Kingdom of Ireland

This article is about the Irish kingdom that existed from England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional posi-
1542 to 1800. For more ancient Irish kingdoms, see List tion of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry
of Irish kingdoms and Monarchy of Ireland. For other had broken away from the Holy See and declared him-
uses of Ireland, see Ireland (disambiguation). self the head of the Church in England. He had peti-
tioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country Queen Catherine. Clement VII refused Henrys request
and Henry subsequently refused to recognise the Roman
with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview). Catholic Church's vestigial sovereignty over Ireland, and
was excommunicated again in late 1538 by Pope Paul III.
The Treason Act (Ireland) 1537 was passed to counteract
The Kingdom of Ireland (Classical Irish: Roghacht this.
ireann; Modern Irish: Rocht ireann) was a client state
of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from Following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534
1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament 35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes
of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 and pro- against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their sub-
claimed King Henry VIII of England as King of Ireland. missions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and
The territory of the Kingdom had previously had the sta- under the control of the kings Dublin [2]
administration; a
tus of a lordship of the Crown. situation that was not to last for long.
Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of
The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800
by which it abolished itself and the Kingdom.[1] The act Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The
new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monar-
was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The
act also had the eect of establishing the United King- chies in Europe. After the death of King Edward VI,
dom of Great Britain and Ireland on the rst day of 1801 Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the [3]
Ro-
by uniting the Crowns of Ireland and of Great Britain. man Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The
In its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the
recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon
recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ire- law. In this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by
land, no Catholic power did so. Henrys daughter, Queen the reigning King of England. This placed the new King-
Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland dom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of
by Pope Paul IV in 1555. England.
In line with its expanded role and self-image, the admin-
istration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541,
and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552.
1 History Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed
until 1592.
1.1 Tudor Ireland

See also: Norman invasion of Ireland and Tudor con- 1.2 Stuart Ireland
quest of Ireland
In 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of Eng-
land, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ire-
The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was is- land in a personal union. The political order of the king-
sued in 1155. It granted the Angevin King Henry II of dom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
England the title Dominus Hibernae (Latin for Lord of starting in 1639. During the subsequent interregnum pe-
Ireland). Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ire- riod, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a re-
land, to bring the country into the European sphere. In public until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyal-
return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of ist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and,
the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconrmed by Adrians from 1653, the creation of the republican Commonwealth
successor Pope Alexander III in 1172. of England, Scotland and Ireland. The kingdoms or-
When Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of der was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles

1
2 3 PARLIAMENT

II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was back- the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The
dated to his fathers execution in 1649. Irish Parliament ceased to exist, though the executive,
presided over by the Lord Lieutenant, remained in place
until 1922. The union was later the subject of much
1.3 Grattans Patriots controversy.[4]
In 1937, the link to the British Crown was repealed, but
Main article: Irish Patriot Party
the monarch was the de jure king in the new State until
1949. In the Republic of Ireland the 1542 Act was re-
Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be pealed in 1962.[5] Political union between England and
known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland leg- Scotland was established in 1707 with the creation of the
islative independence. Parliament in this period came Kingdom of Great Britain.
to be known as Grattans Parliament, after the principal
Irish leader of the period, Henry Grattan. Although Ire-
land had legislative independence, executive administra-
tion remained under the control of the executive of the
Kingdom of Great Britain. In 178889 a Regency crisis
arose caused when King George III became ill. Grattan
2 Viceroy
wanted to appoint the Prince of Wales, later George IV, as
Regent of Ireland. The king recovered before this could The Kingdom of Ireland was governed by an executive
be enacted. under the control of a Lord Deputy or viceroy. The
post was held by senior nobles such as Thomas Radclie.
From 1688 the title was usually Lord Lieutenant. In the
1.4 United Irishmen absence of a Lord Deputy, lords justices ruled. While
some Irishmen held the post, most of the lords deputy
were English noblemen. While the viceroy controlled the
Irish administration as the monarchs representative, in
the eighteenth century the political post of Chief Secre-
tary for Ireland became increasingly powerful.
The Kingdom of Ireland was legislated by the bicameral
Parliament of Ireland, made up of the House of Lords and
the House of Commons. The powers of the Irish parlia-
ment were circumscribed by a series of restrictive laws,
mainly Poynings Law of 1494.

