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RADIATION (PAR) MEASUREMENTS IN maximum PAR for January 2017 was 1.630 mmol
PART OF OWERRI WEST L.G.A, with mean value of 0.321mmol. Results indicate
SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA: IMPLICATION that the highest PAR value of 1.847m mol was
ON FOOD PRODUCTION AND SECURITY recorded in December, 2016. However, the daily
PAR recordings for the two months measurements
periods are quite favourable for production of
food. Daily maximum PAR was recorded between
the hours of 12 and 2pm corresponding to peak
period for radiation used in food production.
Prof. C. A. Ahiarakwem,
Omeire, O. * and Ibeh, J. C.*
+
Institute Of Erosion Studies (IES),
Federal University of Technology, Owerri
(FUTO)
*
Department of Geology. FUTO
ABSTRACT
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) was
measured on a daily basis using Quantum QS5
Sensor for a period of two month: December, 2016
and January 2017. The results show that maximum
PAR for the month of December 2016 was 1.847
1
1 INTRODUCTION The PAR sensor used in this study is located at
Federal University of Technology automated
Photosynthetically active radiation, (PAR), Weather station Owerri Imo State. The sensor
designates the spectral range (wave band) of solar covers FUTO community and environs. The
radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers that purpose of the PAR measurement is to determine
photosynthetic organisms are able to use in the the amount of solar radiation during the study
process of photosynthesis. This spectral region period for food production/food security
corresponds more or less with the range of light
visible to the human eye. Photons at shorter 2.1 GEOLOGY
wavelengths tend to be so energetic that they can
be damaging to cells and tissues, but are mostly The study area is underlain by the Benin
filtered out by the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Formation which is a major stratigraphic unit in
Photons at longer wavelengths do not carry the Niger Delta Basin of Nigeria (Figure 1); the
enough energy to allow photosynthesis to take Formation is underlain by the Agbada Formation
place. and overlain by Alluvium deposit (Ahiarakwem,
2013). The Formation consists of friable sands,
Other living organisms, such as Cyanobacteria, clay lenses, sandstone, conglomerate and isolated
purple bacteria and Heliobacteria, can exploit gravel units.
solar light in slightly extended spectral regions,
such as the near-infrared. These bacteria live in
environments such as the bottom of stagnant
ponds, sediment and ocean depths. Because of
their pigments, they form colorful mats of green,
red and purple.
Typical PAR action spectrum, shown beside
absorption spectra for chlorophyll-A, chlorophyll-
B, and carotenoids
Chlorophyll, the most abundant plant pigment, is
most efficient in capturing red and blue light.
Accessory pigments such as carotenes and
xanthophylls harvest some green light and pass it
on to the photosynthetic process, but enough of
the green wavelengths are reflected to give leaves
their characteristic color. An exception to the
predominance of chlorophyll is autumn, when
chlorophyll is degraded (because it contains N and
Mg) but the accessory pigments are not (because
they only contain C, H and O) and remain in the
leaf producing red, yellow and orange leaves.
PAR measurement is used in agriculture, forestry Figure 1: The geology map of the study area
and oceanography. One of the requirements for
productive farmland is adequate PAR, so PAR is The Benin Formation is highly porous and
used to evaluate agricultural investment potential. permeable and serves as the major aquifer of the
area (Onyeagocha, 1980). The Formation was
PAR measurements are also used to calculate the initially known as Coastal Plain Sands. The
euphotic depth in the ocean. thickness of the Formation around the study area
site is 800m (Short and Stauble, 1967).
2
preserved due to moderate population and
minimal of human activities such as bush burning,
farming, hunting, and others. Generally, most of
the species found in the course of study are listed
2.2 HYDROGEOLOGY/DRAINAGE
below:
The drainage of the study area is dendretic in
LagenariaCicerania; Amaranthushybridus;
nature and flows southwards. The area is drained
Tephroisaraeteslata; ImperataYlindrical;
by Otamiri River (Figure 1). The river is
Phyllanthusmarus; Tinthonisiversifolia;
commercially dredged and is used for recreational
Aspilliafucana; Acrocerasizanioides; Daniellia
and fishing activities. The depth to groundwater
Liven and; Cyperusotundus.
within the site is about 17m and the groundwater
potential is high (Onyeagocha, 1980).
4
Table 1: PAR Measurement for the Month of 7am;
December, 2016 10-
D MEA MA Tmax MI Tmin 11pm
1 Sa 1.4 13:25: 0.0 12pm-
A N X N
7 t. 048 33 022 2am; 4-
Y
6am;
S
1 Th 12pm;2 0.342 10-
ur. am;4- 75 11pm
1 Su 1.2 14:25: 0.0 12pm
6am;
8 n. 0.313 008 33 022 6am; 9
0.452 1.6 12:25: 0.0 7pm; 9-
008 -10pm
746 752 33 026 11pm
1 M 1.5 13:25: 0.0 2am;
2 Fri 0.426 1.8 13:25: 0.0 3am
9 on 0.341 088 33 022 5am; 9-
. 238 472 33 022
3 Sa 0.312 1.4 12:25: 0.0 10pm 796 11pm
2 Tu 1.1 13:25: 0.0 12pm;1
t. 317 128 33 022
4 Su 0.308 1.3 11:25: 0.0 2, 4am; 0 es. 0.303 344 33 022 -3am;
n. 871 776 33 022 9-10pm 317 5am
5 M 0.333 1.5 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 2 W 1.2 12:25: 0.0 1am;
on 721 968 33 022 1 ed. 0.330 384 33 022 4am; 9-
6 Tu 12pm; 925 11pm
es. 0.348 1.4 11:25: 0.0 3am; 2 Th 1.0 12:25: 0.0 5am;
3 28 33 022 10pm 2 ur. 0.290 536 33 022 8pm;
7 W 0.333 1.5 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 521 11pm
ed. 721 968 33 022 2 Fri 1.2 13:25: 0.0 12pm;
8 Th 0.317 1.3 12:25: 0.0 12pm 3 . 424 33 022 1am;
ur. 246 528 33 022 8pm;
9 Fri 0.357 1.3 12:25: 0.0 1am 0.330 10-
. 621 936 33 022 933 11pm
1 Sa 12pm; 2 Sa 1.1 14:25: 0.0 12pm;
0 t. 0.299 1.1 13:25: 0.0 2-3 am 4 t. 0.286 232 33 022 1-5am;
854 896 33 022 11pm 279 8 -11pm
1 Su 0.269 1.1 13:25: 0.0 120m; 2 Su 1.4 13:25: 0.0 2-3am;
1 n. 604 792 33 022 2-3am 5 n. 272 33 022 5-6am;
1 M 0.298 1.5 12:25: 0.0 12pm; 0.356 8-9pm;
2 on 5 376 33 022 5am 8 11pm
1 Tu 0.326 1.1 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 2 M 0.245 0.9 12:25: 0.0 12pm,
3 es. 867 968 33 022 6 on 054 648 33am 022 6am,9p
1 W 12pm; m
4 ed. 0.397 1.5 12:25: 0.0 5-6am; 2 Tu 1.1 13:25: 0.0 12pm,
358 448 33 022 11pm 7 es. 0.275 256 33pm 022 1-3am.
1 Th 0.343 1.4 12:25: 0.0 5am; 55 8pm
5 ur. 104 968 33 022 10pm 2 W 0.308 1.1 12:25: 0.0 12pm ,
1 Fri 0.269 1.0 13:25: 0.0 1am; 8 ed. 633 44 33 022 7pm
6 . 663 496 33 022 3am; 5- 2 Th 0.279 1.0 13:25: 0.0 0,2,4,5,
5
9 ur. 525 448 33 022 6,12
3 Fri 0.315 1.2 12:25: 0.0 01
0 . 917 28 33 022 06am
3 Sa 0.293 1.1 13:25: 0.0 02,
1 t. 721 592 33 022 04,5am
10 ,
11pm
6
Figure 2: PAR Reading in First week of Figure 4: PAR radiation for the Third week of
December, 2016 December, 2016
Figure 3: PAR radiation for the Second week of Figure 5: PAR radiation for the Four week of
December, 2016 December, 2016
7
8 Su 0.2 1.0 1:25:33 0.0 12pm;
n. 680 688 pm 026 2-
6am;
8-
11pm
9 Mo 0.3 1.5 1:25:33 0.0 2-3am
n 888 504 pm 022
1 Tu 0.3 1.3 12:25:3 0.0 1am
0 es. 209 528 3am 022
1 We 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 05:25:
1 d. 810 008 pm 025 33
1 Th 0.2 1.1 11:25:3 0.0 1am;
2 ur. 708 496 3pm 022 3am;
1 Fri 12pm-
3 . 1am;
3am;
5-
Figure 5: PAR Reading for the Fifth week of 6am;
December, 2016 0.2 1.0 11:25:3 0.0 8-
656 256 3pm 026 11pm
Table 2: PAR Measurement for the Month of 1 Sat 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 9-
January, 2017 4 . 335 48 pm 022 10pm
PAR MEASUREMENT FOR THE 1 Su 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 5am,
MONTH OF JANUARY, 2017 5 n. 427 992 pm 022 10pm
S/ Da Me Ma Tmax Mi Tmin 1 Mo 0.3 1.4 12:25:3 0.0 1am;
N y an x n 6 n 707 32 3am 022 3-6am
1 Su 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 1 am; 1 Tu 4-
n. 536 48 pm 022 4pm 7 es. 0.3 1.5 12:25:3 0.0 6am;
9pm 774 184 3am 022 9pm
2 Mo 0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 6am; 1 We 12pm-
n 416 936 3pm 022 11pm 8 d. 2am;
3 Tu 0.3 1.2 1:25:33 0.0 12pm; 0.2 1.0 2:25:33 0.0 4am;
es. 187 304 pm 022 2am; 685 192 pm 022 8pm
6am 1 Th 2-
4 We 0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 12pm; 9 ur. 0.3 1.2 2:25:33 0.0 3am;1
d. 187 488 3am 022 4am 341 568 pm 022 1pm
5 Th 0.3 1.2 1:25:33 0.0 2am, 2 Fri 12pm;
ur. 082 136 pm 022 4am 0 . 5am;
6 Fri 0.2 1.1 1:25:33 0.0 12pm- 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 9pm;
. 877 36 pm 026 6am; 359 704 pm 022 11pm
7- 2 Sat 0.3 1.3 2:25:33 0.0 3-4am
11pm 1 . 686 992 pm 022
7 Sat 0.2 1.0 1:25:33 0.0 4am; 2 Su 0.2 0.9 2:25:33 0.0 9pm
. 748 16 pm 022 6pm 2 n. 553 216 pm 022
2 Mo 0.2 1.1 12:25:3 0.0 2am;
8
3 n 965 296 3am 022 6am
2 Tu 12pm
4 es. -2am;
0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 6am
068 536 3am 022 10pm
2 We 3-
5 d. 4am;
6am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 10-
418 12 pm 022 11pm
2 Th 0.2 0.7 3:25:33 0.0 5am
6 ur. 115 744 pm 022
2 Fri 1-
7 . 2am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 4am;
677 616 pm 022 11pm
2 Sat 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 1, 5am
8 . 563 344 pm 025
2 Su 3am; Figure 6: PAR Reading for the First week of
January, 2017
9 n. 0.3 1.6 1:25:33 0.0 6am;
833 304 pm 022 10pm
3 Mo 12pm-
0 n 2am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 4am;
330 008 pm 022 10pm
3 Tu 0.2 1.0 12:25:3 0.0 8pm
1 es. 571 528 3am 022
9
Figure 8: PAR Reading for the Third week of
January, 2017
Figure 10: PAR reading for the Fifth week of
January, 2017
CONCLUSION
Photosynthetic active radiation is specifically for
food production by plants and crops. This study
shows that the measured PAR values for the
months of December 2016 and January 2017 are
quite for photosynthetic activity and this will
enhance the production of fruits, vegetables and
other crops in the study area. It is important to
note that climatic condition is a major factor that
determines the amount of PAR that is generated.
Lower values of PAR were obtained in the
morning and evening night period respectively.
10
Ahiarakwem, C. A. Nwankwor, G. I, Chinemelu, GEOTEXTILE TUBE AND FLOOD
E. S. and Paschal, C.C.( 2014), Variations in CONTROL
Groundwater Flow Potential in parts of Imo State.,
Niger State, Southeastern Nigeria. International
Journ. Of Engineering Innovations Vol. 3, Issue 6,
pp8-16,. Engr. Dr. (Mrs) G.C. Onuegbu
Ahiarakwem, C. A., (2013) Impact of Gaseous
Emissions from E Flow Station on Ogutalake
and its associated Tributaries, Niger Delta Basin, Department of Polymer and Textile
Southeastern Nigeria. ISSESCO Journ., Science & Engineering
Tech. Vol.8, No.16, pp9-17,.
Ananaba, S.E, Onu, N.N and Iwuagwu, C. J., School of Engineering and Engineering
(1993) Geophysical study of gravel deposit in Technology
Ihiagwa, Owerri, Nigeria, Journ. Of Min &
Geol.Vol.29, No. 2, pp95-100,.
Avovbo, A.A; (1978): Tertiary
lithostratigraphy of Niger Delta American Federal University of Technology, Owerri
Association of petroleum geologist bulletin, V. 62,
Pg. 295-300.
National Root Crop Research Institute, (2013).
Umudike, Climate Data, Abuja State.
National Environmental (Surface water and
Groundwater Quality Control) Regulations, 2011,
B693-727.
11
They are used in structural (marine) applications.
ABSTRACT The general goal is to contain a material (e.g.
sand, slurry, water) within a thin membrane for the
Geotextile tubes minimize environmental damage, purpose of developing a resistance to applied
reduce the cost and time needed to construct loads (Biggar, 2010).
flood-protection levees. Its proponents argue that
geotextile tube technology could solve some of the 1.1 GEOTEXTILE TUBE.
major problems associated with raising flood- The first geotextile tube was installed in 1962 and
control levee. The article also addresses the as of 2008, over 240km of shoreline have been
fabrication, construction and applications of protected using this product. Geotextile tubes
geotextile tubes in controlling flood. Categories of gained prominence in the early 1990s and have
geotextile tubes and their installations are also proven effective for shoreline erosion control
treated. (Gibeant et al., 2003) and in numerous
environmental applications (e.g. Fowler et al.,
2007).
Geotextile tubes are manufactured by sewing
1.0 INTRODUCTION together multiple sheets of high strength polyester
Geotextiles have contributed to the erosion or polypropylene fabrics (typically woven fabrics)
control industry for over 50 years (Mitchell et to create an enclosed tube. Geotextile tubes may
al.,2003) and are mainly used in Civil engineering be filled with untreated soils, stabilized soils, or
projects, such as dam retaining wall, bases for even concrete (Cantre, 2002). A geotextile tube
roads and reservoir slope stabilization consists of a stable network that retains its relative
(Davies,2000) structure during handling, placement and long-
Geotextiles are defined as permeable textiles used term service (Leshchinsky, 1996).
in conjunction with soil, foundation, rock, earth or
any geotechnical engineering related material
(Lalit, 2005). Geotextiles are permeable fabrics
which, when used in association with soil, have
the ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect or
drain. There are three basic forms of geotextile;
woven (resembling sack), needle punched
(resembling felt), and heat bonded geotextiles
(resembling ironed felt) (Koerner,et al. 2008). Fig 1.1 Polyester material
Geotextiles have different configurations such as
geotextile tube, geotextile bags, and geomembrane
tube.
Geotextile bags are similar in concept to
conventional sand bags, though they are typically
larger. Geomembrane tubes are manufactured by
placing two independent water-tight membrane
tubes inside a larger tube or sleeve that is typically
made from a woven geotextile. They are rapidly
deployable barrier when filled with water that has
been successfully used for multiple applications.
Sing tubes filled with water could not support
water, but frictional fences in the outer geotextile Fig1.1 Constructed geotextile tube
allow water to be supported with two interior
water tubes (Landis, 2000).
12
2.1 FABRICATION OF
GEOTEXTILE/GEOMEMBRANE TUBES
Four categories of geotextile tubes are identified
base on their fabrication methods:
i. Longitudinal seamed
ii.Circumferential seamed
iii.Helical rib supported
iv.uniaxial
Smaller circumference tubes (e.g. 10.4m) are
typically manufactured using longitudinal
seaming, while larger circumference tubes (in
excess of 13.7m) are typically manufactured using
circumferential seaming. To fabricate a geotextile
tube using longitudinal seaming, two geotextile
sections each slightly wider than half the desired
circumference and equal to the desired length are
placed on top of one another.
A seam is sewn along both sides and along the end
of the geotextiles to produce the tube (Huong et
al., 2002). To fabricate a geotextile tube using
circumferential seaming, multiple geotextiles
sections are sewn together. The width of the
geotextile is placed in the longitudinal direction of
the tube and the length of the geotextile is cut
slightly longer than the desired circumference of
the tube as can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Fig. 2.1:
Helical rib supported geotextile tubes have four
times the strength of the outside shell of the fabric,
which allow essentially any fill material (e.g. silt,
clay, organic matter) to be used.
