Motor PDF

Electric Submersible Pumps Mohamed Dewidar 2013
Chapter 3
Submersible Motor
Table of Content
Section Content Page
1 General 3
2 Motor construction 3
2.1 Stator
2.2 Rotor
2.3 Rotor bearing
2.4 Motor thrust bearing
2.5 Pothead
3 Electromagnetism 8
3.1 Magnetic field
3.2 Magnetic flux and flux density
3.3 Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid
3.4 Changing polarity
3.5 Induced voltage
3.6 Electromagnetic attraction
4 Start coil arrangement 15
5 Power supply 15
5.1 Start
5.2 Time 1
5.3 Time 2
5.4 360 degree rotation
6 Mathematical analysis of rotating magnetic
field due to 3 phase current 19
7 Slip 24
8 Rotor current frequency 24
9 Magneto-motive force and magnetic field
Strength 25
10 Force in current carrying conductor in
magnetic field 26
11 Torque on a current carrying coil in
magnetic field 27
12 Theory of operation 28
13 Motor configurations 30
14 Motor current 32
15 Motor rating 32
16 Motor protection 35
17 Application of ESP motor 37
1
Chapter 3
18 Fundamentals of electricity 39
19 Equivalent circuit of induction motor 63
19.1 Effective circuit of induction motor at
Standstill
19.2 Effective circuit of induction motor under
Operating conditions (rotor is shorted)
19.3 Power relations
20 Determination of motor parameters 70
21 NEMA standard for squirrel cage IM 75
22 Torque of squirrel cage IM 77
2
Chapter 3
Submersible Motor
3.1. General
Motor is an electric machine which converts electric
energy into mechanical energy.
Three phase induction motors are the most frequently
encountered in industry. They are simple, rugged, low priced,
and easy to maintain. They run at essentially constant speed
from zero to full load. The speed is frequency dependent;
however, variable speed electronic drives are being used more
and more to control the speed of the motors.
ESP motor Classified as 3 phases, squirrel cage, 2 pole
induction, Alternating current motor.
The position of the motor in ESP integrity is just below the
protector (seal).
3.2. Motor Construction

The induction motor is a three phase, squirrel cage, two
pole induction design, consists of:
1. Stator, which supports windings which receive energy from
the mains circuit.
2. Rotor, which carries windings in which working current is
induced.
3. Shaft, which transfers the mechanical energy to the pump.
4. Bearings
5. Housing
6. Insulated Magnet Wire
7. Thrust bearing
Fig (3.1) Most of the motor construction
3
Chapter 3
3.2.1. Stator
The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.
The stator core of a National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) motor is made up of several hundred thin
laminations.
Fig (3.2) stator laminations

Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow
cylinder (fig 3.2). Coils of insulated wire are inserted
into slots of the stator core (fig 3.3).
Fig (3.3) stator core

Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation.
Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it
surrounds, form an electromagnet. The stator windings are
connected directly to the power source.
The stator winding consists of three individual windings
which overlap one another and are offset by an electrical
angle of 120 (fig 3.4). When it is connected to the power
supply, the incoming current will first magnetize the
stator. This magnetizing current generates a rotary field
which turns with synchronous speed Ns.
4
Chapter 3
Fig (3.4) stator windings

When the alternating current passes through a coil group, a
magnetic field of fixed shape and sinusoidally varying
amplitude will result. A magnetic pole is formed at the
center of this coil group. The internal stator winding
connections determine the number of poles, the voltage
applied to individual windings and the direction of
rotation. In a three phase induction motor, rotating
magnetic field is obtained by three separate single phases
with currents that differ in phase by 120 degrees.
Three phases reach their maximum and minimum in a rapid
succession sequence. As currents change, the effect is to
rotate the magnetic fields. The magnetic field rotates
continuously at a constant speed determined by the line
frequency and number of poles.
The laminations wound with three very big loops of wire one
for each phase. When current is flowing through a phase,
magnetic flux is induced as shown in fig (3.5).
Fig (3.5) induced magnetic flux due to current flow

Because of this configuration, the inside of the stator
holds a strong magnetic field.
The strength of the field will depend on the amount of
current flowing through the wire loop (i.e. the phase
winding).
5
Chapter 3
The more copper that is in the stator, the more the winding
losses are reduced, making the motor more efficient.
The winding is "two pole" because two magnetic poles are
created (one North and one South). Motors can be wound
differently to create more than two poles such as a four
pole motor.
Remember that the direction of the magnetic field in the
stator depends on the direction of current flowing in the
wire.
With AC, or Alternating Current, the direction of current
flow is changing 60 times every second for 60 Hz power (or
50 times per second for 50 Hz power).
3.2.2. Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic
circuit.
The most common type of rotor is the squirrel cage rotor.
Fig (3.6) squirrel cage rotor

The rotor consists of a stack of steel laminations.
The squirrel cage rotor consists of copper or aluminum bars
accommodated in slots of rotor core (fig 3.7).
Fig (3.7) rotor core
6
Chapter 3
At each end the bard are connected to heavy conducting end

rings which serve the purpose of short circuit bars. In the
absence of the end rings, emfs would be induced in the rotor
bars but no current would flow through them and no torque
would be produced.
The wound rotor has a 3 phase winding placed in the slots of
the rotor core. The rotor is wound for the same number of
poles as the stator.
The terminals of the rotor winding are brought out of three
slip rings mounted on the machine shaft.
During running condition the slip ring are short circuited
so as to close the rotor circuit.
The air gap or more accurately, the clearance between the
stator and rotor, should be as small as possible in order to
the primary and secondary leakage fluxes to minimum.
3.2.3. Rotor bearing

Rotor Bearings are one of the most vital parts of the
motor. The Bearing Material is Babbitt-lined steel and
machined after processing. There are fluid holes to insure oil
circulation and wide angle oil grooves on the OD to distribute
lubrication evenly over the entire length of the bearing
surface.
Fig (3.8) rotor bearing

The bearing sleeve is a bronze material for the sleeve
construction of the bearing. This part is keyed to the shaft
and the hole on the sleeve is aligned with the hole on the
shaft to insure proper cooling and lubrication.
3.2.4. Motor thrust bearing

The motor thrust bearing is installed at the top of the
rotor string. It is designed to hold the weight of the entire
rotor string.
7
Chapter 3
Fig (3.9) motor thrust bearing

Currently three types of motor thrust bearings are used.
Babbitt
Glacier
KMC Bronze pads
The thrust bearing limits on the system will indicate the type
of load required for the selected bearing material.
3.2.5. Pothead
Pothead is the place where the motor lead extension
cable is connected to the motor three phase windings (fig
3.10). There are two types of pothead, they are:
1. Tape in type, where tape wrapped around individual connector
leads inside motor.
2. Plug in type, where mating block mounted in motor.
Fig (3.10) motor pothead
3.3. Electromagnetism
3.3.1. Magnetic field
When an electric current is passed through a conductor,
a magnetic field is set up around the conductor. The direction
8
Chapter 3
of the magnetic field can be found by using right hand rule or

the right hand screw. The right hand rule states Grasp the
wire in the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the current. The fingers will curl around the
wire in the direction of the magnetic field
The right hand screw is explained in this way, as a wood screw
is turned clockwise it progresses into the wood. The
horizontal direction of screw is analogous to the direction of
current in a conductor. The circular motion of the screw shows
the direction of the magnetic flux around the conductor. (fig
3.11).
Fig (3.11) Magnetic field around the conductor carrying current

In fig 3.12 (a) the dot inside the circle is the standard
symbol used to show that the direction of current flow is out
of the page. Then, by right hand rule, the magnetic field is
counterclockwise. In fig 3.12 (b) the cross is the standard
symbol used to show that the current is entering the page. The
magnetic field is clockwise. The strength of the magnetic
field is proportional to the current, i.e. if the current is
doubled, the magnetic field will be doubled.
(a) Current coming out of the page (b) Current entering the page
Fig (3.12) Magnetic field surrounding the conductor
9
Chapter 3
Since a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around

it, when two current carrying conductors are brought close
together, there will be interactive between the fields. When
the currents in the two conductors are in opposite direction,
the fields are as shown in fig 3.13 (a) and the force of
repulsion is experienced.
When the currents are in the same direction, the field are as
shown in fig 3.13 (b) and a fore of attractive is experienced.
Fig (3.13) force between parallel current carrying conductors

Consider a single turn coil carrying current. As shown in
figure 3.5 the hole of the magnetic flux generated by electric
current passed through the centre of the coil. Therefore the
coil acts like a little magnet and has a magnetic field with
identifiable N and S poles. The coil may also have more than
one turn. The flux generated by each of the individual turns
of the coil tends to link up and pass out of one end of coil
and back into the other end. Such an arrangement is known as
solenoid (figure 3.6) and has a magnetic field pattern very
similar to that of bar magnet. The right hand rule for
determining the direction of flux from solenoid states Grasp
the solenoid in the right hand such that the fingers point in
the direction of current flow in the coil. The thumb will
point towards N pole of field.
As discussed above, a current flow in the conductors produces
a magnetic field. The converse is also possible; that is, a
magnetic field can produce a current in a conductor. This is
known as the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (this
will be discussed later).
10
Chapter 3
3.3.2. Magnetic flux and flux density

The total lines of force in a magnetic field are called
magnetic flux. Flux density is the flux per unit area of cross
section.
Weber (Wb) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. Tesla (T) is the
SI unit of flux density and represents Wb/m2. Flux density is
also known as magnetic induction. From its definition:

B
A
Where B is the flux density in teslas, is the total flux in
webers and A is the cross sectional area in m2.
3.3.3. Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