3 Parliament

Main article: Parliament of Ireland

Roman Catholics and dissenters, mostly Presbyterians,

Charlotte Schreiber's The Croppy Boy (1879), relating to the
United Irishmens Wexford Rebellion. A man, possible a rebel
from his green cravat, kneels before a Catholic priest who is
covertly in military uniform. The church hierarchy opposed the
rebellion.
The Irish Rebellion of 1798, and the rebels alliance with
Great Britains longtime enemy the French, led to a push
to bring Ireland formally into the British Union. By the
Acts of Union 1800, voted for by both Irish and British
Parliaments, the Kingdom of Ireland merged on 1 Jan-
uary 1801 with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form
Baptists, and Methodists, were excluded from member-
ship of the Irish parliament from 1693 and their rights
were restricted by a series of laws called the Penal Laws.
They were denied voting rights from 1728 until 1793.
The Grattan Parliament succeeded in achieving the repeal
of Poynings Law in 1782. This allowed progressive leg-
islation and gradual liberalisation was eected. Catholics
and Dissenters were given the right to vote in 1793, but
Catholics were still excluded from the Irish Parliament
and senior public oces in the kingdom. As in Great
Britain and the rest of Europe, voting and membership
of parliament was restricted to property owners. In the
1720s the new Irish Houses of Parliament were built in
College Green, Dublin.
 3

