECTION pushbutton switch on the flight deck. Transfer from the EPR to the N1 rated mode is not “bumpless’. If in the N1 rated mode and N1 MODE SELECTION is pushed EPR mode is selected (if it is healthy). Reversion to N1 mode un-rated mode happens when: FADEC detects 72 failure or air data selection * Engine programming plug (EPP) declared faulty at time of FADEC initialisation (EPP contains EPR and schedule modifying data). N1 un-rated mode: Gives an engine power setting depending on TRA position. Gives no rating limiting. Makes auto thrust inoperable. Means no dispatch of aircraft. Power to channel A and B can only be cut-off with aircraft on ground and: 1) _ FADEC ground power pushbutton OFF. 2) Engine master lever OFF. 3) Mode selector switch at NORM. ‘THE AIRBUS A320/V2500/CFM56 SYSTEM ‘The following gives some information on the A320 FADEC system with the V2500 and CFMS56 engines. -52-Not too different to that discussed above. The main features of the system are: 1. One Electrical Control Unit (ECU) for each engine with dual redundant channels (active and standby). 2. Dual electrical power sources for each channel. Dedicated ECU alternator to assure self power above 15% N2 for CFMS6 (10% N2 for V2500). Aircraft general electrical source (independent from channel to channel) to ensure engine starting on ground and in flight. 3. Dual redundancy for electrical input devices. 4. Dual redundancy for electrical part of control actuator. 5. _ Simplex system for hydro-mechanical parts of the control. 6. Fault tolerance and fail operational capability. n High level of protection against electromagnetic disturbance. Interface Between FADEC and Other Systems The interface between the FADEC system and the other aircraft systems is mainly effected by the Engine Interface Unit (EIU) by means of digital data buses. There is one EIU for each engine. Care is taken to preserve systems segregation for safety and integrity: - interface between FADEC and other aircraft systems - duplicated signals and segregated buses - within aircraft systems - validation of output data and specific protection against electrical transients Thrust Limits Thrust limit selection is made by the FADEC as a function of the TLA (when the thrust levers are set between two detents the selected thrust limit mode is the one corresponding to the forward position). Thrust limit computation is performed by the FADEC after engine start. -53-On the ground, the thrust limit computation is automatically initiated on commencement of take-off roll by selection of TO power. On the ground, selection of a FLX TO temperature (entered on the TAKE-OFF page of the MCDU) leads to FLX.TO limit computation. In flight, CL, MCT, GA thrust limit selection is made by setting the thrust lever to the associated detent position Auto Thrust = Take-off Thrust mode selection: - On ground TO limit mode is automatically selected at power up. - FLX TO limit mode is selected by: Setting a FLX TO temperature on the MCDU (TO - page). Take-off is performed: - InTO limit mode, by setting manually the thrust levers to TO/GA detent. - In FLX TO limit mode, by setting the thrust levers manually to FLX TO/MCT detent. Notes: - In both cases, this manoeuvre also engages FD TO mode (no TO/GA switch). - Lowest FLX TO thrust is limited to CL thrust. 2. Cruise Thrust levers must be set: - Either to the CL detent. - Or to the MCT detent (engine failure case) Then the ATS modes are engaged accordingly to AP/FD mode selection. 3. Approach Thrust levers must be set to climb or MCT (engine failure case) detent: ATS SPD mode is engaged. -54-4. Go around GA mode engagement is achieved by setting the thrust levers to TO/GA detent. (ATS is armed; GA thrust is applied via the FADEC) (This manoeuvre also engages AP/FD GA mode) Thrust levers can subsequently be positioned to the CLIMB detent. 4. Alpha-floor If the alpha floor function is activated, ATS increases the thrust to the GA thrust limit. THE PW4000 The EEC/FADEC computes EPR command from throttle position (angle) adjusted for Mach, pressure altitude, engine bleed status, anti-icing status, engine inlet probe heat status, and engine inlet temperature and pressure. ‘This makes the throttle position the same for a given thrust rating. EPR command is indicated by the EPR command pointer on the EPR gauge and is compared with actual EPR for an EPR delta (4) to control actual EPR by the FMU on the PW4000. POWER MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEM (BOEING) (ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL) ‘The Power Management Control System integrates the engine computers, sensors and controls with the aircraft computers, sensors and controls to facilitate thrust settings and protect the engine. The system interfaces four different computers: the Main Engine Control (MEC), the Power Management Control (PMC), the Thrust Management Computer (TMC), and the Digital Air Date Computer (DADC). The term Power Management Control (PMC) is used interchangeably with Electronic Engine Control (EEC). ‘The primary purpose of the PMC system is to reduce pilot workload by computing, displaying and maintaining the selected engine settings as a function of external parameters and selected flight modes. Main Elements ‘The two main elements of the Power Management Control system are the Power Management Control (PMC) and the Main Engine Control (MEC). -55-PUA THRUST MODE SELECT PANEL owen even @aoc mat = est (EVE OJ fs tance ica] eonrutex ‘ fame) fs “creas my aucens Thy COMUNE, WAR, ACTUAL isnt a | Sener te TOF roe t cane wontton | | thas ie { t sucron | _ataemane 1 ilk { % ' ‘0 { exccrtonic vcr i evcine { CONTROL TORQUE MOTOR DRIVE ! eanusris aoe 7 t RETERING VALVE CONTROL t mee) { POSITION FEEDBACK 1. Nea SD eee THE) CONTROL ALTERNATOR PoveR Fig. 45 POWER MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEM Fuel metering and limiting is accomplished by the MEC, as a function of power requirements. The EEC is a engine fan case mounted microprocessor computer that has down-trim authority of the MEC to allow automatic adjustment for varying external parameters: to facilitate thrust setting, reduce N1 and EGT overshoot and reduce throttle stagger and crew workload. MEC Inputs The core engine speed (N2) is available through the accessory case drive of the MEC. Power Lever Angle (PLA) is provided by mechanical linkage from the flight compartment. Compressor Inlet Temperature (CIT) is provided by a CIT sensor as an airflow control parameter. PcorFan air inlet temperature (T2) is provided by a hydro-mechanical T2 sensor on the fan case for MEC N2 corrections. Static pressure (Po) is routed to a port on the MEC. Compressor Discharge Pressure (CDP) is sensed to provide pressure limiting and airflow control. Mechanical linkages provide variable stator vane and variable bleed valve position feedback. ‘The fuel control switch on the flight compartment quadrant stand controls the fuel condition actuator motor to provide fuel on-off control at the MEC. EEC Inputs A sensor on the fan case provides the fan rotor speed (N1). ‘An electrical T12 sensor mounted on the fan case provides the fan air inlet temperature (T12). BF we rt Fi el ra. Bie Be Te, ieee tot Fig. 46 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM STE‘The control alternator is driven by the accessory gearbox to provide power for the EEC, and also provides an N2 signal for flight compartment indication. The engine pneumatic system air bleed condition signals are analog inputs from the EEC discretes CARD to the EEC, to determine the amount of bleed air being extracted for aircraft use. ‘The DADC inputs digital signals for Mach Number (Mn), total air temperature (TAT) and total pressure (Pt). ‘The Thrust Lever Angle (TLA) is an analog input from a resolver in the control stand on the power lever assembly. An ON-OFF switch-light on the control stand can disable the downtrim authority of the PMC. Fan inlet temperature (T12) and Static Pressure (Po) are also input from dedicated sensors to back up the DADC inputs. Electronic Engine Control The EEC computes the N1 command value based on the TLA and existing environmental conditions. The EEC also receives an actual N1 speed signal from the engine-mounted sensor and this speed signal is compared to the computed N1 command signal. ELECTRICAL COMRECTORS (3) Bouts «4 FAULT CODE WiKoow ‘Test comecron [RAIN EQUIP CENTER Fig. 47 EEC UNIT -58-If a difference is noted, a torque motor drive signal (in the fuel flow governor) from the EEC will adjust the MEC downtrim mechanism to make the actual speed agree with the computed N1 command. ‘This action will eliminate overshoot when adjusting the thrust levers. The MEC senses only N2, but power is set using N1. The EEC will adjust the downtrim as necessary on the MEC to maintain a constant N1 rating with varying conditions of speed, altitude, temperature, bleed demand, etc, allowing a “hands off” power control. EEC Power ‘The EEC is automatically powered by the control alternator on the accessory gearbox whenever the engine speed is greater than 40% N2. The EEC is independent of aircraft power except that when on the ground, the ground handling bus may be used to ground testing the EEC system when the engine is not operating. BIT A build-in test switch adjacent to the EEC will activate a self-test and a 2 digit LED will display stored fault codes. PMC Deactivation The PMC downtrim authority may be voluntarily deactivated by the switch- light in the flight deck. Other PMC functions, such as N1 command, will be unaffected. ec PERVISORY SLNITER Fig. 48 BIT oorThe fail/fixed feature, if activated, will release allowing downtrim to return to zero. It may be necessary to adjust the power levers in the retard direction slightly to set the desired N1 speed. PMC Monitor ‘The PMC contains a volatile fault memory that will clear on engine shutdown. ‘The PMC monitor is an airframe microprocessor that will store PMC faults on touchdown, to allow recall after engine shutdown. Sensor Interface ‘The EEC receives inputs of pressure and temperature from three different sources. A disagreement between two of the three sets of data will cause the EEC to reject the discrepant data, and base its computations on the remaining data. The EEC will alert maintenance of the discrepancy through the EEC monitor interface. If the comparison between data shows a substantial disagreement or sensor input failure, the EEC will activate the fail/fixed mode. Loss of DADC Inputs ‘The DADC’s provide digital inputs of Mn, Pt and TAT to the EEC. The EEC also has independent Poc and T12 sensors that allow the necessary computations to be performed should the DADC inputs be unavailable. The computations are not as accurate, but are satisfactory to allow full functioning of the EEC. Supervisory ‘The supervisory computes two EPR’s, a commanded EPR and a maximum allowable EPR. Commanded EPR is computed as a function of thrust lever position and is shown on the EICAS (Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System) EPR display as the leading edge of the command sector. Maximum allowable EPR is computed taking into consideration, altitude, temperature, speed, and service bleeds. Maximum allowable EPR will not exceed take-off thrust rating up to 15,000ft altitude and maximum continuous thereafter. -60-In addition to displaying this EPR on the EICAS the EEC will prevent the commanded EPR from exceeding the maximum EPR by more than 3% thrust. ‘This feature provides automatic rating protection by ensuring the maximum rating cannot be exceeded by moving the thrust levers to the firewall. If actual EPR exceeds commanded EPR, the error is amplified by the EEC to produce a current in the torque motor to downtrim the FFG. The engine ultimately stabilises at command EPR as the downtrim of the FFG will drive the difference between commanded and actual EPR to zero. ‘The supervisory has BITE capability and provides validity checks on all signals. Ifa failure is detected in the supervisory section, this information is passed to the limiter which freezes the trim current at its existing value and a discrete is sent to the EEC INOP light, and the EICAS computers, to indicate failure. If the supervisory is now inhibited by de-selection of the flight compartment EEC switch, the limiter unfreezes the torque motor current and continues normal ‘limiter only” operation. BEM 2 om uc. PRESSURE SUPERVISORY imaten THRUST LEVER eel ruck row ronat = vam eon os CO} [EE en : t ; ronnie | | i ' seaman een ate | ool eee ‘a Pune P FUEL | a ve te annucet D> who ‘act | D> we va nov Tha ttn naw ree row i ru roto | faa e100 fa ; toot stout [on Meco | | INDICATION SIGNAL ean) | Cotton stew J j “EMERGENCY FUEL, | swutgre ve waster re oat se swrrorr AE, ue Foo ‘TawsnaTTER ver