Captulo 1:Introduction to marketing research

Marketing according to the American marketing association is the activity, set of institutions
and processes for creating, communicating, delivering and exchanging offerings that have
value for customers, clients, partners and society at large.
Marketing decision makers should know their firm's' core competencies.
One of the implications of the service-dominant logic for marketing philosophy is that
practice marketing well in today's environment requires access to more and better
information than in the past.

Companies which successfully minimize product and service failures have determined
how to create, communicate, and deliver value by "hearing the voice" of the consumer.

The marketing concept is an important philosophy for marketing managers because it

dictates day-to-day decisions that managers will make.
Marketing research is the process of designing, gathering, analyzing, and reporting
information that may be used to solve a specific marketing problem.

The purpose of marketing research is to link the consumer to the marketer by providing
information that can be used in making marketing decisions

A marketing strategy consists of selecting a segment of the market as the company's target
market and designing the proper "mix" of product/service, price, promotion, and distribution
for that market.

In order to develop the "right strategy" to succeed in business, managers must make the
right decisions; and in order to make the right decisions, they must have objective, accurate,
and timely information.

Uses of marketing research

Analysis of the market potential for existing products (e.g. market size, growth, changing
sales trends)
Forecasting future demand for existing products
Assessing the potential for new products
Study of market trends
Analysis of competitor behaviour and performance
Analysis of market shares
Information about Products
Likely customer acceptance (or rejection) of new products
Comparison of existing products in the market (e.g. price, features, costs, distribution)
Forecasting new uses for existing products
Technologies that may threaten existing products
 New product development
Information about Pricing in the Market
Estimates and testing of price elasticity
Trends in pricing over recent years
Analysis of revenues, margins and profits
Customer perceptions of just or fair pricing
Competitor pricing strategies
Information about Promotion in the Market
Effectiveness of advertising
Effectiveness of sales force (personal selling)
Extent and effectiveness of sales promotional activities
Competitor promotional strategies
Information about Distribution in the Market
Use and effectiveness of distribution channels
Opportunities to sell direct
Cost of transporting and warehousing products
Level and quality of after-sales service

Marketing information system

An MIS should provide updated information. Hence, it is necessary to use new techniques
for speed and accuracy in the MIS. Thus, various subsystems are used to develop
information. Following are the four components of MIS:
1. Internal record:
Marketing managers rely on internal reports related to customer orders, sales, price levels,
cost, inventory levels, receivable and payables. The heart of the internal record system is the
order-to-payment cycle. Customers send orders to the firms.
2. Marketing intelligence system:
The marketing intelligence system is a set of procedures and sources used by the managers
to obtain everyday information about marketing environment.
3. Marketing decision support system:
A growing number of organizations are using marketing decision support system to help the
managers in taking better decisions. It is a system supported by software and hardware to
gather information from business and environment.
It helps managers in providing evidence for the decisions taken by them. The current
marketing software programs assist in designing marketing research studies, market
segmentation, selling prices, budget, analysing media, and planning sales force activity.
4. Marketing research:
It acts as a tool for accurate decision-making in marketing. It is useful for studying and
solving different marketing problems. Marketing research techniques are used by
manufacturers, exporters, distributors and service organizations. Marketing research is an
applied knowledge. Hence, it provides alternative solutions to deal with a specific problem.
Captulo 2: The marketing research industry

The marketing research industry has a certification program for marketing researchers,
and this certification program is hosted by Marketing Research Association

Charles Coolidge Parlin is given credit for conducting the first continuous and
organized marketing research and is also recognized today as the "Father of Marketing
Research"

The years following the Industrial Revolution, companies were separated from their
customers, and there was a need to understand faraway markets. Which is an important
highlight for the marketing research industry

In terms of the evolution of the marketing research industry, the significance of the era
which ranged from about 1940 to 1960 were the Focus groups, statistical analysis, and
the computer became part of the marketing researchers' tool kit, greatly aiding them in
their research efforts.

In 1960s Marketing research gained acceptance in organizations and was recognized as

being needed for survival.

An internal supplier firm is an entity, such as a marketing research department, within

the firm.

An external supplier are outside firms hired to fulfill a companys marketing research
needs. A supplier firm may be referred as an agency.

Some suggested remedies for some of the problems we see in the marketing research
industry are education and certification

Certification of marketing researchers means that those certified have passed some
standard(s) of performance.

Sugging is selling under the guise of a survey

Frugging is fundraising under the guise of a survey

Captulo 3: The marketing research process and defining the problem and research
objectives
La publicidad modela la percepcin de la marca para lograr posicionarla y lograr as
el mayor valor de la marca. La idea principal de la publicidad es volver a los clientes
potenciales en clientes reales y activos.
El proceso de publicidad inicia con una serie de preguntas y la respuesta a las
misma ayuda a modelar la publicidad.
The marketing research process
1. Establecer la necesidad de la investigacin de mercado.
Esta etapa se realiza cuando los gerentes deben realizar toma de decisiones y lo hacen de
manera inadecuada. Realizar investigacin de mercados constantemente tiene la ventaja de
crear un punto de comparacin y un manera de detectar problemas a tiempo. La
investigacin que se realice depende de las polticas y los recursos de las organizaciones.
Cuando no necesito de investigacin de mercados? Cuando la informacin est
disponible, tiempo malo para llevar a cabo la investigacin, no hay fondos suficientes para la
investigacin.
2. Definir el problema.
Para generar una investigacin de mercado exitosa es importante evaluar las alternativas
disponibles para la solucin del problema, si no hay alternativas no es necesario una
decisin.
3. Establecer los objetivos.
Estos dicen al investigador que debe hacer exactamente para obtener la informacin
necesaria para permitirle a los gerentes escoger entre las alternativas de decisin.
4. Determinar el diseo de la investigacin.
Se refiere al acercamiento para lograr los objetivos, existen tres tipos: exploratory,
descriptive, causal. Descriptive: es la forma ms bsica, describe en escalas o de manera
cualitativa. Diagnostic, encuentra fuentes de satisfaccin y de insatisfaccin. Prescriptivo: da
informacin para solucionar de la mejor manera las fallas presentadas.
5. Identificar las fuentes de informacin disponibles.
Informacin secundaria, lo de internet, lo que est a la mano y la primaria, la que se
desarrolla por la organizacin.
6. Determinar los mtodos para acceder a la informacin.
Algunas formas son encuestas por telfono, email o en persona.
7. Disear herramientas para obtener datos.
Realizar o disear el cuestionario, la forma de observacin que se va a utilizar.
8. Determinar el tamao de la muestra.
Poblacin es la muestra en general. ejemplos de planes describen cmo cada elemento de
la muestra , o unidad , es que puede extraerse de la poblacin total .
9. Recolectar datos.
Es importante hacer un anlisis de la fuente de los errores para generar informacin ms
acertada al finalizar la investigacin.
10. Analizar datos.
Se analiza en distintos software y la idea es usar herramientas estadsticas para generar
resultados interpretables y acertados.
11. Preparar y presentar la investigacin final en un reporte.
Es clave, ya que es el documento que se le entrega al cliente.
 Problema: la atencin se centra en la situacin que enfrenta el gerente o cliente:
situaciones que requieren que los gerentes tomen decisiones entre varias
alternativas.
Oportunidad de marketing: rea de necesidad del comprador o de inters potencial
en la que una empresa puede realizar de forma rentable.
Las hiptesis son declaraciones que se toman de verdad para los propsitos de
discusin o investigacin.