4 Church of Ireland 5 Ethnic conict

The legacy of the Kingdom of Ireland remains a bone of

Main article: Reformation in Ireland contention in Irish-British relations to this day because of
When Henry VIII was excommunicated by the Roman the constant ethnic conict between the native Irish in-
habitants and primarily the New English ruling caste (as
well as a parallel conict with settled Ulster-Scots). The
regime privileged English culture (law, language, dress,
religion, economic relations and denitions of land own-
ership) in Ireland, while the Gaelic culture and Irish lan-
guage, though maintained to a signicant extent by the
majority of the native population was presented as bar-
baric, savage or otherwise the mark of undesirabil-
ity. While the Lordship of Ireland had existed since the
12th century and nominally owed allegiance to the En-
glish monarchy, many kingdoms of Gaelic Ireland con-
tinued to exist; this came to an end with the Kingdom
of Ireland, where the whole island was brought under the
centralised control of an Anglocentric regime based at
Dublin. This phase of Irish history marked the beginning
of an ocially organised policy of settler colonialism, or-
chestrated from London and the incorporation of Ireland
into the British Empire (indeed Ireland is called Eng-
lands rst colony). The theme is prominently addressed
in Irish postcolonial literature.
The nominal religion of the native majority and its clergy;
the Catholic Church in Ireland; was actively persecuted
by the state and a set of Penal Laws in favour of the
Trinity College, Dublin was founded by the Elizabethans to serve
as the organ of the Anglican intelligentsia.
Anglican Church in Ireland, highly damaging to the na-
tive Irish Catholics, were erected. There is some contro-
versy that during Tudor times, elements within the gov-
ernment at times engaged in and advanced a genocidal
Catholic Church in 1538, all but two of the bishops of policy against the Irish Gaels, while during the Plantations
the Church in Ireland followed the doctrine of the Church of Ireland (particularly successful in Ulster) the local
of England,[6] although almost no clergy or laity did so. population were displaced in a project of ethnic cleansing
Having paid their Annates to the Papacy, the bishops had where regions of Ireland became de-Gaelicised, which
no reason to step down, and in the 1530s nobody knew led in turn to bloody retaliations, which drags on to mod-
how long the reformation would last. Unlike Henry VIII, ern times. Some of the native inhabitants, including their
this hierarchy was not excommunicated by the Papacy, leadership were permitted to ee into exile from the coun-
and still controlled what became the State Church of the try following ending up on the losing side in conicts (i.e.
new Kingdom in 1542, and retained possession of most - the Flight of the Earls and the Flight of the Wild Geese)
Church property (including a great repository of religious or in the case of the Cromwellian regime were forced into
architecture and other items, though some were later de- indentured servitude in the Caribbean, following mass
stroyed). In 1553 Irish Catholics were heartened by the land conscation for the benet of New English settlers.
coronation of Queen Mary I, who persuaded the Papacy On the other hand, the fact that the kingdom had been a
to recognise the Kingdom in 1555, via the papal bull Il- unitary state gave Irish nationalists in 1912-22 a reason
ius. to expect that the island of Ireland would be treated as a
Then in 1558 the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I came to single political unit.
the throne, survived the 1570 bull Regnans in Excelsis,
and all but one of the following monarchs were Angli-
can. Contrary to the ocial plan, the substantial majority
of the population remained strongly Roman Catholic, de- 6 Coat of arms
spite the political and economic advantages of member-
ship in the state church. Despite its numerical minority, The arms of the Kingdom of Ireland were blazoned:
however, the Church of Ireland remained the ocial state Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent. A crown was not part
church until it was disestablished on 1 January 1871 by of the arms but use of a crowned harp was apparently
the Liberal government under William Ewart Gladstone. common as a badge or as a device. A crowned harp also
4 7 NOTES
Coat of arms with the crest
7 Notes
appeared as a crest although the delineated crest was: a
[1] W. G. Perrin and Herbert S. Vaughan, 1922, British
wreath Or and Azure, a tower (sometime triple-towered)
Or, from the port, a hart springing Argent.
King James not only used the harp
crowned as the device of Ireland, but quar-
tered the harp in this royal achievement for the
arms of that kingdom, in the third quarter of
the royal achievement upon his Great Seal, as
it has continued ever since. The blazon was
azure, a harp or string argent, as appears by the
great embroidered banner, and at the funeral
of Queen Anne, King James queen, AD 1618,
and likewise by the great banner and banner of
Ireland at the funeral of King James. The dif-
ference between the arms and device of Ire-
land appears to be on the crown only, which
is added to the harp when used as a device.
At the funeral of King James was like-
wise carried the standard of the crest of Ire-
land, a buck proper (argent in the draught) issu-
ing from a tower triple towered or, which is the
only instance of this crest that I have met, and
therefore was probably devised and assigned
for the crest of Ireland upon occasion of this
funeral, but with what propriety I do not un-
derstand. Questions and Answers, Notes and
Queries, 1855, p. 350
The insignia of Ireland have variously
been given by early writers. In the reign of Ed-
ward IV, a commission appointed to enquire
what were the arms of Ireland found them to
be three crowns in pale. It has been supposed
that these crowns were abandoned at the Ref-
ormation, from an idea that they might denote
the feudal sovereignty of the pope, whose vas-
sal the king of England was, as lord of Ireland.
However, in a manuscript in the Heralds Col-
lege of the time of Henry VII, the arms of Ire-
land are blazoned azure, a harp or, stringed
argent; and when they were for the rst time
placed on the royal shield on the accession of
James I. they were thus delineated: the crest
is on a wreath or and azure, a tower (some-
time triple-towered) or, from the port, a
hart springing argent. Another crest is a
harp or. The national ag of Ireland exhibits
the harp in a eld vert. The royal badge of
Ireland, as settled by sign-manual in 1801
is a harp, or, stringed argent, and a tre-
foil vert, both ensigned with the imperial
crown." Chamberss Encyclopdia: A Dic-
tionary of Universal Knowledge, 1868, p. 627
Flags. Their Early History and their Development at Sea;
with an Account of the Origin of the Flag as a National
Device, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp.
5152:
The red saltire on white ground which rep-
resents Ireland in the Union ag had only
an ephemeral existence as a separate ag.
Originating as the arms of the powerful
Geraldines, who from the time of Henry II
held the predominant position among those
whose presence in Ireland was due to the ef-
forts of the English sovereigns to subjugate
that country, it is not to be expected that the
native Irish should ever have taken kindly to
a badge that could only remind them of their
servitude to a race with whom they had lit-
tle in common, and the attempt to father this
emblem upon St Patrick (who, it may be re-
marked, is not entitled to a cross since he
8.1 Bibliography
was not a martyr) has evoked no response
from the Irish themselves.
The earliest evidence of the existence of the
red ag known to the author occurs in a map
of Hirlandia by John Goghe dated 1576 and
now exhibited in the Public Record Oce.
The arms at the head of this map are the St
Georges cross impaled on the crowned harp,
but the red saltire is prominent in the arms of
the Earl of Kildare and the other Geraldine
families placed over their respective spheres
of inuence. The red saltire ag is own
at the masthead of a ship, possibly an Irish
pirate, which is engaged in action in the St
Georges Channel with another ship ying the
St Georges cross. The St Georges ag ies
upon Cornwall, Wales and Man, but the red
saltire ag does not appear upon Ireland it-
self, though it is placed upon the adjacent
Mulls of Galloway and Kintyre in Scotland. It
is, however, to be found in the arms of Trinity
College, Dublin (1591), in which the banners
of St George and of this saltire surmount the
turrets that ank the castle gateway.
The Graydon MS. Flag Book of 1686 which
belonged to Pepys does not contain this ag,
but give as the ag of Ireland (which, it may
be noted, appears as an afterthought right
at the end of the book) the green ag with
St Georges cross and the harp, illustrated in
Plate X, g. 3. The saltire ag is neverthe-
less given as Pavillon d'Ierne in the ags
plates at the commencement of the Neptune
Franois of 1693, whence it was copied into
later ag collections.
Under the Commonwealth and Protectorate,
when England and Scotland were represented
in the Great and other Seals by their crosses,
Ireland was invariably represented by the
harp that was added to the English and Scot-
tish crosses to form a ag of the three king-
doms. At the funeral of Cromwell the Great
Standards of England and Scotland had the
St Georges and St Andrews crosses in chief
respectively, but the Great Standard of Ire-
land had in chief a red cross (not saltire) on a
yellow eld.
When the Order of St Patrick was instituted
in 1783 the red saltire was taken for the badge
of the Order, and since this emblem was
of convenient form for introduction into the
Union ag of England and Scotland it was
chosen in forming the combined ag of Eng-
land, Scotland and Ireland in 1801.
8 References
[1] Morley, Vincent (2002), Irish opinion and the American
Revolution, 17601783, Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, p. 4, retrieved 20 January 2012, Fach r bpian
le s chad bliain aige Gaill in igean, gan r dr rialadh
5
de Ghaeil, mo chian, i roghacht ireann.
(the above Gaelic sentence is translated a few lines later
as:) Consider our torment for six hundred years by violent
foreigners, with no king of the Gaels ruling us, my grief,
in the kingdom of Ireland.
Here can be seen, in close association, expressions of reli-
gious loyalty to the pre-Reformation faith represented by
Creggan churchyard; dynastic loyalty to the house of Stu-
art; and national loyalty to 'rocht ireann' , 'the kingdom
of Ireland'.
[2] McCarey chapter (1914)
[3] Text of 1555 Bull
[4] de Beaumont, G pp114-115
[5] The Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act
1962, section 1 and Schedule Archived 11 October 2012
at the Wayback Machine.
[6] Richard Mant (1840), History of the Church of Ireland,
from the Reformation to the Revolution, London: Parker,
p. 275, The enactments concerns the Church in Queen
Elizabeths rst Parliament had no unpleasant eects upon
its governors; save that by the Act of Supremacy, or rather
their own obnoxious conduct in deance of it, two bishops
were deprived of their sees: Leverious, bishop of Kildare,
who refused to take the Oat of Supremacy; and Walsh,
bishop of Meath, who not only refused to take the oath, but
preached also against the queens supremacy, and against
the Book of Common Prayer.
8.1 Bibliography
Blythe, Robert J (2006). The British Empire and its
Contested Pasts. Irish Academic Press. ISBN 978-
0716530169.
Bradshaw, Brendan (1993). Representing Ireland:
Literature and the Origins of Conict, 1534-1660.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521416345.
Bradshaw, Brendan (2015). And so began the Irish
Nation: Nationality, National Consciousness and
Nationalism in Pre-modern Ireland. Ashgate Pub-
lishing. ISBN 1472442563.
Canny, Nicholas (2001). Making Ireland British,
1580-1650. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780199259052.
Connolly, S. J. (2009). Contested Island: Ireland
1460-1630. OUP Oxford. ISBN 0199563713.
Connolly, S. J. (2010). Divided Kingdom: Ireland
1630-1800. OUP Oxford. ISBN 0199583870.
Crowley, Tony (2008). Wars of Words: The Politics
of Language in Ireland 1537-2004. OUP Oxford.
ISBN 0199532761.
6 8 REFERENCES