When an electric current passed through a solenoid, the
resultant magnetic flux is very similar to that of a bar
magnet. The magnetic flux lines make complete circuit inside
and outside the coil; each line is a closed path. The side at
the flux emerges is the North Pole, the other side where the
magnetic flux reenters is the South Pole.
The strength of the magnetic field in the DC electromagnet can
be increased by increasing the number of turns and/or current
in the coil. The greater the number of turns the stronger the
magnetic field will be. See fig (3.14) and (3.15)
Fig (3.14) Magnetic field in coils of different number of

turns
11
Chapter 3
Fig (3.15)
Magnetic field in coils of different currents
The magnetic flux density in the interior of a solenoid
carrying an electric current depends on the current intensity
passing through the coil (I) and number of turns per unit
length (n), i.e. B is proportionally change with I an n .
B *n*I
Where is the permeability of the core material. The equation
can be written as follows
Where N is the number of turns of a solenoid and l is its

length.
3.3.4. Changing polarity

The magnetic field of an electromagnet has the same
characteristics as a natural magnet, including a north and
South Pole. However, when the direction of current flow
through the electromagnet changes, the polarity of the
electromagnet changes. The polarity of an electromagnet
connected to an AC source will change at the same frequency as
the frequency of the AC source. This can be demonstrated in
the following illustration (fig. 3.7). At Time 1 current flow
is at zero. There is no magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet. At Time 2 current is flowing in a positive
direction. A magnetic field builds up around the
electromagnet. The electromagnet assumes a polarity with the
South Pole on the top and the North Pole on the bottom. At
Time 3 current flow is at its peak positive value. The
strength of the electromagnetic field is at its greatest
value. At Time 4 current flow decreases and the magnetic field
12
Chapter 3
begins to collapse, until Time 5 when current flow and

magnetic field are at zero. Current immediately begins to
increase in the opposite direction. At Time 6 current is
increasing in a negative direction. The polarity of the
electromagnetic field has changed. The north pole is now on
top and the south pole is on the bottom. The negative half of
the cycle continues through Times 7 and 8, returning to zero
at Time 9. This process will repeat 50 times a second with a
50 Hz AC power supply (fig 3.16).
Fig (3.16)
3.3.5. Induced voltage

A conductor moving through a magnetic field will have a
voltage induced into it. This electrical principle is used in
the operation of AC induction motors. In the following
illustration an electromagnet is connected to an AC power
source. Another electromagnet is placed above it. The second
electromagnet is in a separate circuit. There is no physical
connection between the two circuits. Voltage and current are
zero in both circuits at Time 1. At Time 2 voltage and current
are increasing in the bottom circuit. A magnetic field builds
up in the bottom electromagnet. Lines of flux from the
magnetic field building up in the bottom electromagnet cut
across the top electromagnet. A voltage is induced in the top
electromagnet and current flows through it. At Time 3 current
flow has reached its peak. Maximum current is flowing in both
circuits. The magnetic field around the coil continues to
13
Chapter 3
build up and collapse as the alternating current continues to

increase and decrease. As the magnetic field moves through
space, moving out from the coil as it builds up and back
towards the coil as it collapses, lines of flux cut across the
top coil. As current flows in the top electromagnet it creates
its own magnetic field (fig 3.17).
Fig (3.17) magnetic field increases as the current increases
3.3.6. Electromagnetic attraction

The polarity of the magnetic field induced in the top
electromagnet is opposite the polarity of the magnetic field
in the bottom electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the
top electromagnet will follow the bottom electromagnet when it
is moved (fig. 3.18)
Fig (3.18)
14
Chapter 3
3.4. Start coil arrangement

The following schematic (fig 3.19) illustrates the
relationship of the coils. In this example six coils are used,
two coils for each of the three phases. The coils operate in
pairs. The coils are wrapped around the soft iron core
material of the stator. These coils are referred to as motor
windings. Each motor winding becomes a separate electromagnet.
The coils are wound in such a way that when current flows in
them; one coil is a north pole and its pair is a south pole.
For example, if A1 were a north pole then A2 would be a south
pole. When current reverses direction the polarity of the
poles would also reverse.
Fig (3.19)
3.5. Power supply

The stator is connected to a 3-phase AC power supply. In
the following illustration phase A is connected to phase A of
the power supply. Phase B and C would also be connected to
phases B and C of the power supply respectively.
Fig (3.20)
Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120 apart. In this

example, a second set of three-phase windings is installed.
15
Chapter 3
The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase

winding appears. In this example, each phase winding appears
two times. This is a two-pole stator. If each phase winding
appeared four times it would be a four-pole stator.
Fig (3.21) 2 poles stator winding

When AC voltage is applied to the stator, current flows
through the windings. The magnetic field developed in a phase
winding depends on the direction of current flow through that
winding. The following chart is used here for explanation
only. It will be used in the next few illustrations to
demonstrate how a rotating magnetic field is developed. It
assumes that a positive current flow in the A1, B1 and C1
windings result in a north pole.
Current Flow
Direction
Winding
Positive Negative
A1 North South
A2 South North
B1 North South
B2 South North
C1 North South
C2 South North
3.5.1. Start
It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start

time is picked when no current is flowing through one phase.
In the following illustration, for example, a start time has
been selected during which phase A has no current flow, phase
B has current flow in a negative direction and phase C has
current flow in a positive direction. Based on the above
chart, B1 and C2 are south poles and B2 and C1 are north
poles. Magnetic lines of flux leave the B2 North Pole and
enter the nearest South Pole, C2. Magnetic lines of flux also
16
Chapter 3
leave the C1 North Pole and enter the nearest South Pole, B1.
A magnetic field results, as indicated by the arrow, fig
(3.22).
Fig (3.22) start
3.5.2. Time 1
If the field is evaluated at 60 intervals from the
starting point, at Time 1, it can be seen that the field will
rotate 60. At Time 1 phase C has no current flow, phase A has
current flow in a positive direction and phase B has current
flow in a negative direction. Following the same logic as used
for the starting point, windings A1 and B2 are north poles and
windings A2 and B1 are south poles, fig (3.23).
Fig (3.23) time 1
17
Chapter 3
3.5.3. Time 2
At Time 2 the magnetic field has rotated 60. Phase B
has no current flow. Although current is decreasing in phase A
it is still flowing in a positive direction. Phase C is now
flowing in a negative direction. At start it was flowing in a
positive direction. Current flow has changed directions in the
phase C windings and the magnetic poles have reversed
polarity.
Fig (3.24) time 2
3.5.4. 360 degree rotation

At the end of six such time intervals the magnetic
field will have rotated one full revolution or 360. This
process will repeat 60 times a second on a 60 Hz power supply.
18
Chapter 3
Fig (3.25) time 1
3.6. Mathematical analysis of rotating magnetic field

due to 3 phase current
When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply,
a rotating magnetic field is produced. This field is such that
its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but
go on shifting their positions around the stator.
For this reason, it is called a rotating magnetic field. It
will be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is
constant and is equal to 1.5 fm where fm is the maximum flux
due to any phase.
To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3
phase winding as shown in fig 3.26(i). The three phases A, B
and C are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in
these phases are indicated as IA, IB and IC Referring to Fig
3.26 (ii), the fluxes produced by these currents are given by:
Here m is the maximum flux due to any phase. We shall now

prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of
constant magnitude equal to 1.5 m.
19
Chapter 3
(i) (ii)
Fig (3.26)
At start fig 3.26 (ii), and fig 3.27 (i) the current in phase
A is zero and currents in phases B and C are equal and
opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top
conductors and inward in the bottom conductors. This
establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of
the resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 m as
proved under:
At start, t = 0. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;
(i) (ii)
Fig (3.27)
20
Chapter 3
The phasor sum of - B and C is the resultant flux R (fig.

3.28). It is clear that:
Fig (3.28)
At time 1, fig (15 (ii)), t = 60. Therefore, the three

fluxes are given by;
The phasor sum of - B and A is the resultant flux R [See

Fig. (3.18). It is clear that:
Fig (3.29)
21
Chapter 3
At time 2, fig (26 (ii), t = 120. Therefore, the three

fluxes are given by;
The phasor sum of C and A is the resultant flux R, (Fig.

3.30). It is clear that:
It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply

produces a rotating field of constant value (= 1.5 m, where m
is the maximum flux due to any phase).
Fig (3.30)
We shall now use another useful method to find the magnitude

and speed of the resultant flux due to three-phase currents.
The three-phase sinusoidal currents produce fluxes 1, 2 and
3 which vary sinusoidally. The resultant flux at any instant
will be the vector sum of all the three at that instant.
The fluxes are represented by three variable magnitude
vectors, fig (3.31).
In fig (3.31), the individual flux directions are fixed but
their magnitudes vary sinusoidally as does the current that
produces them. To find the magnitude of the resultant flux,
resolve each flux into horizontal and vertical components and
then find their vector sum.
22
Chapter 3
Fig (3.31)
The resultant flux is given by;
Thus the resultant flux has constant magnitude (= 1.5 m) and

does not change with time. The angular displacement of R
relative to the OX axis is,
So,
Thus the resultant magnetic field rotates at constant angular

velocity (= 2f) rad/sec. For a P-pole machine, the rotation
speed (s) is
23
Chapter 3
Thus the resultant flux due to three-phase currents is of

constant value (= 1.5 m where m is the maximum flux in any
phase) and this flux rotates around the stator winding at a
synchronous speed of 120f/P rpm.
For example, for a 2-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor, N,
= 120x50/2 = 3000 rpm. It means that flux rotates around the
stator at a speed of 3000 rpm.
3.7. Slip
We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the
direction of rotating field. In practice, the rotor can never
reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no
relative speed between the stator field and rotor conductors,
no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque to drive
the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause
the rotor to slow down. Hence, the rotor speed (N) is always
less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This difference in speed
depends upon load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating
stator field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It
is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed
i.e.,
The quantity Ns-N is sometimes called slip speed.

When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or
100 %.
In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to
full-load is hardly 0.1% to 3% so that it is essentially a
constant-speed motor.
3.8. Rotor current frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the
relative speed between a vending and a magnetic field is given
by the general formula;
Where:
n = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding
P = Number of poles
24
Chapter 3
For a rotor speed N, the relative speed between the rotating

flux and the rotor is Ns-N. Consequently, the rotor current
frequency fr is given by;
i.e., Rotor current frequency = slip x Supply frequency.