Captulo 4: Research design

Diseo de la investigacin: es un conjunto de decisiones que constituye el plan
maestro especificando los mtodos y procedimientos de recolectar y analizar la
informacin necesaria.
3 tipos de investigacin de mercado:
Investigacin exploratoria.
Investigacin descriptiva.
Investigacin causal.
Tienen como objetivos comunes los siguientes:
Obtener informacin de los antecedentes y crear hiptesis.
Medir el estado de una variable de inters (lealtad de una marca).
Medir la relacin entre dos o ms variables (publicidad y lealtad de una marca).
El nivel de conocimiento de los temas determina el tipo de diseo de la
investigacin.
Exploratory research
Es el tipo de investigacin ms comn, es poco estructurado e informal. Se usa para
obtener informacin de antecedentes, informacin de la naturaleza del mismo.
Usualmente se usa cuando los investigadores no saben sobre el problema, o
requiere ms informacin. Sus usos especficos son: recolectar informacin de
antecedentes, definir trminos, clasificar los problemas y las hiptesis y para
establecer prioridades de la investigacin.
La investigacin exploratoria permite definir el problema y generar las hiptesis para
continuar con el proceso de investigacin.
Establecer las prioridades de la investigacin.
Mtodos para desarrollar investigacin exploratoria:
Anlisis de informacin secundaria: examinar informacin ya existente, que aporte
para la solucin del problema a resolver.
Experience surveys: reunir informacin de expertos del tema a estudiar.
Case analysis o anlisis del caso: observar un caso similar y de tal modo aplicarlo en
la solucin del actual.
Focus groups: grupo de personas que discuten el tema o problema en cuestin.
Descriptive research
Se desarrolla para responder a la pregunta Quin?Cundo?Dnde?Cmo?
Existen dos modalidades:
Cross-sectional studies: mide a una muestra de la poblacin en un mismo punto en
el tiempo. Este tipo de estudios usa bastantes muestras de gran tamao, son ms
conocidas como sample surveys.
 Sample Surveys: son estudios de direccin transversal que tienen dibujadas las
muestras pero que sean representativas de una poblacin especfica.
Longitudinal studies: hay repetidamente la misma muestra de la poblacin, en un
periodo de tiempo determinado. Los paneles representan unidades de muestra que
responden preguntas en intervalos peridicos. Paneles continuos: la misma pregunta
en cada sesin y paneles discontinuos, distintas preguntas en cada sesin tambin
llamado mnibus panels.
Causal research
Se entiende como una investigacin que estudia la relacin entre dos fenmenos. Si
X ocurre entonces Y, se estudia manipulando una de las variables y ver el
comportamiento de la otra, son experimentos.
Experimento: manipular una variable independiente para ver los efectos sobre la
variable dependiente.
Variable dependiente: no se tiene control sobre ella y vemos su comportamiento.
Variable independiente: la cual se modifica.
Extraneous variables: son aquellas variables que tienen algn efecto en la variable
dependiente, pero que no son independientes.
True experimental design: asla los efectos de la variable independiente mientras
que controla los efectos de las variables externas.
Internal validity: mira que el cambio en la variable dependiente se relaciona con la
variable independiente.
External validity: revisa que la relacin observada entre las variables sea coherente
a la vida real.

Qualitative Market Research: a comprehensive guide

4.1: Collecting Data

In qualitative research data analysis and data collection occur at the same time and
thats why moderators and observers should look for patterns while respondents are
speaking
After finishing the interviews, debrief meetings should be carried out as soon as
possible so impressions are shared thoroughly, discrepancies can be resolved and
brainstorming can be carried out. This analysis should be considered as tentative
and conclusions should be drawn later. Quick reporting tends to be impressionistic
rather than systematic
Good practices regarding data collection:
Everything is a potential source of data: hand gestures, voice intonations,
mannerisms
avoid voting by a show of hands in the focus group: Samples are too small,
questioning is unstructured, attitudes are vulnerable to interpersonal influence
Taking notes may distract the moderator and bias respondents who may perceive
what is more important to the moderator
Ethnography for Marketers: A guide to consumer immersion

Captulo 3

Ethnography is a research discipline based on culture as an organizing concept and

a mix of both observational and interviewing tactics to record behavioral dynamics.
Ethnographic methods allow marketers to delve into the actual occasions and
situations in which products are used, services are received, and benefits are
conferred
Ethnography takes place not in a laboratory but in the real place.
Clients and practitioners benefit from a more holistic view of consumer satisfactions,
frustrations and limitations
ethnography can provide insights on consumer practices, language, myths,
aspirations
the main task of ethnography is not only to watch but also to decode human
experience. Understand underlying meanings behind behavior, feelings and
intentions that will help in the decision making
Culture: the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and
generate social behavior
Culture is the shared conscious and unconscious blueprint for a groups way of life. It
defines the boundaries of the group and articulates the distinctiveness they feel
compared with others
Language is the system most used to describe culture
Communication must be grounded and bounded by meaningfulness and credibility
color, typeface, packaging, celebrity endorsements, manners, interactions, attitudes
contribute impressions received by the viewers. Not only language does
time, place, conditions and circumstances within which aspirations conceived,
decisions are made and products are used have an impact on the level of satisfaction
experienced
a research practice that ignores context cant claim to fully understand consumer
behavior