de Beaumont, Gustave and William Cooke Taylor, Coordinates: 5320N 615W / 53.333N 6.250W
Ireland Social, Political, and Religious :Translated by
William Cooke Taylor : Contributor Tom Garvin,
Andreas Hess: Harvard University Press : 2006 :
ISBN 978-0-674-02165-5 (reprint of 1839 original)
Garnham, Neal (2012). The Militia in Eighteenth-
Century Ireland: In Defence of the Protestant Inter-
est. Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843837244.
Harris, R G (2001). The Irish Regiments: 1683-
1999. Da Capo Press Inc. ISBN 1885119623.
Kane, Brendan (2010). The Politics and Culture of
Honour in Britain and Ireland, 1541-1641. Cam-
bridge University Press. ISBN 0521898641.
Keating, Georey : The History of Ireland, from the
Earliest Period to the English Invasion (Foras Feasa
Ar irinn) Translated by John O'Mahony 1866 Full
text at Google Books
Lenihan, Patrick (2007). Consolidating Conquest:
Ireland 1603-1727. Routledge. ISBN 0582772176.
Mac Giolla Chrost, Diarmait (2005). The Irish
Language in Ireland: From Godel to Globalisation.
Routledge. ISBN 0415320461.
McCabe, Richard Anthony (2002). Spensers Mon-
strous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poet-
ics of Dierence. Oxford University Press. ISBN
9780198187349.
Nelson, Ivan F. (2007). The Irish Militia, 1793
1802, Irelands Forgotten Army. Four Courts Press.
ISBN 978-1-84682-037-3.
O'Callaghan, Sean (2001). To Hell or Barbados:
The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland. Brandon. ISBN
0863222870.
Pakenham, Thomas (2000). The Year Of Liberty:
The Great Irish Rebellion of 1789: History of the
Great Irish Rebellion of 1798. Abacus. ISBN 978-
0349112527.
Palmer, Patricia (2013). The Severed Head and the
Grafted Tongue: Literature, Translation and Vio-
lence in Early Modern Ireland. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 978-1107041844.
Pawlisch, Hans S., : Sir John Davies and the Con-
quest of Ireland: A Study in Legal Imperialism :Cam-
bridge University Press, 2002 : ISBN 978-0-521-
52657-9
Reid, Stuart (2011). Armies of the Irish Rebellion
1798. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1849085076.
Snape, Michael (2013). The Redcoat and Religion:
The Forgotten History of the British Soldier from the
Age of Marlborough to the Eve of the First World
War. Routledge. ISBN 1136007423.
 7