13
Fig. 2.2: Helical Rib supported Geotextile
REFERENCES
Biggar, K. & Masala, S. (2010). Alternatives to
Sand bags for Temporary Flood
Protections. Report to Alberta Transportation and
Utilities Disaster Services
Branch, Pp. 78.
Fig. 3.2: Temporary Blocking of Waterway Bygness, R. (2009). Grand Isle to Get Storm
Surge Protection before 2009
Hurricane Season, Geosynthetics, 27(3), 39.
Canter, S. (2002). Geotextile Tubes Analytical
Design Aspects Geotextile and
Geomembranes, 20(5), 305-309.
Cardno, C.A. (2009). Geotube Reinforced Sand
Dunes to Buffer Louisiana Barrier
Island from Hurricanes, Civil Engineering 79(10),
20-21.
Fowler, J., Duke, M., Schmidt, M.L., Crabtree, B.,
Bagby, R.M. & Trainer, E.
(2007). Dewatering sewage sludge and hazardous
sludge with geotextile tubes.
Gibeant, J.C., Hopner, T.L., Waldinger, R.,
Fig.3.3: Aquatic dam used for flood control Andrews, J.R., Smyth, R.C. &
Fig. 4.4: Residential Dwelling Protection.
15
Institute of Erosion Studies
Gutierrez, R. (2003). Temporary Erosion Control Federal University of Technology
and Storm Surge Protection Owerri
Along the Gulf of Mexico, Shoreline of Texas,
Proceedings of the 13th Biennial
Coastal Zone Conference Baltimore, MD, July
13-177
Huong, T.C., Plant, R.H., Filz, G.M. (2002).
Wedges Geomembrane Tubes as
Temporary Flood-Fighting Devices, Thin Wall
Structure, 40, 913-923.
Koerner, R.M., Hsuan, Y.G. &Koerner, G.R.
(2008). Fresh water and
Geosynthetic: A perfect marriage. The First Pan
American Geosynthetics
Conference and Exhibition.
Landis, K. (2000). Control Floods with Geotextile
Cofferdams. Geotechnical
Fabrics Report, 18(2), 24-29.
Leschinsky, D., Leshchinsky, O. Ling, H.I.,
Gilbert, P.A. (1996). Geosynthetic
Tubes for Confining Pressurized Slurry. Some
Design Aspects. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. 122(8), 682-690.
Mitchell,D.J., A.P., Barton, M.A. Fullen, J.J.,
Hocking, and Zheng, Y.(2003). Field studies of the
effects of jute geotextiles on runoff and erosion in
shropshere, U.K. Soil Use and Management 19,
182-184.
Davies, K (2000). An evaluation of the
effectiveness of palm-mat geotextiles on the
conservation of loamy soil of the Bridgenorth
series. University of Wolverhampton, U.K., 18
Lalit, J.(2005).Geotextiles-Functions, properties
and Applications, Asian Textile Journals, 89-93.
16
surface temperatures of the earth and Oceans, The effects of global warming cannot be over-
caused by increasing concentrations of Carbon emphasised. Certain facts have been made
dioxide CO2 and other greenhouse gases available. According to IPCC 2007 report,sea
emissions, automobile emissions in the levels are likely to rise by 0.18m by the end of this
atmosphere such as methane CH4, Ozone 03, century due to global warming; since 1880, the
Nitrous Oxide NO2. Human activities like the average temperature of the earth has risen by
burning of fossils, deforestation, pollution, 0.7degrees celcius.; the last two decades of the
industrialization increase greenhouse gas levels. 20th century have been the hottest in 400years;the
These greenhouse gases absorb heat that would Arctic has been identified as one of worst places
otherwise bounced off the earths surface and being effected by global warming as the Arctic ice
oceans. The atmosphere is thus heated up, driving is rapidly melting up, tending to ice summer.
global warming and associated climate change. According to the multinational Arctic climate
While carbon dioxide concentrations and other impact assessment report,2004: the Arctic ice
gases are naturally present in the atmosphere, region is likely to have ice summer by 2040,the
emissions from human activities have greatly polar ice not being an exception; the Montana
amplified this natural greenhouse effects and calls Glacier National Park has 25 glaciers instead of
for attention. the 150 that have been there in 1910; coral reefs
Key words: Global warming, fossils, are suffering the worst bleaching with a highest
deforestation, industrialization. dying number since 1980; there are easily grave
forest fires, heat waves, drought, hurricanes and
severe tropical storms globally ;there has been
1.0 INTRODUCTION tremendous increase in evaporation of water
The consumption of fossil fuels has contributed vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
much to the degradation of our environment. and other greenhouse gases due to polluting
Global warming, climate change, extinction of substances emitted as a result of industrialization,
wildlife species and habitat, depletion of Ozone pollution, deforestation; humans are emitting
layer, increases in air and water pollution have more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, faster
continued to create problems and on these our than the absorbing plants and the oceans; sea
environment is suffering. (http://www.conserve- levels have risen about 0.18m in the past
energy-future.com). The alarm calls for some 100years,threatening the lives of people
action and need to be addressed. The issue of the particularly in the coastal areas; around
global warming requires cautious handling. 100million people live with 0.91m sea level, being
Though the earths average surface temperature vulnerable; melting of glaciers cause sea levels to
increases due to such greenhouse gases like rise; more than 1million species are becoming
Carbon dioxide and methane, these gases are extinct due to the disappearance of habitants and
required for the presence of life on earth. The ecosystems; the rate at which carbon dioxide is
global warming is really happening due to over- being dumped in the environment is 37 billion
emittance of these gases. The enrichment of the metric tons per year, with much of this from
gases in the atmosphere often results through air human activities; the carbon dioxide levels in the
and water pollution. Wars have also greatly 20th century is the highest650,000years; burning
contributed to global warming. This should not of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas has been
surprise us. All the bombs going off, all the responsible for many respiratory diseases and
rockets, all the planes and helicopters. All the large scale deaths; each year of the 21st century so
fuels of various kinds that are being used. They far ranked among the 14 hottestyears since 1880;
pollute the air and water of the very fragile and the colder areas of the world are becoming hot
interconnected plane. (Alice Walker in more and more vulnerable to diseases; heat
http://www.conserve.energy-future.com) related illness and deaths are expected to rise
2.00OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL globally; global warming leads to massive food
WARMING(CONSEQUENCES) and water shortages and these are life threatening
17
both to humans, plants and wildlife. The depletion global temperatures back 800,000years and saw
of the Ozone layer because of global warming was that the global mean temperature has never risen
alarmed in the mid-1970s. An atmospheric this fast .As the earth moved out of the ice age, the
chemist (Frank Rand Mario M 1987) discovered global temperature according to the report rose a
that chlorofluro carbons while inert in the total of 4-7degrees celcius over a period of
atmosphere breakdown in the stratosphere in the 5,000years. They predicted rate of warming for
presence of Ultra-Violent radiation, freezing the next century to be at least 20times faster. On
chlorine atoms that combine with oxygen obtained carbon dioxide levels, the report had it that the
from Ozone molecules. As a result of the atmospheric carbon dioxide has never been as
incidence, there is a thinning down ofthe Ozone high as today-0ver 400parts per million, never at
layer that protects the earths surface from lethal any time during the past 400,000years.In those
amounts of Ultra-Violent radiation. Knight, J et years, it hovered just between 200-280 parts per
al 2009, had hinted that the amount of dissolved million. On sea level, the report had it that the
Oxygen in the Oceans may decline because of global sealevel continues to rise at 0.32cm
global warming, raising adverse consequences to annually, due to meltingglaciers and ice sheets,
marine life. The Oceans serve as a sink for carbon increase rate of carbon emissions and the
dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise thermal expansion of the ocean waters as they
remain in the atmosphere, but increase levels of warm.
the carbon dioxide have led to Ocean (http://www.cleveland.com/weather;https://ww
Acidification. The acidification makes life difficult w.nasa.gov.american space agency)
for organisms that build shell out of calcium According to National Oceanic and
carbonate. The organisms include corals, shellfish Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Releases
and pteropods that form the foundation of marine 2016 Arctic Report Card: Emissions of
food webs. As the temperature of the Ocean rises, pollutants warm the climate. A specific culprit is
the ability to absorb excess carbon dioxide wanes. Ozone, which results from the emissions from
The effects of global warming on Oceans are cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries,
continually being cited by researchers. The effects and chemical plants reacting with sunlight in the
in rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and atmospheric. If Ozone depletion continues to
melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of increase, this will cause widespread health
the Ocean surface , leading to increased problems: shortness of breath; pain when taken a
temperature stratification was again noted.(White, deep breath; coughing; sore or scratchy throat;
1995). The greenhouse effect, a process by which inflamed and damaged airways; aggravation of
absorption and emission of infrared radiation by diagnosed lung diseases: asthma, emphysema, and
gases in the atmosphere warms the earths surface chronic bronchitis. The same report has it that
has been continued to be of interest to researchers. marine species are moving to the poles to stay
(Meehi et al,2005) cool as the average ocean temperature rises and
From the United Nation fifth (2014) report (AR5) that the large shifts can cause ecological
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate disruptions as predators are separated from their
Change: temperature increased 0.65-1.08 degrees typical prey. (www.noaa.gov.;www.weather.gov.)
celcius from 1880 to 2012; carbon dioxide 3.00 THE GREENHOUSE GASES
dumping into the air is rising and was about 3.10 METHANE (CH4)
1300tons/second in 2013;carbon dioxide level was The atmospheric content of methane has been
noted highest in 650,000years, up by 40 percent increasing annually at rate of 0.8 to 1.0 percent.
due to industrialization. Increases in methane track well with population
(http://zfacts.com/p/783.htm) growth rates. (Glantz and Krenz, 1992) Human
The earth is seen to be getting hotter day by day; activities such as wet rice cultivation, domestic
roughly 10 times faster than any time since the ruminant breeding, landfills, biomass burning,
past 800,000years.National Aeronautics and Space coal mining and natural gas venting including
Administration (NASA) had taken a look at the leaks from natural gas pipelines have contributed
18
to the atmospheric concentration of methane. increased the release of nitrous oxide to about 100
(IPCC, 1990) tonnesgrammes of nitrogen annually.
There are natural sources of methane of methane (Levenberger M and Siegenthaler U, 1992)
emissions such as termites, wetlands, both of Other identified sources of nitrous oxide occur in
which can be influenced by human activities. the production of nylon and nitric acid. Nitrous
Methane is produced by the activity of bacteria oxide is fairly stable in the atmosphere with a
breaking down organic matter in relatively oxygen lifetime of about 150 years. (White, 1995) The
free condition. Warmer condition are likely to potential as a greenhouse gas is about 230times
increase the ecosystems and, in the process, that of carbon dioxide molecule to molecule. Even
methane emission. (DACEY et al, 1994) where the concentration is far lower, it is
3.20 OZONE (03) potentially a significant contributor to global
High level Ozone layer is a major absorber of warming, accounting for about 5 percent of the
short-wave Ultra-violent radiation and is cumulative radioactive force to date. Nitrous oxide
primarily important in maintaining the is broken down in the stratosphere by ultraviolent
temperature structure of the stratosphere. Ozone radiation in a photochemical reactions which
at lower level is also an important absorber of contribute to the depletion of Ozone. (Glantz M H
long-wave infrared radiation. The addition of andKrenz J H, 1992)
Ozone at height below 30km causes net Conversion of rain forest to pasture has also been
atmospheric warming while above this height seen as an important source of nitrous oxide.
there is cooling of the stratosphere zone that Research has shown that there is an increase in the
accounts for about 90 percent of the atmospheres release of nitrous oxide from soils cleared for
concentration. About 10 percent of atmospheric pastures in the Amazon compared with the
zone occurs lower breaks down the in the original rain forest soils. The conversion of forest
troposphere. Troposphere Ozone down under to pasture contributed up to 25 percent increase
Ultra-violent radiation into oxygen atoms which in nitrous oxide. The investigation however
reacts with water vapour to produce hydroxyl revealed that rate of increase of the nitrous oxide
radical, which helps to regulate the levels of from such land only lasts for a few years, after
methane. (White, 1995) which the amount falls off to half or one third of
3.30 CHLORO FLUOROCARBON (CFCS) those of the original forest soils (Keller M etal.,
Chlorofluoro carbon (CFCs) was discovered in 1993).
1920 and are used as cleansing solvents, blowing
agent(s, refrigerants, fire retardants and as 4.00 HEALTH ALARM OF GLOBAL
propellants in aerosol sprays. Glantz and WARMING
Krenz,1992) They are chemically inert and have a The global warming increases the frequency of
long residence time in the atmosphere, estimated Hurricane and other natural disasters such as
at 60 to 200years. In the stratosphere, they are coastal erosion, flooding, landslides, loss of
subjected to photo dissociation after which the wetlands, salt water intrusion by affecting weather
free chlorine combines with Ozone to form other patterns. As global temperatures rise, the oceans
compounds. This process make very efficient warm up and expand, ice caps and glaciers melt,
Ozone destroyer. In addition to the destructive and more precipitation falls as rain instead of
tendency, CFCs are also efficient in trapping long snow. This causes sea levels to rise. Coastal
wave radiation, thereby enhancing the greenhouse communities are particularly vulnerable. (John V
effect. (Glantz and Krenz, 1992) A, 2016; Olugbenga A O, 2016). In consequent to
3.40 NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) these, there are increases in the appearance and
Nitrous oxide is generated mainly from soils, development of disease vectors. Hurricanes can
especially by the use of fertilizers and agriculture. cause the spread of water-borne disease such as
About 90 percent of the global emissions come cholera and salmonellosis. Vector-borne diseases
from soils. The huge rise in the production of of concern include leishmania, dengue fever,
synthetic fertilizers in recent decades has Asthma, and malaria. Malaria infects
19
approximately 500,000 people and cause more automated Meteorological Station in the Institute
than two million deaths per year.(Amadi A N, of Erosion Studies, Federal University of
2014). Technology, Owerri, Nigeria to empower the
4.0 CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING University in particular and Nigeria in general to
On the strength of the knowledge of global monitor, study the weather trend on a continuous
warming and the havoc associated with it basis to possibly produce weather digest that could
particularly on humans and the environment, there help inform, advise on strategies and practices that
is the urgent need for a clarion call for a control of could ameliorate global warming.
the cankerworm. Scientists have used 5.00 MITIGATION OF GLOBAL WARMING
sophisticated computer models called general Mitigation of global warming could be
circulation models to incorporate observations of accomplished through reductions in the rate of
many factors that have an influence on the anthropogenic greenhouse gas release. Global
vagaries of weather in order to study past, present warming requires global solution. The worlds
and future weather patterns. These models primary international agreement in reducing
projected an increase in global average greenhouse gas emission, the Kyoto protocol,
temperatures that will continue for decades as a covers more than 160 countries and over 55
result of the greenhouse gas emissions. In a bid to percent of global greenhouse gas emissions have
tackle the problem of global warming, nations been achieved
around the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s (http://unfccc.intresource/docs/convkp/kpeng.p
rallied round to develop policies of control to the df). There are considerable efforts to improve
emission of the greenhouse gases. Toward this energy efficiency and moves towards the use of
end also the World Meteorological Organization alternative fuels such as nuclear energy are
and the United Nations Environment Programme advocated. In January 2005, the European Union
formed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate introduced its own European Union Emission
Change (IPCC) in 1988 to monitor, advice, and Trading Scheme, through which companies in
proffer possible checks to the global warming. conjunction with Government agree to cap their
Further development on this is contained in the emissions through a carbon cap and carbon tax
United Nations fifth 2014 report, aimed at agreement. Australia unilaterally announced its
creating the awareness of the global warming, carbon pollution reduction scheme in 2008
advising on control and mitigation strategies (https://een.anu.edu.au/). United States of
through communiqu (unfccc.int./Kyoto- America has also announced plans to introduce an
protocol/items 2830 php). Presently in Nigeria economic wide cap and trade scheme to check and
different bodies like : Nigerian Erosion and mitigate on global warming and climate change.
Watershed Management (NEWMAP), Nigerian (World Bank 2010).
Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency
(NESREA), Nigerian Meteorological Agency 8.00 CONCLUSION
(NIMET), Nigerian Hydrological Agency Global warming has been proved beyond
(NHSA), National Emergency Agency (NEMA), reasonable doubt to be wrecking the earth and as
Nigerian Airspace Research and Development such we should not wait tirelessly for solution. It
Agency (NASRDA),Nigerian Geological Survey is a common enemy. Much have been unfolded in
Agency (NGSA), River Basin Development this report on the causes of global warming.
Authorities, Environmental Consultants, Efforts has also been made in no small measure to
Institutions of higher Learning and Ministries unveil globally the havocs which the global
have been working in synergy to tackle warming has caused. It is in opinion of the authors
relentlessly the issue of global warming. Late last that all hands are to be put on deck in
year the World Bank in collaboration with the researching and adopting policies cum attitudes
Food and Agricultural Organisation and National that will not enhance global warming.