When the rotor is at standstill or stationary (i.e., s = 1),
the frequency of rotor current is the same as that of supply
frequency (fr = sf = 1, fr = f).
As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the
rotating flux and the rotor decreases. Consequently, the slip
S and hence rotor current frequency decreases.
3.9. Magneto-motive force and magnetic field strength

An emf causes a current to flow in an electric circuit.
Similarly a magneto motive force (mmf), symbol F, produces a
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. The mmf of a coil is the
product of current in the coil and the number of turns of the
coil and has the unit of ampere turns (AT).
The magnetic flux which can be set up in a magnetic circuit
depends on the mmf and the length of the magnetic circuit. If
the length is large, the mmf has to act over a long distance
and the resulting magnetic flux is small. The magnetic field
strength H is defined as the mmf per unit length of magnetic
circuit, i.e.
Where I is the current in amperes, and N is the number of

turns and l is the length of the magnetic circuit in meter.
Example:
The total flux of an electro magnet is 4x10-4 Wb.
a. If the cross sectional area of the core is 1 cm2, find the
flux density in the core.
b. The electromagnet has 50 turns and a current of 1 A flow
through the coil. If the length of the magnetic circuit is
20 cm, find the mmf and the magnetic field strength.
4 104 Wb
Flux density: B 4 T
A 1 104 m2
25
Chapter 3
mmf: F NI 50 1 50 AT
NI 50 AT
Field strength: H 250 AT/m
l 20 102 m
3.10. Force in current carrying conductor in magnetic
field
Figure 3.32 (a) shows a current carrying conductor (the
current entering the page) laying in magnetic field flux
density B. The current in the conductor sets up a flux in a
clockwise direction around the conductor. When the external
field is in the vertically downward direction, the field of
the conductor assists the external field on the right hand
side of the conductor. The effect of this is to produce a
force that pushes the conductor to the lift. If the direction
of the current is reversed as shown in figure 3.6 (b) the flux
around the conductor is in counterclockwise direction and the
resulting force pushes the conductor to the right. In both
cases maximum force is generated if the conductor is at right
angle to the direction of the magnetic flux. The force is
always in a direction perpendicular to both the conductor and
the field.
The magnitude of the force F is given by:
Where B is the flux density in telsas, I is the current in

amperes, and l is the length of the conductor in meters.
A force of one Newton is exerted on a 1 meter long conductor
carrying a current of 1 ampere and situated at right angle to
a magnetic field having a flux density of 1 tesla.
Force Force
+
Flux set up
by current
in on Flux set up
conductor by current
in on
conductor
(a) Conductor current entering the page (b) Conductor current coming out of the page
Fig (3.32) Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic
field
26
Chapter 3
If the conductor is not perpendicular to magnetic field but

inclined at angle to the magnetic field, the force is given
by:
3.11. Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field

Figure 3.33 shows a current carrying coil placed in
magnetic field. From the discussion in section 3.5 it follows
that a downward force is exerted on the left hand conductor
and an upward force is exerted on the right hand conductor.
The force on each conductor is given by the equation 3.3. The
total force is given by:
Flux
2r
N S
Fig (3.33) Force on a coil carrying current in a magnetic

field
If the coil has N turns, the force is:
Since the force is acting at a radius r meters, the torque on

the coil is:
The above simple arrangement is the basic part of electric

measuring instrument. The operation of an electric motor is
also based on this principle.
Example:
A 30 cm long conductor is carrying a current of 10 A and
situated at a right angle to a magnetic field having flux
density of 0.8 T. Calculate the force on the conductor.
F = 0.8 x 10 x 30 x 10-2 = 2.4 N
Example:
A 200 turn coil having an axial length of 3 cm and radius of 1
cm is pivoted in magnetic field having a flux density of 0.8
27
Chapter 3
T. The coil carries a current of 0.5 A. Calculate the torque

acting on the coil.
Torque = 2 x 0.8 x 0.5 x 3 x10-2 x 200 x 1 x10-2 = 4.8 x 10-2 N.m
Figure 3.34 is the same as figure 3.33 but with other
direction of the magnetic flux.
Fig (3.34) Force on a coil in a magnetic field

If the loop is in line with the magnetic field, the secondary
magnetic field will be perpendicular to the main field. This
will cause two equal and opposite forces (a torque) on the
loop causing it to rotate until the forces balance (fig 3.35).
The forces will reach a steady state and hold the magnet in
place as long as current is applied.
To cause rotation, the field must rotate. This is accomplished
with the alternating current where the field is rotated.
This is accomplished with the alternating current going
through the windings in the stator of the induction motor.
Fig (3.35) Force on a coil in a magnetic field
3.12. Theory of operation

An induction motor consists of a stator and rotor. The
stator carries a 3 phase winding in its slots and is connected
to a 3 phase supply. The rotor carries a cage winding and it
is free to rotate within the stator.
28
Chapter 3
The 3 phase currents flowing in the stator winding produce a

rotating field. The rotor winding cuts the rotating field and
an emf is induced in the rotor winding. When the rotor is at
rest, the frequency of this emf is the same as the supply
frequency. If the rotor circuit is closed, a current flows in
the rotor winding. The rotor current produces an mmf which
rotates and is directed in opposition to stator mmf. The
interaction of the stator and the rotor fields produces a
torque which causes the rotor to rotate in the direction of
the rotor field.
If the rotor shaft is not loaded, the machine has only to
rotate itself against the mechanical losses and the rotor
speed is very close to the synchronous speed. However, the
rotor speed cannot become equal to the synchronous speed
because if it does so, the emf induced in the rotor winding
would become zero and there will be no torque. Hence the rotor
speed remains slightly less than the synchronous speed.
If the motor shaft is loaded, the rotor will slow down and the
relative speed of rotor with respect to the stator rotating
field will increase. The emf induced in the rotor winding will
increase and this will produce more rotor current which will
increase the electromagnetic torque produced by the motor.
Conditions of equilibrium are attained when the rotor speed
has adjusted to a new value so that the electromagnetic torque
is sufficient to balance the mechanical or load torque applied
to the shaft. The speed of the motor when running under full
load conditions is somewhat less than the no load speed.
The speed of rotation of the field mmf is called synchronous
speed is related to the frequency and number of poles by the
expression:
p
f ns
2
Where:
f is the frequency in Hz,
p is the number of poles and,
ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per second.
An alternative form of above expression is,
120 f
Ns
p
Where:
Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (rpm).
29
Chapter 3
3.13. Motor configurations

Motors come in single sections (head and base) as well as
tandem configurations.
The tandems can include the UT (upper tandem - head but no
base), the CT (center tandem - no head or base) or the LT
(lower tandem - base but no head).
An upper tandem motor can be used as a single section if it is
completed on the bottom with either a Universal Motor Base
(UMB) or Downhole Monitoring System (Sensor).
If additional horsepower is required over what can be achieved
in one piece, a CT or LT motor can be added.
Submersible electric motors can be designed in tandem
configuration to create the desired Horsepower required for
each application.
So, based on the above, there are four different motor
sections, they are:
1. Single section
Where the motor has head and base, a certain horsepower we
cannot increase, and could not attach any equipment below.
2. Upper Tandem motor (UT)
UT motor has head, no base (open circuit), and the
horsepower can be increased by adding another central tandem
(CT) or lower tandem (LT). The circuit must be closed either
by Universal Motor Base (UMB) or sensor.
3. Central Tandem (CT)

CT motor has no head, no base, and cannot use alone. UT must
be attached on top of it. Another central tandem/s or LT can
be attached on the bottom of it.
4. Lower Tandem (LT)

Where the motor has a base, no head, and cannot use alone,
it must be attached with upper tandem (as there is no head
attached).
30
Chapter 3
Single UT CT
Fig (3.36) motor configurations
Notes:
1. For any particular horsepower, the product of the volts and
amps will be essentially constant. For example, in a
particular Hp if we have a 1000 V, 50 A motor, a 2000 V
motor would be 25 amps, and a 500V motor would be 100 amps.
In other words KVA is constant.
2. When putting more than one motor together in tandem
combinations, always keep the sections the same Hp and
voltage. For example a 300 Hp 540 motor should be made of
two 150 Hp motors.
3. With two motors we double the Hp (add the two Hp's
together). We also double the voltage but the amperage
remains the same. With three motors we triple the Hp and
voltage but the amperage still does not change.
For example, a 140 Hp, 1299 V, 69.5 A UT motor coupled to a
140 Hp, 1299V, 69.5 CT motor would give us a 280 Hp, 2598 V,
69.5 A motor.
4. Always take care when adding motors together so that the
total voltage does not exceed the system limits i.e. do not
try to put 3500 volts on a 3 kV cable. Surface controllers,
transformers, wellhead feedthru mandrels, etc. will all have
voltage limits we need to be concerned with.
5. For any given Hp there will be several voltages and
amperages available, why have more than one voltage?
31
Chapter 3
The answer is not in the motor but in the power cable. Lower
voltage means higher current and this results in higher
voltage lost in the power able.
So even though the motor efficiency does not change, the
overall system efficiency will decrease with higher
amperage.
If the amperage is too high, the motor may not even be able
to start as we will see when we discuss power cable chapter.
6. Remember the higher voltage the better, but it cannot be so
high that we exceed the control panel rating.
3.14. Motor current

Induction motor current consists of reactive (magnetizing)
and real (torque) components.
The current component that produces torque (does useful work)
is almost in phase with voltage, and has a high power factor
close to 100%
The magnetizing current would be purely inductive, except
that the winding has some small resistance, and it lags the
voltage by nearly 90.
The magnetizing current has a very low power factor, close to
zero.
The magnetic field is nearly constant from no load to full
load and beyond, so the magnetizing portion of the total
current is approximately the same for all loads.
The torque current increases as the load increases.
At full load, the torque current is higher than the
magnetizing current.
For a typical motor, the power factor of the resulting
current is between 85% and 90%.
As the load is reduced, the torque current decreases, but the
magnetizing current remains about the same so the resulting
current has a lower power factor.
The smaller the load, the lower the load current and the
lower the power factor. Low power factor at low loading
occurs because the magnetizing remains approximately the same
at no load as at full load.
3.15. Motor rating
If we look in the manufacturer catalog we will find several

pages of motors which give the horsepower rating and break
down the various sizes into several voltages and amperages as
32
Chapter 3
the table below.
KMH 562 SERIES