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Metz2000, Jtdirl, Mic, , GCarty, Craigor, Jfruh, Dimadick, PBS, Moncrief, Henrygb, Bkell, Cutler, Mintleaf~enwiki, Var-
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Cnyborg, Dbachmann, Rannphirt anaithnid (old), Bender235, Swid, Jnestorius, Zscout370, QuartierLatin1968, Spoon!, IFaqeer, Cmdr-
jameson, JW1805, Darwinek, Voyager, Alansohn, Cjthellama, Smokeala, Lapsed Pacist, Eilthireach, Jdorney, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan,
Lairor, Tonyje, Str1977, Valentinian, Chobot, E Pluribus Anthony, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Spleodrach, Mark Ironie, Padraig, FDR,
Czyrko, Lockesdonkey, Orioane, Barryob, Duroy~enwiki, Mais oui!, Kungfuadam, Kingboyk, Scolaire, SmackBot, David Kernow, Tradi-
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ChrisCork, CmdrObot, Bons, Flammingo, Mammal4, Cydebot, PKT, ByteofKnowledge, Counter-revolutionary, SeNeKa, Ludde23,
Kbthompson, Cloachland, Fayenatic london, Gcm, Magioladitis, Jsqb, Mclay1, The Anomebot2, Jvhertum, Thompson.matthew, 52 Pickup,
Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, DrKay, PalestineRemembered, Straw Cat, Hugo999, Stamboul,
Asarla, Maxkin, Sankalpdravid, Oren neu dag, Broadbot, JOEHUGHES7012, Peeperman, Dmcq, Red Hurley, Burkem22, SieBot, SE7,
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VEO15, TobeBot, Karadenizlim25, Look2See1, Laurel Lodged, Tommy2010, ZroBot, Liquidmetalrob, Jacobfrid, TRAJAN 117, Hazhk,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, WNYY98, REJS H, Murry1975, AvocatoBot, Marcocapelle, MrPenguin20, Ernio48, Pratyya Ghosh, R
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coat_of_arms_%28historical%29_with_crest.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Ireland_crest_(historical).svg' class='image'><img alt='Ireland crest (historical).svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/3/3f/Ireland_crest_%28historical%29.svg/16px-Ireland_crest_%28historical%29.svg.png' width='16' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ireland_crest_%28historical%29.svg/24px-Ireland_crest_
%28historical%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ireland_crest_%28historical%29.svg/
32px-Ireland_crest_%28historical%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='382' data-le-height='473' /></a> Ireland crest (historical).svg
Original artist: QuartierLatin1968
File:Kingdom_of_Ireland_1789.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Kingdom_of_Ireland_1789.svg
License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This vector image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from
this: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1789.svg' class='image'><img alt='Europe 1789.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Europe_1789.svg/20px-Europe_1789.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Europe_1789.svg/30px-Europe_1789.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Europe_1789.svg/39px-Europe_1789.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='450'
data-le-height='456' /></a> Europe 1789.svg. Original artist: Elevatorrailfan
File:Royal_Standard_of_Ireland_(15421801).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Royal_
Standard_of_Ireland_%281542%E2%80%931801%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Derivative work, based upon
File:Flag President of Ireland.svg and File:Kingdom Ireland.svg Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg' class='image'><img alt='Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
8 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/25px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png'
width='25' height='35' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.
svg/38px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_
of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/50px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='245' data-le-height='343' /></a>
TRAJAN 117

9.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0