Fuel, > rex Fig. 49 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM - BOEING BreeEEC Limiter ‘The limiter monitors EGT and N1 rpm and prevents these variables from exceeding the stored limit values by downtrimming the FFG. ‘The limiter is a real-time digital processor with multiple inputs and an output to the torque motor on the FFG that downtrims the hydro-mechanical control. The limiter may also be used in conjunction with the optional supervisory control and both may be combined into a single EEC unit. Control An alternate action switch for each EEC limiter function is located on the pilot’s overhead panel. This switch also contains an “INOP” light. With the switch in the normal “ON” position power from the DGCU No 1 will activate the internal power supply in the EEC and energise the circuit, which in the event of a fault, will energise the Fail Fixed Solenoid and Freeze the trim motor. In the “OFF” position a ground is provided for the INOP light and to the EICAS to display a Level C “L/R ENG Limiter” message. Operation ‘The limiter receives inputs of N1 and EGT from engine sensors and compares them against stored maximum limit values. If a limit is exceeded the limiter generates a trim current to the torque motor to reduce the engine operating level to the N1 or EGT limit. This trim current is compared to the trim current input to the limiter by the supervisory, if installed. The higher of the two trim currents is sent by the EEC to the fuel flow governor. Ifa failure is detected in the limiter, the fail fixed solenoid is activated which locks the torque motor in its existing position and a discrete is sent to the limiter INOP light, and the EICAS computers, to indicate failure. If the limiter is inhibited by de-selection of the flight deck limiter switch, the fail fixed locking solenoid is deactivated and the supervisory transmits the trim current directly to the torque motor without passing through the limiter. Backup If both supervisory and the limiter are inhibited, the trim current resets to zero and the fuel flow regulator is under complete hydro-mechanical control. AaBook 2 Module 14 PROPULSION - AVIONICS ENGINE INSTRUMENTATIONAUTHORITY Itis IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local Procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE ROLLS-ROYCE plc SMITHS INDUSTRIES for permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Moving coil instrument de ratiometer ac ratiometer Engine speed (rpm) Exhaust gas temperature (egt) Temperature measuring systems Engine pressure ratio (epr) Oil pressure measuring systems Synchroscopes Vibration monitoring systems Torque measuring systemsHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written specifically for the B2 (avionics) engineer but is also a good reference book for any engineer studying jet engine instrumentation. The B2 man/woman should be able to describe the operation of all the engine indicating systems, their principles, and how to fault rectify. Specific examples of actual systems in the book need not be remembered in detail, but should be understood and be able to be related to the general principles of the appropriate system.INSTRUMENTS - GENERAL, This part of the book deals with instruments such as: * Moving coil instrument * dc ratiometer. a ac ratiometer. ‘The general principles of the systems are described here as they can all be used for various different applications. ‘The moving coil instrument, for example, can be used to measure such things as fuel level (using a float), temperature - of oils, coolants etc (using a thermistor) or pressure (using a Bourdon tube or bellows). In all cases the output from the transducer is a current which is changed by a variable resistor - and this current “drives” the instrument windings against a spring. The dc ratiometer uses de to produce two opposing torque’s within the instrument. And when the torque’s balance (not the currents) the instrument comes to rest. The ac ratiometer works on a similar principle to the de ratiometer except that it uses ac and this drives two separate (shaded pole) motors in the instrument — both with opposing torque’s. THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT If a coil carrying current is placed in the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field due to the current interacts with the permanent magnet field in such a way that the coil turns (figures 1, 2 & 3). When conventional de current flows in a wire and the wire is going into the page then current flow direction is indicated by the symbols © and ®. © represents the current flowing towards the reader (like the point of an arrow coming towards you) and the symbol @ represents the current flowing away from the reader (like the flights of a departing arrow). ‘When current flows in a wire a magnetic field is set up around the wire. For a de current flowing away from the reader the direction of the magnetic field is clockwise (the corkscrew rule), and for a current flowing towards the reader the field direction is anti-clockwise.a FLUX, LINES = os coming i ue eS @ ,, ite reader CONDUCTOR page Fig. 1 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR Magnetic lines of force flowing between the poles of a magnet are said to flow Fron north to south. If the lines of force, called flux lines, meet other flux lines moving in the same direction then they are strengthened. If they meet flux Tinos moving in the opposite direction then they tend to cancel each other and become weaker (figure 2). ; FLUX LINES RESULTANT FORCE ON CONDUCTOR Fig. 2 FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR ‘The flux lines tend to behave as if they are elastic. They try to straighten and will exert a force on the copper conductor (as shown). ifthe conductor is wound in such a way as to form a loop within the permanent magnet field then; when current flows, the loop will try to turn (Ggure 3). CONDUCTOR PIVOT LINE AN FLUX LINES ——— MAGNET Fig. 3 PRINCIPLE OF THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT -2-In a moving coil instrument, the loop of wire is repeated many times to forma coil. It is wound on a former with a soft iron core, which is hinged and connected to a pointer. The coil is connected to a de supply and the turning torque of the de supply is resisted by the hairsprings (figure 4). HAIR SPRING COIL WOUND ON FORMER SOFT IRON CORB Fig. 4 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT Figure 4 shows the construction of a basic moving coil instrument. When the meter is connected to a circuit, and current flows, it will flow through the hairsprings to the coil and the coil turns in a direction dependent upon the direction of current through it. Thus, to get the pointer to move over the scale the meter must be connected the right way round in the circuit. As the coil turns, so moving the pointer over the scale, the hairsprings tighten and oppose the movement. When the deflecting force due to the current in the coil is exactly balanced by the controlling force of the hairsprings, the pointer remains steady at this reading. An increase in current increases the deflecting force and the pointer moves further over the scale until it is balanced by the controlling force. ‘The coil is wound on an aluminium frame which rotates with the coil. This frame, moving in a magnetic field, has voltages induced in it and the resulting eddy currents produce a force tending to oppose the motion producing them. This gives a damping force to the meter and the pointer takes up its final position quickly, steadily, without overrunning. -3-This instrument, in the flight deck, would be connected to a variable resistor type transducer fitted to the equipment to be monitored. For example, a pressure indicator system on a hydraulic/oil system would have a transducer made up of a variable resistor connected to a pressure operated bellows or Bourdon tube. For fluid quantity the variable resister would be moved by a float on the end of an arm. The output would be a de supply proportional to the pressure/fluid level. DC RATIOMETER ‘The ratiometer is used to indicate temperature and pressure and registers the difference between opposing torque’s produced by electrical coils. A permanent U shaped magnet has within it a pivoted coil assembly with two coils ‘A’ and ‘B’ wound on it at an angle. The strongest magnetic field is at the centre of the magnetic poles; it is crossed by the two coils ‘A’ and ‘B’ being wound on a soft iron concentrator. The coils are wound onto the core in opposite directions result in opposing torque’s being produced when an electrical current flows in them. When the current in both coils is the same, the torque’s are equal and the pointer attached to the core assembly will be stationary. Movement of the coils and pointer due to unequal torque’s will move the coils in the magnetic field. PERMANENT MAGNET TORQUE DUE TO cor: a 4 ‘TORQUE DUE TO COIL B‘The stronger coil moving so that its coils are going into an area where the flux lines are less effective (at the top and bottom of the field), and the weaker coil (being pulled “backwards”) moving into an area where the flux lines are more effective (at the centre of the field). The effect of this is that the opposing torque’s will eventually balance, and the pointer will indicate the new condition in the system. ‘TRANSDUCER INSTRUMENT «i COIL A 28 V dice == supply COIL B BOURDON TUBE” 225 VARIABLE RESISTOR {moves up with an increase in pressure) + PRESSURE Fig. 6 DC RATIOMETER SYSTEM ~ PRESSURE INDICATION Example If the pressure increases (figures 5 & 6) then the resistance values change in such a way, that more current flows in coil A than coil B. Coil A has the greater torque and turns the instrument clockwise (against the torque of coil B). As the instrument moves so coil A is moving into an area of weaker magnetic flux (and the flux lines are acting at a less effective angle to the coil) ~ so it’s torque is getting weaker. Coil B is being pulled “backwards” against its will into an area of stronger magnetic flux and to an area where the lines of flux are acting at a more effective angle. So its opposing torque is getting stronger. When the two torque’s are equal the instrument stops moving. Its reaction time is quick. The instrument moves at the same speed as the transducer.28 V d.c. SUPPLY TRANSDUCER TEMPERATURE SENSOR (resistance creases with an increase INDICATOR in temperature) ( Fig. 7 TEMPERATURE INDICATION USING THE DC RATIOMETER In case of supply failure a weak spring is fitted in the instrument to pull the pointer off scale ~ otherwise it would stay where it is ~ not a good idea. The de ratiometer can also be used to indicate temperature and fluid level, with the variable resistor being connected to a float arm for fluid level indication. Figure 7 shows the temperature transducer which acts as a variable resistor. With an increase in temperature the resistance increases and Jess current flows in coil B. This means A is the controlling coil with the pointer moving clockwise. Again the instrument will move until the torque’s of the 2 coils balance. Used in systems where the temperature to be measured is not too high such as oil and coolant temperatures. For cylinder head and jet pipe temperature measurement thermocouples are used. AC RATIOMETER The Transducer ‘This system is supplied with 26V 400 Hz ac ~ but it can be any voltage so long as it is ac. It has two coils and two soft iron cores. The cores are moved against a spring by a pressure operated capsule stack. ‘The current supply is divided between the two coils depending on their impedance. Impedance is the total resistance in a coil carrying an ac supply. It is measured in ohms.The impedance of a coil is increased when the soft iron core is moved into the coil. This increased impedance reduces the current in that coil. If the core is removed from the coil then its impedance drops and its current rises. Indicator Consists of two shaded pole motors (cam discs and coils) mounted on the same shaft with a pointer. Each motor is wound in such a way, that their turning effects are opposite to each other. SOFT TRON CORE POINTER erxto coms wound around The soft iron om Discs ‘Teawspucea Fig. 8 AC RATIOMETER When a current supply is sent to the two motors the most powerful one dominates and this will cause the complete assembly to rotate in its direction. In so doing, however, less of the cam disc is affected by the motor and its torque decreases. The less powerful motor, however, is having more disc area placed underneath it and therefore its torque is increasing (in opposition to the most powerful motor). When the torque’s balance the discs, shaft and pointer come to rest. Remember - the cam disc assembly only rotates, say, about 90°, and