MOTORS
HP Volt / Amp
60 HZ 50 HZ 60 HZ 50 HZ
435/53 363/53
38 32 875/26 729/26
1315/18 1096/18
430/81 358/81
57 48 870/40 725/40
1315/26 1096/26
865/53 721/53
76 63
1360/34 1133/34
840/69 700/69
95 79
1330/44 1108/44
860/81 717/81
114 95 1300/53 1083/53
2330/30 1942/30
830/98 692/98
133 111 1345/60 1121/60
2205/37 1838/37
1340/69 1117/69
152 127
2325/40 1938/40
1290/81 1075/81
171 143
2390/44 1992/44
1185/98 988/98
190 158 1430/81 1192/81
2415/48 2013/48
Most conventional rating systems give a nameplate horsepower

to the motor based on some assumptions which typically are
bottom-hole temperature and fluid flow rate past the motor in
this industry.
The motor will put out exactly as much horsepower as the pump
wants no more and no less!
Most motors are designed to be "most efficient" and have an
acceptable speed and power factor at the "design point.
In a standard application, the surface voltage is fixed and
the amperage changes as the load on the motor changes.
We, in fact, use this information in the form of an amp chart
to see how the motor performs at downhole.
We can very easily anticipate this relationship by simply
looking at the equation for motor horsepower:
33
Chapter 3
Note that, if everything else is fixed, the amps will have to

increase if the horsepower does and this should be a "linear"
relationship.
In reality this relationship is not linear since power factor
and efficiency are not truly constant and the more they vary
the greater will be the change in amperage.
One problem with increasing the amperage too much is that
higher amperage will give us greater copper losses in the
motor winding which is not good for efficiency.
There will be a practical limit to how far this can continue.
We can look at the laminations to understand the basics of
this concept. As we increase current on a motor, we increase
the flux density induced in the laminations.
Fig 3.37 shows an example of what the flux lines might look
like for one phase winding based on a moderate loading of the
motor.
Fig (3.37)
If we place more load on the same motor, we get many more
flux lines required to generate the necessary horsepower as
shows in fig 3.38.
Fig (3.38)
34
Chapter 3
If we keep raising the amperage, we will eventually reach a

point where we have all the flux lines we can handle this is
called SATURATION.
Any more horsepower beyond this point will severely overheat
our motor.
Another practical consideration on rating a motor is the
speed. We know that the motor will slow down with load. If
the motor speed is too low, we will lose pump performance,
so, we must set the Hp at a point where the speed is
acceptable.
One of the most important considerations in rating the motor
is temperature. Heat is generated in the windings which must
be dissipated by the fluid flowing past the outside of the
motor.
Another limiting factor will be temperature differential. As
the motor heats up, the components expand and they expand at
different rates since not all the materials are the same.
Even if the motor were all one material, expansion would vary
since the internal temperature changes within the motor
itself.
The motor is designed with certain tolerances to allow this
thermal expansion. If too much expansion occurs (such as with
(overheating), tolerances might be exceeded and we could have
bearing failures or other damage.
3.16. Motor protection

In this discussion we will address proper protection for ESP
motors operating down-hole.
Motor controllers can provide very simple protection to very
sophisticated protection.
Simple controllers will look at overload and under-load
conditions only.
More advanced controllers look at all operating parameters
including: 3 phase current and voltage, leg ground, power
factor, kw, back-spin, and many others.
In either type of controller, overload and under-load
protection is of primary importance and it is critical that
these both be set correctly in order to properly protect the
motor from damage.
Overloads and under-loads are usually set around +15% and 20%
of running current as a rule-of-thumb.
While it is not the intent here to give a complete guide to
setting overloads and under-loads, we will look at some
particular examples where the standard rule-of-thumb settings
35
Chapter 3
may not give adequate protection.

Let's take a particular case: Say we have a 145 stage DN1300
producing a fluid of 1.0 gravity on a 456 series 50 Hp, 885V,
35.5 Amp motor. Should we set the O/L at 115% of 35.5A and
the U/L at 80% of 35.5A?
Say, this pump will only require about 45 HP at BEP flow.
This will place about a 90% load on the motor which means the
motor should draw only 32 amps rather than the 35.5 of the
nameplate. This should be the basis for our calculations and
settings.
If we set the under-load at 80% and the overload at 115%,
these settings would be 25.6 amps and 36.8 amps respectively.
Would this protect this unit?
At shut-in, the pump will draw about 28 Hp which is a 56%
load on the motor. The motor should draw about 62% of NP amps
or 22 amps. Since our U/L is set at 25.6, the motor should
trip on U/L if the well is shut-in.
Note that a shut-in pump is NOT a "no-load condition" for the
motor. What amperage would you expect for this motor if the
pump shaft were broken at the intake (a true no-load
condition)?
For the motor to operate unloaded, it should draw about 32%
of NP amps or, in this case, 11.4 amps. This is a good
indication of a broken shaft. However, even if the current
reads higher than this, it still could be a broken shaft so
do not rule that out on this basis alone.
Let's take another case: Say we have a 150 stage DN1750
producing a fluid of 0.86 gravity on a 456 series 50 Hp,
885V, 35.5A motor. Should we set the O/L at 115% of 35.5A and
the U/L at 80% of 35.5A?
This pump will only require about 47 HP at BEP flow. This
will place about a 94% load on the motor which means the
motor should draw only 34 amps rather than the 35.5 amp
nameplate rating. This should be the basis for our
calculations.
If we set the under-load at 80% and the overload at 115%,
these settings would be 27.2 amps and 39.1 amps respectively.
Would this protect this unit?
Note that at shut-in, the pump will draw about 37 Hp which is
a 74% load on the motor. The motor should draw about 79% of
NP amps or 28 amps. Since our U/L is set at 27.2, the motor
may not trip on U/L if the well is shut-in. In this case we
should set the U/L higher.
The point is that these standard rules-of-thumb are not
always perfect. Every application should be considered
36
Chapter 3
independently to ensure that the settings selected are

adequate to properly protect the down-hole equipment.
3.17. Application of ESP Motors

Motors are in five different series 375, 450, 540, 562 and
738 for different casing sizes; see the following examples of
Centrilift and Reda motors.
With all these choices, which motor should we use for a given
application?
The process to select the best motor for the application will
depend on the economic compromises of the user, but in
general, after defining the customers objectives and the pump
horsepower load for the application, we can resume the
process of selection of the motor as an iterative process
which includes:
Motor Series
Motor Type
Motor configuration, Voltage and Amperage
Actual motor performance & Operating Temperature and
compare against max. temperature
37
Chapter 3
All motor Hp ratings are based on 1 ft per second minimum

flow past the motor of water.
Lower flow rates or higher oil cut can lower the effective Hp
rating.
After choosing the Motor Series and Type, we will know if it
will be necessary for a single or tandem motor to match the
HP requirement of the pump.
Now we should look at Volts and Amps.
For any given Hp there will be several voltages and amperages
available.
For any particular horsepower, the product of the volts and

amps will be essentially constant.
For example, in a particular Hp if we have a 1000V, 50A motor
a 2000V motor would be 25 amps and a 500V motor would be 100
amps. In other words KVA is constant. High voltage motors
(single motors) are no more or less efficient than low
voltage motors, so why have more than one voltage?
The answer is not in the motor but in the power cable. Lower
voltage means higher current and this results in higher
voltage lost in the power able. So even though the motor
efficiency does not change, the overall system efficiency
will decrease with higher amperage.
If the amperage is too high, the motor may not even be able
to start as we will see when we discuss power cable.
This explains why the various voltages, but why such odd
voltages? Surface motors, for example, are rated at 460V,
4160V, 2300V, etc.
These motors are made to "standard voltages". So why do the
motor voltages turn out to be such strange numbers?
38
Chapter 3
In a way we have already answered this. The problem is the

voltage drop in the cable. ESP motors have to contend with a
very long length of power cable which surface motors do not.
If we have a 460 V surface supply, we would probably only
want about 430V down-hole (for a low Hp motor) to give us the
necessary 460 V at the surface including the cable loss.
So in determining motor voltages we are really limited by
surface equipment.
Motor control panels come in certain voltage ranges such as
600V, 1000V, 1500V, 2400V, etc.
Motor voltages are selected assuming a length of cable such
that the total voltage (motor plus cable loss) will fall just
below one of the panel ratings.
Remember the higher voltage the better, but it cannot be so
high that we exceed the control panel rating.
Higher voltage motors require smaller gauge wire and very low
Hp motors simply cannot be wound at very high voltages
because the wire would be too small to work with.
As mentioned eerily motors come in single sections (head and
base) as well as tandem configurations. The tandems can
include the UT (upper tandem, head but no base), the CT
(center tandem, no head or base) or the LT (lower tandem,
base but no head). An upper tandem motor can be used as a
single section if it is completed on the bottom with either a
Universal Motor Base (UMB) or Downhole Monitoring System
(Sensor).
If additional horsepower is required over what can be
achieved in one piece, a CT or LT motor can be added.
3.18. Fundamentals of electricity

This section is not an attempt to present a course in
electricity, but is intended as a review of the terms and
basic formulas associated with ESP applications.
Electricity
Since the electrons are normally distributed evenly
throughout a substance, a force called electromotive force
(emf) is required to detach them from the atoms and make them
flow in a definite direction. This force is also often called
potential or voltage. The unit of measuring this
electromotive force is the volt.
The higher the voltage, the greater the number of electrons
which will be caused to flow.
It has been found experimentally that the charge on a single
electron is 1.602e-19 coulomb. Hence, when a current of 1
39
Chapter 3
ampere (or 1 coulomb/second) flows in a conductor, the number

of electrons passing any given point must be such that:
1.602x10-19 x no. of electrons/second = 1 coulomb/second
So, no. of electrons/second = 6.24e18
I.e. when the current in a circuit is 1 ampere, electrons are
passing any given point of the circuit at the rate of 6.24e18
per second.
When a potential or voltage of sufficient strength is applied
to a substance, it causes the flow of electrons. This flow of
electrons is called an electric current. The rate of this flow
of current is measured in amperes. An ampere is the rate of
flow of electric current represented by movement of a unit
quantity of electricity (coulomb) per second.
Every substance is a conductor of electricity; but it flow
very easily through some materials, such as copper, aluminum,
iron, and called electric conductors. Wire and cables are the
common forms of conductors.
Materials such as rubber, glass, certain plastics, fibers, dry
paper, and air allow almost no electricity to pass through
them. Such materials are called non-conductors, insulators, or
dielectrics. When an insulator is continuous, as for instance
around a wire, it is commonly called insulation.
The property of any material to oppose the flow of electricity
through it is called impedance. The unit of the measurement of
this impedance or opposition to the flow of current is the
ohm(). Even the best conductors have some impedance; poor
conductors have much impedance; insulators (dielectrics) have
very high impedance. The unit for the measurement of very low
impedance is the microhm () and is equal to one-millionth
of an ohm. The unit of very high impedance is megaohm M and
is equal to one million ohm.
An element of impedance called resistance in a conductor
varies directly as its length and inversely as its are (see
item 5.6.9.).
Resistance may be compared to the friction encountered by a
flow of water through a pipe. A straight pipe, smooth inside,
conducts water with little loss of pressure. If the pipe is
rough inside and has many bends, the loss of pressure and the
rate of flow will be greatly reduced. Similarly, a good
conductor allows electricity to flow with small loss of
voltage; a poor conductor offers a large resistance and so
causes a corresponding large drop in voltage. The energy used
in overcoming resistance is converted into heat.
40
Chapter 3
The voltage required to make a current flow depends upon the