Captulo 4: Applications of the new marketing ethnography

an effective way to cultivate a highly detailed and context sensitive understanding of

consumer behavior and choice
Most shoppers lack the insights and ingenuity to imagine practical new product
opportunities, and the innovations they imagine often have a hackneyed or
unachievable quality
Many times consumers give hints for new opportunities. One example of a product
that doesnt work is seen when in a household there is a combination of products to
carry out one job. For example, consumers mix liquid dish soap and laundry bleach
to create a stain remover
 indifference: when a product does poorly, consumers just accept these mediocre
results and think high quality outcomes are impossible to achieve
errors: even though the products are flawed, consumers will blame themselves for
the problem
avoidance: if the right product is not available, consumers may just avoid certain
tasks or relegate them to the end of their agenda
Corporate cultures define the ways companies think about customers
Corporate cultures exert an important influence on both the internal and external
experience of the organization. They influence such weighty matters as employee
satisfaction and retention, worker productivity, operations and governance, etc
A study by Mann and Gubrim found out that waitresses could exert a major influence
in what drinks were ordered and how big a tip customers would give
Corporate culture can affect profitability and success of the enterprise. Ethnographic
approach can play an important role in studying large or small organizations with a
view toward revealing the culture substructure.
Some organizational issues that can benefit from ethnographic research are:
Integration of subgroups: Corporate culture can create an environment of
hostility toward emerging subgroups based on gender, sexuality,
ethnicity...formal and informal communication patterns between employee
groups, opportunity structures and systems of rewards are all cultural norms
perpetuated over time. Poor employee morale, high turnover and bad
publicity can be created if this communication problem is not taken into
account
work-flow and adoption of new technologies: technological changes will have
to be adapted to the cultural dimension. Changes in daily work operations,
workplace changes...will create friction that has to be reduced on a cultural
level. The increase in speed, the change of the way things are done...will
create new business opportunities that can be found with ethnographic
research
Productivity: a contextually grounded understanding of work-flow in an
organization leads to more than the discovery of potential problems and
opportunities. It stimulates higher levels of productivity by removing barriers,
enhancing communication, improving employee morale...
Merging of corporate enterprises: corporate culture adjustment is necessary.
The transaction costs between a highly hierarchical organization and a more
collaborative and teamwork oriented organization may be very complicated
adaptation to change: anticipating change will be of great advantage for the
enterprise because then the adaptation will be easier, faster and less costly
Corporate Social Responsibility: corporate brand images are increasingly
being drawn into the service of social responsibility. Customers are giving
much more importance to environmental concerns
Ethnic and regional subcultures:
The degree to which various nation-states either affirm or suppress their
minority cultures and the extent to which differentiated cultures practice
tolerance and acceptance rather than conflict and discrimination are highly
variable
 Marketers have found that regional and ethnic subcultures represent an
opportunity. Whether to tailor mass market products to an identifiable niche
sharing common tastes and predilections
Difficulties in targeting ethnic subgroups regard their degree of visibility and
assimilation, language issues, cultural traits and values
societies have established ethnic groups (larger, visible population segments
sharing an identity) and ethnic subcommunities (defined by dialect rather than
language or region rather than nation)
In-home interviews and encounters at social gathering places or ethnographic
observation and interviewing that attempt to comprehend the cultural context
of ethnic group behavior all yield useful knowledge. This help to accomodate:
public health messages, products and services related to the subgroups
home country, professional services required for accommodation to the larger
society
Retail navigation:
The ethnographers role is to decode the meaning and consequences of
these ecological elements with an eye toward maximizing retail performance
(lighting, smells, signage, display of goods, size and orientation of shelving)
Category management: discipline associated with retail merchandising that
combines systematic data collection with strategic allocation of space and
resources to maximize the fit between shoppers and products on store
shelves
Guerrilla ethnography:
also called pilot ethnography or street research
involves spontaneously observing and talking with consumers in their natural
habitats without emphasizing the researcher role.
The goal is to achieve an unfiltered, unpremeditated, reality based encounter
with targeted customers
the main objection has to do with this research type is that it may create an
invasion of privacy and a manipulative structure of interaction (informed
consent issues)
Mystery shopping:
used to evaluate service encounters
Usability: the systematic study of peoples interactions with technological tools. Used
to identify consumer/user problems, barriers

Chapter 5: Secondary Data and Packaged Information

Primary versus Secondary Data

Primary data: information that is developed or gathered by the researcher specifically for the

research project at hand.

Secondary Data: have previously been gathered by someone other than the researcher

and/for other purpose than the research project at hand.

Uses of Secondary Data

 The application of secondary data range from predicting broad changes in cultures way of
life to specific applications, such as selecting a street address location for a new car wash.
Basically, this type of data can be used to reach objectives that concern economical,
cultural, geographical and social paradigms.

Classification of Secondary Data

Internal Secondary Data: collected within the firm. (sales records, purchase requisitions,
costumer information).

Database Marketing: The process in which companies utilize internal customer databases
along with other internal databases to contact, transact and build customer relationships.

Database: a collection of data and information describing items of interest. Each unit of
information in a database is called a record, which are composed of subcomponents of
information called fields. For example, a record would the representation of each customer
and the fields would be the name, address, telephone, ect.

Due to the size of many of these databases, which can seem as endless streams of data, a
software called Data Mining is needed to help managers make sense of all this information.

5 ways companies use their databases:

1. To identify prospects

2. Determine which customers receive a particular offer

3. Deepen customer loyalty

4. Reactivate customer purchases

5. Avoid serious customer mistakes

External Secondary Data: data obtained form outside of the firm. Three main categories.
1. Published: sources of information that are prepared for public distribution.
2. Syndicate and service data: firms that collect data and may make it available for
standard format subscribing firms. These are highly specialized.
3. Databases: supplied by organizations outside of the firm.

5 advantages for secondary data:

1. Quickly obtained

2. Inexpensive compared to obtaining primary data

3. Mostly always readily available.

4. It can enhance primary data.

5. May provide everything needed to achieve a research objective.

5 disadvantages of secondary data:

1. Incompatible reporting units
2. Mismatch of the units of measurement
3. Differing definitions used to classify data
4. T imeliness of secondary data

5. Lack of information needed to assess data credibility

Evaluating secondary data

One must revise the and assess the quality and validity of the secondary data, especially the
ones that come from sources (such as the internet) that dont require evaluation and quality
standards.
The following five questions are useful in evaluating the secondary data:
What was the purpose of the study?

Who collected the information?

What information was collected

How was the information obtained?

How consistent is the information with other information?

Packaged information: a type of secondary data in which data collected and/or the process
of collecting the data are packaged for all users. Two broad classes of packaged data.
- Syndicate data: collected in a standard format and available to all subscribers of
the service. One of its advantages relies on the system that distributes the costs
amongst its customers; shared costs. Additionally, since businesses who develop
these type of data rely on providing its customers extremely quickly and the more
recent the data the better. The disadvantages consist on the costumers little
control over what information is collected, also in most cases the customers have
to commit into logn term contracts and finally, there is no strategic information
advantage.
- Packaged Services: prepackaged marketing research process that is used to
generate information for a particular user. Unlike SD, the data from packaged
service will differ for each client. The advantages consist on taking advantage of
the experience possessed by the research firm offering the service. Additionally,
there is a reduced cost on the research. On the other hand, the disadvantages
are the inability for customized aspects and the lack of specialization of aspects
conforming and industry or research segment.