does not rotate passed the ‘step’. QUESTION: What would happen in the event of power failure? (2 mins)ANSWER: In it’s present condition — as so far described ~ it would stay in the position that it was prior to power failure, thus giving a false indication to the pilot that all is well. Obviously not a good idea. Something must be done. Do you have a solution? ANSWER: The manufacturer’s solution is that they fit a weak spring so in the event of power failure the pointer will be pulled off-scale. Example With reference to Figure 8. As pressure increases so the soft iron core is pushed further into coil A and its impedance is increased, while the soft iron core is moving out of coil B its impedance is reduced. Therefore more current flows in coil B and less in coil A. Shaded pole motor B has more current than A and discs and pointer are rotated clockwise. Motor A tries to rotate the assembly anti-clockwise but has insufficient power. As the discs rotate clockwise so the torque of motor B decreases while that of ‘A increases. When the torque’s are the same the discs and pointer come to rest. SUMMARY For measuring the following parameters the following transducers can be used: Temperature Moving coil and a dc ratiometer - using a thermister or resistance thermometer to vary the current. Position Moving coil and a dc ratiometer - using a variable resistor. Ac ratiometer moving the core to change the impedance. Fluid level Moving coil, de ratiometer and ac ratiometer using a float attached to an arm move a variable resistor/core for the ac ratiometer. ‘A more common method of measuring fluid level is to use a capacitive transducer. Used in oil and fuel quantity measuring systems and relies on the fact that with a capacitor immersed in the fluid, its as level changes so the capacitance of the capacitor also changes (increasing capacitance with increasing fluid level).ENGINE SPEED MEASUREMENT The three most common methods of engine speed measurement are: (i) Direct driven indication. (i) | Tacho generator indicator. (ii) Pulse probe indicator or Tacho probe system. It is important that the pilot knows the rpm of his/her engine (N1, N2 etc) and propeller (if fitted). The speed of the fan on a fan engine and the rpm of a fixed pitch propeller are good indications of the actual thrust/power available from the engine, although EPR may also be used on the fan engine. DIRECT DRIVEN INDICATION Used on small single engined aircraft (and on most road vehicles for speed indication). A flexible drive from the engine to the cockpit instrument rotates a magnet inside a drag cup manufactured from non-magnetic material (copper or aluminium). The rotation of the magnet induces eddy currents into the drag cup. These eddy currents create a magnetic field which is attracted to, and tries to follow, the permanent rotating magnetic field. HAIR SPRING. ’ DRAG CUP_| r ROTATING os ' NS DRIVE CABLE——zegez7d 4 1 = 1 1 Fig. 9 DRIVE AND DRAG CUP SYSTEM A hairspring coupled to the drag cup prevents it from producing a continuous rotation of the pointer and provides a controlling force. The final position of the pointer (indicated rpm) is determined by the speed of rotation and the strength of the hairspring. This type of tachometer proves impracticable for the majority of aircraft uses since the flexible drive requires frequent servicing, has a limited life and becomes erratic when long drive lengths are used.TACHO GENERATOR SYSTEM (Figure 10) This consists of a simple generator mounted on the engine, and the instrument in the flight deck. ‘The tacho generator is basically a rotating field ac generator usually driven off the compressor rotor via a reduction gearing - but may be driven by any shaft. On a multi spool jet engine the low pressure compressor speed is known as Ni and the high pressure compressor speed as Nz. If a third spool is fitted to the engine this is known as Ns. Flight deck indication is usually in terms of % rpm. ‘The generator’s rotating field cuts the stator windings and the frequency of the generator output is proportional to engine compressor rpm. This signal is passed to the indicator and is applied to the motor in the indicator, which is basically an induction motor with synchronous characteristics. The signal from the tacho generator creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator of the indicator motor; this field therefore rotates at a speed dependent on generator frequency and thus engine speed. | S¥NCHRONoUS es ‘THREE PHASE a.c. SIGNAL TACHO GENERATOR Fig. 10 TACHO GENERATOR SYSTEM -10-As the field rotates it cuts the rotor of the indicator and the currents induced produce a field which interacts with the rotating field which causes the rotor to turn. ‘The rotor has a weak permanent magnet and once the rotor is turning it will Jock on’ to the rotating field and behave as a synchronous motor. The speed of the motor is now running at a speed proportional to the output frequency of the tacho generator and therefore engine speed. ‘The motor drives a magnet which rotates inside a copper drag cup. The magnetic field cuts the copper cup inducing eddy currents into it and producing a magnetic field; the field from the copper cup interacts with the magnet field, causing the cup to rotate in the same direction as the magnet. The cup turns against the tension of the hairspring until the two forces balance. The movement of the cup drives through gearing to position the pointers to indicate the engine percentage rpm. ‘The faster the generator runs the higher its frequency output and the faster the synchronous motor turns, so the greater the magnetic force on the drag cup which will turn further against the hairspring. SS se Wi TacHomeTeR, GENERATOR (ENG “11 it b i _] NETACHOMETER GENERATOR TRIM Test, RECEPTACLE J) CONTROL CABIN | Rian sioe Fig. 11 TACHOGENERATOR SYSTEM WIRING DIAGRAM -li-QUESTION: What would happen to the system in the event of aircraft electrical power failure? (2 mins) ANSWER: Nothing. Yes, in a word ~ nothing. It is self-powered. Maintenance Checks (1) Visually check generator, for damage, security of attachment, corrosion, signs of burning and that the drive shaft rotates freely. (2) Visually check cables and connectors for signs of damage, corrosion, moisture ingress and signs of burning. (3) Resistance checks between phases A, B, C should be within approximately one ohm of one another and within figures and tolerances given in the AMM. (4) Insulation test between casing of generator and terminals commoned together. Resistance should not be less than 20MQ. (5) On some aircraft you are able to use a test point or even disconnect the tacho generator lead and connect in to inject signals to test accuracy of indicator. (6) Engine run to check full accuracy of system. If the indication tries to show reverse rpm the most likely cause is the cross connection of two phases. SERVO OPERATED TACHOMETER INDICATING SYSTEM ‘The principle of a servo-operated indicator using an input from a tacho generator is shown in figure 12. ‘The tachogenerator output is fed to the amplifier in the indicator. Also fed into the amplifier is a signal from a potentiometer which is connected to the main pointer. Thus the two inputs to the amplifier are (1) engine speed and (2) main pointer position. If the instrument is indicating the speed correctly then these two signals will be the same, (the input to the amplifier being the difference between the two signals). There is no difference, therefore no signal input to the amplifier. If however, engine speed changes, then the input signal from the tacho is not the same as the feed back pot signal from the main pointer position, this error signal (difference signal) is fed into the servo-amplifier where the increased output is fed to a motor. The motor drives the indicator and also the digital readout. ‘As the indicator is driven the potentiometer output will change and when it equals the input signal from the tacho generator, there is no error signal, amplifier output ceases, motor stops and indicator shows the new engine speed. -12-Sone row PRS ae cow, emer O16 00 FROM RESET SWITCH 1 pt cee ACEO. GENERATOR T t ee Fig. 12 SERVO OPERATED TACHOMETER SYSTEM The output from the servo amplifier is also fed to a null monitor, the purpose of which is to detect any failure of the servo circuit to back off the error signal. In the event that the error signal is not being backed off, this de-energises a warning flag which drops across the digital counter display. Note that normally this flag would be energised OFF Also on the indicator is an overspeed pointer. This normally sits at the required position on the indicator. Should an overspeed occur then the main pointer moves to the position of the overspeed pointer, then, as it exceeds the overspeed position it carries the overspeed pointer with it. If the speed is reduced the main pointer moves downscale but the overspeed pointer remains at the overspeed position, Reset of the overspeed pointer is achieved by operating a reset button which energises a reset solenoid within the indicator. aseMaintenance This is similar to the non servo tachogenerator system, except that as a servo- indicator is used some additional checks might include: (1) Checking operation of failure flag. (2) Applying signal generator to produce a frequency to move main pointer to overspeed. Overspeed pointer stays, and resets when reset switch is operated. TACHO PROBE SYSTEM Sometimes called a Pulse Probe system and has the advantage of providing separate electrical outputs additional to those required for speed indication, eg flight data recording and engine control. The probe has no moving parts and is used to pick-off N1, N2 etc and propeller rpm. For propeller rpm it is fitted to the propeller drive shaft after the reduction gearbox or to the propeller spinner back-plate. ‘The probe works on the principle of a variable reluctance circuit causing a varying magnetic field to induce an emf in a coil, the frequency of the induced emf being proportional to engine speed. The sealed probe comprises a permanent magnet, a pole piece, and a number of nickel/chromium coils around a ferromagnetic core. Separate windings provide outputs to the indicator and other equipment requiring engine speed data. The probe is mounted on the engine at any position where rpm is to be monitored, eg N1, N2, propeller speed etc. PROBE UNIT Fig. 13 TACHO PROBE ‘The probe is mounted close to a rotating ferromagnetic wheel. This wheel has castellations and is sometimes called a phonic wheel. As each castellation passes the magnet it concentrates the magnetic field causing the field to move across the coil. -14-As each “gap” passes the magnet the field moves back across the coil. This back and forth movement of the field over the coil induces an alternating current in the coil. The frequency of this current change is proportional to the speed the castellations pass the probe which is proportional to the rpm of the wheel. This frequency signal is sent to a signal processing module. It is then sent as a de signal to a torquer motor in the instrument. A feed back system in the instrument cancels the signal when the pointer has reached the correct position. In the event of power failure the scale pointer is pulled off-scale by a lightly loaded spring. ‘SPEED PROBES Lp. SHAFT Man ELECTRICAL Mac CONNECTIONS FIXING PAD AND ELECTRICAL ‘CONNECTION COMBINED Fig. 14 TACHO PROBE DETAILS Consider the operation of the probe shown in Figure 14. The probe is located around the circumference of the compressor shaft aligned with a phonic wheel (integral part of compressor shaft), -15-When the teeth of the phonic wheel are in line with the pole pieces of the pulse probe, a path of low reluctance is provided for the magnet's field and a strong field is created through the coil. However, no emf will be induced in the coil, as the flux is steady. If you can visualise the wheel moving so the teeth lie between the pole pieces then the reluctance of the magnetic path has increased, therefore the flux has decreased but more importantly changed from a high value to a lower value. As there is a flux change an emf will be induced into the coil. If you can again visualise the phonic wheel moving so the next set of teeth align with the pole pieces of the probe, then once again there has been a change in reluctance to a lower value and therefore a change of flux from a lower value to a higher value so an emf will be induced into the coil. ‘The frequency of the induced emf in the coil is proportional to the rate of ( which the teeth pass the pole pieces and is therefore directly proportional to the speed of rotation of the compressor shaft. Te" is Bu | a | |—| wa OR! a KS =e = acy oe —an PROBE 2 = HZ ‘LEED VALVE (CONTROL, UNIT ‘IROORNE rontToR Located on ra a" EE Za Prone wwe. Fig. 15 PULSE PROBE ENGINE SPEED INDICATION SYSTEM -16-Figure 15 shows that the output frequency is received by the EICAS computer and then displayed in percentage rpm on a CRT display. NOTE. EICAS is fitted to Boeing aircraft and stands for Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System. ‘The engine speed signal may also be required for other systems such as engine vibration ete. Figure 16 shows the location of the tacho probe on the RB211. Fig. 16 TACHO PROBE LOCATION - RB211 Figure 17 shows how the frequency signal is dealt with in an electro- mechanical type indicator. The signal is processed and sent to a torquer motor to move the pointer. As the pointer moves so it operates a variable resister to supply negative feedback to the summation device to cancel the original input signal. Figure 18 shows the system in a little more detail. -17-BUFFER AMP VARIABLE SUMMATION UNIT MECHANICAL SIGNAL DRIVES PROCESSOR AMPLIFIER SIGNAL tLe POINTER POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLIES Fig. 17 TACHO PROBE SYSTEM INDICATOR Figure 19 shows the system as fitted to the Turbomecca engine. You should study both figure 16 & 17 and be able to ‘understand how these systems work, though there is no need to commit the details to memory. Secondazy pointer fixed at tndicator mack and i pushed by norsal pointer AE Hy goes over SUPERCRITICAL certain 8 F.Dems INEARE LIGHT POWER SUPPLY N, REDUCE FAIL RESET MODULE cuuTcH Ix ‘SQUARING AMP. te eats MODULE repeat reading FAIL FLAG OVERLIMIT RESET |__N, RESET CONVERTOR FAULT INTEGRATOR monitor L—oiFF PRESS RESET MODULE Ny TRANSMITTER (LP INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX) Fig. 18 N1 INDICATION SYSTEM ~ CONCORDE -18-Ng) The indication is ensured by means of a system giving the instantaneous measure of the rotation speed. It includes a speed de (phonic wheel: connected ¢i eiver on ¢! The decector consists in a 20-tocth iven by a pinion of the accessory ain and set in front of 4 double ‘onmagnetic senscr, Double The passage of the teeth modifies the magnetic field and induces an alcernating current in the sensor coil frequency of the current is proporcional to the rotation speed Phonic wheel \ BAIL? TINE THY pF. Ap cokt rsa Start Receiver Converts the frequency signal inzo voltage eine Modification of ct in funetion of Ng Indicates the rotation speed Starter cut-our Bleed valve conzrol Incorporates 2 main @irect current supply an an energency supply LG Phonic veel The double sensor generaces 2 equal frequencies F and ae VYoucage on each Lscy cry Fig. 19 Ng INDICATION SYSTEM - TURBOMECCA -19-Maintenance Checks Security of attachment of probe. Inspection of probe for damage, limits will be given in Chapter 77 of the AMM. Inspection of cable for contamination, signs of burning and correct and secure connection. Pins for damage and corrosion. Some systems may have a test generator where you disconnect at the probe, and inject signals at set frequencies to test accuracy of indicator, also to test any overspeed warning systems. ~20-EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS ‘The ideal location for temperature measurement of a jet engine is at the turbine blades themselves as they are the critical components when it comes to high temperatures. However, this is not practical and therefore thermocouple probes are fitted to measure exhaust gas temperature, which when known can be related to actual turbine blade temperature. Principle If two dissimilar metals are joined together and the two metals are connected into a circuit, and if the metals are heated (hot junction), an emf is generated in the circuit proportional to the difference in temperature between the two ends of the circuit. If the circuit is opened at one end, termed the cold junction end and a millivoltmeter is inserted then the value of the emf can be measured. The millivoltmeter will be calibrated in degrees of temperature. METAL A. ana MILLIVOLTMETER METAL B HOT JUNCTION COLD JUNCTION Fig. 20 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE Thermocouple Probes ‘The thermocouple is mounted in a ceramic insulator and encased in a metal protection sheath, the whole assembly forming a probe which can be projected into the gas stream. The thermocouple is made from Chromel (a nickel- chromium alloy) and Alumel (a nickel-aluminium alloy). The two metals usually being joined together by welding. ‘The hot junction of the system protrudes into a space inside the end of the sheath which has transfer holes in it to allow the exhaust gas to flow across the hot junction. The relative positions of the transfer holes depend on whether the thermocouple is of the ‘stagnation’ type or the ‘rapid response’ type. In the stagnation type which is applied to turbojet engines, the exhaust gas enters the probe through a forward facing inlet, and after circulating round the hot junction it passes through a smaller exit hole higher up and on the opposite side to the inlet hole. This arrangement allows the gas to slow down, thus minimising the effects of the high velocities. oieHOUSING INSULATOR. GAS OUT “> THERMOCOUPLE Fig. 21 STAGNATION TYPE THERMOCOUPLE ‘The ‘rapid response’ type of thermocouple is designed for use in low exhaust gas velocities as in turbopropeller engines, and has equal size transfer holes arranged directly opposite each other so that gas can pass over the hot junction with minimum stagnation. Fig. 22 RAPID RESPONSE TYPE In order to obtain a good average indication of gas temperature conditions and also to ensure functioning of the indicating system in the event an element becoming defective, a number of probes are radially disposed in the gas stream and the electrical outputs are connected to form a parallel circuit. ‘The cables from the thermocouple probes are formed as a harness around the engine and terminate at a junction box which also provides the connecting point for the cables leading to the indicator. -22-INTERMEDIAT JUNCTION BOX THERMOCOUPLE ASSEMBLY ‘TAKE-OFF BOX ASSEMBLY ENO BOX ‘THERMOCOUPLE Fig. 23 THERMOCOUPLE HARNESS - 5 LOCATIONS THREE THERMOCOUPLES => Fig. 24 THREE ELEMENT THERMOCOUPLE ‘The types of thermocouple vary so check the aircraft you are currently working on. It should also be realised that the probe may contain one, two or three elements to feed EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) to other systems, eg top temperature control. -23-The thermocouples and their leads are in a harness assembly fitted around the engine; the number of probes depends on the engine. The leads going form the junction box to the indicator will be Alumel and Chromel (although this may not always be the case). The indicator is a moving coil millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees centigrade TEMPERATURE INDICATOR. (wore ont THERMOCOUPLES INTERMEDIATE { ‘TRIMMING MAIN JB RESISTOR maiast 48 Fig. 25 SIMPLIFIED EGT SYSTEM Some systems may include a trimmer resistor, one such type is made uP ofa wire, wound on a spool or bobbin connected in the leads to the indicator, its purpose is to allow adjustment of the overall circuit resistance. Measurement Petdcen from the indicator terminals (disconnected) back through the system. ‘Typical values for earlier systems would be 80 or 250. If incorrect then the eee ct amount of wire on the bobbin would have to be cut off to correct the resistance value. In addition, on some aircraft a ballast resistor is fitted, as shown in Figure 25, actoss the thermocouple output. This is required because on certain types of engine, due to temperature scatter at the exhaust, hot spots will tend to {norease the output of some thermocouples, giving an incorrect reading. ‘The resistor is across the thermocouple output to ‘load’ the output and divert the excessive current, to enable the indicator to read accurately. “he value of the resistor will vary from engine to engine and is usually recorded on the engine data plate and also in the engine logbook. The resistor, if fitted, must be removed with the engine. If the leads from the engine to the indicator are made of the same material as the thermocouples these are known as extension leads. -24-On some aircraft the leads from the engine to the indicator are not made of the same material as the thermocouples, eg Chromel/Alumel thermocouples might have Copper/Constantan leads to the indicator, these leads are known as compensating leads. You might think that the compensating leads might not work as effectively as another thermocouple is created at the connections, however the two combinations are compatible and it works. THermocourtes (( ¢ INDICATOR 500°C (480°C) 500°C oc (500°C) (20°C) Fig. 26 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE ON COLD JUNCTION Cold Junction Temperature Compensation ‘The various combinations of thermocouple materials specified for use in aircraft conform to standard temperature/emf relationships and the indicators are calibrated accordingly. These emf’s correspond to standard cold junction temperatures. If we assume that the cold junction is maintained at 0°C and the hot junction is 500°C then as the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions is 500°C the indicator will read 500°C (20.64mV generated). Now consider a change of temperature at the cold junction. It increases to 20°C and the temperature difference is now 480°C, the indicator will read 480°C, this is because the emf generated at the cold junction opposes the emf generated by the thermocouples, in this case 20.64mV opposed by 0.79mV. Therefore the indicator receives 19.85mV and reads 480°C. This is not the true egt. The indicator is in error. Therefore any change of temperature at the cold junction will cause the indicator to read incorrectly. A method therefore needs to be found to compensate for changes of cold junction temperature and keep the indicator reading the correct egt. One method employed is to use a bimetallic strip within the moving coil indicator. BoseA flat spiral bimetallic spring within the indicator is anchored to a bracket which forms part of the moving element support, the other end is connected by an anchor tag to the outer end of one of the controlling hairsprings. Assume now that the situation was as before, ie cold junction temperature increased by 20°C. Previously the indication would have gone down scale, but now the bimetallic spring will unwind to oppose the movement downscale. ‘The spring causes the hairspring to move and maintain the pointer at the upscale position; the indicator therefore reads the true hot junction temperature of 500°C. POINTER SS HAIRSPRING ANCHOR BAR — upper supPorT BRACKET COMPENSATING ANCHOR BAR ‘SPRINGITAB) ZERO ADJUSTMENT WASHER, BRACKET LOWER COIL ATTACHMENT HAIRSPRING TAG (UPPER) com COIL ATTACHMENT LOWER SUPPORT TAG (LOWER) BRACKET UPPER HAIRSPRING ‘TAB WASHER CONTACT TAG INSULATING BUSH s JEWEL BEARING INSULATING WASHER. Lock NUT Fig. 27 BIMETALLIC COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION Compensation for Moving Coil Resistance Changes As the temperature changes at the indictor it will also effect the resistance of the moving coil itself, if the temperature goes up, its resistance goes up and the current through it falls and therefore the indication will fall. One method of overcoming this problem is to connect a thermistor in series with the indicator coil. A thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, ie its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. If the temperature of the indicator increases then the coil increases its resistance, the thermistor resistance decreases, so the overall resistance of the coil circuit remains the same. Therefore current and indication will remain the same. -26-‘THERMISTOR r | | | | | INDICATOR. ‘ Se Fig. 28 COMPENSATION FOR COIL RESISTANCE CHANGE USING THERMISTOR In the simplest thermocouple system no external power is required but on most aircraft an ac power supply is used to amplify the signal to power motors within the flight deck gauge. Figure 29 shows the flight deck gauge of Concorde. There is no need to cee enit the details to memory Dut you should be able understand how it works nvelation to the input signal and the negative feedback signal to the cold junction unit. POWER SUPPLY COLD JUNCTION MODULE, ont RESISTANCE ‘THERMOMETER Sikrtne v REFERENCE FAULT ‘THERMOCOUPLE ‘MODULE MoniToR WARNES Fig. 29 EGT GAUGE SYSTEM - CONCORDE Figure 30 shows the system as fitted to the Turbomecca engine. Again the details need not be remembered but you should study the drawing and understand how the system works. -27-URE_INDICATION GAs. The system consists in temperature probes (thermo- couples) electrically connected to a receiver located on the panel. It measures