Erosion and Watershed Management, in a well
thought out idea, set up a State of the Act
20
Knight, J, Kenney, J.J Folland, C, Harns G. (2009)
Do temperature trends over the last decade falsify
climate predication in state of the climate in
REFERENCES 2008,
Amadi A N (2014) Environmental health solution Levenbergen, M and Siegenthaler, U. (1992) Ice
to healthcare problems, 25th Inaugural lecture of age atmosphere composition of nitrous oxide from
the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, the antartic ice core. Nature 360, 449-451.
Nigeria. Meehi, and Gerald, A. (2005) How much more
Bulletin America Auteorology Social 90 (8) 877- global warming and sea level rise ,Science 307
579 retrieved 2009-09-08. (5700) 17-19 1777.
Dacey, J.W, Drake, B.G and Klug, M.L (1994) Multinational arctic climate impact assessment
simulation of methane emission by carbon dioxide report,2004.
enrichment of marsh vegetation Nature 370, 47- National Oceanic and Atmospheric
49. Administratio,www.noaa.gov
Frank.R and Molino M,www.human touch of Olugbenga A O (2016) Health hazards associated
chemistry,com with flooding in Proceedings of the First
Glantz M.H, and KrenzJ.H (1992) Human International Workshop of the Institute of Erosion
component of the climate system: climate system Studies (IES),Federal University of
modelingTrenberth K.E, (eds) Cambridge Technology,Owerri,Nigeria,February,2016,IES
University press, pp 27-33. 2016 ISBN 978-978 54526-6-2,R.ATLAS
http://unfccc.in./kyoto-protocol/item(assessed Ent.p.115-121.
1/29.2017) White L.D, (1995) Climate and human
http://unfccc.int./resource/docs/convkp/kpeng/pdf societyUSA ,Halsted,Wiley and sons Ltd.
http://www.cleeland.com/weather(assessed World Bank (2010) World development report
1/24/2017) 2010: Development and climate change. The
http://www.conserve.energy-foture.com(assessed international bark for reconstruction and
1/24/2017) developments, 1818 H street New, Washington
http://www.nasa.gov.america space agency DC 20433 p. 192 ISBN 978082 1379875.
http://zfacts.com/p/783.htm(assessed 1/24/2017) http://go. World Bank org/Bk LQ9 DSDUO
http:www.weather.gov (assessed 1/29/2017) retrieved 2010-04-06
https://een.anu.edu.au/pdf(assessed 28th Jan.2017.
https://unfcc.int./Kyoto-protocol/items
2830(assessed 1/29/2017
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs.pdf.(assessed 28th
Jan.2017.
https://www.ipcc.ch. (2007)
IPCC (1990) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
change:the scientific
assessment,https:www.ipcc.ch/
John V A (2016) Effects of climate change on
coastal erosion and flooding in Proceedings of the
First International Workshop of the Institute of
Erosion Studies (IES),Federal University of
Technology,Owerri,Nigeria,February,2016,IES
2016 ISBN 978-978 54526-6-2,R.ATLAS Ent.
p.45-57.
Keller, M, Veldkanp, E, Wertz, A.M (1993) The
effect of pasture age in soil trace gas emission for
a deforested area of crask rice Nature 365,244-2.
21
GIS-BASED MULTI-CRITERIA Soil erosion remains a major threat to Urualla and
itsenviron.The time required for data collection
EVALUATION (MCE) APPROACH FOR and high cost of research, is the difficulty in
identification of area sensitive to water induced
ASSESSMENT OF URUALLA GULLY soil erosion by conventional methods. However,
these problems can be solved by the use of GIS
EROSION WATERSHED based predictive models both at local and regional
scale. Theobjective of this study is to assess the
vulnerability of Uruallawatershed to soil erosion
based on multi criteria technique. ArcGIS was
used for derivation, integration, and spatial
analysis of geographic layers of each erosion
indicator. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
was used to calculate the weights of erosion
1
Dike, B.U.,2Agunwamba, J.C. and 1Alakwem, influencing factors such as rainfall, soil type,
O.P. topography, land use/land cover and
conservationpractice. Using AHP pair wise
Department of Civil Engineering, comparison method, the weights derived for the
indicators are Rainfall (0.40), soil (0.27),
1
Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo topography (0.19), land cover(0.08) and
State conservation practice (0.06). The generated
vulnerability map shows that 1% of the study area
2
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria has high, 54% has moderately high while 45% has
low vulnerability levelof the study area. Thus, the
result based on multi-criteria evaluation in GIS
proves that identification of areas vulnerable to
soil erosion is pre-requisite to planning erosion
control technique. The resultof this study are
important in planning conservation, environmental
protection and control for soil erosion that will be
based on erosion severity.
Keywords: Soil erosion, GIS,Multi-Criteria
Evaluation (MCE), Vulnerability scale,Urualla
Abstract
22
1.0 Introduction locationbased, (Malczewski, 1999). GIS based
Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) methods have
Erosion is the process of detachment or been applied in several studies (Solaimani et al.,
entrainment, transportation of surface soil 2009, Khoi and Murayama, 2010, Saini and
particles from original location and accumulation Kaushik, 2012, Ashraf, 2012 etc.).
of it to new depositional area The factors which
influence the rate of erosion are rainfall, runoff, Analytical Hierarchy Process is one of the most
soil, slope and plant cover, and the presence or popular methods for calculating criteria weights in
absence of conservation measures, (Kokh, 2002). MCEthrough an expert pair-wise comparison
Erosion control requires a quantitative and matrix, (Saaty, 1980). Rao et al. (1991), have
qualitative evaluation of potential soil erosion suggested that for the development of criteria
considering these factors (Nuket, 2010). weights, theprocedure of pairwise comparison in
AHP is a logical process. However, inspite of
According to Ume et al. (2014), there are many some uncertainties, several studies have compiled
thoughts about the Urualla Gully erosion like the the AHP success stories in various fields.
uncompleted and
abandoned Federal Intensit Definition Definition Explanation According to
Expressway project that y of Saatyand Vargas
created massive Import (1991),in performing
overflow of through ance pairwise comparison,
improper drainage 1 Equal Two activities contribute numericalvalues
channels while other Importance equally to the objective expressing a judgment
views include the nature 2 Weak or Experience and judgement of the relative
of the soil, drainage importance of one
slight slightly favour one activity
pattern and human factor against another
3 Moderate over another
activities like have to be assigned to
devegetation, soil importance eachfactor.Saatyand
excavation and farming 4 Moderate Experience and judgement Vargas (1991)
etc. Conventional plus strongly favour one activity suggested a scale for
methods for identifying 5 Strong over another comparison consisting
the erosionpotential importance of values ranging
area are based on 6 Strong plus An activity is favoured very from 1 to 9
physical survey but in 7 Very strong strongly over another; its whichdescribe the
practice severe erosion or dominance demonstrated in intensity of
problemscan be difficult importance
demonstrate practice
andtime consuming.
Therefore, GIS based d importance
spatial modeling 8 Very, very The evidence favouring one
produce useful strong activity over another is of the
information for solving 9 Extreme highest possible order of
complex problems importance affirmation
byidentifying (preference/dominance). A value of 1 expresses
relationship among various dependent geographic equal importance and a valueof 9 are given for
features clearly and logically. those factors having an extreme importance
over another factor (Table 1).
Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) approach is one
of the most important applications for spatial Table 1: The fundamental scale of absolute
analysis of geographic data to support the process numbers
ofenvironmental decision-making because 80 per
cent of data used by decision makers is Source: Saaty (2008)
23
Soil erosion is very dynamic, hence, information
of the areas vulnerable to erosion and its severity
are pre-requisites for soil conservation planning,
planning erosion control techniques and watershed
management at local and regional scale. The
objective of study therefore is to assess the
vulnerability of Urualla watershed to soil erosion
using GIS based multicriteria technique.
24
erosion.AHP through pairwise comparison method
was used to estimate the weight of each factor for
use in the weighted overlay process.The
vulnerability map was validated by comparing
with ground truth data geolocated on the
vulnerability map. Figure 2 shows the flow chart
adopted for this study.
25
Figure 7: Reclassified P Raster Map
26
Using equation 3;
(5.105) 0.10
CI = = =0.025
51 4
3.3 Checking for the Consistency ratio (CR) Where RI = Randominconsistency indices
developed by Saatyand Vargas (1991).The values
The AHPalways allows for some level of of RI for small problems (n 10) are shown in
inconsistencies which should not exceed a certain Table 5.
threshold (Saaty, 1980). The technique relies on
the computation of a suitable consistency index Table5: Values of the random index (RI)for
(CI); this is given as follows; matrices of various sizes
( xn) N 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CI = 3
n1 R 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5
0
I 8 0 2 4 2 1 5 1
Where n = number of criteria. Table 4 shows how
the value of x was obtained Source: Saatyand Vargas (1991)
For this particular study, RI is 1.12. Hence, the
consistency ratio is given as follows;
0.025
CR= =0.022
1.12
Table 4: Estimating x value
The consistency ratio (CR) obtained for this study
is 0.022which is smaller or equal to 0.1,therefore,
the pairwise comparisons carried out and criteria
weights obtained are consistent and accurate
respectively, for the decision making process of
producing an erosion vulnerability map.
Having obtained the weights and carried out
consistency check, the vulnerability map was thus
generated using weighted overlay process.The
area liable tosoil erosion was calculated
corresponding to each category as 0.90% (high),
54.03 % (moderately high) and 45.06 % (low)
vulnerability in the study area(Figure 9). The
27
result revealed that, the areas that come under high Figure 9: Chart showing Percentage Level of
to moderately high erosion categories are Erosion Vulnerability
primarily located at the downstream part of the
watershed. In contrast,the area under low erosion 3.4 Validationof study
is located at the upstream section of the watershed.
In order to validate the result, pictures of locations
Three identified gullies in the watershed, when
within the study site were collected during site
superimposed on the vulnerability map falls under
visit at various points. GPS coordinates of these
the areas of high and moderately high erosion
locationswere also acquired and plotted on the
vulnerable areas (Figure 9). Thus, this justifies the
vulnerability map. Ground verification of resulted
result.
sites (Figure 10) revealed that there are various
visual indicators of erosional and depositional
features like rill erosion, abandoned channel and
siltation in agriculture fields and streams etc.
Thus, the ground truth data against each erosion
severity class can be generalized to map the extent
and location.
55.00
50.00
45.00
40.00
15.00
This study demonstrates that GIS techniques are
indeed valuable tools in assessment and mapping
10.00
of areas vulnerable to soil erosion hazard.
5.00 Identification of areas vulnerable to soil loss in the
0.90
0.00 study area by performing MCE in GIS
Low Moderately High High frameworkis a very good cost and time effective
Percentage coverage method than measuring at the field level.
The resultsshows that about 0.90 and 54.03
percent of the total area are found under high and
28
moderately high risk of erosion. About 45.06% of Malczewski, J., 1999, GIS and Multi-criteria
the area lies in low risk of erosion. Decision Analysis, New York: John Wiley and
Sons, ISBN 0-471-32944-4.
The predicted area vulnerable to soil erosion was
validated by comparing with the actual current Nuket, B. (2010). Using the Geographical
erosion and depositional features found in the Information System and Remote Sensing
field.Thestudyalso shows that Ezemazu and Techniques for Soil Introduction Erosion
Ozuomee Communities in Urualla are at high risk Assessment. Polish J. of Environ. Stud. Vol. 19,
to erosion than other communities in the area. No. 5 (2010), 881-886.
The erosion vulnerability map which had been Onyekanne, C.F., Akamigbo, F.O.R. and Nnaji,
developed can be used as one of the main inputs in G.U. (2012). Characterization and classification
decision- of soils of Ideato north local government area.
makingsupportsystemofsoilresourcemanagementa Nigerian Journal of Soil Science VoL. 22(1).
nditmayinfluencepolicydecisionsoflanduseplannin ISSN-1597-4488, published by the Soil Science
ginthestudyarea. Society of Nigeria.
The result will also enable erosion control experts Rao, M., Sastry, S. V. C., Yadar, P. D., Kharod, K.,
to plan on how to effectively prioritize the erosion Pathan, S. K., Dhinwa, P. S., Majumdar, K. L.,
menace without aggravation or transfer of erosion Sampat, Kumar D., Patkar, V.N., and Phatak, V. K.
problem from one point to another within the (1991). A weighted index model for urban
watershed. suitability assessment A GIS Approach.
Bombay, Bombay Metropolitan Regional
Finally this research work is recommended to Imo Development Authority.
State unit of Nigerian Erosion and Watershed
Management Project (NEWMAP). Saaty, T.(1980). The Analytic Hierarchy Process,
New York, McGraw-Hill.Pg. 287.
References
Saaty, T.L. (2008). Decision making with the
Ashraf, M. D.(2012).Floods in a Megacity: analytic hierarchy processes, Int. J. Services
Geospatial Techniques in Assessing Hazards,
Risk and Vulnerability, Springer Saaty, T.L. Vargas, L.G.(1991). Prediction,
Geography, page .no 139-167. Projection and Forecasting,Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, page no. 251.
Khoi, D.D. and Murayama, Y.(2010).Delineation
of suitable cropland areas using a GIS based Saini S.S. and Kaushik, S.P. (2012).Risk and
multi-criteria evaluation Approach in the vulnerability assessment of flood hazard in part
Tam Dao National Park Region, Vietnam. of Ghaggar Basin: A case study of Guhla
Sustainability, vol.no.2, page no. 2024- block, Kaithal, Haryana, India, International
2043. Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences ,
Vol. No. 3(1), page.no 42-52
Kokh-Shrestha M. (2002).Soil erosion modeling
using remote sensing and GIS: A case study of Shin, G. J. (1999). The Analysis of Soil Erosion
JhikhuKhola Watershed, Nepal. Analysis in Watershed Using GIS, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Civil
Lu, D., G. Li, Valladares, G. S., and Batistella, M. Engineering, Gang-Won National University,
(2004).Mapping Soil Erosion Risk in Chuncheon,
Rondonia, Brazilian Amazonia: using
RUSLE, Remote Sensing and GIS. Land Siddiqui, M.,Z., Everett, J., W., & Vieux, B., E.
Degradation & Development, Vol.no. 15 (1996).Landfill Siting Using Geographic
(5), page no. 499-512. Information Systems: A demonstration,
29
Journal of Environmental Engineering,
Vol.No.122(6), page no. 515523.
Solaimani, K., Modallaldoust, S., and Lotfi, S.
(2009).Investigation of land use changes on soil
erosion process using geographical information
system. International Journal of Environment
Science and Technology, vol. no. 6, page no. 415
424.
Ume N.C., Enwereuzor, A.I., Egbe, C.A., Ike,
M.C. and Umo, S.I. (2014). Application Of
Geographic Information System (GIS) and
Satellite Remote Sensing (SRS) Technologies
In Identifying Impacts of Gully Erosion in
Urualla, Ideato-North Local Government Area,
Imo State, Nigeria. Global Research Journal of
Science (GRJS online) ISSN: 2276-8300
Academic Publications. Pp. 1-8
Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D. (1978).
Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide to
Conservation Planning. USDA Agriculture
Handbook No 537. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington D.C.
30
MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR EROSION The study was aimed atdevelopment mathematical
modelsfor Erosion Control Check damsthrough
CONTROL CHECK-DAMS
the application of principles hydrodynamics. Field
studies were carried out in an artificial channel
excavated within the catchment of Otamiri River
at Federal University of Technology, Owerri.
Osuagwu, J.C1, Okoro B.C.2., Nwakwasi Artificial runoff was simulated into the channel by
pumping water from Otamiri River. Sandbags of
N.L.3,Nwachukwu A.N.4
various patterns and heights were placed across
the channel to reduce the erosive effect of runoff
and encourage siltation. The flow characteristics
including sediment concentration and sediment
1,2,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal accumulation rates upstream were recorded.
University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria Mathematical models relating the flow parameters
with sediment accumulation rate and
concentration upstream were developed. Model 1
was derived based on the principle of mass
balance On the other hand, the second model
relating Storage factor with height of sediments
in a gully was based on Regression approach.
Model verification indicated a high level of
correlation between measured and predicted
values of the variables. The coefficient of
correlation (R2) was computed as 0.964 and
0.9664 respectively for models 1 and 2. The
mathematical relationships obtained in the study
will be useful in the design and sustainable use of
Check-dams for erosion control.
Vd C1
=Q ( C0 C1 ) S C 1 3.4
3.0RESULTS dt
( Q+S )
[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S ] (
=l n ( 7.38C 01.608 )
Q+S
V )t 3.13
I . F=e
( V ) 3.7
t
(
Q+S `
Q C0 )t
C1 =k e V 3.8
Q+ S
[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S
=lnk ]
Q+ S
V (
t 3.9 )
Let,
QC 0
( C 1 )
C = A 3.10
Q+ S 1
ln A=ln k ( Q+S
V )
t 3.11
Plots for Cases 2 and 3 were also made and the
intercepts and slopes recorded.
It can be seen that equation 3.11 is linear. Thus, a
plot of ln A against twould give a straight
3.1.1Model Calibration:
linewith ln k as the intercept and ( Q+S ) /V as
The modelwaschecked and adjusted using another
the slope. set of experimental data (See Table 1).