impedance of the circuit. A voltage of one volt will make one
ampere flow through an impedance of one ohm
E E
I or Z or E I * Z
Z I
Where:
I = Current in amperes
E = Voltage in volts
Z = Impedance in ohms
This formula is known as ohms low.
Many alternating current circuits contain coils that produced
magnetic effects. These magnetic effects in turn react upon
the current. They retard the current and cause it to lag
behind the voltage. It means that the voltage has reaches its
maximum and started to fall some time before the current
reaches a maximum. Some current will be flowing in the circuit
at the instant when the voltage is zero This magnetic reaction
is called inductance or self inductance.
Another kind of influence on an alternating current is caused
by the presence in the circuit of alternate plates of
conducting material separated by insulation. This commonly
referred to as capacitor, and its effect on the current is
to cause it to lead ahead of the voltage. This reaction is
called capacitance. It tends to counteract the inductance in
a circuit and is useful in overcoming the inductive lag in the
current inherent in most alternating current motors.
Therefore, in an alternating current circuit there is
resistance, inductance,, and reactance affecting the current.
The combination of any two or all three of these effects is
referred to as impedance of the circuit.
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Electric power
is measured in horsepower. One horsepower equals 746 watts.
One watt is rather small unit of power, consequently, when
speaking of power required by motors, the term kilowatt is
used, one kilowatt being thousand watts. To obtain the power
delivered to an alternating current apparatus, you can not
merely multiply effective amperes by effective volts. If the
circuit contains inductance, the apparatus circuits always
contain it, the product of the effective current and effective
voltage will be greater than the real power. This apparent
power is measured in volt-amperes or more often in a unit
1000 times as large, the kilovolt-ampere usually abbreviated
to KVA.
In alternating current power system, the voltage and current
follow an approximate sine wave. They build up from zero to a
41
Chapter 3
maximum in one direction then diminish to zero, build up again

to a maximum but in the opposite direction and again diminish
to zero, thus completing one cycle or two alternations and 360
electrical degree.
The power factor is said to be 1.0 or unity if the voltage and
current reach their respective maximum values simultaneously.
However, as discussed previously, in most alternating current
systems the voltage reaches its maximum value in a given
direction before the current attains its maximum value, then
the current is said to lag behind the voltage. This lag may
measure in degree. The actual current drawn by apparatus of
this class may be considered as having two components, one
known as the magnetizing current, or that current which must
overcome the choking effect produced by the characteristics of
the apparatus, and which lags 90 electric degree behind the
voltage. The value of this lagging current is zero when the
voltage has reached its maximum value. This lagging or
magnetizing current is called reactive current.
The other component is known as real current, and it is in
phase with the voltage. This real current and voltage reach
maximum values simultaneously.
The actual line current is therefore the vector sum of the
reactive and real currents; furthermore, it is the current
that would be registered if an ammeter is connected in the
circuit. Since there one component lagging 90 electric degree
or at right angles to the voltage, the resultant or actual
line current of which this component is a part must,
consequently, be out of phase with the voltage and lag behind
it. The degree or amount that it lags depends upon the
magnitude of this reactive current component and is a measure
of power factor.
Resistance
Consider a circuit having resistance R ohms connected
across the terminals of an alternator A, as in the following
figure and suppose the alternating voltage to be represented
by the sine wave as in the next figure.
42
Chapter 3
Voltage
+
Vm
Im
v i
0 Current Time
V and I curve for a resistive Circuit

If the value of the voltage at any instant is v volts, the
value of the current at that instant is given by i v / R
amperes. When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero;
and since the current is proportional to the voltage, the wave
from the current is exactly the same as that of voltage. Also
the two quantities are in phase with each other; that they
pass through their zero value at the same instant and attain
their maximum values in a given direction at the same instant.
If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and the
current respectively, it follows that: I m V m / R
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is
represented by:
v V m sin
Then the instantaneous value of current in resistive circuit
is,
V
i m sin
R
Vector representing the voltage and the current in resistive
circuit is as follows: V
I
Inductive Reactance
Let us consider the effect of alternating current flowing
through a coil having an inductance of L henrys and negligible
resistance as the following figure.
43
Chapter 3
A v L
Coil
Circuit with inductance only
Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through

inductance L henrys to be represented by
Where:
t is the time in second.
f is number of cycles per second.
Suppose the current to increase by di ampere in dt second,
then,
Instantaneous value of induced emf is
Since f represents the number of cycles/second, the duration

of 1 cycle = 1/f second, consequently,
Hence the wave of the induced emf is, represented by the curve
in the figure below, lagging the current by a quarter of cycle
(90O).
Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the
whole of the applied voltage is absorbed in neutralizing the
induce emf.
So, instantaneous value of the applied voltage is,
44
Chapter 3
Comparison of expression (1) and (3), shows that the applied

voltage leads the current by a quarter of cycle (90O). Also,
from (3), it follows that that maximum value Vm of the applied
voltage is,
So that,
The inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is

represented by XL.
Hence,
Capacitance reactive
The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge
when its plates are at different potentials is referred to
capacitance as the following figure.
The unit of capacitance is termed the farad (F). Farad is

defined as the capacitance of capacitor which required a
potential difference (p.d) of 1 volt to maintain a charge of
one coulomb on that capacitor.
Let us consider the effect of alternating current flowing
through a capacitor having a capacitance of C farad and
negligible resistance.
45
Chapter 3
Circuit with capacitance only

Suppose the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the
capacitance to be represented by:
If the applied voltage increases by dv volt in dt second as in

the following figure:
Instantaneous value of current flow through capacitor is,
Comparison of (4)and (5) shows that current leads applied

voltage by a quarter of cycle (90O)and the current and voltage
can be represented vectorially as the following figure.
46
Chapter 3
90 0
v
From expression (5) it follows that the maximum value Im of the
current is,
So,
The capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms and is

represented by the symbol Xc.
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in series

An actual circuit may have resistance and inductance, or
resistance and capacitance or resistance, conductance and
capacitance in series. Hence, if we consider the general case
of R, L, and C in series, we can adapt the results to the
other two cases by merely omitting the capacitive or the
inductance from the expression for general case.
In following fig, OB vector represents L (2fLI) leading the
current by 900; and OC vector represents C (I/2fC) lagging the
current by 900.
Since OD = OB-OC, OB being assumed greater than OC and supply
voltage is the vectorial sum of OA and OD, namely OE.
47
Chapter 3
B [L]
D E

O
A I
[C]
C
Vector diagram for above figure
From this expression it is seen that:

Resultant reactance = inductive reactance -capacitive
reactance,
= phase difference between the current and the supply

voltage.
48
Chapter 3
If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive

reactance, tan is positive and the current lags the supply
voltage by an angle ; if less, tan is negative, signifying
that the current leads the supply voltage by angle .
If a circuit consists of a coil having a resistance R ohms and
inductance L henrys, such a circuit can be considered as a
resistance and inductive in series and,
And the phase angle in which the current lags the supply
voltage is given by:
Example 1
A coil having a resistance of 12 and inductance of 0.1 H is
connected across a 100 V, 50 c/s supply. Calculate:
a) The reactance and impedance of the coil.
b) The current
c) The phase difference between the current and the apply
voltage.
Solution
(a) Reactance = XL = 2fL = 2x3.14159x50x0.1 = 31.4
Impedance = Z = R2+XL2 = 122+31.42 = 33.6
(b) Current = V/Z = 100 / 33.6 = 2.975 A
(c) Tan = XL/R = 31.4 / 12 = 2.617
= 690
Example 2
A metal filament lamp, rated at 750 watt, 100 v, is to be
connected in series with a capacitance across a 230 v, 60 c/s
supply. Calculate:
a) The capacitance required
b) The phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.
Solution i
From vector diagram below,
(a) V2 = VR2+VC2
(230)2 = (100)2 + VC2
VC = 207 Volts
Rated current of lamp = 750 w / 100 v = 7.5 A
7.5 = 2 x 3.14 x 60 x C x 207

C = 96 x 10-6 farad
= 96 microfarad (F)
49
Chapter 3
(b) If = phase angle between current I and supply V.