the gas Semperature at the outlet of the gas generator curbind (cz o> Charge impedance Electronic 2000 ft min control wait analogic rarerse Atuan, ee ri f 4 indication . amezion bor suv Probes Ri * line resistor (1.2 per vire) Rhl and Rh? = homogeneization resistors. They are connected to the indicator in order co read the same cu for a given 53 value : = kee th = 680" C for t3 = 960° C (adjusted in factory) Bsh (im the junction box) is used to know, if necessary, the “true ti, It indicates the e& temperature by copying 4 voltage representative of the e.m.f, of the thermocouples, corrected in function of the temperature of the cold junction and aligned in Function of the characteristics specific co the engine, The 4 probes are located around the intermediate diffuser and are subjected to the gas flow at che curler of the generator. Each of chen consists in a (hot) welding of a chromel vire and ap alupel Temperature probe cable Body Securing nut Thermocouple probe yw Fig. 30 TURBOMECCA THERMOCOUPLE SYSTEM - 28 -Servo Operated System (Figure 31) ‘The thermocouple output is fed to a measuring system where cold junction compensation is effected and then onto an amplifier. The input to the amplifier is the thermocouple signal and an indicator position feedback signal, any difference between these two signals creates an error signal which is amplified and fed to a servomotor which drives the indicator pointer and counter via the gear train. ‘The gear train also drives the balance potentiometer to provide a feedback signal to the amplifier and servomotor until the input signals are equal and motor stops to indicate new egt. Ls erorieniter ie ET Cae OT ToT Tita Fig. 31 SERVO OPERATED INDICATION SYSTEM -29-If egt exceeds the operating limit the amber overtemp light illuminates, this is operated by a snap action cam actuated switch. In addition the engine over temp condition is indicated by the maximum indication pointer. If the egt exceeds the limit the main pointer will carry the maximum indication pointer to a higher value on the scale and when the egt lowers the maximum indication pointer remains at the over temperature reading. This pointer is reset by a reset switch. Ifa circuit malfunction occurs, the Integral Integrity Monitor (ITM) causes the failure flag circuit to de-energise and the failure flag will fall in front of the numerals. Pointer and counter remain at last value before failure occurred. The instrument dial is illuminated by 5 volts ac. Figure 32 shows the later type of aircraft with CRT data display. The signal is fed from the thermocouples into the display unit. The input de signal is. amplified and cold junction compensation is carried out and then fed to a voltage to frequency conversion which produces an output frequency proportional to the de input signal. The frequency is then digitised, formatted and stored in RAM in readiness for transmission to the display driver. Fig. 32. CRT DISPLAY CIRCUITRY =30-(fata Cit: bal, Fig. 33 RB211 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC Figure 33 shows the general circuitry for the RB211 as fitted to the Boeing 757. Notice how the thermocouple outputs are sent to the EICAS computer for signal processing to be used on the flight deck crts. Notice also the signals to the standby instruments and the engine supervisory and limits computer. Figure 34 shows the schematic wiring diagram from the thermocouples to the junction box, and figure 35 shows the engine component location. Study these drawings carefully and understand the detail, but there is no need to commit these details to memory. Maintenance Procedures It is important that you study your own manuals for the aircraft you are currently working on. Use the following notes as guidelines only. -31-Visual Checks 1. Check thermocouple probes for damage, security of attachment, and blockage. 2. Check engine harness for moisture, carbon deposits, general condition of cables, terminal connections for correct torque loading and cleanliness. if Fig. 34 WIRING FROM THERMOCOUPLES TO TERMINAL BLOCK - RB211 Fig. 35 ENGINE COMPONENT LOCATION - RB211 a2eSystem Tests 1. Insulation tests - may include disconnecting leads at engine junction box and using a low voltage meggar checking between each lead and ground, between each terminal stud and ground and between each cable outer covering and inner conductor. 2. Short circuit and open circuit tests. 3. Resistance checks - this is normally done by taking a resistance reading with leads of test meter connected one way, then a reading is taken with the leads reversed and the two noted resistance readings added together and divided by two. 4. Accuracy Test ~ involves injecting millivolts into the system to check indicator is within limits as laid down in the AMM. Also to check over- temperature indications by injecting millivolts to over-temperature level and checking that indication comes on and goes off within required values. NB. It is important that you know whether the test set you are using has automatic ambient temperature compensation or not, if not then allowance must be made for ambient temperature. 5. Failure Flag - Tripping and resetting circuit breaker to ensure flag appears and disappears correctly. 6. _ Resistance of Ballast Resistance. Now look up your manual and make a list of the checks including an engine run check to ensure serviceability of the system. RADIATION PYROMETER ‘The measurement of exhaust gas temperature using thermocouples provides a good indication of the temperature of the turbine assembly, but errors can arise with varying efficiency of the compressor/turbine assembly, and with ageing of thermocouples. This means that an engine could be running at a turbine temperature lower than the optimum. Also, the actual turbine blade temperature with air-cooled blades is related to the cooling efficiency of the system as well as the actual turbine inlet temperature. This gives additional de-rating characteristics. To overcome these disadvantages a system was needed to measure the temperature of the actual turbine. Radiation pyrometry is a technique that can measure the temperature of a surface because of the radiation emitted by that surface when heated. At any wavelength, this is a function of the temperature of the body, and its emissivity. (Emissivity is a ratio of the energy emitted by a body compared to a black body at the same temperature). The temperature of turbine blades can, therefore, be determined by measuring their radiation at their known value of emissivity. -33-Thermocouples suffer from thermal inertia (it takes a little time for them to register the temperature), pyrometers have no such delay and therefore provide for a more rapid response. The pyrometer head and its sighting tube assembly are mounted on the turbine casing, with its sighting line pointing directly at the turbine blades. The blade radiation is focussed by a synthetic sapphire lens (often providing maintenance problems by ‘sooting up), which is brazed into a titanium mount (with a coefficient of linear expansion similar to that of the lens material), ‘The body of the pyrometer is manufactured from stainless steel, and has external cooling fins to keep the temperature at a reasonable level. A fibre optic link, contained within a PTFE tubing protected by flexible stainless steel braiding, transmits the radiated energy from the pyrometer head as an optical signal to the detector unit. ‘The ends of the fibres adjacent to the pyrometer head are bonded by a special process to withstand the high temperatures encountered at the turbine casing. Conversion of the optical signal into an electrical output is effected by a silicon photocell contained within the aluminium casing of the detector unit (in theory one photon of light energy converts to one electron of electrical energy). The temperature within the casing is thermostatically controlled at a value slightly higher than maximum ambient so that the cell characteristics are stabilised and accurate over a wide range of ambient temperatures. ‘The output from the detector is a non-linear signal of small magnitude, and is supplied to an amplifier which then produces a linear (and higher) output necessary for the operation of the flight deck temperature indicator, or engine control unit as appropriate. The amplifier is supplied with de power. —< A e ~~ Fig. 35a RADIATION PYROMETER - 33a -OTHER TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS Remote temperature indicating systems on aircraft for oil temperature and fluid temperature for example involves the use of resistance bulbs as the sensor and a ratiometer type indicator. For piston engine cylinder head temperature it involves the use of a thermocouple and a moving coil type indicator, The resistance bulb has resistance wire of nickel or platinum wound on an insulated former and sealed in a brass or stainless steel tube, which may be filled with an inert gas to assist heat transfer to the element. Whether nickel or platinum is used depends on the temperatures to be measured. Nickel can be used up to 300°C and platinum up to 600°C. UNION NUT FORMER. 2pm! —contacrine RESISTANCE SOCKET STRIPS. ELEMENT ‘CALIBRATING OR BALANCING COL, Fig. 36 TEMPERATURE BULB SMALL GAP (hgh tux canst) ‘SOFT IRON CORE LARGE GAP (low tux density) ‘TEMPERATURE BULB (varie resistance) FIXED RESISTOR Fig. 37 DC RATIOMETER TYPE INDICATOR sae‘The ratio-meter indicator gives a high degree of accuracy. One of its coils is connected directly across the supply and the other is connected in series with the temperature bulb. With reference to figure 37. Assuming the temperature of the probe is constant then the torque’s provided by the two coils are equal and opposite (coils wound to oppose each other). It should be noted that the currents are not the same. Remember the torque on a coil is proportional to current and flux. As the two torque’s oppose and are equal the pointer of the instrument remains stationary. ‘Assume now that the temperature at the bulb increases, its resistance will increase (positive temperature coefficient). The current through coil B will decrease and its torque and will decrease, remember the current through coil A will not change as the coil is across the supply. There is now an unbalance of the torque’s, coil A torque is greater than coil B torque and the armature will move clockwise carrying with it the pointer. You should note that as coil B moves it moves into a stronger flux area, so its torque is increasing and coil A is moving into a weaker flux area so its torque is decreasing (T «1x 9). At some point the torque’s balance again, the movement stops and the pointer now indicates the new higher temperature reading. In no power conditions a weak spring will bring the pointer off-scale. 2BV AC BUS 2 FUEL TEMP INDICATION CIRCUIT BREAKER PANEL FUEL TEMP 0616 GAGE 2 5 1" 6 o TH osv ac PANEL usHTs CONTROL TANK NO.1 e al =| . a) COMP Sw > “Brewer suLe & HOUSING Fig. 38. FUEL TEMPERATURE INDICATION -35-Figure 38 shows a practical indication system. Note the position of the earth for the system, it is always close to the bulb. Figure 39 shows that the leads interconnecting the indicator and bulb have small inherent resistances and their resistance changes with temperature change. Wired as shown the lead resistances are both in series with the bulb and one coil of the indicator. Therefore errors could be introduced in indication. LUMMTING RESISTOR cour—4 con CcALBRATING resisror2 — CALIBRATING RESISTOR RESISTANCE OF LEADS “TEMPERATURE aus 5 b) ee) Fig. 39 BRIDGE WIRING DIAGRAMS ‘This problem is overcome by connecting the earth of the de power supply close tothe bulb as shown Figure in 39(c). The resistance of one of the connecting leads ig now in series with one coil while the other connecting lead resistance ig in series with the other coil in the indicator. Therefore any change in resistance of these connecting leads effects both coils equally and as they ‘oppose one another there will be no effect on the indication. ‘The effect on the indication of a short circuited or open circuited temperature bulb must be understood. A short-circuited coil will move the indications down scale, below zero usually. (Coil B predominates totally over Coil A). An open circuited coil will move the indication to a full-scale position (Coil A predominates totally over Coil B). Figure 40 shows a schematic of an oil temperature measuring syStem fora helicopter engine. Study and understand it, but there is no need to commit it to memory. Figure 41 shows a thermocouple for measuring the cylinder head temperature of a piston engine, The materials are usually copper (+ve) and constantan (ve), the thermocouple being in the shape of a washer clamped to the cylinder head onfitted under a spark plug. On some small aircraft the system may be self powered. - 36 -‘The temperature probe measures the temperature of the oil at che outlet of the oil/fuel hea exchanger, i.e, after cooling. Lubrication The resistante of the probe varies vith the temperature Re fc) + | Berner: oy = connection iN Double receiver O41 Pr - of1 t* fa i ray c 652 at + 100°C /_—~ The probe is a resistor enclosed in an envelope subjected to the oil flow, The variation of resistance of the probe induces variation of current decected by che receiver which is galvanonecer connected as 4 Uheatstone bridge in relation to the probe. The receiver needle displaces proportionally to the variation of temperature on a dial graduated in degrees C, Envelope Nut Plug Fig. 40 EXAMPLE OF OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION SYSTEM - HELICOPTER ENGINE -37-Fig. 41 CYCLINDER HEAD THERMOCOUPLE. Maintenance Checks Check the AMM of your aircraft and read through the procedures involved. 