Values of ln(A) for different time intervals were Table 1 Experimental Data for Model Calibration
computed fromthree sets of Q, CO,and S,
C1valuesmeasured atdifferent time intervals.The Q (m3/s) C0 S (m3/s) t (secs
plots of ln(A) against time (t)are presented in Figs
4- 6with the resultant fitting line for each set of 0.12 0.08 0.00012 12
data labeled 1 2 and 3 accordingly.In each
case, the k value for the line that has highest
correlation coefficient (R2)was chosen as
34
From equation 3.13, presented in Fig.3.3. The coefficient of correlation
R2 is 0.964 and standard error =3.841x 10-3.These
( 0.12+ 0.00012)
( ) 1200 values indicate closeness of the predicted values
0.12 0.08
+(7.38 0.081.608)e 0.144
C1 = with the observed values; thus confirming the
0.12+0.00012
validity of the model developed.
( 145 )
0.21=0.127 +0.1 036 e
3
=1.53 10
[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S ]
=l n ( 7.38C 01.608 )
Q+ S
V (
t 3.14 )
3.2Regression Model
( Q+S )
C1 =
Q C0
+ ( 7.38 C 01.608 ) e
1.53 103 ( V ) 3.15
t
An empirical model that relates the major
Q+ S hydraulic variables that affect sediment
accumulation with height of sandbags (hS), with a
dimensionless parameter termed storage factor
S
3.1.2 Model Verification:
)indicating closeness of the predicted values
The set of data presented in Table 2 was used for
model verification. Column 6 of the Table with the observed values was derived.
shows measured values of C1 at given time
intervals for tests A D.
S
sf = 4.20
Q C0
Table 2 Experimental Data for Model Verification
Where C0 = Initial relative sediment concentration
Tests Q (m3/s) C0 S (m3/s) (mg/mg)
Alternatively, Equation 3.11 was used to predict The relationship between the variables was
values of C1 using data from Table 2.A plot of represented by an exponential function;
measured values against predicted values is
35
bx 47.28 X 0.0298
y=a e 4.28 h s=0.058 e
hs h s=0.2373
A plot of against Sf from experimental data
is presented in Fig 3.4.The fitting curve equation
is: Equation 4.21 is adjusted by introducing a
calibration parameter ;
y=0.058 e 47.28 x 4.29
47.28 Sf
h s=0.058 e 4.31
Thus the relationship becomes;
Also,
hs
S f =ln ( ) 1
0.058 49.029
4.33
0.0298
36
correlation (R2) was computed as 0.9664 while the
standard error of estimates (Se) was 0.00384.
Since a different set of experimental data was used
for the verification, the model can reliably be
Table 3 Data for Verification of Model 2
applied in the design and sustainable use of
Q hs C0 S Sf sandbags for erosion control.The variation of
sediment concentration upstream of sandbags with
0.12 0.2 0.054 0.00015 0.023 time could be predicted based on the following
3 parameters; flow rate, sediment accumulation rate,
0.12 0.25 0.0375 0.00014 0.0311 and initial sediment concentration. The results
obtained can be applicable to other types of
0.12 0.3 0.040 0.00016 0.035 erosion control Check-dams.
7
0.12 0.35 0.0425 0.00022 0.049
6 4.0CONCLUSION
The use of sandbags could be optimized by
Similarly, values of Sf (y) computed from equation application of principles of mathematics and
4.26 are presented alongside the estimated values hydraulic engineering. Therate of accumulation of
(yest) for corresponding values of Q, C0, and hs. sediments depends on the flow rate, sediment
A plot of measured values against predicted values concentration,height of sandbags and pattern of
is presented in Fig. 3.5. The coefficient of placement. The mathematical models formulated
correlation R2 is 0.966 and the standard erroris from the principle of material balance and
0.00196. The standard error is not significant, regression analysis could be used to predict the
indicating closeness of the predicted values with concentration of sediments in the runoff upstream
the observed values. of sandbags in a gully at any time interval.
Finally, we recommend furtherstudies extending
application of sandbagsto deeper gullies.
REFERENCES
Agunwamba, J.C. (2007). Engineering
Mathematical Analysis. De-Adroit, Enugu, 503-
511.
Bettis, E.A. (1983). Gully Erosion, Iowa Geology
No 8. Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
CASQA ( 2003 ). Sandbag Barrier. California
storm water BMP Handbook
Edwards, D. and Hamson, M. (1989).Guide to
Mathematical Modeling: CRC Mathematical
Guide, CRC Press.
Fig 3.5A plot of measured valuesS fagainst
predicted values. Fitton, L. and Blair, R. (1975).Environmental and
Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation
Model verification indicated a high level of Benefits.www.com /shows/results/16
correlation between measured and predicted
values of the variables. The coefficient of
37
Koruma, S. (1976).Hydraulics of Slope Erosion by SUSTAINABLE WATERSHED
Overland flow.J. Hyd.div. ASCE 102 (10), 1574-
1586. MANAGEMENT: CONCEPT,
Ogbonna, S.U. (1990). Experimental Verification PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
of Erosion Rate Equation.Trans. of The Nigerian
society of Engineer 25 (3).28-34.
Penitel, D., Howey, C., Resosidarmo, P., Sinclair,
K., Kurz, D., Crist, S., Shipiritz L., H.O. Israel, T.C. Dikeogu, and O.C.
Stocking, M. (1987). A Methodology for Erosion
hazard Mapping of SADCC Region. Paper Okeke
presented at the workshop on Erosion Hazard
Mapping of the SADCC Soil and water
Construction and land utilization sector, Nsukka,
April 1987.
Ume, M.I. and Ojiako, G.U. (1989).Determination Department of Geology, Federal University of
of Dynamic Model for Rates of soil loss in Gully
Erosion.Proc. Eng.And Tech. Dev. 321-333. Technology, Owerri
38
ABSTRACT
Watershed Management is an integrated multi- INTRODUCTION/CONCEPT OF
resource process that seeks to ensure good WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
and sustainable ecological, economic and A watershed is simply the geographic area through
social conditions within a watershed. It which water flows across the land and drains
serves to integrate planning for land use, into a common body of water, whether a
water resources, and biomass, taking into stream, river, lake, or ocean. For watershed
account, both groundwater and surface water planning and management purposes, a
flow with a view to ensure ecological, watershed is an area with specified
economic and human health as benefits. boundaries set by a group of stakeholders
Planning for effective watershed who have interests in the water resources
management is a continuous process that within the watershed (Nevada Division of
requires collection of data ( climatic data, Water Resources, 1999).
hydrochemical data etc) and analyzing them
to identify issues and problems; designing a According to The Red Deer River Watershed
watershed plan on the basis of the data Alliance (2016), watershed management is
collected; implementing the plan as well as an integrated multi-resource management
monitoring and evaluating it to adapt to new process that seeks to ensure good and
technology. Planning should not only sustainable ecological, economic and social
include partnership between conservation conditions within a watershed. Watershed
authorities and stakeholders but a clear-cut management serves to inte- grate planning
master plan that would put into for land use and water resources, and
consideration the following issues: biomass, taking into account, both
watershed characteristics, analysis of groundwater and surface water flow, as well
problems and potentials, schedule of as recognizing and planning for the
operation, cost benefit analysis, interaction of water, plants, and animals
supplementary information and survey found within the geographic boundaries of a
maps. Implementation- a multi-partner watershed. According to Tonn, Franti,
responsibility- that requires enduring Wortmann and Shelton (2017), it provides a
commitment and political will is a crucial framework for integrated decision making
aspect of watershed management with a view to:
considering the fact that the desired changes Target priority problems in the watershed,
can only be achieved if the watershed
management guidelines or plans are Promote a high level of involvement by
properly implemented. Successful interested parties,
implementation requires the following to be
Develop solutions to problems through the use
put in place; a single co-ordinating and
facilitating body, strong linkages to existing of expertise and authority of multiple agencies
programmes, clear designation of and organizations as well as
responsibilities, effective laws and Measuring success through monitoring and
regulations, continuous monitoring and other data gathering.
progress report, awareness creation and
adequate funding. For example, erosion and
flood control measures in rural and urban
areas as well as pollution control measures
in agricultural systems are all integral parts
of watershed management.
OBJECTIVES OF WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
39
The specific objectives of a good watershed bodies, wetland and natural spaces are
management programme include but are not foundations for recreation and tourism.
limited to: PLANNING
Protection, conservation and improvement of Planning in watershed management is a
the land of watershed for more efficient and continuous process that requires:
sustained production.
Collection of water resource data and
Protection and enhancement of the water analyzing it to identify issues and problems;
resources within the watershed.
Designing a watershed plan on the basis of the
Erosion control and reduction of incidence of data collected so as to protect and promote
floods and the resultant damages to landforms resource sustainability;
and environment by adopting strategies for
erosion and flood management. Implementing the plans, as well as
Provision of standard quality water by Monitoring and evaluating the plans to adapt
encouraging vegetation and waste disposal to new information or technology.
facilities. IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
BENEFITS OF WATERSHED Water resources can be protected more
MANAGEMENT effectively if watersheds are managed as
A healthy watershed provides three (3) major whole ecosystems.
benefits and these are ecological, human, By using a watershed plan to manage our
and economic health. resources, harmful impacts on the system can
Ecological Health: A healthy watershed functions be identified quickly so that prevention,
as a complete ecological system that remediation, or improvement can be carried
promotes the health of all living organisms out right away.
in the watershed. A healthy and intact Managing our water resources on a watershed
watershed minimizes the impacts of basis and making necessary plans to protect or
flooding and erosion and serves to filter rehabilitate it can prevent future community
sediments and contaminants by ensuring that water shortages and poor quality water.
these contaminants do not reach our surface
water and groundwater systems.
Human Health: Clean surface water and OUTLINE OF MASTER PLAN FOR
groundwater are essential to support our WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
high quality of life and the social aspects of The following issues as prescribed by Central
our communities. Clean rivers, lakes and Research Institute for Dry Land Agriculture,
streams not only minimize the incidence of Hyderabad, and as shown in the diagram
waterborne diseases but provide many below should be considered while preparing
healthy recreational opportunities including the master plan for watershed management.
swimming, boating and fishing.
Economic Health: A vibrant economy requires an
abundant supply of clean water. Homes,
farms, municipalities and industries all need
an ample supply of clean water to operate
effectively. Clean water allows industries
and agricultural producers to operate more
cost effectively. Healthy surface water
40
a) Present land use and management
practices.
b) Crop management
c) Soil and water management
d) Pasture management.
41
guidelines or plans require the following
elements to be put in place:
A single co-coordinating and facilitating body
(e.g., a watershed management committee).
Strong linkages to existing programmes
including land use planning processes, water
quality and flow monitoring programmes, to
optimize use of available information and
minimize duplication of efforts.
Clear designation of responsibilities,
timetables, and anticipated costs, and location
for actions.
These agencies have the expertise and experience
Effective laws, regulations, and policies to
to assist in designing and delivering
effective watershed management. Their local provide a frame work for the tasks identified
networks are essential for ensuring that the in the previous item.
partners and stakeholders work together for Continuous monitoring and reporting of the
the good of the local environment. implementation success as well as their impact
IMPLEMEMTATION so as to assess the effectiveness of individual
actions and to sustain public and political
According to Keng, Chamkamorn, and Pehn interest.
(2013), implementation is a crucial aspect of
the watershed management considering the Awareness creation, communication and
fact that the desired changes and the capacity building to consolidate and enhance
maintenance of the ecological, economic the social consensus achieved in the planning
and social function of the watershed can process.
only be achieved if the watershed Adequate funding for the above activities.
management guidelines or plans are
adequately implemented. Implementation
usually follows directly after planning
within a management circle.
MEASURES IN EROSION AND FLOOD
The implementation is a multi-partner CONTROL
responsibility that is co-ordinated and
facilitated by the watershed management The various control measures include:
committee. It requires enduring commitment Vegetative measures (Agronomical measures)
and political will by the implementing
agencies and concerned stakeholders to Pasture cropping
ensure that the set goals can be achieved. Grass land farming
Clear responsibilities must have to be
defined before the implementation process Engineering measures (structural practices)
begins and the duplication of efforts should Contour trenching
be avoided in order to achieve effective co-
ordination and management of Terracing
responsibilities. Construction of earthen embankment
Keng et al (2013) has noted that the successful Construction of check dams
implementation of watershed management
Construction of farm ponds
42
Construction of diversion Adequate implementation should always be
considered a very important aspect of
Establishment of permanent grass and
watershed management.
vegetation
There should be clear designation of
Provision of vegetative and stone barriers
responsibilities so as to avoid duplication of
efforts.
MEASURES IN POLLUTION CONTROL
In agricultural systems, common practices include
the use of buffer strips, grassed waterways,
the re-establishment of wetlands and
sustainable agricultural practices such as
conservation tillage, crop rotation and
intercropping.
In urban areas, floods and stormwater can be
checked by the use of:
Retention ponds REFERENCES
Filtering system and wetlands, Eludoyin, A.O. (2014). Water and Waste Water
Management, National Open University of
whereas soil erosion can be checked by the use of: Nigeria Course Guide for ESM 322.
Silt fences, Emma, T. and Lisa-Anna, H. (2010). Public-
Landscape fabric with grass seed and Private Partnership for Storm Risk
hydroseedings. Management in the Cayman Islands;
Sustainability Research Institute, The
The main objective in all cases is to slow water University of Leeds.
movement to prevent soil transport.
Erickson, J.D, Messner, F. and I. Rings eds.
(2007). Ecological Economics of
CONCLUSION Sustainable Watershed Management.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Watershed management with effective planning
and implementation ensures that watersheds Fetter, C.W. (2007). Applied Hydrogeology, 2nd
and the constituent land and water resources Edition: New Delhi: CBS Publishers, Pp
as well as plant and animal lives are well 367-8.
protected. It also ensures good and Keng, S.B., Chamkamorn, K., Penh, P. (2013).
sustainable ecological, economic and social Implementation of Watershed Management
conditions within the watershed. Activities, Technical Bullentin #72,
RECOMMENDATIONS Harvest@fintrac.com, www.fintrac.com.
Priority problems in the watersheds should be
identified and handled with expertise. Mark, L., Mark, S., John, T., and Mihriye, M.
Planning in watershed management should (2002). Watershed Partnerships and the
Emergence of Collective Action Institutions.
include active partnerships so as to achieve the
American Journal of Political Science,
sets goals.
Vol.46, No.1, Pp 148-163.
Political will and enduring commitment must
Nevada Division of Water Planning (1991).
be considered very important while carrying
Watershed Planning and Management.
out watershed management programmes.
water.nv.gov/../pt3-5a.pdf
43
Prabhakar, K., Lavanya, K., and Papa Rao A.
(2010). NGOs and Farmers Participation in Department of Geology, School of Physical
Watershed Development Programme in
Prakasam District, Asia Pacific Journal of Sciences, Federal University of Technology
Social Science, Vol. 11 (1), Pp 173 182
Rainfed Agriculture (2015). Planning and Owerri
Implementation of Watershed Management
Programme. Agrilnfo.in
Sabatier, P.A. (2005). Swimming Upstream:
Collaborative Approaches to Watershed
Management. The MIT Press. Corresponding Author: Phone: +2348938774782;
E-Mail: obiohe@yahoo.com
The Red Deer River Watershed Alliance (2016).
What Is Watershed Management?
http/www.rdrwa.ca/node/27.
45
2.1 Natural Geologic Processes 2.2.1 Solid Minerals Resources Exploration
and Mining
The natural geologic processes (Fig. 2) and forces
include processes of magmatism, and igneous rock Solid minerals can be sub-classified into metallic/
formations, like granites, granodiorite, gabbros, ore minerals such as (Au, Ag, Fe, Cu, Ba, Zn, Sn,
rhyolites, obsidians, pyroclastics like ash, tuff, Nb etc.) used as ornament, alloys, other metal
ignimbrite, scorias, pumice etc. The processes of works, and electrical wires etc; industrial minerals
deformation, metamorphism and formation of like clay, feldspar, silica sand, micas, limestone
metamorphic rocks such as marbles, meta- etc. used in manufacturing of various commodities
quartzites, gneisses, granulites, migmatites, and goods; aggregates and constructional
amphibolites, eclogiteetc (Obioha, 2013). The materials such as gravel, sand, laterite etc. used as
processes of sedimentation and formation of a whole for engineering constructional materials.
sediments and sedimentary rocks, such as sand, They may occur as residual deposits, placer
sandstones, limestones, carbonates, and mineral deposits, hydrothermal deposits vein and
like brine, phosphate, apatite etc. The recycling of replacement deposits in various rock types.
these rocks constitutes the rock cycle. This
together with the tectonic cycle and the hydrologic
cycle drive the denudation/weathering processes
(Fig. 2), which plays very vital roles in erosion,
gulling, flooding, glaciations and other mass
movement processes.
2.2 ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES
Anthropogenic causes of watershed degradation
relate to pollutants and pollution caused by man,
mainly in his search and mining of natural
resources, such as solid minerals, petroleum (EIA,
2004), coal, radioactive materials, and agricultural
resources. Poor wastes disposal methods and
management techniques also contribute to
watershed degradation.