Chapter 6: Qualitative Research Techniques

Quantitative, Qualitative and Pluralistic Research

Quantitative Research: research involving the administration of a set structured questions
with predetermined response options to a a large number of respondents. Its purposed for a
specific research and its used when precise information is needed.

Qualitative Research: it involves collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing

what people do and say. The observations and statements are free form and nonstandarized
because questions and observations are open ended. It can only be quantified after a
translation process.
Pluralistic Research: a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods to gain
the advantage of both.

Observation Techniques (Qualitative research)

Direct versus Indirect
- Direct observation regards observing a behavior while it occurs.
- Indirect observation, which involves observing the effects or results of a behavior
rather than the behavior itself such as archives (historical records that can be
applied to a present problem) or physical traces, which are tangible evidence of
some past event.
-
Covert versus Overt
- Covert observation is such were the subject is unaware it is being observed. It is
used to see the true nature and behavior of the subject, but it makes it more
difficult to observe specific desired behaviors.
- Overt observation is one which the subject knows it is being observed. The
problem results on behavior modification in some cases.
-
Structured versus Unstructured
- Structured observation identifies beforehand which behavior it wants monitored
and recorded and ignores the rest.
- Unstructured behavior places no restriction on what the observer notes. All
behavior in the episode under study is monitored.

In Situ versus Invented

- In situ observation the researcher observes the behavior exactly as it happens.
- Invented observation occurs when the researcher creates the situation.

Advantages of Observational Data

Observation research has the advantage of seeing what consumers actually do instead of
relying on their self-report on what they think they do.

Limitations of Observational Data

The disadvantages consist on the limited number of participants that can be observed and
the researchers inability determine consumers motives, attitudes and intentions.

Focus Groups
Small groups of people brought together and guided by a moderator through an
unstructured, spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the
research problem. There are two basic types:
 - Traditionalfocus groups select from 6-12 people who interact in a room being
observed by the client for about two hours.
- Contemporary focus groups are online and the client can observe the online
activity from remote locations,
These groups are guided by moderators, who are trained for the specific job and are
essential for the success of the focus group. After the session is done, a focus group report
is made, which summarizes the information provided by the focus group participants relative
to the research questions.

Online focus groups

Contemporary focus groups in which respondents communicate via an internet forum and
which clients can observe. They have the following advantages over other focus groups:
1. No physical setup is necessary

2. Transcripts are captured on file and real time

3. Participants can be in widely separated geographical regions

4. Participants are comfortable in their own environments

5. The moderator can exchange private messages with individual participants

Disadvantages are the following:

1. Observation of body language is not possible.

2. Participants cant physically sample products.

3. Participants can loose interest and become distracted.

Advantages of Focus Groups

1. Generate fresh ideas
2. Allow clients to observe their participants

3. Directed to understand a wide variety of issues

4. Allow fairly easy access to special respondent groups

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Dont constitute representative samples
2. Success is greatly dependent on the ability of the moderator
3. Difficulty on interpreting the results
Focus groups should be considered when the research question requires something to be
explored or described, rather than predicting an objective or when a mayor decision affecting
the livelihood of the company depends on the research results.

Main Objectives of Focus Groups

1. Generate ideas

2. Understand consumer vocabulary

3. Reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions and attitudes about products or services

4. Understand findings from quantitative studies

Other Qualitative Research Techniques

In-depth Interviews: a set of probing questions posed one on one to a subject by a trained
interviewer to gain an idea of what the subject things about something or why he behaves in
 a certain way. Their advantages rely on the ability to probe by asking additional questions
based on their previous response. On the other hand, the disadvantages rely on lacking a
structured process.
Protocol Analysis: placing a person in a decision-making situation and asking it to verbalize
everything it considers when making a decision. It is used to peek into the consumers
decision making process.
Projective Techniques: involve situations in which participants are placed in a simulated
activity in hopes that they divulge things about themselves that they might not reveal under
direct questioning. There are 5 main techniques:
1. Word-Association Test: involves reading a word to a respondent who then
answers the first response that comes to mind.
2. Sentence-Completion Test: respondents are given incomplete sentences
in which they are asked to complete with their own words.
3. Picture Test: respondents are showed pictures who then are instructed to
describe their reactions by writing a short story about the picture.
4. Cartoon or Balloon Test: write on a text balloon what the specific actor is
saying or thinking.
5. Role-Playing Activity: they are asked to pretend to be a third person and
ask how would they react to a certain situation or to a specific statement.

Ethnographic Research
It describes a detailed, descriptive study of a group and its behavior, characteristics and
culture.

Physiological Measurement
Involves studying individuals involuntary responses to marketing stimuli via equipment that
measures and monitors physical cues such as eye dilatation, respiration, voice pitch, ect.