Cos = VR / V = 100 / 230 = 0.435
= 640 12
Example 3
A resistance of 12 , an inductance of 0.15 H and capacitance
of 100 F are connected in series across 100 V, 50 c/s supply.
Calculate:
a) The impedance
b) The current
c) The voltage across R. L, and C
d) The phase difference between current and supply voltage
Solution

2 1
2

(a) Z R 2fL
2fC

2
10 6
z 122 23.14159500.15 144 47.1 31.862 19.4
23.1415950100

(b) Current = V/Z = 100 / 19.4 = 5.15 A
(c) Voltage across R = VR = 12x5.15 = 61.8 V
Voltage across L = VL = 47.1x5.15 = 242.5 V
Voltage across C = VC = 31.85x5.15 = 164 V
(d) Phase difference between current and supply voltage =
= cos-1(VR/V)= cos-1(61.8/100) = 510 48
Or = tan-1 (VL-VC/VR ) = tan-1(242.5-164)/61.8) = 510 48
Or alternatively,
= tan-1 [2fL-(1//2fC)]/R = [47.1-31.85]/12 = 510 48
See vector diagram below
50
Chapter 3
242.5 VL 47.1 L
15.25
78.5
VR R

61.8 12
164 VC 31.85 C
Power in series RL circuit

From the above analysis it seen that the voltage applied to
a series RL circuit, the voltage leads the current by angle .
It is equally valid to say that the current lags the voltage
by an angle . If a voltage Emsint is applied to a series RL
circuit, the current is Imsin(t-). The instantaneous power
is,
p = e x i
= Emsin t x Imsin(t-)
= E m I m cos E m I m cos2t
2 2
The second term of the right side has an average value of
zero.
p = E m I m cos EI cos -----------(11)

2
Where E and I are the r.m.s. (Root Mean Square) values of
voltage and current and is the phase angle between the
voltage and current.
The following figure is the plot of instantaneous voltage,
current and power. The instantaneous power is positive during
the time interval when both e and i are simultaneously
positive or negative. During the interval when one of the two
quantities out of e and i is positive and the other is
negative, instantaneous power is negative. The positive area
is more than the negative area and therefore the average power
is positive.
51
Chapter 3
e=EmSin t + ve area i=ImSin( t-) + ve area

p=EmSint*ImSin( t - ) * c o s
0
0 -ve
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -ve
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
p=EmSint*ImSin( t - ) * c o s
0 + ve area p=E*I *cos + ve area

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
-ve -ve
Power in RL circuit
Active power, reactive power and power factor (single
phase)
The average power in the circuit i.e. EIcos is the actual
power supplied by the source to the circuit. This is known as
active power of the circuit. The active power is measured in
watts. The bigger units of active power are KW (kilowatt=103
watts) and MW (megawatt=106 watts). The product of voltage and
current i.e. E*I called apparent power and is measured in
volt-ampere (VA).
The ratio of active power to apparent power equals cos. This
term cos is called power factor of the circuit. It is the
factor by which the apparent power (EI) must be multiplied to
give the active power. The power factor for purely resistive
circuit is 1. Therefore the apparent power and active power
are equal for purely resistive circuit. A circuit may be
52
Chapter 3
characterized as having leading or lagging power factor. A

leading power factor means that the current leads the voltage.
This occurs in the capacitive circuits. An inductive circuit
is described as having lagging power factor, since the current
lags the voltage. The active power in ac circuit can also be
written as I2R.
Example
A 10 ohm resistor and 20 mH (mille Henry) inductor are
connected in series across a 230 volts, 50 c/s supply. Find
the circuit impedance, current voltage across resistor,
apparent power, active power, reactive power, and power
factor.
XL = L = 2fL = 2x3.24x50x20x10-3 = 6.28
Z = R2+XL2 = 102+(6.28)2 = 11.8
= tan-1(XL/R) = 32.10
I = E/Z = 230/11.8 = 19.49 amperes
Voltage across resistor = RI = 10x19.49 = 149.9 volts
Voltage across inductor = IXL = 122.4 volts
Apparent power = EI = 230x 19.49 = 4482.7 VA
Power factor = cos(32.1) = 0.847 lagging
Active power = EIcos = 230x19.49x0.847 = 3796.8 watts
Reactive power = EIsin = 230x19.49xsin(32.1) = 2382.1 w
Practical importance of power factor (P.F.)

If an alternator is rated at a given, say 2000 A at a
voltage of 400 v, it means that these are the highest current
and voltage values of the machine can give without the
temperature exceeding a safe value. Consequently the rating of
the alternator is given as 400x2000/1000=800 KVA. The phase
difference between the voltage and the current depends upon
the nature of the load and not upon the generator. Thus if the
power factor of the load is unity, the 800 KVA are also 800
kW; and the engine driving the generator has to be capable of
developing this power together with the losses in the
generator. But if the p.f. of the load is, say 0.5, the power
is only 400 kW; so that the engine is only developing about
one half of the power which it is capable, through the
alternator is supplying its rated output 800 KVA.
Similarly the conductors connecting the alternator to the load
have to be capable of carrying 2000 A without excessive
temperature rise. Consequently they can transmit 800 kW if the
power factor is unity, but only 400 kW at 0.5 p.f. for the
same rise of temperature.
53
Chapter 3
It is therefore evident that the higher the p.f. of the load,

the greater is the power that can be generated by a given
alternator and transmitted by a given conductor.
The matter may be put another way by saying that, for a given
power, the lower the p.f. the larger must be the size of the
alternator to generate that power and the greater must be the
cross sectional area of the conductor to transmit it; in other
words, the greater is the cost of generation and transmission
of the electric energy. This is the reason why supply
authorities do all they can to improve the p.f. for their
loads (by ex. installing capacitors).
Three phase alternating current
Three phase alternating current is the best suites for long
distance transmission because it may be easily generated at
low to moderately high voltages and can then have the voltage
raised to very high values suitable for efficient
transmission, and then the voltage can be reduced to a value
suitable for general use by means of stationary device known
as a transformer. The higher the voltage, the smaller the wire
required to carry a given amount of power. The following
figures are the curve and diagram representing three phase
alternating current.
phase 1
phase 2 phase 3
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
54
Chapter 3
EYNR Line voltage (VL)

Between any line
conductors
phase voltage (VP)
(voltage to neutral)
ENR EBN
EYN 30
o
o
120
EBNY
o
120
ENB
ENY
Vector diagram
ERNB
Since the angle between ENR and EYN is 600,

EYNR = 2ENRcos300 = 3ENR
Line voltage = 1.73 x phase voltage
In general:
If VL = p.d. between any two line conductors
= line voltage
And VP = p.d. between a line conductor and neutral point
= phase voltage
And if IL and IP = line and phase current respectively,
then for a star connection system,
VL = 1.73 VP
IL = IP
For delta connection:
IL = 1.73 IP
Power in three phase system with balanced load
If Ip = value of the current in each phase
Vp = value of p.d. across each phase
Power per phase = IpVp x power factor
And total power = 3IpVp x power factor
If IL and VL be the value of the line current and voltage
respectively, then for star connection system,
VP = VL/1.73 and IP = IL so,
Total power in watts = 1.73 x ILVL x power factor
For delta connection system,
55
Chapter 3
IP = IL/1.73 and VP = VL so,

Total power in watts = 1.73 x ILVL x power factor
Example
A three phase motor operating off 400 v system is developing
25 bhp at an efficiency of 0.87 and a power factor of 0.82.
Calculate (a) the line current and (b) the phase current if
the windings are delta-connected.
output power in watts
(a) Efficiency
input power in watts
bhpx746

1.73 I L V L xP.F
25 x746
0.87
1.73 xI L x400 x0.82
IL = 37.8 A
(b) For delta-connected windings
line current 37.8
phase current 21.8 A
1.73 1.73
Complex Numbers
The mathematics used in Electrical Engineering to add
together resistances, currents or DC voltages uses what are
called "real numbers". But real numbers are not the only kind
of numbers we need to use especially when dealing with
frequency dependent sinusoidal sources and vectors. As well as
using normal or real numbers, Complex Numbers were introduced
to allow complex equations to be solved with numbers that are
the square roots of negative numbers, -1.
In electrical engineering this type of number is called an
"imaginary number" and to distinguish an imaginary number from
a real number the letter "j" known commonly in electrical
engineering as the j-operator. The letter j is used in front
of a number to signify its imaginary number operation.
Examples of imaginary numbers are: j3, j12, j100 etc. Then
a complex number consists of two distinct but very much
related parts, a "Real Number" plus an " Imaginary Number ".
Complex Numbers represent points in a two dimensional complex
or s-plane that are referenced to two distinct axes. The
horizontal axis is called the "real axis" while the vertical
axis is called the "imaginary axis".
The rules and laws used in mathematics for the addition or
subtraction of imaginary numbers are the same as for real
numbers, j2 + j4 = j6 etc. The only difference is in
multiplication because two imaginary numbers multiplied
together becomes a positive real number, as two negatives make
56
Chapter 3
a positive. Real numbers can also be thought of as a complex

number but with a zero imaginary part labeled j0.
The j-operator has a value exactly equal to -1, so successive
multiplication of "j", (j x j ) will result in j having the
following values of, -1, -j and +1. As the j-operator is
commonly used to indicate the anticlockwise rotation of a
vector, each successive multiplication or power of "j", j2,
j3 etc, will force the vector to rotate through an angle of
90o anticlockwise as shown below. Likewise, if the
multiplication of the vector results in a -j operator then the
phase shift will be -90o, i.e. a clockwise rotation.
Vector Rotation of the j-operator

So by multiplying an imaginary number by j2 will rotate the
vector by 180o anticlockwise, multiplying by j3 rotates
it 270o and by j4 rotates it 360o or back to its original
position. Multiplication by j10 or by j30 will cause the vector
to rotate anticlockwise by the appropriate amount. In each
successive rotation, the magnitude of the vector always
remains the same. There are different ways in Electrical
Engineering to represent complex numbers either graphically or
mathematically. One such way that uses the cosine and sine
rule is called the Cartesian or Rectangular Form.
Complex Numbers using the Rectangular Form

Complex number is represented by a real part and an imaginary
part that takes the general form of:
Where:
Z is the Complex Number representing the Vector
x is the Real part or the Active component
y is the Imaginary part or the Reactive component
j is defined by -1
In the rectangular form, a complex number can be represented
as a point on a two-dimensional plane called the complex or s-
plane. So for example, Z = 6 + j4 represents a single point
whose coordinates represent 6 on the horizontal real axis and
4 on the vertical imaginary axis as shown.
57
Chapter 3
Complex Numbers using the Complex or s-plane