46
Str eam s, Lakes, vegetation and soil to ground water
47
Anthracite- is the Coal of highest
grade/rank. It is usually hard, brittle, stony
looking, does not soil the finger, burns 2.2.4 Radioactive Minerals Exploitation
with smokeless flame, and has the highest Radioactive minerals are naturally occurring earth
heat producing capacity on combustion. materials, which can spontaneously decay in a
process called radioactivity (breaking up of parent
Other types of coal are the Bog Head Coal
element e.g. U238, 235-uraninite, Th232,-thorite etc.
derived from Organic matter mainly
and generating daughter isotopes e.g. Pb206, 207,208-
oozes, spores and algal remains, and the
lead), in a given period called half-life. The decay
Cannel Coal (Holmes, 1978).
is usually accompanied by huge amount of heat
energy (Holmes, 1981). The exploration and
exploitation of these radioactive minerals generate
enormous heat energy, from the ores, gangues,
waste, and tailings. The abnormal temperature
change can pollute water, land/soil, and even
result in climate change.
2.2.5 Agricultural Resources Effects.
Poor Agricultural practices such as uncontrolled
vegetation destruction, uncontrolled application
herbicides to kill grasses, pesticides to kill pests
and other insects, use of dangerous chemicals such
as gamelan in fishing, can generate dangerous
chemicals, which are capable of negatively
impacting on our watershed, thus polluting the
water, soil and endangering the ecosystem.
2.2.6 Poor Wastes Disposal Method
Poor waste and refuse disposal systems are other
Fig. 4: Niger Delta Watershed, showing the
human activities that can pollute and degrade the
relief and sea floor topography down to
watershed. These can produce foul odor, generate
depth of 2ooo m (Watershed online). green house gases like CH4, CO2, CO, S, N2,
These gasses can combine with moist, water of the
Coal mining involves surface and underground atmosphere to form acid rain. They can also
mining methods (Cassidy, 1973; Thomas, 1978; produce bad odor, fumes, which can cause
and Gregory, 1983;) or both. The surface mining pollution of the water, land and air, thus causing
methods include- strip mining, open pit (or open pollution of the watershed environment.
cut) mining, quarrying, alluvial mining, and
dredging etc. the underground mining methods
include room and pillar mining, cut and fill and
3.0 EFFECTS OF WATERSHED
long wall mining methods etc. All these may
DEGRADATION
involve massive vegetation clearance, overburden
removal, extensive land excavation, etc. which 3.1 Pollution/Contamination Effects
generate wastes, tailings, obnoxious materials, etc.
which can contaminate and pollute the watershed, The most important effects of watershed
causing deleterious effects man, animals and degradation are pollution/contamination of
plants and the entire biodiversity. Environment: water (surface and ground), land /
soil, air (atmosphere) (Kharaka, et al, 1995).
48
Destruction of aquatic life / ecosystem. Massive debris flow; density flow, turbidity current, bed
run-off, storm, gravity etc. may result in erosion, load, suspension load and solution load. When
flooding, gulling, mass movement resulting in loss armed with storm these easily results in flooding,
of land and water resources, destruction of gulling and massive degradation of watershed
agricultural farmlands, roads, river terraces etc. area, destruction of water banks and other
watershed resources.
51
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON well as wind and weather patterns to affect the
COASTAL EROSION AND FLOODING climates of different regions.
iv. Salt water intrusion, and As waves approach the shore, they slow down and
hence become shorter in length and steeper in
v. Loss of wetlands. height. This increase in steepness reaches a limit
of stability after which the waves break. Waves
arriving at the coast are refracted as they enter the
2.1 STORM FLOODING shallow waters. The long- shore component of the
surge (which is formed as the waves break)
Melting glaciers, ice fields and polar ice caps, plus induces littoral currents. These littoral currents
warming ocean waters all contribute to rising sea move large quantities of sediments offshore.
levels. The Nigerian bar beach presents a typical Sediment movement offshore and onshore has
case of storm flooding. Climate change is caused a recession of the 8ookm Nigerian
predicted to bring stronger storms with heavier Coastline.
precipitation and higher wave conditions. This
will increase the frequency and extent of flooding 2.2.1 Problems of coastal erosion
in many Nigerian coastlines. Problems of coastal erosion vary from place to
Flooding is a common occurrence in many parts place and may either be short term or long term.
of Nigeria. It occurs in in lowlying areas of These problems have adverse consequences on the
Southern Nigeria where annual rainfall is quite the living conditions of the people in the affected
heavy such as Lagos, Calabar, Warri and Port- eras.
Harcourt. Some of these coastal erosion problems are:
53
i. Loss of arable land which could be earthquake occurs on areas with steep
used for agriculture and settlement. slopes, the soil slips causing landslides.
ii. Loss of lives and valued property such ii. Heavy rainfall- When sloped areas
as roads and water treatment systems. become completely saturated by heavy
rainfall, landslides can occur. Without
iii. Huge monetary loss due to frequent the aid of mechanical root support, the
storm surge. soil simply runs off when it contains
iv. Huge capital outlay is involved in the too much water.
protection of coastal coastlines against
flood and erosion.
Human causes of landslide include:
v. Navigation activities are often
hindered. i. Clear cutting- This is amethod of
timber harvesting which completely
vi. Some of the measures used in solving removes all old growth timber from an
coastal erosion may lead to legal area. This method is hazardous because
problems due to their hazardous nature. it destroys the existing mechanical root
For instance, rip currents associated structure in the area.
with groynes may be dangerous to iii. Mining activities- mining operations
beach users. that use blasting techniques often cause
2.3 LANDSLIDES areas that are at risk of sliding to slide
due to vibrations under the soil.
Landslides have always existed on our planets.
Generally, they are classified as mass movement
of rock, debris, and soil down a slope of land. 2.4 SALT WATER INTRUSION
While landslides are naturally occurring A higher sea level means saltwater may penetrate
environmental hazards, they have recently wells in low-lying communities. This will reduce
increased in frequency in certain areas as a result the availability of freshwater for coastal
of climate change and human activity. Although communities. Islands pose unique challenges for
there are many different causes of landslides, they ground water management. Island countries
all have two things in common- they are all the ground water aquifers are recharged only by
results of the failure of the soil and rock materials rainfall. Seawater intrusion, the movement of
that make up the hill-slope and they are driven by marine saltwater into freshwater aquifers, could
gravity. become a serious problem.
Natural causes of landslide include: 2.5 LOSS OF WETLANDS
i. Earthquakes Seismic activities have Wetlands often occur in low-lying areas and rising
always been a main cause of landslides sea levels may convert these valuable habitats to
throughout the world. Any time plate deep water.
tectonics move, the soil that covers
them moves with them. When
54
Loss of wetlands could be minimized by A rigid revetment is a revetment which is
implementing the following control measures: unstable to tolerate settlement hence structural
failure results when settlement occurs. Rigid
i. Protecting the wetlandsagainst revetments include- cement-concrete slabs,
flooding. cement concrete bags, slab-cement bags
ii. Filtering out pollutants; and system when bound with cement mortar,
respectively.
iii. Stabilizing shorelines.
The type of revetment popular in Nigerian
coastline consists of rock filled PVC-coated
wire basket laid on a filter fabric over a 1:3
3.0 MEASURES TO CHECK COASTAL
embankment slope.
EROSION AND FLOODING
PROBLEMS. Flexible revetments have wide applications
and various advantages including:
Flood and erosion control problems have assumed
an alarming dimension of late as result of climate i. Flexibility to foundation problems.
change and its associated effects. This requires
immediate and permanent engineering solutions. ii. Adaptability to any environmental
condition.
Erosion whether in the hinterland or coastline is a
dynamic phenomenon. Federal Ministry of iii. Ease of construction.
Environment has embarked on a continuous fight iv. Low construction and maintenance
against this menace. Various mitigation measures cost; and
are being employed depending on the nature of the
problem. v. They retain the land immediately
behind them.
Measures to check flooding and coastal erosion
include: The following are some disadvantages of
flexible revetments:
3.1 REVETMENTS
i. They protect only the land immediately
A revetment is a structure constructed along behind them
the shoreline to withstand the full force of
waves and strong currents on the shore thereby ii. Erosion in front of revetments may be
protecting the land immediately behind it. intensified if the toe is not well
Revetment is a direct coastal control measure protected; and
and could be classified into flexible and rigid.
iii. Recession on adjacent shores may
A flexible revetment can maintain intimate continue when built on receding
contact with settling under- layers without shoreline.
rendering the revetment unstable or allowing
erosion to occur. Flexible revetments include
3.2 SHOREWALL
rip-rap, precast interlocking blocks systems,
Reno mattress and asphaltic concrete layers. A shorewall is a coastal protective structure with
essentially a vertical face e.g. seawalls and bulk
55
heads. The main function of a shorewall is to 3.3GROYNES
retain the land by preventing landslide. It also
resists erosion effectively due to the hardness of Groynes are shore protective structures usually
its face. Shore-walls may be classified as thin or built perpendicular to the shoreline to trap
gravity structure. longshore littoral drift and could be classified as
direct or indirect measure. They extend from the
A thin structure such as sheetpile depends on backshore into the littoral zone and are effectively
passive resistance of the soil for its stability due to used in groups i.e. groyne field. These cause wave
its deep penetration into the soil. The sheets are to break before reaching the shore resulting in the
bonded to the embankment through prestressed realignment of the shoreline as the groynes
anchor walls. accumulate sand on the shore. Groynes may be
used to reduce sand losses too.
A gravity structure depends on its own weight for
stability. Shorewalls are perhaps the most elegant Groynes could be constructed with wooden piles,
form of shoreline protection both in terms of concrete or rubble mounds either as permeable
durability and performance. The only snag in this (permitting the flow of water) or impermeable
option is the huge capital outlay required for its structure. The layout of a groyne system is
construction. It is therefore used in highly governed by their length, spacing, height and
commercial areas where the level of economic orientation to the coastline. Currently, the inter-
returns justifies the huge installation cost. relationship of these parameters is largely based
on empirical rules and observations.
Advantages of shorewalls include:
Advantages of groynes:
i. They have good wave dissipating
characteristics. i. They are good energy dissipating
structure; and
ii. They may be very stable against wave
action; and ii. They can cause rapid accumulation of
sediments on beaches.
iii. They can stabilize slopes against deep
failures. Disadvantages of groynes
ii. Scouring at toe of the shorewall may iii. Rip currents generated by groyne
occur. systems are hazardous to beach users;
and
iii. Heavy equipment are required during
construction; and iv. Heavy equipment is required during
construction.
iv. Huge capital outlay is required for its
construction.
56
3.4 BREAKWATERS 3.5 BEACH NOURISHMENT
Breakwaters refer to structures built some distance Beach nourishment is the movement of sand to a
into the sea. beach to maintain it. It protects the adjacent
upland by dissipating energy without adverse
They dampen waves by reducing their access to effects.
the shore and thus protect the shore immediately
behind them. Breakwater in dampening waves
create quiet water behind them and deposition of
sand occurs in this region, building the the Advantages of beach nourishment
shoreline seaward. The rate of sediment i. It provides dredging inlets for
accumulation depends on the height, length, navigation.
distance offshore and the permeability of the
breakwater as well as longshore transport rate. ii. The borrow material can be placed
exactly at the desired locations; and
Materials like piles (wooden, steel and reinforced
concrete sheets), armourstones or stone rubbles iii. Cost of beach nourishment may be
and concrete-filled fabrics bags could be used for relatively low compared to other
breakwater construction. protective measures.
v. They are expensive when compared to The technical requirements for effective
other measures. performance of a dyke are:
58
2, 3, 4,5
change, Metro East Coast, report for the U. S Loraj Consortium, 2A Orlu Road, Amakohia
Global change research program. Owerri, Imo State
59
remote sensing application using UAV that is However, integrated watershed management
specifically used for watershed development approach entails the integration of technologies
planning. within the natural boundaries of a drainage area
for optimum development of land, water, and plant
Keywords:Watershed management, Remote resources to meet the basic needs of people and
sensing, Unmanned Aerial Photogrammetry animals in a sustainable manner. In order to
System, Orthophoto achieve its objective, integrated watershed
management suggests to adopt land and water
conservation practices, water harvesting in ponds
1.0. Introduction and recharging of groundwater for increasing
water resources potential and stress on crop
Watersheds are described as an important source
diversi1cation, use of improved variety of seeds,
of water, energy and biological diversity.
integrated nutrient management and integrated
Furthermore, they are a source of such key
pest management practices, etc.
resources as forests, agricultural products and of
recreation. As a key ecosystem representing the
complex and interrelated ecology of our planet,
watershed environments are essential to the In Nigeria however, the lack of efficient,
survival of global ecosystem (Heal 2000). inventorying and mapping of precise data to
Watersheds sustain human life by providing the sustainably manage the watershed has been
ecological systems, food systems and water attributed for its resultant degradation of the
supplies on which we depend. Watershed natural ecosystem as evidenced with increasing
management is an aspect of water resources and flooding and gully erosion.To address the
environmental system management that deals with aforementioned problem of environmental
the coordinated control of different water run-off degradation, efficient watershed management
characteristics for efficient and sustainable planning is a key factor to be considered. To
environment. For optimal use of environmental achieve an efficient implementation of this,
resources in a region, integrated watershed detailed Geographic Information System (GIS)
development approach is still viewed by many to and topographical survey using remote sensing
be the most ideal as it helps in maintaining the applications like the UAVswas undertaken.
ecological basis of resources utilization. Researchers in engineering, surveying and other
Accordingly, watershed management deals with related fieldshaveput in frantic efforts to providing
optimizing the use of land, water, vegetation, baseline data based on integrated GIS and remote
animal, and environment to prevent soil erosion, sensing approach to an integrated watershed
improve water availability, increase, food, fuel and planning to form the basis of future management.
timber production on a sustainable basis. This approach is quite effective in monitoring the
According to Heal (2000), the role of watersheds impacts of human activities on watershed
requires a further digression towards the attributes environments in international development (Shultz
and the importance of watersheds from a global and Saena, 1998). In light of this, many authors
perspective. Additionally, conservation of viewed the widespread applications of GIS and
watersheds enhances the protection of many remote sensing techniques in watershed
habitats that are essential to other life support management as a major step towards sustainability
systems of the planet. and resource conservation (Malczewski, 2003;
Tyson, 2004). GIS and remote sensing techniques
60
are widely used for studying earths resources at based on two main navigation technologies,
various levels. Accordingly, Shaban Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
(2005)observed how the use of integrated (such as for example GPS) and Inertial Navigation
watershed assessment, especially relying on Systems (INS), in a GNSS-only mode or
remote sensing procedure in river basin INS/GNSS coupling.
environmental management has assisted the
developing countries on accurate engineering We believe that, in general, the geomatic
designs and developments.Remote sensing refers community has finally taken positions on
to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect thenano-micro-mini UAV ecosystem. Yet, the
and classify objects on earth (both on the surface, history of UAV is marked by a heterogeneous
in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of array of developments that sometimes departing
propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic from the previous ecosystem. Everaerts et al.
radiation). It makes it possible to collect data of (2004) presented a stratospheric UAV to offer high
dangerous or inaccessible areas and more resolution aerial imagery in near real time for
especially monitoring deforestation in affected large-scale mapping and crisis monitoring, and
areas. presented recent updates in with respect to the
integration with local civil aviation authorities
(Everaerts and Lewyckyj, 2011). More
recently, Miraliakbari et al. (2012)reported on the
Advancements in geospatial technology, use of gyrocopters as potential mapping platforms,
especially developments in both hardware and focusing on the analysis of its vibrations,
software components ofGIS, remote sensing and and Thamm (2011) presented a parachute-based
field survey equipment have revolutionized the remote-sensing system. In Kemper (2012), several
data acquisition, processing,interpretation and non-conventional unmanned and manned
presentation methods (Ndukwe et al., platforms (balloons, blimps, trikes and paratrikes)
2013).During the past 50 years, surveying and are presented carrying remote-sensing payloads.
engineering measurement technology has made Everaerts (2009) featured a comparative analysis
five quantum leaps: the electronic distance meter, of airborne platforms, satellite platforms, low-
total station, GPS, robotic total station and laser altitude and high-altitude UA, in relation to their
scanner. Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) or main qualities for remote sensing missions, such
drones (also known as unmanned aerial vehicles as coverage, update rate, flexibility, quality, spatial
or UAVs) remained the sixth quantum leap in resolution, positional accuracy, spectral resolution
technology. It is a set of complementary and accuracy, target applications and system
technologies brought together to fulfil a specific economic cost. An update on the use of UAS for
task. Conditioned by the lack of regulations and to geomatics, covering market and legislation
a certain degree, by the inherent complexity of analysis, is provided (Haarbrink, 2011).