MINI RESUMEN PARCIAL 1

Qu es la investigacin de mercados?
La IM es un proceso de diseo, recoleccin, anlisis y reporte de informacin que ayuda a la toma de decisiones
estratgicas.
Es la manera de conocer al consumidor, al cliente y al mercado.
Permite construir relaciones a largo plazo.
Es una herramienta para disminuir la incertidumbre e la toma de decisiones
Etapas 1, 2 y 3 de la investigacin:
1. Establecer la necesidad (Tomar una decisin y no hay informacin suficiente)
2. Definir el problema(Reconocer problema/oportunidad, sntomas, causas, alternativas y consecuencias)
Reconocer el problema: Ha habido un incremento significativo en el nmero de embarazos adolescentes en ltimo
mes.
Sntomas: Ha aumentado el nmero de visitas a las clnicas por parte de adolescentes, ha aumentado el nmero de
abortos
Causas: Los adolescentes no tienen recursos para pagar preservativos
Alternativas: Con una alianza con pro familia entregar preservativos gratis (Se ponen varias alternativas por causa)
Consecuencias de las alternativas positivas y negativas
3. Objetivos(Vacos de informacin, comienzan por un verbo, deben ser uno por una causa, pero si deben llenar todos
los vacos de informacin)
 Se debe definir en un prrafo a quien van destinados a que perfil: nias adolecentes entre los 15 y 16 aos de
estrados 1, 6
Ex: Determinar cul es la percepcin de los adolescentes frente al uso de preservativo
Etapa 4 determinar el diseo de la investigacin
Exploratoria o Cualitativa (profundizar en la mente del consumidor)
Se hace al inicio por lo general
Hay poco conocimiento sobre el problema/oportunidad o tema
Profundiza en la mente del consumidor
Genera hiptesis
Las muestras son por conveniencia
No se puede generalizar
No hay estadstica
Se llega a lo emocional
Poco estructuradas e informales
Se usa para recolectar info de antecedentes, definir trminos, clarificar los problemas y las hiptesis y para establecer
prioridades en la investigacin
Descriptiva o Cuantitativa
Describir respuestas a preguntas como: quin, qu, cundo, cmo
Proyectar hallazgos a la poblacin
Es generalizable - Estructurada
Hay muestras probabilsticas
Hay estadstica
Existen dos modalidades: 1. Crosssectional studies o samples surveys: mide una muestra de la poblacin en un mismo
punto en el tiempo 2. Longitudinal estudies: mide repetitivamente la misma muestra en un periodo de tiempo
determinado
Causal
Comprensin de un fenmeno en trminos de sentencias condicionales de la forma: Si X, entonces Y
Da inferencias sobre el comportamiento
Hay experimentos
Se tiene una variable dependiente y otra independiente, de tal modo que puedo manipular la variable independiente
para ver como varia la dependiente.
Variable externa: variables que tienen efecto en la variable independiente, pero que no son la independiente
True experiment desing: asla los efectos de la variable independiente, mientras que controla los efectos de las externas
Validacin interna: Miro que el cambio de la variable dependiente se relacione con la variable independiente.
Validacin Externa: Revisa que la relacin observada entre las variables sea coherente con la vida real.
Etapa 5: Identificar el tipo de fuentes de informacin
1. Fuentes primarias
Informacin desarrollada o recolectada por el investigador.
Viene del consumidor directamente.
2. Fuentes secundarias
Informacin recolectada de casos de estudios, bases de datos.
No viene del consumidor directamente.
Clasificacin de la info secundaria: Informacin secundaria interna: Informacin secundaria recolectada dentro de la
misma empresa con un objetivo distinto, ejemplo records de ventas. Informacin secundaria externa: fuentes publicadas,
bases de datos externas, sidicate service, empresas que recoleta indo estndar y las empresas se suscriben y tienen
acceso a la info
Ventajas: Rpida de obtener, econmica, fcil de encontrar, ayuda a aterrizar la informacin Desventajas: Distintas
unidades de medida, info antigua. 5 preguntas claves para saber si la informacin sirve: cul es el propsito del estudio,
quien recolecto la informacin, que informacin se recolecto, como obtuvimos la informacin, consistencia de la
informacin
Etapa 6: Determinar mtodos para el acceso a datos: cualitativos FP
Estudios de experiencia: los que saben Informantes claves. Estudios con lderes
Anlisis de casos: Pasado similar
Focus group: Grupo pequeo. Hay un moderador. No estructurada. Desventajas (en adolecentes les da pena, las rtas se ven
influenciadas por el grupo, difcil reclutar) Ventajas ( Coordinado, conducido y analizar en un tiempo corto, adems
aclaraciones sobre las respuestas se pueden realizar en el camino.
Entrevistas en profundidad: Temas delicados. Profundizar. Es semi-estructurada. Desventajas: respuestas sesgadas, datos
difciles de analizar, desorciones exageracin
Observacin: Sentidos, comportamiento, expresiones no verbales, patrones. Es repetitivo y corto. No se interviene.
Protocolo: Verbalizar pensamientos. Es espontneo. Una sola pregunta detallada y una sola respuesta
Tcnicas proyectivas: Van ms all de las respuestas racionales. Pueden ser por asociacin, complementacin, construccin o
expresin. Apuntan al inconsciente de hombre (Temores deseos sueos e instintos) Son herramientas para acceder a
contenido inconsciente que se reflejan por medio de mecanismos de proyeccin.
Alcances de las pruebas proyectivas: comprender la conducta, facilita el discurso creativo, abierto y desapegado a los
estereotipos, facilita ideas o emociones difciles de expresar, Comprender los detonantes de ciertos comportamientos.
Ejemplos pruebas proyectivas:
1. Asociacin de palabras, personajes, conceptos animales
2. Personificacin
3. Fiesta: entender la interaccin entre marcas en la fiesta
4. Collage: Imgenes que se vengas a la cabeza de una marca
5. Planetizacion: como sera el planeta de guila
6. Corredor de habitaciones
Anlisis de informacin:
1. Cada estudio tiene su propio anlisis
2. Recoleccin y el anlisis se hace al mismo tiempo.
3. Anlisis de forma inductiva, de lo pequeo a lo grande
4. Proceso en espiral: dato, analizo, pido otro dato
5. No busco validar hiptesis, busco la realidad
6. Cuidado con generalizar
7. Tener en cuenta aspectos implcitos y explcitos (ir mas all)
8. Recibimos datos no estructurados, debemos dar datos estructurados
9. Conocer el patrn de cultura de la persona
Cmo se monta un informe? Contando una historia
1. Contar con buen material (Fotos, videos, etc)
2. Organizar la info por categoras
3. Regresar al campo cada vez que haya dudas
4. Detenernos cuando alcancemos el punto de saturacin
5. Cerrar el ciclo de anlisis: generando teoras y conceptos

Parcial 2

Captulo 7: Evaluating Survey Data Collection Methods

A survey involves interviews with a large amount of respondents using a predesigned