But as both the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
in the rectangular form can be either a positive number or a
negative number, then both the real and imaginary axis must
also extend in both the positive and negative directions. This
then produces a complex plane with four quadrants called
an Argand Diagram as shown below.
Four Quadrant Argand Diagram
On the Argand diagram, the horizontal axis represents all

positive real numbers to the right of the vertical imaginary
58
Chapter 3
axis and all negative real numbers to the left of the vertical
imaginary axis. All positive imaginary numbers are represented
above the horizontal axis while all the negative imaginary
numbers are below the horizontal real axis. This then produces
a two dimensional complex plane with four distinct quadrants
labeled, QI, QII, QIII, and QIV. The Argand diagram can also
be used to represent a rotating phasor as a point in the
complex plane whose radius is given by the magnitude of the
phasor will draw a full circle around it for
every 2/ seconds.
Complex Numbers can also have "zero" real or imaginary parts

such as: Z = 6 + j0 or Z = 0 + j4. In this case the points
are plotted directly onto the real or imaginary axis. Also,
the angle of a complex number can be calculated using simple
trigonometry to calculate the angles of right-angled
triangles, or measured anti-clockwise around the Argand
diagram starting from the positive real axis.
Then angles between 0 and 90o will be in the first quadrant
( I ), angles ( ) between 90 and 180o in the second quadrant
( II ). The third quadrant ( III ) includes angles between 180
and 270o while the fourth and final quadrant ( IV ) which
completes the full circle includes the angles between 270 and
360o and so on. In all the four quadrants the relevant angles
can be found from tan-1(imaginary component/real component).
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The addition or subtraction of complex numbers can be done
either mathematically or graphically in rectangular form. For
addition, the real parts are firstly added together to form
the real part of the sum, and then the imaginary parts to form
the imaginary part of the sum and this process is as follows
using two complex numbers A and B as examples.
Example 1
Two vectors, A = 4 + j1 and B = 2 + j3 respectively. Determine
the sum and difference of the two vectors in both rectangular
(a + jb) form and graphically as an Argand Diagram.
Addition
Subtraction
59
Chapter 3
Graphical Addition and Subtraction

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers
The multiplication of complex numbers in the rectangular form
follows more or less the same rules as for normal algebra
along with some additional rules for the successive
2
multiplication of the j-operator where: j = -1. So for
example, multiplying together our two vectors from above
of A = 4 + j1 and B = 2 + j3 will give us the following
result.
Mathematically, the division of complex numbers in rectangular

form is a little more difficult to perform as it requires the
use of the denominators conjugate function to convert the
denominator of the equation into a real number. This is called
"rationalizing". Then the division of complex numbers is best
carried out using "Polar Form", which we will look at later.
However, as an example in rectangular form lets find the value
of vector A divided by vector B.
Multiply top and bottom by conjugate (2-j3)
The Complex Conjugate

The Complex Conjugate, or simply Conjugate of a complex number
is found by reversing the algebraic sign of the complex
numbers imaginary number only while keeping the algebraic sign
60
Chapter 3
of the real number the same and to identify the complex

conjugate of z the symbol z is used. For example, the
conjugate of z = 6 + j4 is z = 6 - j4, likewise the conjugate
of z = 6 - j4 is z = 6 + j4. The points on the Argand diagram
for a complex conjugate have the same horizontal position on
the real axis as the original complex number, but opposite
vertical positions. Thus, complex conjugates can be thought of
as a reflection of a complex number. The following example
shows a complex number, 6 + j4 and its conjugate in the
complex plane.
Conjugate Complex Numbers

The sum of a complex number and its complex conjugate will
always be a real number as we have seen above. Then the
addition of a complex number and its conjugate gives the
result as a real number or active component only, while their
subtraction gives an imaginary number or reactive component
only. The conjugate of a complex number is an important
element used in Electrical Engineering to determine the
apparent power of an AC circuit using rectangular form.
Complex Numbers using Polar Form
Unlike rectangular form which plots points in the complex
plane, the Polar Form of a complex number is written in terms
of its magnitude and angle. Thus, a polar form vector is
presented as: Z = A , where: Z is the complex number in
polar form, A is the magnitude or modulo of the vector
and is its angle or argument of A which can be either
positive or negative. The magnitude and angle of the point
still remains the same as for the rectangular form above, this
time in polar form the location of the point is represented in
a "triangular form" as shown below.
61
Chapter 3
Polar Form Representation of a Complex Number

As the polar representation of a point is based around the
triangular form, we can use simple geometry of the triangle
and especially trigonometry and Pythagoras's Theorem on
triangles to find both the magnitude and the angle of the
complex number. As we remember from school, trigonometry deals
with the relationship between the sides and the angles of
triangles so we can describe the relationships between the
sides as:
Using trigonometry again, the angle of A is given as

follows.
Then in Polar form the length of A and its angle represents

the complex number instead of a point. Also in polar form, the
conjugate of the complex number has the same magnitude or
modulus it is the sign of the angle that changes, so for
example the conjugate of 6 30o would be 6 30o.
Converting between Rectangular Form and Polar Form
In the rectangular form we can express a vector in terms of
its rectangular coordinates, with the horizontal axis being
its real axis and the vertical axis being its imaginary axis
or j-component. In polar form these real and imaginary axes
are simply represented by "A ". Then using our example
above, the relationship between rectangular form and polar
form can be defined as.
Converting Polar Form into Rectangular Form, ( PR )

62
Chapter 3
We can also convert back from rectangular form to polar form

as follows.
Converting Rectangular Form into Polar Form, ( RP )
Polar Form Multiplication and Division

Rectangular form is best for adding and subtracting complex
numbers as we saw above, but polar form is often better for
multiplying and dividing. To multiply together two vectors in
polar form, we must first multiply together the two modulus or
magnitudes and then add together their angles.
Multiplication in Polar Form
Multiplying together 6 30o and 8 45o in polar form gives
us.
Division in Polar Form

Likewise, to divide together two vectors in polar form, we
must divide the two modulus and then subtract their angles as
shown.
3.19. Equivalent circuit of induction motor

To analyze the operating and performance characteristics
of an induction motor, an Equivalent Circuit can be drawn. We
will consider a 3phase, Y connected machine, the Equivalent
Circuit for the stator is as shown below:
63
Chapter 3
V1 = Stator Terminal Voltage

I1 = Stator Current
R1 = Stator Effective Resistance
X1 = Stator Leakage Reactance
Z1 = Stator Impedance (R1 + jX1)
Io = Exciting Current (this is comprised of the core loss
component = Ic, and a magnetizing current = Im)
The rotor winding can be represented as:
Rotor Circuit
I2 = Rotor Current
R2 = Rotor winding Resistance
X2 = Rotor Leakage Reactance
Z2 = Rotor Impedance (R1 + jX1)
E2 = Induced EMF in the rotor (generated by the air gap flux)
The EMF (E2) is equal to the stator terminal voltage less the
voltage drop caused by the stator leakage impedance.
Note:
Never use three-phase equivalent circuit. Always use per-
phase equivalent circuit.
The equivalent circuit always bases on the Y connection
regardless of the actual connection of the motor.
Induction machine equivalent circuit is composed of stator
circuit and rotor circuit.
3.19.1. Effective circuit of induction motor at standstill

Standstill means rotor circuit is open. At open
circuits, S = 1, accordingly, E1 = E2, fs = fr, X2 = 2frL2.
Refer to section 3.7 and 3.8.
64
Chapter 3
Effective circuit at standstill

E2 = V1 - I1 (Z1)
Where E2 is rotor induced emf at standstill
E2 = V1 - I1 (R1 + jX1) = I1 Z1
3.19.2. Effective circuit of induction motor under

operating conditions (rotor winding is shorted)
Now suppose induction-motor is loaded down. As motors load
increases its slip rises because of which the rotor speed
falls.
Greater relative motion produces a stronger rotor voltage E2
which in turn produces a larger rotor current I2.
Then the rotor magnetic field also increases. Since rotor
slip is larger, rotor frequency rises (fr = s fs ) and rotor
reactance increases (Lr). Therefore, rotor current lags
further behind the rotor voltage.
Accordingly the parameters will be changed to be as follows:
The stator and rotor sides are, in the figure below, separated
by an air gap.
I2 = Rotor current in running condition
It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the

motor speed changes. Thus slip changes. As slip changes the
65
Chapter 3
reactance of standstill X2 changes to be sX2 which is shown

variable.
The rotor impedance can be represented by:
Effective circuit of induction motor under operating

conditions
In the running condition the variable resistance R2/s can be
rearranged as follows:
So the variable rotor resistance R2/s has two parts.

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents copper loss.
2. R2(1 - s)/s which represents load resistance RL. So it is
electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the motor.
Key Point : Thus the mechanical load on the motor is
represented by the pure resistance of value R2(1 -s)/s.
The effective circuit of the induction motor under operating
condition shall be as following:
It means that R2/s = rotor copper resistance + load resistance.
66
Chapter 3
3.19.3. Power Relations
1. Input Power
2. Stator copper losses
3. Rotor copper losses
4. Air gap power
5. Mechanical power
6. Output power
7. Output torque
Power flow diagram
67
Chapter 3
Example 1
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase induction motor is drawing
60A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper losses are 2 kW, and
the rotor copper losses are 700 W. The friction and windage
losses are 600 W, the core losses are 1800 W, and the stray
losses are negligible. Find the following quantities:
1. The air-gap power PAG.
2. The power converted Pm.
3. The output power Pout.
4. The efficiency of the motor.
Solution
Example 2
A 480V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase, delta-connected induction
motor has the following parameters:
R1=0.461 , R2=0.258 , X1=0.507 , X2=0.309 , Xm=30.74
Rotational losses are 2450W. The motor drives a mechanical
load at a speed of 1170 rpm. Calculate the following
information:
Synchronous speed in rpm
Slip
Line Current
Input Power
Air gap Power
Torque Developed
Output Power in Hp
Efficiency
Solution
68
Chapter 3
Note: the core losses is so small as the Io<<<<<I1 so it is

neglected.
Synchronous speed in rpm
Slip
Line Current
Phase current is given by:
Note that the machine is delta connected, so, V1 = VLL = 480 V
69
Chapter 3
Therefore IL = 3 46.6 = 80.6 A

Input Power
Air gap Power

Air gap power is the input power minus stator losses.
Torque Developed
Output Power in Hp
Neglecting friction and windage losses, so, Pout = Pm
Efficiency
3.20. Determination of motor parameters