large systems, a UAV mission has usually
consisted of operating an aerial platform, most Although drones have been around for awhile, the
probably a fixed-wing or rotary-wing craft of less technology has not yet been widely used in the
than 30 kg MTOW, within a range not greater than surveying and remote sensing professions. But
10 km and flying below 300 m, carrying a small or with the advent of practical, lightweight lithium
medium-format optical camera (probably on the polymer batteries, low-cost drone technology,
visible spectrum), and either remotely piloted by a lightweight digital cameras and advances in close-
human or automatically piloted by an autopilot range oblique aerial photography, made the future
61
of drones in land surveying greatly exciting.There Numerous survey instruments for data acquisition
are two basic types of dronesfixed-wing units and mapping have been identified, however, the
with a brushless electric motor and a rotor type efficiency and degree of accuracy of one
that has between three and eight or more brushless equipment to the other varies and as such, the
electric motors (commonly referred to as selection of the most suitable types is important
multirotors). The rotor units enable drones to for precise and accurate data procurement, with
hover at a precise altitude and position and operate minimal errors. This paper therefore examines the
in confined airspace. The technology for both use of different survey equipment for the mapping
systems relies on the featherweight lithium of watershed areas with main focus on the UAV.
polymer battery that stores an incredible amount
of power and the brushless motors that have a
large variable speed range with good power at all 2.0 Early developments
speeds, lightweight airframes and a simple,
hobby-type airplane radio controller. GPS and The traverse method of survey in line with its
altimeters enhance their capabilities. Small, on- photogrammetric component (aerial image
board video cameras with micro-video acquisition) was adopted, though some
transmitters enable pilots on the ground wearing conventional methods of survey was used to
digital video headsets to fly as though they were compliment the shortcomings of satellite
sitting in the pilots seat.The control accuracy of a dependent equipment.With technological
multirotor drone is extremely precise. Drones will evolution, equipment for topographical survey has
be a perfect platform for aerial photography and evolved from ancient to a more modern and
remote sensing. The built-in accelerometer and sophisticated type of high degree of accuracy. The
gyroscope that control flight can also be used to choice of possible remote sensing application for
simultaneously control motorized camera mounts an integrated watershed management and planning
to keep the cameras level and correct for is huge and continues to grow. For past decades,
undesired tip and tilt caused by wind or a shaky surveying equipment such as the levelling
pilot. Mikrokopter, DJI and Hoverfly drone instrument and the theodolite and advanced with
controllers allow the uploading of GPS or Google the evolution of the reflectorless total station for
Earth data to compute flight path coordinates and point acquisition in inaccessible, rugged terrain
automatic route flights. The planning software and Differential Global Positioning System
also enables the planner to enter specific routes, (DGPS) has increased speed and accuracy in
speeds, altitudes and hover times over each point. remote sensing.It is difficult to generalize
advantages or disadvantages for particular
Recent technology even enables the drone to land platforms, because possible applications and
automatically. Failsafe technology constantly working conditions vary greatly around the world.
checks for the quality of signals from the ground Manually navigated tethered systems such as kites
radio control, and if the signal is lost, the drone and blimps are ideal for the precise coverage of
goes into hover mode; after a few seconds, the small sites that require only a few images. These
drone returns like a homing pigeon to wherever it systems however, are hardly useful for systematic
took off and lands automatically. The controller surveys of larger areas, where regular overlaps
can also press a come home button, and the along evenly-spaced flight lines are preferable for
drone will return to the takeoff coordinates at a an efficient processing workflow. Global
preset altitude and land automatically. positioning system (GPS) and Inertial Navigation
62
System (INS) technologies are two examples of
recent developments in UAV technology. These
developments have led to the availability of a
range of auto piloted systems such as planes,
drones, multicomputer, etc. that can automatically
and autonomously follow prescribed flight lines.
63
The UX5 works on the principle of the differential GPS/Global Navigation Satellite
photogrammetry which depends on measuring the System (GNSS) receivers while the coordinates of
geometrical attributes of features from aerial the GCPs are used during the processing of the
photographs. The UX5 captures overlapping series aerial images for exterior orientation. In the case
of photographs of the area of interest. The side and of the Isiekenesi watershed, an area of around 8
forward overlaps ensures no missing gap during sq. kilometers was covered utilizing
flight. The accuracy and precision of the x, y,z of photogrammetry and the processing of image data
positions on the orthophoto (series of overlapping (over 10,000 images) was done on a workstation
images) produced is strengthened by the provision using Trimble Business Centre, Agisoft Photoscan
of visible ground control points well distributed in photogrammetric software. High and low band
the project area before flying. The UX5 has a pass filters were used in order to get rid of small
flying height of 75m to 750m which results in variations and point cloud classification for
images with spatial resolution of 0.024m to 0.24m generating point cloud from images. The 3D
respectively. modelling was done utilizing GoCad geological
software where the surface was interpolated with
nearest neighbor and kriging methods. Figure 2
2.2. Ground Control Stations (GCSs) shows the Ground Control Point (GCP)
installation with an absolute minimum of five
Ground Control Stations (GCSs) are stationary or GCP makers per flight.
transportable hardware/software devices to
monitor and command the unmanned aircraft.
GCS are probably as important as the unmanned
aircraft themselves, as they enable the interface
with the human intelligence any change in the
route of the UAS, any eventual error on the aerial
platform and/or any outcome of the payload
sensors shall be sent to and seen within the GCS.
As fundamental pieces in UAS, GCS have
evolved over the past decades pushed by the
parallel improvements in computer science and
telecommunications. The Trimble YUMA
1/YUMA 2 as used in this study works on
Windows Operating System (OS) and with
Trimble Access Aerial Imaging Software,
communicates with UX5 using the ground
modem. 2.4. The UAVs deliverables
2.3. Ground Control Points (GCPs) From single flight, operators can produce a range
of deliverables including:
Images taken are usually supported with GCP are
fundamentally important in the project area as it
ensures the stability of the geometric properties of
the photo(mosaic) produced; hence the aerial i. Digital Orthophoto or Mosaic of the
photogrammetry. The GCPs are established using project area
64
The DigitalOrthophotographs or mosaic are series
of overlapping images with corrected geometrical
properties, adequate side and forward overlap at
80% to avoid spaces between images. Applicable
for mapping of features in the project site.Its
creation mayalso be achieved using the UAV, as it
is important for the generation of land use cover
maps, which is an integral part of any watershed. Figure 2: Ground Control Point
Figure 3 shows the detail of the digital Ortho-
photo (DOP).
65
These are set of data points in some coordinate
system. In a 3d coordinate system, these points are
usually defined by x, y, z coordinates and often are
intended to represent the external surface of an
object and are applicable for terrain modelling and
engineering design with respect to the land mass.
Derivationofcontours
66
Determinationof terrainslopes
Derivationofsub-basinareas
Determinationofsurface runoffformation
(directionsofsurface rainfall runoff)
Determinationofchannelnetwork.
67
delineation using the Global Mapper 15.0 GIS
software.
68
iv. Road infrastructure drainage system
4.0 Conclusion
69
technique such as the UAV for adequate planning ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens.
and development of land and water resources. The Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22 (2011), pp.
paper identified lack of efficient inventories and 15
mapping of precise data to sustainably manage the
watershed to have contributed to the
environmental degradation in Nigeria. It further Everaerts, J., Lewyckyj N., Fransaer, D (2004):
introduced the application of GIS and UAV remote PEGASUS: Design of a stratospheric long
sensor as the approach to ensure efficient and an endurance UAV system for reomte sensing ISPRS
integrated watershed management and planning. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens., XXXV-
The UAVs deliverables that can be produced from B2 (2004), pp. 2933
single flight include the Digital Orthophoto (DOP)
which is used in the generation of land use cover
maps for showing the integral part of the Haarbrink, R., (2011): UAS for geo-information:
watershed; the Point Cloud, data points defined by current status and perspectives
x, y, z coordinates which represents the external
ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens.
surface for terrain modelling; the Digital Terrain
Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22 (2011), pp.
Model (DTM)/Digital Surface Model (DSM) for
207212
topographical analysis of study areas. These
deliverables when processedon a workstation
using Trimble Business Centre, Agisoft Photoscan
photogrammetric software will be used for the Heal, G., (2000): Nature and the
generation of drainage maps to determine runoff marketplace.Washington, DC: Island Press.
paths, watershed delineations using Global
Mapper GIS application. For an efficient and
integrated watershed development planning, a Kemper, G., (2012): New airborne sensors and
remote sensing approach should be employed so platforms for solving specific tasks in remote
as come up with a more precise and accurate data sensing. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote
with minimal errors. Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXIX-B5 (2012), pp.
351356
References
Malczewski, J., (2003): GIS multi-criteria
Everaerts, J., (2009): NEWPLATFORMS
evaluation with ordered weighted averaging
Unconventional Platforms (Unmanned Aircraft
(OWA): case study of developing watershed
Systems) for Remote Sensing. Technical Report
management strategies. Environmental and
56. European Spatial Data Research (EuroSDR).
Planning, 35:10:1769-1784
70
1
Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXIX-B1 (2012), pp. UZOIGWE, L.O, 2 SAMUEL, C,
497502 AND3MADUAKOLAM, S. C
luzoigwe@yahoo.com,
samuelchinwendu01@gmail.com,
1
Ndukwe, C., Francis, O., Kelechi, N., Chiamaka, Faculty of Engineering, Department of
I., Raphael, N., Amos, U.,(2013): The Role of Agricultural Engineering, Imo State University,
2, 3,
Surveying and Mapping in Erosion Management Loraj Consortium, No. 2A Orlu Road
and Control: Case of Omagba Erosion Site, Amakohia, Owerri, Imo State.
Onitsha Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of
Environment and Earth Science, ISSN 2224-3216 Abstract
(Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol. 3, No.11, Methods for predicting runoff from watersheds
remained an integral part of engineering practice
2013, www.iiste.org
particularly in planning, design of hydraulic
structures and hydrographic flow regime. The
researches on the development of intelligent
Shaban, A.,(2005): Watershed characteristics, land systems and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
use and fabric: the application of remote sensing remote sensing with the advent of geospatial
technology have revolutionized data acquisition
and geographicinformation systems. Lakes and
for efficient and precise information such as
Reservoirs:Research and Management, 10:2: 85- orthophotos, Digital Terrain Model (DTM), Cloud
92. points etc. for hydrological studies. The
application of Soil Conservation Service- Curve
Number (SCS-CN) and rational methods for
estimating runoff computation limited to
Shultz, S., and F Saenz. (1998): Linking people to
drainages greater than and less than 80 hectares
watershed protection planning with a GIS: a case respectively with generally uniform surface cover
study of Central American watershed. and topography. Air-filled pore spaces throughout
the year was calculated with the aid of
precipitation minus the initial abstraction against
the observed runoff. The SCS-CN and rational
Thamm, H., (2011): Susi 62: A robust and safe Kerby and Kirpich equations fitted the data well
parachute UAV with long flight time and good in its elementary forms. The computation using
payload. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote rational model gave a total discharge of 157.65,
Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22 177.15 and 197.30 m3/s for 25, 50 and 100-year
(2011), pp. 1924 return periods respectively. In the same vein, the
SCS-CN model recorded 74.5, 82.5and 88.9 m3/s
for 25, 50 and 100-year return periods
respectively. Based on the findings, the rational
Tyson, B., (2004): Layering natural resource and formula gave the highest discharge for Ihioma
human resource data for planning watershed watershed and hence recommended for
conservation strategies, Society and Natural watersheds areas less than 80 hectares.
Resources, 17: 2:163-170. Keywords:Geospatial technology, UAV remote
THE CONCEPTS OF PRECISE EMPIRICAL sensing, Air-filled pore spacing, Rational andSCS-
MODELS FOR HYDROLOGICAL CN models.
ANALYSIS 1. Introduction
BY
71
Hydrology deals with the occurrence, circulation processing, interpretation and presentation
and distribution of water upon, over and beneath methods (Ndukweet al., 2013).This advancements
the earth surface. Engineering hydrology includes have birthed efficient and precise information for
those segments of the field related to planning, hydrological studieswhich have helped a great
design, and operation of engineering projects for deal for researchers. The UAV which is an auto-
the control and use of water. Its task is to provide pilot aircraft system has found useful application
water management with information needed for for systematic surveys of larger areas where
designing and operating hydraulic structures and regular overlaps along evenly-spaced flight lines
systems (Linsleyet al., 1982). These systems are preferable for an efficient processing workflow
modify the natural water regime according to the especially in a holistic watershed management
requirements of society, to avoid damages and to applications. The UAV, a lightweight drone with
best utilize the water. Traditionally, the main aims digital camera of high magnification and focal
of hydrological research have been to provide an length for aerial photogrammetry is designed to
understanding of the water balance operating in check for the quality of signals from the ground
forested catchments or watersheds, the physical radio control and if such signal is lost, the drone
processes that control water movement and the automatically activates the hover mode and
impacts on water quantity and quality (Mungaiet returns back to the take-off point using the
al., 2004). Hydrological data can help us prepare coordinate of the ground control point during take-
and plan for extreme events by identifying where off.The remote sensed UAV which uses aerial
the risks are highest. Day to day hydrological data sensor technologies to detect and classify objects
is used to better manage our water resources in on earth (both on the surface, in the atmosphere
ways which suit our economic and environmental and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g.
needs by providing information on the availability electromagnetic radiation) have found significant
and quality of water for all uses.Access to accurate application in mapping and are used to produce
and reliable hydrological data allows us to better accurate and precise deliverables such as
appreciate our own water needs and that of the orthophotos, DTM, cloud points etc. that are
environment, so that options, and strategies can be useful in hydrological studies and other
developed which are better placed to benefit all, engineering purposes.
(Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967; Dunne and Black,
1970). Hydrologic processes and event are better
understood by simplifying the actual hydrologic
With the current sway in the world of technology regimes using numerical modelling to predict
and scientific evolution, there has been great need hydrologic responses and allow one to study the
to intensify researches on the development of function and interaction of various inputs.Simple
intelligent systems. This development in recent methods for predicting runoff from watersheds are
time has resulted to the evolution of more particularly important in hydrologic engineering
sensitive sensors application to watershed and hydrological modelling and they are used in
planning and management (Uzoigwe and many hydrologic applications, such as flood
Maduakolam, 2013). With the advent of geospatial design and water balance calculation models
technology, especially in hardware and software (Steenhuiset al., 1995; van Dijk, 2010; Abonet al.,
components of GIS, remote sensing and 2011).Empirically derived parameters are
sophisticated high degree accuracyofsurvey developed by the regression analysis of either
equipment, have revolutionized data acquisition, fitted or physically determined parameters.
72
Empirically derived parameters may vary in the Q=CIA (1)
amount of physical interpretation that can be
associated with their values. A number of methods Q = peak discharge or runoff ( m3 /s )
where,
for estimating a design discharge,that is, the
maximum value of the flood runoff hydrograph, estimated from the sub-generated catchments,
have been developed for the design of hydraulic C = dimensionless runoff coefficient obtained
structures on very small watershed where a
from the land use map of the area (Table 1), A
complete hydrograph of runoff is notalways
required, (Dickinson and Whiteley, 1970; Gburek, I =
= area of each sub-catchment (hectares),
1977; Steenhuiset al., 1982).
rainfall intensity (mm/hr ) for duration equals
2. Application of empirical methods
time of concentration obtained using the Intensity
As described in the Stormwater Management
Duration Frequency (IDF) curve and Z =360
Rules, the New Jersey Department of
(conversion factor for S.I unit).
Environmental Protection(NJDEP) has
specified that one of two general
runoff computation methods be used to compute The point cloud generated from the UAV flight
runoff rates and volumes. These are the measurement were processed and stored in
SCSmethodology, which consists of several Microsoft excel file format and serves as a basis
components, and the rational method (associated for hydrological design. The delineations of the
modified rational method), which are generally watershed areas were carried out with the aid of
limited to drainage areas less than 80 hectares. the generated point cloud (i.e. x, y z coordinates).
These x, y, z coordinates undertaken were also
I. The Rational Methoddeveloped more than 100 used for preparation of contours at 2 m interval
years ago remains yet the most-employed formula and to determine the characteristics features of the
of engineering hydrology. The rational method sub-catchments used for hydrological calculation
uses an empirical linear equation to compute the so as to determine the runoff generated. In
peak runoff rate from a selected period of uniform estimating the required runoff within a specific
rainfall intensity. It continues to be useful in sub-catchment area, Equations (2 to 5) were used.
estimating runoff from simple, relatively small Tc
The time of concentration is the sum of
drainage areas such as parking lots. Use of the
overland and channel flow.The overland flow time
rational method should be limited to drainage
was determined using Kirby formula, Equation (2)
areas less than 80 hectares with generally uniform
and channel flow time Kirpich formula, Equation
surface cover and topography. It is important to
(3) respectively. Thus,
note that the rational method can be used only to
compute peak runoff rates. Since it is not based on T c =T ov +T ch ( 2 )
a total storm duration, but rather a period of rain
that produces the peak runoff rate the method
cannot compute runoff volumes unless the user T ov=K 1 ( Lov N )0.467 S ov0.235 (3)
assumes a total storm duration.The rational
method peak flow rate is calculated using T ch=K 2 Lch0.77 S ch0.385 (4)
Equation (1).