1. 2. Inspection of bulb for Indicator for System checks damage and corrosion. Electrical connections for resistance and insulation checks. electrical connections, broken glass, damaged case. Power failure check - indication moves below scale. these will vary from aircraft to aircraft. some just measure temperature of oil with a thermometer and compare with the gauge. others disconnect the bulb and substitute a set value of resistance and indicator should read a certain value. others have a test box, which can simulate temperature bulb resistance’s to check and calibrate the indicator. -38-ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO INDICATING SYSTEM (EPR) ‘The thrust produced by an axial compressor jet engine does not vary in direct proportion to rpm, the thrust ratings being calculated in such a way that they must be corrected for variations in temperature and pressure prevailing at the compressor intake. Since compressor intake pressure is related to the outlet pressure at the turbine, then the thrust is more accurately determined by measuring the ratio between these two pressures, The engine pressure ratio system is therefore a thrust indication system for these types of engine. The ratio provided by this system is therefore: exhaust pressure = outlet pressure engine air intake pressure inlet pressure ‘System Components The basic components of the system are inlet sensing probe, exhaust pressure sensing probe, EPR transmitter, EPR gauge. These will vary from aircraft to aircraft, particularly the operation of the EPR transmitter. However we shall look at a typical system. Inlet Sensing Probe (P1, P2) ‘The engine inlet pressure is sensed by a probe similar to a Pitot probe and is located in the intake, or on the intake spinner, or at some other convenient position near the engine. Engine Exhaust Probes (P7, P8) ‘The engine exhaust pressure is sensed by a number of probes. In the system described there are six disposed radially in the turbine exhaust case. EPR Transmitter Usually situated near the engine. They vary in operation, but their basic function is to transduce the ratio of outlet/inlet pressure to an electrical signal for transmission to the indicator. -39-EPR Indicator ‘The electro-mechanical indicator provides pointer and digital readout of the ratio and is a servo operated system. The dial is graduated from 0.80 to 1.80 EPR. A failure-flag drops in front of the digital display due to (I) no power (ii) low power (iii) sustained mechanical malfunction. The indicator has integral lighting. On later aircraft EPR is indicated on a CRT screen. Fig. 42 EXAMPLE - INLET SENSING PROBE Fig. 43 P7 PROBES eco— ryan Fig. 44 EPR SYSTEM OF THE RB211 Figures 42 and 45 show locations of the inlet-sensing probe (P2) for different engines. Figure 43 shows a typical location for the P7 probes. Figure 44 shows the schematic for the RB211 ~ note the work “rakes” for the probes and that they are located at P1, PF (fan) and P8. Note also the CRT display. Figure 45 also shows the EPR transducer and the general system layout for a twin spool engine. -41-Figure 46 shows the EPR transmitter as fitted to the RB211. Note in both cases the P1, P7 and P int air connections and also the electrical power/signal connections. Iter Paessune (eg LINE ser KOs \naieaTOR avsrew anaine ENGINE CHANGE DISCONNECT x Faessune ‘hg INLET PORT ro Jee oerecrion ‘VENT MOLE ANTHIcE AIR oy "TEST CONNECTIONS Fig. 46 EPR TRANSMITTER - RB211 -42-1 1 It 1 1 t Se N1.av coonz OUTPUT Fig. 47 EPR TRANSDUCER SCHEMETIC = REFEnEWCe counteK AcrenENcE COUNTER SET EWR area mano ius =n i seiows sTsTEeW i [Joserat our oO CS firzcmemaiovo i FIT uous L ENG EPR INDICATOR ENGIEPR TRANSMITTER Fig. 48 TYPICAL EPR WIRING SCHEMATIC artjoLOT nex-oFF ‘CENTER SHAFT ye vote nvor cueanance fermeen Eemrenswagt ayo” FRAME |X cena senvomoroR VARIARLE esisToOR Fig. 49 EPR OLDER TYPE TRANSDUCER GENERAL ARRANGEMENT System Operation (Figures 47, 48 & 49) The intake pressure (Pry) is fed to two of the bellows in the transmitter and exhaust pressure (Pr7) is fed to one of the other bellows and the forth bellow is evacuated and sealed (Py). With constant EPR the transducer is in a state of force balance, no movement occurs. When there is a change in EPR, out of balance forces result in movement of the bellows system and the LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) which gives an electrical output to an amplifier whose output signals the servomotor control windings (figure 48). The servomotor drives the bellows system (via a gearing arrangement) to null the output of the bellows operated LVDT (negative feedback). It also drives the control synchro transmitter (CX) rotor. The output from the CX is transmitted to the CT rotor in the indicator. -44-‘The output from the CT rotor is amplified and fed to a motor, the motor drives through a gear box the EPR pointer and digital counter and the CT rotor to the null position, when the system will be in equilibrium and the EPR indicator now shows the new reading. Maintenance Checks The instrument should be reading 1.0 on the ground with no engine running. 1. Probes Inspection for security of attachment, damage, corrosion and blockage. 2. ‘Transmitter Security of attachment, electrical and pressure connections, bonding lead. 3. Indicator Lighting, power failure flag operation. System Checks ‘These usually consist of two checks, a leak check and accuracy test Leak Test Connect up EPR test set, apply inlet and exhaust pressures as stated in the AMM, maximum permissible pressure drop is 0.25 in HG in 5 minutes. Accuracy Test Connect up EPR test set, apply pressure to figures as shown in AMM for inlet (Pr2) and exhaust (Pr7) and check indicator reads correctly within tolerances quoted in the manual. Figure 50 shows an EPR system as fitted to Boeing aircraft. It uses a digital transmitter which sends data to the data acquisition unit, the thrust management computer and the EICAS computer (for onward transmission to the flight-deck CRT displays). ‘The engine air pressures P1 (air inlet) and PF (fan exhaust pressure) are sensed by two vibrating cylinder pressure transducers which produce frequencies proportional to the air pressures. These signals are fed to a microprocessor that converts them into the ratio PF/P1 and digitises them for transmission to the EICAS computers and then to the CRT display. NB. It is not necessary for you to remember this system; it is only included to give you an insight into a more modern system. Figure 51 shows a typical test set ~ in this case for the RB211 -45-THRUST comanoeo RANAGERENT Emax eR ‘COMPUTER ae = Incruat ercas era COMPUTERS 1a oniven 1 ‘PROCESSOR aii erhs PrP sTBy pus t ercas biseuay PR ic FR vr | Ba EPR | supp vipRaring) [vieeaT NG} ext xoee | | eve xack Fig. 50 BOEING AIRCRAFT EPR SYSTEM Fig. 51 TYPICAL TEST SET ageOIL PRESSURE INDICATION SYSTEMS In earlier systems, hydraulic, fuel and oil pressures were fed directly to a gauge on the flight deck. A typical gauge is shown below, it uses a bourdon tube as its sensing element. BOURDEN TUBE PRESSURE CONNECTION UNK TO QUADRANT QUADRANT GEAR ‘AND PINION POINTER DRIVE SHAFT POINTER Fig. 52 DIRECT READING GAUGE ‘The bourdon tube is a metal tube with an elliptical cross-section shaped in the form of aC. The tube material may be phosphor bronze, beryllium bronze or beryllium copper. One end of the tube is sealed and the other is open to accept system pressure. There is usually a choke or restrictor fitted to the inlet union to prevent surge pressures damaging the gauge. SOURDEN TUBE POINTER LINK To QUADRANT QUADRANT GEAR ‘AND PINION { PRESSURE IN Fig. 53 BOURDON TUBE PRINCIPLE eto‘The principle of operation, is such that when pressure is applied to the interior of the tube, there is a tendency for the cross sectional area of the tube to attempt to change its shape to a more circular cross-section. The tube tries to straighten, causing the sealed end to move outwards and move the gearwheel, quadrant and indicator pointer. Having pressures being fed directly to the gauges on the flight deck is a safety hazard as well as being heavy (pipelines etc from the system all the way to the flight deck), so electrical transmitter systems were introduced. ‘A simple transmitter indicator system could use a de supplied variable resistor. The resistor is caused to move by a bourdon tube and the resultant output could be sent to a moving coil instrument in the flight deck. Of course, a de or ac ratiometer system could also be used. Ceo son ous To PRESSURE CHANGES ae novesosionn vance 4 RO eure EMnon Se, Fig. 54 BOURDON TUBE TRANSMITTER AND SYNCHRO SYSTEM The transmitter consists of a Bourdon tube, gearing and a CX (Control Transmitter) synchro. This is mounted directly on the engine and is connected to the pressure source. The flight deck indicator consists of a CT (Control Transformer) synchro, amplifier and servomotor. When there is pressure in the system the Bourdon tube causes the CX rotor to turn, this causes a change of field across the CT rotor, inducing an error voltage. ageThis voltage is amplified and sensed for direction and then fed to a 2 phase servomotor which drives the indicator and also the CT rotor. When the rotor reaches its NULL position (field cutting it at 90°), there is no error signal induced and the motor stops, the gauge now showing the new system pressure. Gro 80.1 Fiewate Fig. 55 TYPICAL OIL PRESSURE INDICATION SYSTEM ( Maintenance Checks Visual Checks Security of attachment, connections, signs of leakage from the transmitter. System Test This consists of disconnecting the oil pressure line to the transmitter and connecting an air pressure source. For example, in the system discussed an ait pressure of 80 psi is applied, indicator must read 80 (#3) psi. This pressure is held for 3 minutes to check for leakage. -49-‘The air pressure is then reduced to 45 psi, indicator should read 45 (+3) psi. Reduce pressure to zero, ensure gauge reads zero. Disconnect air source, reconnect oil pipelines. Carry out engine run, check for correct operation and no leaks. But check your own AMM. Another system used for indication of oil pressure is a system that uses the ac ratiometer principle. The system consists of an inductor pressure transmitter and ac ratiometer indicator, and the system operation is the same as that described in the first section of this book. OVERLOAD STOP ‘SPRING ADJUSTER, SPRING ARMATURE SPINOLE ‘ASSEMBLY ELECTRICAL ‘CONNECTION STATOR WINDINGS BELLOWS ARMATURE ‘SPINDLE GUIDE BASE FIXING PLATE PRESURE Fig. 56 INDUCTOR PRESSURE TRANSMITTER Figures 57 and 58 show the oil pressure/warning system as fitted to the Turbomecca engine. Study them and make sure you understand them ~ but there is no need to commit the details to memory. esol+ Pressure measurement + Min pressure indicarion Position of che indicating. coe: Filter Exchanger Lubrication Measurement of che pressure The measuring system consists in a transmitter electrically connected to a receiver located on the panel. Engine harness plug sieceict wing ra / = ———— Sys Oi] Pr + oil c* + = ii Be tt Realy a QF Indicator James Ore. +nv : = & Variable induction Osedilacor It is of induceion type and transforms the pressure inco ereccrac Cuca seat to the receiver. EEE || Fig. 57 EXAMPLE OF AN OIL PRESSURE INDICATION SYSTEM - HELICOPTER ENGINE -51-‘Win ofl pressure indication ‘The system gives # visual indication of an abnormal drop of oil pressure. It includes # pressure-svitch ‘electrically connected to a warning-light on the panel. “anen the Light turns on, chech the indicator to confirm che pressure drop + Warning-1ight lt mA on GP The varning-light remains off vhen pover is set on the system, ir turns on at starc selection and turns off again vhen the pressure becomes sufficient (Ng 55 2), In flight, it turns on to indicate a defective lubricarion. Pressure - svitch When the pressure falls below the setting of the pressure- svitch, the contact is made and the warning-light is supplied ctl => Pr 1.7 d\ ‘The pressure-svitch is subjected to the pump pressure ar the outlet, It incorporates a diaphragm which controls # microswirch. 