The motor parameters are determined from three tests:
Stator DC resistance measurement. Determines the stator
resistance value (R1).
o The motor is supplied by DC voltage between two terminals A
and B at the figure below.
o The dc voltage and current are measured.
o If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator
resistance is:
o If the stator is Delta-connected, the per phase stator

resistance is:
70
Chapter 3
No load test
No-load test: Provides the magnetizing reactance and core
resistance (Rc and Xm). In this course we will only find Xm
and ignore Rc
o The motor is allowed to spin freely

o The motor is supplied by rated line-to-line voltage V, the
no-load current I1 and the no load input power P are
measured.
o The only load on the motor is the friction and windage
losses, so all Pm is consumed by mechanical losses.
o The slip of the induction motor at no-load is very low.
Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance R2(1-s)/s in the
rotor branch of the equivalent circuit is very high.
The equivalent circuit reduces to
Combining Rc & RF+W we get
71
Chapter 3
o At the no-load conditions, the input power measured by

meters must equal the losses in the motor.
o The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely small because
R2(1-s)/s is very large.
o The input power equals
o The equivalent input impedance is thus approximately
o The value of the stator leakage reactance X1 can be

determined from the blocked rotor test. The value of the
magnetizing reactance can then be determined.
Blocked Rotor Test

o In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so that it
cannot move, a voltage is applied to the motor, and the
resulting voltage, current and power are measured.
o The AC voltage applied to the stator is adjusted so that
the current flow is approximately full-load value.
o The locked-rotor power factor can be found as
o The magnitude of the total impedance
Where X1 and X2 are the stator and rotor reactances at the

test frequency respectively
72
Chapter 3
X1 and X2 as
function of
XLR
Rotor Design X1 X2
0.5 0.5
Design A
XLR XLR
0.4 0.6
Design B
XLR XLR
0.3 0.7
Design C
XLR XLR
0.5 0.5
Design D
XLR XLR
Example
The following test results are obtained from three phase 100
hp, 460 v, eight pole star connected induction motor, design A
rotor.
No load test:
460 v, 60 Hz, 40 A, 4.2 Kw.
Blocked rotor test:
100 v, 60 Hz, 140 A, 8 Kw.
Average DC resistor between two stator terminals is 0.152
Determine:
1. The parameters of the equivalent cicuit
2. The motor is connected to 3, 460 v, 60 Hz supply and runs
at 873 rpm. Determine:
a. The input current
b. The input power
c. Air gap power
d. Rotor copper loss
e. Mechanical power developed
f. Output power
g. Efficiency of the motor
3. The speed of the rotor field relative to stator structure
and stator rotating field.
Solution
73
Chapter 3
From No load test:
From block rotor test:
As rotor is design A, then,
Equivalent circuit
Input impedance:
74
Chapter 3
Input Power:
Stator copper loss:
Air gap power:
Rotor copper loss:
Mechanical power developed:
From no load test:
3.21. NEMA standard for squirrel cage induction motor

Design A Motor
Hp range: 0.5 500 hp.
Starting current: 6 to 10 times full-load current.
Good running efficiency: 87% - 89.
Good power factor: 87% - 89%.
Low rated slip: 3 5 %.
Starting torque is about 150% of full load torque.
Maximum torque is over 200% but less than 225% of full-load
torque.
Typical applications: constant speed applications where high
starting torque is not needed and high starting torque is
tolerated.
75
Chapter 3
Design B motor
Hp range: 0.5 to 500 hp
Higher reactance than the Design A motor, obtained by means of
deep, narrow rotor bars.
The starting current is held to about 5 times the full-load
current.
This motor allows full-voltage starting.
The starting torque, slip and efficiency are nearly the same
as for the Design A motor.
Power factor and maximum torque are little lower than class A,
Typical applications: constant speed applications where high
starting torque is not needed and high starting torque is
tolerated.
Unsuitable for applications where there is a high load peak
Design C motor
Hp range: 3 to 200 hp
This type of motor has a "double-layer" or double squirrel-
cage winding.
It combines high starting torque with low starting current.
Two windings are applied to the rotor, an outer winding having
high resistance and low reactance and an inner winding having
low resistance and high reactance.
Operation is such that the reactance of both windings decrease
as rotor frequency decreases and speed increases.
On starting, a much larger induced currents flow in the outer
winding than in the inner winding, because at low rotor speeds
the inner-winding reactance is quite high.
As the rotor speed increases, the reactance of the inner
winding drops and combined with the low inner-winding
resistance, permits the major portion of the rotor current to
appear in the inner winding.
Starting current about: 5 times full load current.
The starting torque is rather high (200% - 250%).
Full-load torque is the same as that for both A and B designs.
The maximum torque is lower than the starting torque, maximum
torque (180-225%).
Typical applications: constant speed loads requiring fairly
high starting torque and lower starting currents
76
Chapter 3
Design D motor
Produces a very high starting torque-approximately 275% of
full-load torque.
It has low starting current,
High slip: 7-16%
Low efficiency.
Torque changes with load
Typical applications: used for high inertia loads
The above classification is for squirrel cage induction motor
3.22. Torque of squirrel cage induction motor

In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must
be started from rest and both the motor and load accelerated
up to full speed. Typically, this is done by relying on the
high slip characteristics of the motor and enabling it to
provide the acceleration torque.
Induction motors at rest, appear just like a short circuited
transformer, and if connected to the full supply voltage, draw
a very high current known as the "Locked Rotor Current". They
also produce torque which is known as the "Locked Rotor
Torque". The Locked Rotor Torque (LRT) and the Locked Rotor
Current (LRC) are a function of the terminal voltage to the
motor, and the motor design. As the motor accelerates, both
the torque and the current will tend to alter with rotor speed
if the voltage is maintained constant.
The starting current of a motor, with a fixed voltage, will
drop very slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin
to fall significantly when the motor has reached at least 80%
full speed. The actual curves for induction motors can vary
considerably between designs, but the general trend is for a
high current until the motor has almost reached full speed.
The LRC of a motor can range from 500% Full Load Current (FLC)
to as high as 1400% FLC. Typically, good motors fall in the
range of 550% to 750% FLC.
77
Chapter 3
The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a

fixed voltage, will drop a little to the minimum torque known
as the pull up torque as the motor accelerates, and then rise
to a maximum torque known as the breakdown or pull out torque
at almost full speed and then drop to zero at synchronous
speed. The curve of start torque against rotor speed is
dependent on the terminal voltage and the motor/rotor design.
The LRT of an induction motor can vary from as low as 60% Full
Load Torque (FLT) to as high as 350% FLT. The pull-up torque
can be as low as 40% FLT and the breakdown torque can be as
high as 350% FLT. Typical LRTs for medium to large motors are
in the order of 120% FLT to 280% FLT.
78
Chapter 3
Figure above graph shows that starting torque known as locked

rotor torque (LRT) is higher than 100% of the full load torque
(FLT), the safe continuous torque rating.
The locked rotor torque is about 175% of FLT for the example
motor graphed above. Starting current known as locked rotor
current (LRC) is 500% of full load current (FLC), the safe
running current. The current is high because this is analogous
to a shorted secondary on a transformer.
As the rotor starts to rotate the torque may decrease a bit
for certain classes of motors to a value known as the pull up
torque. This is the lowest value of torque ever encountered by
the starting motor. As the rotor gains 80% of synchronous
speed, torque increases from 175% up to 300% of the full load
torque. This breakdown torque is due to the larger than normal
20% slip.
The current has decreased only slightly at this point, but
will decrease rapidly beyond this point. As the rotor
accelerates to within a few percent of synchronous speed, both
torque and current will decrease substantially. Slip will be
only a few percent during normal operation. For a running
motor, any portion of the torque curve below 100% rated torque
is normal.
The motor load determines the operating point on the torque
curve. While the motor torque and current may exceed 100% for
a few seconds during starting, continuous operation above 100%
can damage the motor. Any motor torque load above the
breakdown torque will stall the motor. The torque, slip, and
current will approach zero for a no mechanical torque load
condition. This condition is analogous to an open secondary
transformer.
There are several basic induction motor designs (Figure below)
showing considerable variation from the torque curve above.
The different designs are optimized for starting and running
different types of loads. The locked rotor torque (LRT) for
various motor designs and sizes ranges from 60% to 350% of
full load torque (FLT). Starting current or locked rotor
current (LRC) can range from 500% to 1400% of full load
current (FLC). This current draw can present a starting
problem for large induction motors.
79
Chapter 3
Torque of NEMA designs
80

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Electric Submersible Pumps Mohamed Dewidar 2013

3.2. Motor Construction

Fig (3.1) Most of the motor construction

Fig (3.2) stator laminations

Fig (3.3) stator core

Fig (3.4) stator windings

Fig (3.5) induced magnetic flux due to current flow

Fig (3.6) squirrel cage rotor

Fig (3.7) rotor core

At each end the bard are connected to heavy conducting end

3.2.3. Rotor bearing

Fig (3.8) rotor bearing

3.2.4. Motor thrust bearing

Fig (3.9) motor thrust bearing

Fig (3.10) motor pothead

of the magnetic field can be found by using right hand rule or

Fig (3.11) Magnetic field around the conductor carrying current

Since a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around

Fig (3.13) force between parallel current carrying conductors

3.3.2. Magnetic flux and flux density

3.3.3. Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

Fig (3.14) Magnetic field in coils of different number of

Where N is the number of turns of a solenoid and l is its

3.3.4. Changing polarity

begins to collapse, until Time 5 when current flow and

3.3.5. Induced voltage

build up and collapse as the alternating current continues to

Fig (3.17) magnetic field increases as the current increases

3.3.6. Electromagnetic attraction

3.4. Start coil arrangement

3.5. Power supply

Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120 apart. In this

The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase

Fig (3.21) 2 poles stator winding

It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start

Fig (3.22) start

Fig (3.23) time 1

Fig (3.24) time 2

3.5.4. 360 degree rotation

Fig (3.25) time 1

3.6. Mathematical analysis of rotating magnetic field

Here m is the maximum flux due to any phase. We shall now

The phasor sum of - B and C is the resultant flux R (fig.

At time 1, fig (15 (ii)), t = 60. Therefore, the three

The phasor sum of - B and A is the resultant flux R [See

At time 2, fig (26 (ii), t = 120. Therefore, the three

The phasor sum of C and A is the resultant flux R, (Fig.

It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply

We shall now use another useful method to find the magnitude

The resultant flux is given by;

Thus the resultant flux has constant magnitude (= 1.5 m) and

Thus the resultant magnetic field rotates at constant angular

Thus the resultant flux due to three-phase currents is of

The quantity Ns-N is sometimes called slip speed.

3.8. Rotor current frequency

For a rotor speed N, the relative speed between the rotating

i.e., Rotor current frequency = slip x Supply frequency.

3.9. Magneto-motive force and magnetic field strength

Where I is the current in amperes, and N is the number of

Where B is the flux density in telsas, I is the current in

If the conductor is not perpendicular to magnetic field but

3.11. Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field

Fig (3.33) Force on a coil carrying current in a magnetic

0 + ve area p=EI cos + ve area