questionnaire-Used to learn what respondents are thinking, their opinions,
preferences or planned intentions
Advantages of surveys:
allow the collection of significant amounts of data in an economical and
efficient manner. Specific advantages are: standardization, ease of
administration, ability to tap the unseen, suitability to tabulation and
statistical analysis, sensitivity to subgroup differences
Person administered surveys
a person reads questions either face to face or over the telephone and record
their answers without the use of a computer
Advantages:
Offer feedback
a verbal interview permits the interviewer to help the
respondent understand the question if he doesnt understand
instructions
Rapport
Quality control
 The respondent may select certain types of respondents based
on gender, age or some characteristic. Interviewers are used
to select the respondents correctly
Adaptability
Higher response rates than methods without interviewers
Breaks barriers like language or poor reading abilities
Disadvantages:
Humans make errors
slow speed
High cost
Fear of interview evaluation: if a person interviews another,
apprehension can occur. People think that there is a right answer, so
they change their answers because there is another person in front
Computer assisted surveys
Efficient and flexible option
the interviewer verbalizes the questions while relying to some degree on
computer technology to facilitate the interview work. They are more efficient
and effective
Advantages
Speed
Translates in cost savings
Relatively error free interviews
It helps, but human errors may still occur
use of pictures, videos and graphics
Quick capture of data
information is saved in a central office
Disadvantages
They require some level of technical skills
Specific software requires time to learn how to use it
Setup costs can be high
These programs are very expensive
Self administered surveys
respondents complete the survey on his or her own with no agent
administering the interview
The person goes at his own pace and selects the place and time to answer
the survey. Responding to the questionnaire is entirely under the control of
the respondent
Advantages:
Reduced costs
Respondent Control
No interviewer apprehension
Disadvantages:
Respondent Control: there is a possibility that the respondent wont
return the answered questionnaire
 Lack of monitoring: there is no opportunity for the researcher to
monitor or interact with the respondent. There is no one to explain or
encourage the respondent to continue
High questionnaire requirements: The questionnaire must be perfect
because if there is an error, the respondent will make a mistake
Computer administered surveys
Special software is used to encourage the respondent to finish, use videos
and interactive media, quota systems, skip questions based on previous
answers
Advantages:
Breadth of user friendly features
many online questionnaires or softwares are available for free.
Very little computer skills are required
Relatively inexpensive
Reduction of interview evaluation concern in respondents
the right answer is diminished by the use of a computer
Disadvantages:
Requires computer literate and internet connected respondents
Mixed mode surveys
Hybrid surveys that use multiple data collection modes
Advantages
Multiple avenues to achieve data collection goals
It is easier to get to a bigger audience
Disadvantages
The survey mode may affect the response
Additional complexity
with different evaluation methods, different information types
are gathered and to unify it is a big problem
Descriptions of data collection methods
Person administered and computer assisted surveys
In home survey
take longer to recruit participants and researcher must travel
and form their houses
Costs per interview are high
Personal contact is thought to be essential
The in home environment is conducive to the questioning
process
Useful when the research objectives requires a respondents
physical presence to see, read, couch or interact with the
research object (product prototype)
mall intercept survey
Shoppers are intercepted in the pedestrian traffic areas of
shopping malls and either interviewed on the spot or asked to
move to a permanent interviewing facility located in the mall
office
 Low cost (no transportation, as it happens in the in home
surveys)
The most important advantage is the presence of an
interviewer who can interact with the respondent
Sample representativeness is an issue (relatively small area in
close proximity to their location)
The environment is not comfortable and is not conducive to
rapport and close attention to details. Attention distractors are
also an issue (out of the control of the interviewer)
in office survey
same advantages and drawbacks as inhouse surveys
used to interview business executives. Perfect for business to
business organizational market
interviewers are specialized so they are more costly
telephone survey
if physical contact is not necessary, this method is very
attractive
Advantages:
inexpensive way to collect survey data
long distance telephone charges are way lower than
face to face interviews
potential to yield a high quality sample. Random dialing
and correct procedures may produce better samples
quick turnaround times
questions on alcohol consumption, contraceptive
methods, racial issues may be more valid when the
interviewer is not face to face
Disadvantages:
cant interact with a prototype or object
interviewer cant realize judgements and evaluations
that can be made with in-person interviews
body language and expressions are not registered
less cooperation from the respondent than in person
interviews. There are more no opinions
marketing researchers are more limited in the quantity
and types of information they can obtain (long
interviews cant be made, remembering stuff may be
difficult)
barriers are created: call blockers, answering
machinesthe use of a landline is decreasing, more in
younger populations
Telemarketers have a very bad image
Computer programs now carry out these surveys. An example
is CATI. They now exert better quality control, less resources
are needed, questions are made according to previous
answers...
 Computer administered survey
These are not considered self administered because the softwares
used dont permit for respondents to skip questions.
Fully automated survey (Completely automated telephone surveys
CATS)
Survey is administered by a computer, but not online
Easy tabulation and the costs of a person doing the interview
are eliminated
Online survey
fast, easy and inexpensive
they have the ability to present pictures, diagrams or displays
to respondents
response quality is equal to telephone or mail surveys
it is possible to spot problems on the surveys and correct them
in real time
low cooperation rates that diminish the quality
design challenges to boost cooperation occurred
Self administered survey
They dont offer the advantage of online surveys where inappropriate
questions are skipped
Group self administered survey
administering a questionnaire to respondents in groups rather
than individually for convenience and to gain economies of
scale
Often money is given to respondents to generate motivation
Drop off survey
appropriate for local market research
permits to cover a big area in a fast way
quick turnaround and high response rates
minimal interviewer influence on answer
good control over how respondents are selected
inexpensive
Mail survey
questions are mailed to respondents who are asked to fill them
out and return them to the researchers mail
no interviewers to train, monitor or compensate
nonresponse is a big problem of mail surveys
the sample may be nonrepresentative of the general
population
What method to be used?
What is the incidence (response) rate?
what type of respondent interaction is required?
how much money is there for the data collection?
how much time is there for the data collection?
are there any cultural and/or infrastructure considerations?
Captulo 8: understanding measurement, developing questions, and designing the
questionnaire

Measurement: determining a description or the amount of some property of an object

that is of interest to the researcher. We measure properties
Properties (characteristics, attributes, or qualities): specific features or characteristics
of an object that can be used to distinguish it from another object
Objective properties: physically verifiable characteristics such as age, income,
number of bottles purchased, store last visited...They are observable and tangible
Subjective properties: cant be directly observed because they are mental constructs
such as persons attitude or intentions. They are unobservable and intangible
Scale development: creating a rating scale format that is very clear and used
identically by respondents. It consists in designing questions and response formats to
measure the subjective properties of an object
Types of measures:
Nominal: those that use only labels. They possess only the characteristic of a
description. answers involve yes-no, agree-disagree or any other instance in
which the descriptor cant be differentiated except qualitatively
Ordinal: Permit the researcher to rank order the respondents or their
responses. if a respondent is asked to indicate his or her first, second, third or
fourth choices of brand, the results are ordinally scaled. We will know that one
is better than the other one, but not by how much
Scale:
Ratio Scale: the ones in which a true zero origin exists (such as an
actual number of purchases in a certain time period, miles traveled)
Interval scale: measures are rating scales for subjective properties
where, for adjacent levels, the distance is normally defined as one
scale unit. The neutral point is not considered 0, instead, it is
considered a point along the continuum between two extremes
Types of interval scales:
Likert scale: respondents are asked to indicate their degree of
agreement or disagreement on a symmetric
agreement-disagreement scale for each of a series of
statements. the scale captures their feelings and intensity of
those toward the statements claim
Special application of the likert question form is called the
lifestyle inventory. It takes into account the values and
personality traits of people as reflected in their unique
activities, interests and opinions toward their work, leisure time
and purchases
It is flexible when it comes to measuring constructs or
concepts.
The semantic differential scale: specialized scale format that
has sprung directly from the problem of translating a persons
qualitative judgements into metric estimates
 the semantic differential scale contains a series of bipolar
adjectives for the various properties of the object under study,
and the respondents indicate their impressions of each
property by indicating locations along its continuum
Stapel scale: it relies on bipolar terms and on positive-negative
numbers. This scale may or may not have a neutral 0. It is
easier to construct because the researcher doesnt need to
come up with bipolar adjectives for each attribute