1 = Diaphray 2 = Spring 3 = Adjustment 4 ~ theromwicdn Fig. 58 EXAMPLE OF AN OIL LOW PRESSURE WARNING SYSTEM - HELICOPTER ENGINE ereSYNCHROSCOPES With propeller driven aircraft (either piston or jet engined) vibration is produced by the propellers. This has an adverse effect on structures, components, crew fatigue, passenger comfort etc. On multi-engined aircraft the problem is compounded by the interaction of all the propeller vibrations with each other. This adverse interaction can be reduced (and hence the vibration and noise can be reduced) by synchronising/synchrophasing the propellers. Synchronising is adjusting the engine so that all engines run at the same rpm = though the propellers might be at any angle relative to each other (phase angle). Synchrophasing is ensuring that all propellers run at the same rpm (as in synchronising) but at a slight relative difference in phase angle - which is fixed. SAME ANGLE - VIBRATION DIFFERENT ANGLES - LESS VIBRATION Fig. 59 SYNCHROPHASING SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEMS ‘The propeller synchronisation system is used to set all governors at exactly the | same rpm, thereby reducing noise and vibration. A synchronisation system may be used with mechanical or electrical governors. ‘The synchronisation system is normally used for all flight operations except take-off and landing. A master engine is used to establish the rpm to which all other engines (slave engines) will adjust. Pilot’ System On some aircraft the system comprises a “synchroscope” in the cockpit and the pilot has to adjust the controls manually. The synchroscope system compares electrically the speed of rotation of all the SLAVE engines and compares them to the MASTER engine. SicIt will then indicate this to the pilot by a rotating needle on an instrument (synchroscope) ~ one needle for each slave engine, eg four engined aircraft three needles, two engined aircraft - one needle. The needle will rotate one way if the engine is running faster and the other if it is running slower, than the master. It is up to the pilot to “nudge” the offending engine’s throttle backwards or forwards to get the needle to stop rotating ~ not easy but at least its rate of rotation can be reduced to be nearly stationary, Automatic System It is designed to get all the engines to run at a common speed automatically. ‘The system uses a MASTER engine and compares the alternator outputs from all the other engines to the master engine output. An “error” from any of the SLAVE engines is detected and a signal is sent to a “corrector motor” fitted to that slave engine. This alters the setting of the power controls to that engine. The simplest method of maintaining synchronisation between engines is for the pilot to manually adjust the throttles of each engine in turn whilst monitoring the rpm indicators ‘This is not very practical because the individual instruments can have different permissible indication errors and when made to read the same operating speeds, the engines may in fact be running at speeds differing by an amount equal to the indication errors. In addition, the synchronizing of engines by a direct comparison of rpm indicator readings is made more difficult by the sensitivity of the instruments causing the pilot to overshoot or undershoot an on-speed condition by having to ‘chase the pointers’. In order to allow manual adjustment of rpm an additional instrument known as synchroscope is used. It provides a qualitative indication of the differences in speeds between two or more engines, and by using the technique of setting up the required on-speed conditions on a selected master engine, the instrument also provides a clear and unmistakable indication of whether a slave engine is running faster or slower than the master. The instrument is designed for operation from the alternating current generated by the tachometer system. Figure 60 shows the instruments for a twin engined and a four engined aircraft. Note that in each case there is one less pointer than there are engines. The master engine does not have a pointer ~ only the slaves. When a slave engine is running faster or slower than the master, its pointer will rotate in the appropriate direction ~ the greater the speed the greater the difference between slave and master engine rpms. aoeFig. 60 INSTRUMENT DIALS ‘The pilot will nudge the appropriate throttle lever forward or back to get the pointer to slow and eventually stop. It is not always possible to get them all to stop completely. The operation is based on the principle of the induction motor, which, in this case, consists of a three-phase star-wound stator and a three-phase star- wound rotor pivoted within the stator. The stator phases are connected to the tacho-generator of the slave engine while the rotor phases are connected to the master engine tacho-generator via slip rings and brushes. A disc at the end of the rotor shaft provides for balancing of the rotor. The pointer, which is double-ended to symbolise a propeller, is attached to the front end of the rotor shaft and can be rotated over a dial marked INCREASE and DECREASE or FAST and SLOW. Synchroscopes designed for use in four- engined aircraft employ three separate induction motors, the rotor of each being connected to the master engine tacho-generator while each stator is connected to one of the three other engine tacho-generators. Operation Consider the installation of a typical twin-engined aircraft tachometer system. ‘The circuit of which is shown in figure 61. Assume that the master engine, which is usually No 1, has been adjusted to the required ‘on-speed’ condition and that the slave engine has been brought into synchronisation with it. Both tacho-generators produce a three-phase alternating current, which is fed to the synchroscope, (generator 1 feeding the rotor and 2 the stator). Thus, a magnetic field is set up in the rotor and stator, each field rotating at a frequency proportional to its corresponding generator frequency, and for the phase rotation of the system, rotating in the same direction. -55-Because generator frequencies are proportional to speed, the frequency of the synchroscope stator field is the same as that of the rotor field. This means that both fields reach their maximum strength at the same instant; the torque’s due to these fields are in balance, and the attraction between opposite poles keeps the rotor ‘locked’ in some stationary position, thus indicating synchronisation between the two engine speeds. If the slave engine slows, the frequency of the slave engine generator will be lower than the master engine generator and the stator field will be lagging the rotor field. In other words, reaching its maximum strength at a later instant, at say, point a-a (figure 61) , the rotor (being magnetised faster than the stator) tries to rotate the stator and bring the stator field into alignment, but the stator is fixed, so a reactive torque is set up by the interaction of the greater rotor torque with the stator. NUMBER 1 ENGINE SYNCHROSCOPE NUMBER 2 ENGINE a STATOR Ny DeCaeas ~~ FIELD ROTOR FIELD op RESULTANT FIELD 4] DIRECTION oF ROTOR Norarioninine noe a ROTATION DUE TO Renae econ oe Toe STATOR TORQUE ‘i RESULTANT OF STATOR FIELD LAGING = RESULTANT OF 4} STATOR FELD y RESULTANT OF LEADING RESULTANTOF ROTOR FELD ROTORFIELD Fig. 61 SYNCHRONISATION CIRCUIT -56-This torque causes the rotor to turn in a direction opposite to that of its field 0 that it is forced to continuously try to realign itself with the lagging stator field. The continuous rotation of the rotor drives the pointer round to indicate that the slave engine is running SLOW and that an INCREASE of speed is required to bring it into synchronisation with the master engine. If the slave engine should run faster than the master then the synchroscope stator field would lead the rotor field, reaching maximum strength at, say, point b-b (figure 61). The stator field would then produce the greater torque, which would drive the rotor to realign itself with the leading stator field, the pointer indicating that the slave engine is running FAST and that a DECREASE of speed is required for synchronisation. As the speed of the slave engine is brought into synchronisation again, the generator frequency is changed so that a balance between the fields and torques are once more restored and the synchroscope rotor and pointer take up a stationary position. ‘The synchroscope is, in fact, a frequency meter, its action being due only to the relative frequencies of two or more generators. The generator voltages play no part in the synchroscope action except to determine the operating range above and below synchronisation. SeoENGINE VIBRATION INDICATION Jet engines have a low vibration level compared to piston engines. This means that when a change in vibration level occurs ~ because of some mechanical failure - these are hard to recognise by the crew. Thus many jet engines have vibration indicators to give warning to the crew of impending or partial engine failure, ‘The two types of system in use are: () Velocity pick-up (i) Accelerometer system spans cou Fig. 62 ENGINE VIBRATION SYSTEM - VELOCITY PICKUP TYPE VELOCITY PICK-UP SYSTEM The vibration transducer (figure 63) is a permanent magnet suspended on springs in the centre of a coil. The unit is orientated so that the centre-line of the magnet/coil arrangement is inline with the vibration movement to be monitored. Engine vibration will result in movement of the housing and coil relative to the magnet, which remains stationary due to its inertia and suspension between the springs. This relative movement between coil and magnet will induce an emf into the coil. ‘The emf generated in the coil is a small ac signal (the frequency of which is proportional to the vibration frequency and its amplitude proportional to the amplitude of the vibration). This is amplified and rectified. The resultant de voltage is fed to the instrument, which is a de moving coil instrument with the scale marked in RELATIVE AMPLITUDE. -58-As all engines are likely to have different levels of normal vibration, it is not practical to have a scale marked in absolute units, so the unit is marked in relative amplitude with the scale marked in equal divisions. Normally each instrument will have a moveable bug or lubber mark, which is set against the individual engines normal vibration level. }—§ rousing PERMANENT ls += owe Fig. 63 VIBRATION TRANSDUCER The signal from the transducer is fed to the amplifier/filter unit (figure 62). ‘The signal is passed through a high pass filter, this eliminates large amplitude, low frequency signals'which may be characteristic of the particular engine. If these signals were allowed to pass they would produce unwanted high vibration readings, which would obscure the compressor /turbine rotor frequency signals that are of primary interest. The signal is then amplified, integrated and passed to a rectifier and then toa micro-ammeter calibrated in relative amplitude, ie a measurement of displacement. Should the vibration exceed a set level a warning light will illuminate. A test switch on the indicator, will (a) continuity test the sensor coil, and (b) inject a test signal to the indicator which gives a standard reading on the indicator. Note that on some engines with dual compressors, two filters may be used. There is normally a selector switch to select either the high or low frequency filter, in order to separate the vibration indications caused by the HP compressor /turbine assembly from those caused by the LP compressor/turbine assembly. =coeAccelerometer System ‘The accelerometers used in this system are usually of the piezoelectric type. A piece of piezoelectric material is either bonded or mechanically attached to an accurately calibrated mass. A piezoelectric material (a crystal) is one that generates an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical strain. If the crystal and mass are subjected to vibration, the inertial force of the mass acting on the crystal produces an electrical charge proportional to the applied acceleration. This may be single or double integrated to give a signal proportional to velocity or displacement respectively. QUESTION: Can you define or explain what is meant by ‘strain’? (2 mins) ANSWER: This is part of the basic physics syllabus, which defines strain as: ‘A body will change shape (in this case, very slightly) when exerted on by a force’. More