73
CIA Industrial 0.5 - 0.9
Q= ( 5)
Z
areas
Asphalt 0.7 - 0.95
T ov T ch
where, = time for overland flow, = streets
K 1=1.44 Brick streets 0.7 - 0.85
time for channel flow, (the unit
Roofs 0.75 - 0.95
conversion coefficient for Kirby formula),
K 2=0.0195
Concrete 0.7 - 0.95
(the unit conversion coefficient for
streets
Lov (Source: David, 2006)
Kirpich formula), = overland flow length
II. The Soil Conservation Service Curve
(m) , N = dimensionless retardance Number (SCS-CN) approach is widely
S ov used as a simple method for predicting
coefficient, = dimensionless slope of the
direct runoff volume for a given rainfall
L event. The CN parameter values
terrain conveying the overland flow () , ch =
corresponding to various soil, land cover,
(m) , S ch and land management conditions can be
channel flow length =
selected from tables, but it is preferable to
dimensionless channel slope () . estimate the CN value from measured
rainfall-runoff data if available. However,
previous researchers indicated that the CN
Table 1: Simplified table of rational method runoff values calculated from measured rainfall-
coefficients runoff data vary systematically with the
rainfall depth. It soon became one of the
Ground Runof
most popular techniques among the
Cover Coefficient, c engineers and the practitioners, because it
Lawns 0.05 - 0.35 is a simple but well-established method, it
Forest 0.05 - 0.25 features easy to obtain and well-
documented environmental inputs, and it
Cultivated 0.08-0.41
accounts for many of the factors affecting
land runoff generation, incorporating them in a
Meadow 0.1 - 0.5 single CN parameter. In contrast, the main
Parks, 0.1 - 0.25 weaknesses reported in the literature are
cemeteries that the SCS-CN method does not consider
the impact of rainfall intensity, it does not
Unimproved 0.1 - 0.3
address the effects of spatial scale, it is
areas highly sensitive to changes in values of its
Pasture 0.12 - 0.62 single parameter, CN, and it is ambiguous
Residential 0.3 - 0.75 considering the effect of antecedent
areas moisture conditions (Hawkins, 1993;
Business 0.5 - 0.95 McCuen, 2002). In evaluating partial areas
of watershed runoff, an engineering
areas
74
method have been established to calculate
the saturated or contributing areas in
watersheds but have been found to be
cumbersome (Boughton, 1987; 1990).
75
and a flying height of 75 m to 750 m, which
results in images with spatial resolution of 0.024
m to 0.24 m, respectively.
The Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) The HEC-HMS was used to analyse the Ihioma
model was used in this study to simulate the watershed Figure 6 and the modelling results for
precipitation-runoff processes of dendritic the Simulation run (Run 2) as shown in the time
drainage basins. Hydrographs produced by the series results for the Ihioma sub-basin
program were used directly or in conjunction with Figure7indicated the highest precipitation and
other software for studies of water availability, outflow peakin June and September and lowest
urban drainage, flow forecasting, future precipitation loss in January. These updated
urbanization impact, reservoir spillway design, parameters like the precipitation, precipitation
flood damage reduction, floodplain regulation, and loss, baseflow and outflow Figure 8 provided new
systems operation. technical information for improving hydrological
studies in watersheds.
77
The results obtained using the twogeneral
runoff methods for computing runoff rates and
volumes for Ihioma watershed are shown in
Tables 4 and5.The computation using
rational formula gave a total discharge
of 157.65 m3/s, 177.15 m3/s and 197.30 m3/sfor
25-year, 50-year and 100-year return
period respectively. In the same vein, the
computation of peak discharge using the SCS
method gave a discharge of 74.5m3/s, 82.5
m3/s and 88.9 m3/s for 25-year, 50-year
and 100-year return period respectively
79
hydrologic parameters. Because of the interest in Dickinson, W. T., and Whiteley, H. (1970).
contributing areas in water quality studies, a graph Watershed areas contributing to runoff.
Proc., Wellington Symp. On the Results
relating contributing areas remained function of
of Res. On Representative and
effective precipitation for several simulation Experimental Basins, IASH Pub. No. 96.
studies and calculating the probabilities of runoff IASH-Unesco. Paris, France, 12-26.
areas had led to some adaptations of conceptual Gburek, W. J. (1977). The Mahantango Creek
model. However, Steenhuiset al.(1995) opined watershed- general hydrology and
research results. Water research in Eastern
that despite these reservations, it becomes
North America, D. L. Correll, ed.,
interesting that the SCS equation in its most Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
elementary form can be derived from partial-area D.C., 227-250.
hydrology for larger watersheds. Hawkins, R. H., (1993). Runoff curve numbers
from partial area watersheds.J. Irrig. And
Drain. Div., ASCE, 105(4), 375-389.
81
ArcGIS 10.2.1 is recommended for hydrologic 100 years. However, the difference was not
works within Nigerian catchments. significant at 5% level.
Keywords: ArcGIS 10.2.1 model, inverse The work of Eman (2011), applying ArcGIS to
distance weighting method, isopluvial maps and construct IDF curves using Isopluvial maps and
NEWMAP template. regional IDF formula parameters for Sinai
Peninsula in the North Eastern part of Egypt,
INTRODUCTION brought to bare a very great insight with regard to
regional peculiarities.
Many previous studies have been done on rainfall
analysis in various regions of the world.For many Uzoigweet al. (2012), worked on rainfall intensity
hydrologic analyses, planning or design problems, for various return period and rainfall duration of
reliable rainfall intensity estimates are necessary. some gauged sites, using ArcView GIS 3.1.0
Rainfall intensity duration frequency relationship model, in order to generate a regional rainfall
comprises the estimates of rainfall intensities of intensity map and made related prediction for
different durations and recurrence ungauged catchments located in the Eastern part
intervals.Projections from climate models suggest of Nigerian watersheds. The modified 24-hr IDF
that the probability of occurrence of intense values, spatially interpolated withArcGIS 10.2.1
rainfall in future will increase due to the increase model captured more RRI for 31 gauged stations,
in green-house gas emission (Chow, 1988). thus an improvement on the available records, for
more precise hydrologic works within the
The number of days with precipitation is also
Nigerian Catchments.
expected to increase, with no consistent pattern for
extreme wet events (David, 1961). Such changes DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
in extreme events according to (Kothyari, 1992),
can have enormous ecological, societal and The ArcView GIS 3.1.0 model generated by
economic impacts in the form of floods, droughts, Uzoigwe et al. (2012), applied available rainfall
heat waves, summer and ice storms, which may records (1976-2001) from Anambra-Imo River
have great implications for municipalities. The Basin Development Authority (AIRBDA) and
design standards at present are based on the other catchments of Cross River, Anambra and
historic climate information and required level of Edo states.
protection from natural phenomena as well as
climatic change scenario. Historical data set (base period) of 31 gauged
rainfall stations accounted for the extreme climatic
Present study aims to provide an insight into the variability of less than 20% of daily maximum
future changes in the intensity of extreme rainfall annual rainfall of extreme values for excedence
events associated with model and scenario probalility leading to Equations (1-9) for intensity
uncertainties. It also suggested methods for generated sheet.
quantifying these uncertainties (Solaiman and
Simonovic, 2011). Their results were presented in Rainfall Intensity , I =( Daily Rainfall( mm))/(24 (hrs ))(
the form of probability based intensity duration-
frequency (IDF) curves appropriate for the future
climatic conditions. ( I ) (2)
Mean , X=
n
Okonkwo and Mbajiorgu (2010) developed IDF
curves for South Eastern Nigeria using graphical where I =Rainfallintensity
and statistical methods with comparable results.
Their findings showed that IDF data developed
from the graphical and statistical methods were n=number of occurrence
very close for the lower return periods of 2 to 10
years, but differ for higher return periods of 50 to
82
return period, using ArcGIS 10.2.1 model to
2
( X 1 )
Standard deviation, S . D= (3) generate a map applying the inverse distance
n1
weighting method for the interpolation of the
stations value.
3
( X 1 X ) v. Determination of IDF curves for the case
Skewness= (4)
( n1 )( S . D )3 of only 24-hr duration records available, applying
empirical template developed by NEWMAP, Table
9.
4
Alpha , = (5)
( Skewness)
2
vi. Determination of the design discharge
using the Rational formula given as Q = CIA/360
(m3/s) where Q = design discharge, C =
S. D coefficient of runoff, I = rainfall intensity and A =
Beta , = (6)
catchment area of the gully. The time of
concentration is given as tc = tov + tch where tc is
time of concentration, tov is overland flow and tch
Gamma , = X (7) is channel flow. Kirpich and Kerby equations
wereapplied to estimate channel and overland
flows
Excedence probability , P=1Gammadist [ ( 1 ) , , ,True respectively.
] (8)
vii. Topographical survey including digital
Return period is generated by the formula , elevation model (DEM) of the different sites was
carried out, and subsequently, delineated from the
catchment areas.
1
Return period , T= (9)
P viii. The time of concentration so calculated
was used to estimate the intensity, I (mm/hr) from
the IDF curve and inputted in the design discharge
formula, Q = CIA/360.
The steps adopted for the generation of IDF curve
included: ix. Statistical analysis of the available rainfall
records from the different rainfall stations to check
i. Statistical analyses of the available rainfall the flow pattern, Table7.
records from the different rainfall stations which
include statistical analyses to check the pattern of x. Rainfall intensities I (mm/hr), was
flow data. computed for 12-hr and 24-hr durations for the 31
gaugedrainfall data following the nature of the
ii. Determination of rainfall intensities I rainfall data available for extreme values, Table 8.
(mm/hr),to compute for 12-hr and 24-hr durations
for that of Calabar rainfall data and 24-hr duration xi. Extraction of annual extremes from the
for the modified (1976 to 2015) rainfall data records and fitting of a probability distribution,
following the nature of the rainfall data available, Table 8, to generate the 12-hr and 24-hr duration
Table 6. rainfall intensity curve Figures 9-14.
iii. Extraction of annual extremes from the xii. Creation of Regional Rainfall Intensity
records and fitting of a probability distribution to (RRI) map, Figure 8, from the rainfall intensity
generate the 12-hr and 24-hr duration rainfall frequency curve for each return period. An
intensity curve. ArcGIS 10.2.1 model was used to generate a map
applying the inverse distance weighting method
iv. Creation of regional intensity map from for the interpolation of the stations value.
the rainfall intensity frequency curve, for each
83
xiii. Figures 15 and 16 showed the modified
IDF curve from 24-hr duration records in
conjunction with the modified NEWMAP
generated template.
84
Table 2: Intensity generation sheet
85
Table 5: Gauged rainfall stations climate change
scenario
86
1
9
a Du
1 9 0. 15 21 24 489 289 333 214 79 17 xi rat
7 2 9 2.8 7.5 6.8 8.1 373 .9 .4 .7 .9 .5 .6
1 m ion
9 u en Ra
1 9 58. 90. 17 29 293 464 315 218 176 73 22
8 3 0 7 2 7.8 1 .9 .3 .5 .8 .6 .7 .3 m sit ce inf
1 R y Pr all
9 11
1 9 37 34. 45. 99. 29 438 622 284 1. ai (m ob Int
9 4 .1 3 9 6 8.8 186 468 .2 .2 .3 7 0
1
nf m/ abi en
9 al in ho lit rio sit
2 9 59 12. 72. 11 36 339 381 460 292 26 15
0 5 .6 5 2 5.9 1.5 .2 484 .6 .9 .4 .7 .8 l g ur) y d y
1 0. 21
9
2 9 21 74. 68. 23 25 395 573 1. 8. 00 7. 8.
1 6 .1 6 7 8.4 2.7 .3 350 502 .2 228 5 0 1 16 45 55 16
1
9 13 2 19 93 96 05 93
2 9 21 30 21 267 311 304 239 245 7. 28
2 7 0 5.1 9.8 3.3 .2 .9 .3 .6 .2 4 .7
0. 6. 52 63 84 52
1 1 4 1 43 2 8 43
9
2 9 14 48. 13 25 289 290 168 254 179 12 6. 0. 6.
3 8 .6 0 7 0.5 3.7 .4 .3 .5 .2 .2 .4 0 87 06 14 87
1
9 10 19 80 .7 19
2
4
9
9
49
.1
73.
9
11
8.7
16
1.5
25
6.7
218
.3
270
.5
302
.7 609
335
.6
0.
5 0
9 16 42 04 04 42
2 9. 4. 01 92 81 01
0 11 2 7 9 3 6 71 3
2 0 53. 35 47. 391 380 356 246 6. 5.
5 0 2 4.2 3 .8 .9 .5 344 .5 5 5 0. 10
2
0 6. 09 .1 6.
2
6
0
1
5.
5 62
20
6.4
17
2.2
14
0.8
385
.4
301
.7
348
.6
430
.8
213
.4
22
.6
14
.8
1 64 89 04 64
2 1 15 12 63 69 12
2
0
0 27. 90. 24 26 391 318 293 372 40
7. 9. 62 87 71 62
7 2 0 9 4 1.7 5.6 .5 .7 .1 .4 .9 0 3 4 4 95 6 7 95
2
0 6. 0. 8. 6.
2 0 42 92. 13 73. 27 277 439 379 123 50 51 11 36 51
8 3 .3 6 6.9 3 8.1 .4 .5 .2 .8 .6
2 1 68 95 23 68
2
0
0 5. 73. 32. 17 13 225 240 185 309 322
2 15 02 82 93 02
9 4 3 5 4 3.3 1.1 .2 .4 .4 .1 .9 37 0 7. 6. 94 98 60 94
2 4 3 4 1 6 2 1
0
3 0 38 84. 10 18 46 500 190 490 194 21 10 6. 0. 8. 6.
0 5 .3 3 3.1 2.2 9.8 .7 260 .5 .6 .3 .5 .2
2 50 12 15 50
0 1 00 25 78 00
3 0 89 16 81. 35 454 625 286 479 360 9.
1 6 .8 1.8 7 9 8.2 .7 .5 .7 .4 .6 2 0 2 15 58 80 93 58
2
0
7. 6. 04 65 93 04
3 0 46. 13 39 397 311 246 472 165 42 19
5 0 0 4 7 1 4
2 7 0 8 78 5.2 3.3 .3 .2 .3 .7 .5 .7 .7
2
6. 0. 7. 6.
0 45 13 66 45
3 0 13 11 21 20 473 328 289 449 382 9. 26
3 8 .6 0 7.4 5.4 9.7 .9 .8 .7 .8 .9 2 .2 1 77 03 87 77
2 2 15 39 98 82 39
0 11
3 0 38 71. 71. 24 44 497 539 485 236 5. 9. 5. 27 79 53 27
4 9 .6 4 2 2.8 1.5 239 .9 .2 .3 .8 4 0 6 5 0 6 5 3 6
2
0 6. 7. 6.
3 1 47 19 32 134 488 322 438 36
5 0 .3 51 35 8.8 6.4 292 .7 .9 .8 .3 .6 0 39 0. 03 39
2 1 78 14 89 78
0
3 1 190 305 506 241 49 24 0 15 39 20 79 39
6 1 .3 .2 .7 366 .2 .7 .8 7. 3. 18 66 91 18
2
0
7 2 5 8 04 1 8
3 1 74. 22.
7 2 0 1 1 6. 0. 5. 6.
2 23 17 60 23
0 13
3 1 13 19 25 188 254 409 101 48 2. 1 08 83 60 08
8 3 40 0.9 0.5 3.2 .7 .1 .1 279 .1 .6 4 3 14 83 78 50 83
2
0 6. 9. 62 70 32 62
3 1 21. 11 15 28 236 139 336 355 220 91 8 6 5 4 6 1 4
9 4 0 4 0.2 7 9.4 .2 .3 .3 .6 .7 .3 30
2 6. 0. 5. 6.
0
4 1 12 72. 31. 23 364 325 359 352 324 78 17 19 20 17
0 5 .4 2 61 4 6.6 .7 .8 .2 .9 .3 .1 0 1 42 19 91 42
7 2 7
s 8 15 41 65 96 122 136 135 144 105 3 0 0 14 83 68 83 83
u 8. 58 47 31 74 72. 00. 21. 81. 04. 7 9. 3. 8. 55 64 97 55
m 1
1
.2 .1 .2 .2 1 1 6 4 9 9
1
2
1
9 4 2 7 7 3 7
M 0 15 25 35 46 7 3
a 5. 8. 9. 4. 9. 500 650 622 456 6. 2.
6. 0. 6.
x 3 6 8 2 8 .7 .1 641 .2 .2 7 4 04 22 4. 04
Table 7: 1 32 58 42 32
2 14 95 84 70 95
5. 5. 86 41 42 86
S D D Ra Ex Re 24 1 4 0 4 2 98 4
/ ai es inf ce tur - 0
1 1 13 5. 0. 3. 5.
ly ce all ed n Ho
1 1 7. 71 32 06 71
M nd Int an Pe ur
9. 1 14 61 56 14
87
37 98 21 37 83 86 83
10 10 77 10 9 71 5 9
7 2 1 1 2 4. 0. 1. 4.