Issues with the use of interval scale:

Whether or not to include the middle point. Some argue that
the middle point must be included because some people may
not have an opinion formed on a certain item, and they must
be given the opportunity to indicate their ambivalence. Others
think that the middle point is a way for respondents to hide
their opinion and to dodge the question
Second issue: to use or not a symmetric scale. A symmetric
scale has equal negative and positive points.
Reliability and validity of measurements:
A reliable measure is one that respondents do in a very similar manner to an
identical or near identical question
Validity: refers to the accuracy of the measurement. A valid measure is
truthful
Designing a questionnaire:
a questionnaire is the vehicle used to present the questions the researcher
desires respondents to answer
Six functions:
translates the research objectives into specific questions asked of
respondents
standardizes those questions and the response categories so that
every participant responds to identical stimuli
by its wording, question flow, and appearance, it fosters cooperation
and keeps respondents motivated throughout the interview
it serves as an enduring record of the research
it can speed up the data processing analysis, depending on the
method used
contains the information on which reliability and validity assessments
may be made
Questionnaires are made for quality control
 Questionnaire design process:

The researcher must strive to minimize the question bias. This is defined as the
ability of a questions wording or format to influence respondents answers
Question development:
four essential aspects to be taken into account are: attitudes, beliefs,
behaviors and demographics
the difference of one word in a question can greatly influence a question bias. did
you see the broken headlight or did you see a broken headlight got very different
answers in a study
Four dos of question wording:
Question evaluation: scrutinizing the wording of a question to ensure that
question bias is minimized, also the wording and ease of understanding are
correct.
The question must be: focused on a single issue or topic, simple, brief and
crystal clear
Four donts of question wording:
questions should not be leading (give strong cue to an answer), loaded
(biased) (a question that has buried in its wording elements a sneaky
 presupposition), double barreled (two different questions posed in one) or
overstated (places undue emphasis on some aspects of the topic). (if any of
these are used, it violates the marketing research associations code of
ethics)
Questionnaire organization: researchers create questions by starting with each
research objective in turn and developing the questions that relate to each objective
Questionnaire organization is the sequence of statements and questions that
make up a questionnaire. The question arrangement can affect the quality of
the information that is gathered.
Well organized questionnaires motivate respondents to be conscientious and
complete
The introduction
Crucial in the questionnaire design because it sets the stage. As each survey
and its target respondent group are unique, a researcher cannot use a
standardized introduction
Question flow: To facilitate respondents ease in answering questions, the
organization of these sets of questions should follow some understandable logic as
much as possible
Warm up questions: simple and easy to answer questions that are used to get
the respondents interest. They pertain to the research objectives
Transitions: questions or statements used to let the respondent know that
changes in question topic or format are about to happen
Difficult questions that require for the respondents to think a lot are buried
deep in the questionnaire. This because by the moment the person has been
answering a lot of questions and he may be committed.
Classification questions go at the end: they include demographic questions

CHAPTER 9: SELECTING THE SAMPLE

Population: entire group under study and is defined by research

objectives.
Census:accounting for the complete population. ex: U.S. is taken
every 10 years, requires information from everyone in the
population.
Sample:a subset in a population that suitable represents the
entire group. there are differences about how the manager and
the researcher approach to this term. a researcher is trained in
detecting sample errors and is careful in assessing the degree of
representativeness of the subgroup selected to be the sample
Sample Unit: the basic level of investigation. What are we
researching?
Sample Frame:a master source of sample units in the population
Sample Frame Error:the degree to which the sample frame may
be incomplete.
Sampling Error: any error in a survey that occurs because a
sample is used
* Practicality, analyzing huge amounts of data are the reasons for
taking a sample
Probability Samples: members of the population have a k nown
chance (probability) of being selected into the sample.
Non probability sample: chances (probability) of being selected
unknown
*The essence of a known probability rests in the sampling method rather than in the knowing
the exact size of the population.

Simple Random Sampling: probability is "known" and equal.

probability of selection=sample size/population size
Random device method: apparatus to ensure that every
member has the same chance of being selected. a form of simple
random sampling.
Random Numbers Method: for small populations. ex: use a
random numbers table
Random Digit Dialing: phone numbers are randomly generated.
might get non-working numbers. plus one dialing: if you dial 4912
then you also dial 4913
Systematic Sampling: selects random sample from a directory
or list. more efficient than simple random sampling. how many
names on the list and how many names do you want to draw.
skip interval=population list number/sample size. ex:
15000/500=30. Pick every 30th name. must randomly select the
starting point.
*Systematic sampling is more efficient than simple random sampling because only one or a
very few random numbers need to be drawn at the beginning.
Cluster Sampling: population is divided into subgroups, called
"clusters"(clusters look like each other), any of these clusters
could be a representative sample.
Area Sampling:for of cluster sampling; the geographical area is
divided into clusters. One step area and two step area.
Stratified Sampling: separates the population into different
subgroups and then samples all of these subgroups.
Proportionate stratified sampling: 40% of student body is
freshman so 40% of our sample should be freshman.
Disproportionate stratified sampling: s ample groups that have
more variability. ex: users and non-users of your product. might
survey one group more than the other.
Nonprobability Sampling: selection is not based on fairness,
equity or equal chance.
Convenience sampling:done at the convenience of the
interviewer
Purposive Sampling: selecting people who have experience in
what you're giving the survey for. ex: flipped classroom survey
given to flipped classroom students.
Referral Sampling (snowball Sample): l ow incidents rate. if you
know one person who runs marathons then they probably know
other people who have run marathons es decir referir a los que
pueden responder esta encuesta
Quota Sampling:must complete 10 surveys where 4 have to be
freshman. only time demographic questions would be at the
beginning of the survey.
Online Panels: fill out surveys online
River Samples:banner or pop up add asking to fill out survey
E-mail List samples: taking samples from a list of e-mail
addresses

CHAPTER 10: DETERMINING THE SIZE OF A SAMPLE

Marketing managers typically confuse sample size with sample representativeness. the
selection method , not the sample of the size determines the representativeness of the
sample.
sample accuracy: how close a random sample statistic is to the true population's value
it represents
the right sample size involves costs savings.