precisely: STRAIN = CHANGE IN LENGTH ORIGINAL LENGTH (NO UNITS) PIELOELECTRIC METALLIC INSULATOR CRYSTALS (&)—COLLECTOR INERTIAL mass: ASSERBLY i i { screw t r \ \ t i AFT Sexson Fig. 64 PIEZOELECTRIC VIBRATION TRANSDUCER 5G)5In accelerometer systems the filter normally used is a Band Pass filter, this only permits a selected band of frequencies from a Broad Band of frequencies to be passed to the indicator. It filters out the high frequency signals produced by blade passage and the low frequency signals not related to spool imbalance. On multi-spool engines the frequency analyser will determine which component is vibrating by analysing the frequencies (their rpms are different). ‘The system shown in figures 64 and 65 is one currently used on some Boeing aircraft. tis sc vee Toman tows ate rm a A) vation} 1 stare Sse a rttes come 7 von sf rte j watt fe] mace wow | Gore cree TOT H matte fone = Mitte J coment @ Wale [ane | = i eee tt ‘oar ea oT TEE VIOIATION FONTTOR TT Fig. 65 AIRBORNE VIBRATION SYSTEM - BOEING ‘The system (figure 65) uses two sensors one for N1 rotor vibration and the other for N2 rotor vibration. Each sensor is of the accelerometer type and as vibration occurs the electrical charge produced is collected by the metallic collectors and transmitted to the vibration monitor unit. The vibration monitor unit also receives signals from the N1 and N2 speed sensors to the tracking filters. The tracking filters sense the amplitude of vibration frequency that matches the rotor speed. The filters ‘track’ the rotor speed and filter out any unmatched frequencies that may occur from outside sources. The multiplexor sends the signals to the EICAS computers. ‘The computer compares the signals and displays data on the lower CRT. The scale on the CRT shows vibration amplitude on a vertical scale, which represents 0-5 units from top to bottom. If vibration exceeds 2.5 units for more than 8 seconds an ALERT warning will appear. -61-A BITE test on the vibration monitor unit tests the system and produces a fault code to identify the problem. The following is an example taken from the RB211. It uses quartz crystals which produce an electrical output when strained - this happens when they are accelerated (during each half of the acceleration cycle). = | a | aa Lil = a | i Fig. 66 AVM SYSTEM SCHEMATIC - RB211 - BOEING AIRCRAFT PeaVIBRATION MONITORING SYSTEM (RB211) This system continuously senses and indicates the vibration levels of the three main rotating assemblies and provides a visual warning of excessive values. Two push-button switches placarded “FAN” and “TURB” and a single rotary (filter selection) switch with “YORMAL” “LOW” “MED” and “HIGH” positions, are fitted in the flight deck. A warning light is incorporated in each indicator. With the “NORMAL” mode selected output signals from the two accelerometers are taken to a duplexer in the conditioning monitoring unit and alternately fed through a broad band filter. An integrator then converts the acceleration signals to velocity signals, which are then fed to a rectifier and a group of three filters. ‘The rectifier smoothes the signals from each accelerometer into one average signal. This signal is then passed to a level detector, which operates the warning light of the appropriate engine, should the vibration level exceed a predetermined value. The filters are selected by the rotary switch and allow selection of three predetermined vibration frequency bands corresponding to the vibration ‘frequencies of NI, N2 and N3. Filtering is effective from just below cruise to TO rpm and enables an out-of- balance rotating assembly to be isolated by selecting each band in turn. Finally, the “FAN? or “TURB” buttons can be used to isolate either front or rear accelerometers, for accurate fault diagnosis. A test button common to all engines tests the complete system except the accelerometers and leads. Operation causes all indicators to increase from zero. Figures 66, 67 and 68 show a more modem system as fitted to the RB211 on the Boeing 757. Each engine has two vibration accelerometers (AVM accelerometers) (AVM = Airborne Vibration Monitor). These are connected via an AVM Junction Box to a Vibration Monitoring Computer. The resulting signal is sent to the EICAS computer and, after conditioning, to the CRT flight deck display. -63-Fig. 68 AVM SIGNAL CONDITIONER AND EICAS DISPLAY -64-Maintenance Checks Sensor Wiring System Tests Engine Run Test Check for damage, security of attachment, cleanliness, torque loading of bolts, electrical connections ete Check wiring for damage (particularly shielding), insulation and continuity checks. Correct routing and correctly clamped. Check for moisture ingress. Ina Velocity pick up system carry out test In accelerometer systems, use BITE. Some aircraft you can use a tester to inject acceleration signals into the indicator, and also carry-out insulation checks on the cable. These vary from aircraft to aircraft, but generally involve checking vibration levels at idle, 70%, 80% and max rpm. Checking that levels do not exceed guidelines laid down in the AMM. ‘TORQUE MEASURING SYSTEMS EPR gives a good indication of the real power (thrust) from a pure jet engine. If an engine is driving a propeller or a rotor (as in a helicopter) then the torque of the output shaft best indicates the real power (Shaft Horse Power - SHP) output of the engine. Fitted to engines driving propellers and helicopter rotor systems. QUESTION: Define torque? (2 mins). ANSWER: Basically it is a twisting action. ALL shafts twist to some degree when subjected to torque. It is calculated as perpendicular force times the distance to the centre of the fulcrum or shaft (F x d). Torque will only be produced if the shaft being driven is resisted by something - with aircraft this is a propeller or rotor assembly. Torque is independent of shaft rpm and is measured in ft Ib in the imperial system and Newton metres (Nm) in the SI system. Torque can be transduced in several ways. Strain gauges. These are very thin pieces of metal bonded to the shaft in question in the form of a Wheatstone bridge. As the shaft twists so the resistance of each arm of the bridge varies - thus current will change ~ and this can be used to “drive” a moving coil instrument in the cockpit calibrated in torque. Signals and power will be transferred to/from the bridge by slip rings and brushes. 1 have not seen this system used on aircraft - but you might have. Fitted to the shaft taking the power from the engine to the propeller/rotor drive system. Hydraulic system. This is fitted, usually within a gear box arrangement and is driven by the engine output shaft. The gears incorporate two or more helically cut gear wheels which, when torque is applied, move in an axial direction. This axial movement causes a pressure signal to be generated using a piston/s and cylinder/s arrangement. Some engines use a single set of gear wheels while others use a planet gear arrangement. Phase displacement system. This measures the displacement between the torqued shaft and a false or un-torqued shaft. Fitted on the power output shaft between the engine and the propeller /rotor drive system. The displacement can be measured using magnetic pick-offs. -66-Hydraulic System With reference to figure 69, this system uses a single pair of meshing helical gears with the power being applied through the input gear and the output gear driving a propeller or rotorshaft. INPUT GEAR [_-SPUR GEARS HELICAL GEAR TORQUE (ORIVING GEAR) METER PISTON GUIDE PIN Pressure TRANROUCER AXIAL MOVEMENT OF SuaET (WHEN TORQUE 1s APPLIED HELICAL GEAR (ORIVEN GEAR) BLEED HOLE OUTPUT SHAFT lL SUPPLY FROM PUMP. Fig. 69 HYDRAULIC TORQUE MEASURING SYSTEM When a torque is put through the helical gears so the inclined planes of the teeth mean that there is a tendency for the gears to move in an axial direction, while they are rotating. The output shaft is constrained in bearings so it cannot move (it rotates of course), but the helical driving gear carrying the torque meter piston has axial freedom to move. As the torque is increased so the helical driving gears will move axially to the left (in figure 69). This movement moves the torque meter piston to the left increasing hydraulic pressure to the pressure transducer. ‘The torque meter piston is prevented from rotating by the use of a guide pin. -67-‘A spur gear pump supplies oil at 150-psi (IGPa). The bleed hole allows a small continuous flow of oil through the system to prevent “oil stagnation”. The electrical signal from the transducer may be de to a moving coil gauge in the flight deck or it could be a ratiometer system. Figure 70 shows a synchro system for signal transmission to the cockpit as fitted to the twin engined Bell 412 helicopter. wld taeese) : Ite) au 7 F ; i onouy nessun epee ee) a ope L Fete pressune Fig..70 DUAL TORQUE INDICATOR SYSTEM - BELL 412 HELICOPTER -68-Figure 71 shows an arrangement using planet gears. When torque is applied the gears move forward onto a pressure plate, which in turn moves a piston in a cylinder to produce hydraulic pressure. CIRCULAR o1uway RING GEAR, {ELICAL PLANET GEARS PROPELLER, (move forward when torque ‘SHAFT is applied to propeller shat) Fig. 71 HYDRAULIC TORQUE MEASURING SYSTEM (PLANET GEARS) Phase Displacement System This usually involves a load shaft mounted within a hollow ‘false’ shaft. The load shaft takes all the torque being produced by the engine and the false shaft is unloaded. When torque is applied the load shaft will twist and the false shaft will not. The amount of twist (angular displacement) can be measured. With reference to figure 72. The torque meter unit consists of two toothed wheels one mounted on the propeller shaft and the other on the forward end of a false shaft, the rear end of which is welded to the outer surface of the propeller shaft. ‘As each tooth on the wheels passes the pick-up stator so it will increase the flux density of the permanent magnet, as each gap (between the teeth) passes, so the flux density will be reduced. This varying flux field will induce an alternating current into the coil the frequency of which is dependent only on the speed of rotation of the toothed wheel. Signals from both wheels will be sent to the electronic unit where conditioning of the signal will result in the sine waves being transformed to square waves. ‘The two waves are compared and the difference sent as a dc signal to a flight deck gauge indicating torque in Nm. A temperature sensor mounted on the torque transducer supplies a signal to the comparator to enable the variations in shaft twist due to local temperature changes to be compensated for. eoWith no torque in the system (but with the shafts rotating) the load shaft is not twisted and the teeth on its wheel pass the transducer coils at the same time as the teeth on the false shaft. The resulting signals are in-phase and zero torque is indicated. When torque is applied (by increasing the pitch of the VP propeller or increasing the collective pitch of the main rotor blades of a helicopter) the load shaft will twist. Because the false shaft is only connected at one end it will not experience any twist. Now the two wheels will be out of phase with each other - with the teeth of one being slightly in front of the teeth of the other. Thus the pick-up stator will send two out of phase signals, and the amount they are out of phase will be directly proportional to the amount of torque being put through the load shaft. RESISTANCE MODULE Tonqueneren UeCTRONIC [AIRCRAFT 28v4.c. SUPPLY unit PERMANENT = ToRQUE INDICATOR -macner TEMPERATURE Transoucen SENSOR Pick - uP fi cort STATOR FREE POWER TURBINE SHAFT {fuk {oontared lenght | i D ‘WaeELs IN WHEELS OUT ALIGNMENT OF ALIGNMENT 4 - View ov ARROW Fig. 72. PHASE DISPLACEMENT TORQUE TRANSDUCER SYSTEM - 1 seuecroR ees POWER FAILURE OR DEFECT WARNING Fig. 73 TORQUE INDICATOR -70-Another way of organising the phase displacement method is to have a drive shaft and two false shafts (figure 74). Each false shaft is attached to the respective end of the drive shaft but not attached at the “wheel” end. False shaft 1 carries a notched wheel and false shaft 2 carries a spigot wheel. When torque is put through the power shaft it will twist and cause the notched wheel and spigot wheel to move circumferentially relative to each other. MAGNET \ POWER DRIVE SHAFT NOTCHED WHEEL —_SPIGOT WHEEL Fig. 74 PHASE DISPLACEMENT TORQUE ‘TRANSDUCER SYSTEM - 2 As the assembly rotates so the notches and spigots in the two wheels pass a transducer coil. As they are made of a ferro-magnetic material this will produce an alternating flux field across the transducer coil and an output which will indicate the relative positions of notches and spigots. Fig. 75 LOW TORQUE -71-