5. 0. 3. 5. 98 58 70 98
69 33 03 69 1 65 81 03 65
1 99 00 01 99 4 11 52 18 36 52
3 13 02 15 60 02 5. 9. 82 93 34 82
7. 6. 74 47 90 74 2 0 7 2 6 2 2
1 1 8 1 8 9 1 4 4. 0. 1. 4.
2 5. 0. 3. 5. 89 62 60 89
69 33 00 69 1 03 30 50 03
1 10 29 32 10 5 11 62 38 37 62
3 13 18 69 81 18 6. 7. 00 54 13 00
6. 6. 35 10 60 35 2 4 4 3 5 4 3
1 4 6 4 9 9 4 5 4. 0. 1. 4.
3 5. 0. 2. 5. 86 63 58 86
68 33 98 68 1 83 09 50 83
1 54 48 65 54 0 11 75 10 11 75
3 13 10 39 06 10 6. 6. 94 12 81 94
2. 6. 48 33 97 48 2 6 8 5 5 1 5
1 0 4 2 2 1 2 6 0. 1.
4 5. 0. 2. 5. 4. 64 55 4.
50 39 50 50 1 83 35 38 83
1 06 87 78 06 1 11 27 48 84 27
9 13 12 47 52 12 1. 6. 90 32 85 90
6. 2. 33 50 67 33 2 9 0 08 6 9 08
1 1 0 8 6 5 8 7 4. 0. 1. 4.
5 5. 2. 5. 82 64 54 82
39 0. 29 39 1 49 63 71 49
1 72 43 33 72 1 11 03 31 94 03
5 12 88 60 68 88 6. 5. 19 08 65 19
9. 9. 37 39 36 37 2 0 8 7 4 7 7
1 4 5 5 85 8 5 8 4. 0. 1. 4.
6 5. 0. 2. 5. 79 65 52 79
30 46 12 30 37 72 14 37
1 50 99 77 50 9 11 51 53 82 51
2 12 01 75 71 01 7. 5. 13 54 86 13
2. 7. 59 27 52 59 2 0 1 2 1 5 2
1 2 3 1 1 7 1 9 4. 0. 1. 4.
7 5. 0. 2. 5. 69 69 44 69
29 47 10 29 1 07 24 40 07
1 28 44 76 28 1 11 48 93 56 48
1 12 73 65 34 73 6. 2. 69 65 56 69
5. 7. 73 61 28 73 3 8 6 4 1 1 4
1 8 0 5 5 9 5 0 4. 1. 4.
8 5. 2. 5. 66 0. 42 66
22 0. 00 22 1 22 70 45 22
1 66 49 36 66 5 11 95 19 72 95
4 12 01 90 75 01 6. 1. 43 65 22 43
8. 5. 29 82 74 29 3 0 9 3 11 7 3
1 2 4 7 75 2 7 1 4. 0. 1. 4.
9 5. 0. 1. 5. 57 72 37 57
21 50 98 21 1 78 93 11 78
1 38 38 48 38 1 10 96 06 65 96
2 12 56 27 06 56 2. 9. 08 70 23 08
0. 5. 59 38 76 59 3 6 9 9 5 5 9
2 7 1 8 4 3 8 2 4. 0. 1. 4.
0 5. 0. 1. 5. 46 76 31 46
09 54 81 09 1 74 32 02 74
1 09 95 95 09 1 10 25 22 33 25
5 12 32 83 60 32 5. 7. 98 54 83 98
3. 2. 75 37 14 75 3 1 2 4 3 5 4
2 5 2 1 2 3 1 3 4. 0. 1. 4.
1 5. 1. 5. 44 77 29 44
02 0. 74 02 1 28 04 79 28
1 96 57 73 96 6 10 02 70 08 02
3 12 21 22 95 21 4. 6. 27 44 31 27
6. 0. 25 80 34 25 3 9 6 3 9 2 3
2 8 7 2 34 2 2 4
3 1 10 4. 0. 1. 4.
2 7
2 12 5. 0. 1. 5. 5 4 3. 30 80 23 30
3 2. 0. 01 57 73 01 9. 4 89 77 80 89
4 4 65 70 28 65 5 82 29 37 82
99 79 62 99 92 93 56 92
88
83
7 5 3 7
5
4. 0. 1. 4.
28 81 22 28
1 60 37 88 60
5 10 42 43 88 42
5. 2. 46 33 71 46
3 0 9 8 4 5 8
6 4. 0. 1. 4.
10
15 84 18 15
46 60 20 46
5 33 00 32 33
8
1. 99 42 69 12 42
3 5 .7 3 5 6 3
7 4. 0. 1. 4.
6
04 87 14 04
1 25 05 87 25
Rinfall Intensity
2 75 17 42 75
4
5. 97 71 48 00 71
3 1
8
.0 3 3 6 3 2
3. 0. 3.
01 98 1. 01
1 67 44 01 67 0
0 33 30 58 33 1 10 100 1000
2. 72 57 02 16 57
3 9 .4 3 8 23 3
9 2. 1. 2. Return Period
14 0. 00 14
1 70 99 10 70
0 48 89 95 48
9. 51 65 05 47 65
4 9 .5 2 72 9 2 Figure 8: 24-hr duration rainfall intensity
0
(modified)
5.
24 Table 8: Summary sheet for data analyses
64
M 63 (modified)
Table 8: Summary sheet for data analyses (modified)
ea 41
n 9 Locati Longit Latit Eleva Yea Mean_ 2_Ye 5_Ye 10_Y
St on ude ude tion Period rs A_R ar ar ear
an 1982-2006;
Abuja 7 9.25 343 2008 & 2009 27 1,388 4.6 6.4 7.4
da 1986-2005;
rd Akure 5.3 7.28 375 2008 & 2009 22 1,413 4 5.3 6.2
D 1. 10.2 1971-2006;
Bauchi 9.82 8 609 2008 & 2009 38 980 3.5 4.3 4.8
ev 07 1986-2004;
ia 25 Benin 5.1 6.32 77 2008 & 2009 21 2,195 5.2 6.2 6.8
ti 73 Benin
Airport 5.68 6.34 1991-2010 20 2,300 5.3 6.2 6.7
on 74
- Bida 6.02 9.1 144 1971-2009 39 1,061 3.6 5.1 6.3
0. Calaba
8.35 4.97 61 1970-2010 46 2,730 6 7.5 8.5
Sk 12
1971-1999;
e 49 2001-2006;
w 23 Enugu 7.55 6.47 141 2008 & 2009 37 1,761 4.6 6 6.8
ne 47 12.1 1971-2006 &
Gusau 6.7 7 463 2008 37 897 3 4.1 5.1
ss 9 1971-1980;
1986-2003;
2005; 2008 &
25 Ibadan 3.9 7.6 227 2009 27 1,344 3.6 5.4 7.2
6. Ikeja
Lagos 3.33 6.58 39 1981-2010 30 1,438 5 6.8 8.2
Al 31 1972-2005;
ph 37 Ikom 8.7 5.97 119 2008 & 2009 36 2,247 5 6.4 7.2
a 17 1971-2006;
Ilorin 4.58 8.48 307 2008 & 2009 38 1,185 4.1 5.2 5.9
0. 1971-2005;
06 Jos 8.85 9.63 1,285 2008 & 2009 37 1,253 3.1 3.7 4.1
69 Kadun 1971-2006;
7.45 10.6 645 2008 & 2009 38 1,136 3.2 4.2 4.8
B 94 12.0 1971-2006;
et 82 Kano 8.2 5 472 2008 & 2009 38 897 3.6 4.8 5.6
a 2 Katsin 13.0
7.63 2 517 1971-2009 39 529 2 3.4 5
G -
1971-2005;
a 11 Lokoja 6.73 7.78 62 2008 & 2009 37 1,181 3.8 4.8 5.4
m .9 Maidu 11.8 1986-2005;
m 25 guri 13.08 5 353 2008 & 2009 22 593 3.2 4.2 4.8
Makur 8.53 7.73 112 1971-1977; 36 1,145 4.1 5.1 5.7
a 22 1979-2005;
89
2008 & 2009
2 1971-2006;
1 Minna 6.53 9.62 256 2008 & 2009 38 1,199 3.8 4.7 5.1
2 1976-2006;
2 Ogoja 8.8 6.67 117 2008 & 2009 33 1,805 4.3 5.7 6.6
2 Onitsh
3 a 6.78 6.15 1986-2005 20 1,930 5.2 6.3
2
4 Owerri 7 5.48 19 1974-2015 40 2,355 5.3 6.2 6.7
Port
2 Harco
5 urt 7.02 4.85 19 1971-2009 39 2,243 5.4 6.8 7.6
2 13.0 1971-2006;
6 Sokoto 5.25 2 350 2008 & 2009 38 622 3.1 4.2 4.9
2 1981-2006;
7 Uyo 7.92 5.5 38 2008 & 2009 28 2,191 4.9 5.9 6.4
2 1986-2005;
8 Warri 5.73 5.52 6 2008; 2009 22 2,746 6.1 7.6 8.4
2 10.8 1971-2006;
9 Yelwa 4.75 8 244 2008 & 2009 38 936 3.6 4.4 4.9
3 1971-2006;
0 Zaria 7.68 11.1 110 2008 & 2009 38 1,009 3.3 4 4.4
Anam
bra-
3 Imo
1 RBDA 7.19 5.66 81 1976-2001 26 2,270 6.2 7.4
90
450
400
350
100-Year 50-Year
300
250
200
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hour)
150
25-Year 10-Year
100
50
0
5-Year 2-Year
400
100-Year 50-Year 25-Year
300
Figure 14: 50-year return period (modified) Rainfall Intensity (mm/hour) 200
Duration (minute)
92
Phone Number: +2348036136172
ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF FLOODING ON
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND This study evaluated the impact of flooding on
QUALITY IN NIGER DELTA REGION soil characteristics and quality in four
OF NIGERIA communities of Asamabiri, Elemebiri, Adagbabiri
and Agbere Community of Sagbama Local
Government Area of Bayelsa State. Random soil
1
Umeojiakor, A. O., Duruigbo, C. I., sampling was used to collect soil samples at two
Nwaihu, E. C. and 2Umeojiakor, C. T. varying depth of 0 15cm and 15 30cm from
1
Department of Forestry and Wildlife five different spots in each of the community. The
Technology, soil samples collected were carefully prepared and
2
Federal University of Technology, subjected to laboratory analysis. Soil quality was
Owerri, Nigeria assessed using the physical, chemical and
biological soil properties as the indicators of
Minimum Data Set (MDS). The effects flooding
Department of Chemical Engineering,
on soil quality were observed in different soil
Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, characteristics. The soils were predominantly clay
Nigeria. in texture except in the subsoil (15 - 30) of
Asamabiri community that has the highest sand
97
assessment was done using scoring data method Table 2 showed the results of the mean physical
on every indicator. The calculation is done by properties of the soil studied at the four
communities affected by flood. It was observed
adding the soil quality scored obtained on each
that the soils were predominantly clay, with
community of the studied area. The individual Agbere having the highest value of clay content at
index value for all the soil properties measured are the subsoil as 744g/kg and Asamabiri with the
lowest value of clay content as 104g/kg. It was
summed to give the total Soil Quality Index (SQI)
also observed the Asamabiri soil has high deposit
(Andrews, et al., 2004), which can be described as of sand at the subsoil with the textural class of
follows: loamy sand. This accumulation of sandy materials
n can be attributed to the erosive action of the flood
Si that washed away these sandy materials and
SQI = i=1 x 10 deposited them at the subsoil.
n
The bulk density value ranges from 1.20
1.80g/cm3 with Agbere subsoil having the highest
Where; SQI = Soil Quality Index
value of 1.80g/cm3. The high bulk density may be
Si = Scores on selected as a result of the presence of high clay content in
indicators of soil quality in the Minimum Data Set the Agbere subsoil. This agrees with Le
Bissonnais (1990) who observed that clay content
(MDS)
has a greater influence in the bulk density of the
n = Number of soil soil.
quality indicators in the MDS.
Table 3: The Result of the Mean Chemical and
Biological Properties of the Soil in the Study
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Area
98
communities were shown in table 4. It indicates (<1.500g/kg), medium (1.50 2.50g/kg) and high
that the soil pH of the communities was generally (> 2.5g/kg). The highest mean total nitrogen value
acidic ranging from moderately acidic (4.5 5.5) at top soil was recorded at Asamabiri with
to weakly acidic (5.5 6.5) Brejda and Moorman 1.09g/kg, followed by Elemebiri with 0.89g/kg,
(2000). It was observed that Asamabiri community Agbere with 0.30g/kg and Adagbabiri with
is more acidic than other communities both in the 0.11g/kg. At subsoil, Adagbabiri had the highest
topsoil (4.94) and subsoil (4.77). The highest soil mean total nitrogen value of 0.68g/kg, followed by
pH value was recorded in Agbere community Asamabiri with 0.33g/kg, Agbere with 0.21g/kg
ranging from (5.54 5.77). The acidic condition and Elemebiri with 0.18g/kg. Correspondently, the
of the soils may be attributed to the effect of available phosphorus is rated low in all the
flooding which increases the intensity of leaching communities. The mean available phosphorus was
of the exchangeable cations down the soil profile. highest in Adagbabiri community with value
Fagbami and Akamigbo (1986), stated that 4.63mg/kg and lowest in Agbere with 0.69mg/kg.
decrease in soil pH is associated with the lateral The low level of available phosphorus could be
leaching of bases from the upland to the lowland. attributed to low organic content created by the
In addition, Barnes [1998] note that pH value flood disaster. This result agrees with Ideriah et
affected the solubility of several elements. al., (2006) who reported that high levels of
phosphorus could be attributed to the presence of
The organic carbon of the soil was found to be
high amount of organic matter and plant
generally lower than 20g/kg recommended as low
decomposition.
by Chude et al., (2011). Organic carbon content
decreases with depth from all the communities Table 4: Score of Quality Indicator in the four
different Communities of Sagbama Local
except in Adagbabiri community that has 2.70g/kg
Government Area of Bayelsa State at Soil
at the top and 8.40g/kg at the subsoil. This may be Depth of 0 15cm
Soil Asamabiri Elemebiri
as a result of deposition of organic material carried
Properties community community
from another source by the flood disaster. Organic Soil Physical 1.30 1.43
carbon, high amount of nitrogen in the soil helps Indicators Bulk
Density
to improve soil quality and encourage both Score 2 2
agricultural and forest productivity and Effective Soil 0 15 0 15
Depth
sustainability (Aweto and Dikinya, 2003). Score 1 1
Similarly, total nitrogen content of the soil were Soil Chemical 4.94 5.01
Indicator Soil pH
generally low according to Harlin et al., (1990), Score 1 2
which indicated total nitrogen (TN) as low as Total Organic 12.7 11
Carbon
99
Score 2 2 the average of the variable values category,
Available 3.37 1.96 observed in each land use; the soil quality
Phosphorus
Score 1 1 describes the combination of physical properties,
Soil Biological 0.52 0.55 chemical and biological causes of land capable of
Properties Soil
Respiration performing a variety of functions (Evanylo &
Score 3 3 Guinn, 2000). The soils appear similar to their
Scoring 10 11
SQI 16.67 18.33 parent material, topography and native vegetation,
but varied in management practice (Forest and
Agricultural Practice).
Table 5: Score of Quality Indicator in the four
different Communities of Sagbama Local
Government Area of Bayelsa State at Soil Depth The Soil Quality Index (SOI) for the four studied
of 15 30cm communities at the top soil (0 15) was (16.67)
Soil Asamabiri Elemebiri
Propertirs community community for Asamabiri and Agbere communities. At
Soil Physical 1.40 1.40 Elemebiri it was 18.33. At the subsoil, Asamabiri
Indicators Bulk
Density and Agbere communities have soil quality index
Score 2 2 of 15, while Elemebiri and Adagbabiri
Effective Soil 15 30 15 30
communities have 16.67. Although the soil quality
Depth
Score 1 1 index is relatively low in all the communities,
Chemical 4.77 5.40
Elemebiri community soil quality value is higher
Indicators Soil
pH than that Asamabiri, Adagbabiri and Agbere
Score 1 2
community. The low soil quality recorded in these
Total Organic 4.50 3.40
Carbon communities is associated with effect of flooding
Score 1 1 and erosive action of water which leads to loss of
Available 2.67 0.93
Phosphorus organic matter, intense leaching process and
Score 1 1 disintegration of the structural stability of the soil.
Biological 0.48 0.51
Properties Soil
Respiration CONCLUSION
Score 3 3
Scoring 9 10 The study concluded that the flooding has a great
SQI 15 16.67
effects on soil characteristics through intense
Table 4 and 5 showed the scoring of indicators of leaching and erosive action of water. The major
soil quality measured in each of the four sampling soil properties affected by flooding in the four
communities of Sagbama Local Government Area communities studied were organic carbon, total
of Bayelsa State. The Soil Quality Index (SQI) is nitrogen, organic matter content, available
100
phosphorus and exchangeable bases. The soil USA. Peer-reviewed for Scientific
quality assessed in these four communities was Content. Pages 524 530. In: D.E.
Stott, R.H. Mohtar and G.C.
generally low. The highest soil quality index value
Stenhawdt (eds) 2001. Sustaining the
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