The axioms of random sample size and sample accuracy

1.The only perfectly accurate sample is a census

2.A random sample will always have some inaccuracy, which is referred to as margin of
sample error
3. The larger a random sample is, the more accurate it is, meaning the less margin of
sample error it has
4. Margin of sample error can be calculated with a simple formula and expressed as a +-%
number
5. You can take any finding in the survey, replicate the survey with a random sample of the
same size, and be very likely to find the same finding within the +-% range of the original
sample's finding
6. In almost all cases, the margin of sample error of a random sample is independent of the
size of the pop.
7. A random sample size can be a tiny percent of the pop. size and still have a small margin
of sample error
8. The size of a random sample depends on the client's desired accuracy (acceptable
margin of sample error) balanced against the cost of data collection for that sample size

Non sampling error: pertains to all sources of error other than sample selection method
and sample size
Confidence interval approach: t he correct method by which to
determine sample size
The larger the size of the probability sample the less is its
margin of sample error
p=
percent saying yes
q=
100% - p, or percent saying no
p represents
the variable of interest in the pop. that we are trying to estimate
CI
a range whose endpoints define a certain percentage of the
responses to a question
Central limit theory
"given a sufficiently large sample size from a population with a
finite level of variance, the mean of all samples from the same
population will be approximately equal to the mean of the
population."
The size of the sample is independent of t he population size
To compute sample size, you need 3 things:
1. variability
2. Acceptable sample error
3. Confidence level
The standard sample size formula is applicable if
 concerned with the nominally scaled questions in the survey
Acceptable margin of sample error (e)
the amount of sample error the searcher will permit to be
associated with the survey
2 ways to estimate the variability in the pop.
1. expect the worst case
2. guesstimate what is the actual variability
When estimating std. dev., researchers rely on
1. prior knowledge of the pop.
2. a pilot study
3.divide the range by 6
- the worst case is the most conservative approach

- With small populations, you should use t he finite multiplier

to determine sample size (if larger than 5% of the
population)

Captulos 11, 12 FEDERICO

Chapter 11: Dealing with Field Work and Data Quality Issues

Nonsampling error: all errors in a survey except those attributable to the sample plan and
sample size. They include all types of nonresponse errors, data gathering error, data handling
error, data analysis error and interpretation errors.

Possible Errors in Field Data Collection

Two general types

1. Fieldwork Error
2. Respondent Error

Intentional Fieldwork Errors

Occur whenever a data collection person willfully violates the data collection requirements set
forth by the researcher.

1. I nterviewer cheating occurs when the interviewer intentionally misrepresents respondents.

2. Leading the respondent, or attempting to in influence the respondents answers through

wording, voice in inflection, or body language.
 Unintentional Fieldwork Errors

An unintentional interviewer error occurs whenever an interviewer commits an error while

believing that he or she is performing correctly. Three general sources.

1. I nterviewer personal characteristics

2. Interviewer misunderstanding occurs when an interviewer believes he or she knows how to

administer a survey but instead does it incorrectly.

3. F
atigue- related mistakes, which can occur when an interviewer becomes tired.

Intentional Respondent Errors

1. F
alsehoods occur when respondents fail to tell the truth in surveys

2. Nonresponse includes a failure on the part of a prospective respondent to take part in the
survey, premature termination of the interview, or refusals to answer specific questions on the
questionnaire.

Unintentional Respondent Errors

An unintentional respondent error occurs whenever a respondent gives a response that is not
valid, but that he or she believes is the truth. There are five instances of unintentional
respondent errors: misunderstanding, guessing, attention loss, distractions, and fatigue.

Field Data Collection and Quality Controls

Control of Intentional Fieldworker Error

1. S
upervision uses administrators to oversee the work of eld data collection workers.

2. Validation veri es that the interviewer did the work. This strategy is aimed at the falsi -
cation/cheating problem. There are various ways to validate the work.

Control of Unintentional Fieldworker Error

Selection and training, orientation sessions, role playing, and methods to reduce fatigue.
Interviewer personal characteristics that can cause unintentional errors are best taken care of
by careful selection of interviewers. Following selection, it is important to train them well to
avoid any biases resulting from manner, appearance, and so forth.

Control of intentional Respondent Error

Tactics useful in minimizing intentional respondent error include anonymity, confidentiality,

incentives, validation checks, and third-person technique. Anonymity occurs when the
respondent is assured that his or her name will not be associated with his or her answers.
Confidentiality occurs when the respondent is given assurances that his or her answers will
remain private. Both assurances are believed to be helpful in forestalling falsehoods.

Another tactic for reducing falsehoods and nonresponse error is the use of incentives and the
use of validation checks.

Control of Unintentional Respondent Error

The control of unintentional respondent error takes various forms as well, including
well-drafted questionnaire instructions and examples, reversals of scale endpoints, and use of
prompters.

Nonresponse Error

There are at least three different types of potential nonresponse error lurking in any survey:
refusals to participate in the survey, break-offs during the interview, and refusals to answer
specific questions, or item omission.

Measuring Response Rates in Surveys

CASRO Response Rate Formula

- Response Rate = Number of completed interviews/Number of eligible units in sample

Dataset, Coding Data, and the Data Code Book

A dataset is an arrangement of numbers (mainly) in rows and columns.

The dataset is created by an operation called data coding, defined as the identification of code
values that are associated with the possible responses for each question on the questionnaire.
 Data code book which identifies: (1) the questions on the questionnaire, (2) the variable name or
label that is associated with each question or question part, and (3) the code numbers associated
with each possible response to each question.

Data Quality Issues

An incomplete response is a break-off where the respondent stops answering in the middle of
the questionnaire.

When a respondent does not answer a particular question, it is referred to as an item omission.

A yea-saying pattern may be evident in the form of all yes or strongly agree answers.
Repeating the same answer on grid-type questions is a variation called straight lining which
also signals a response quality problem.

The middle-of-the-road pattern is seen as a preponderance of no opinion responses.

Handling Data Quality Issues

When a researcher encounters data quality issues such as those just described, there are three
options. First, if there are several egregious errors, the researcher will most likely throw out the
respondents entire data row. Second, if the errors are minor and will not falsely sway the
survey findings, the researcher will probably leave the respondents entire data row in the
dataset. Finally, if there is a combination of some obvious error-riden responses and valid
responses, the researcher may opt to set the bad data items to blanks or missing data and use
only the good data items in subsequent analyses.

Chapter 12: Using Descriptive Analysis, Performing Population Estimates, and Testing
Hypotheses

Data analysis, which is defined as the process of describing a dataset by computing a small
number of statistics that characterize various aspects of the data. Data analysis distills the
dataset while retaining enough information so the client can mentally envision its salient
characteristics.

5 Basic Types of Statistical Analyses

1. Descriptive analysis is used to describe the variables (answers to the questions) in a dataset(all
respondents answers).

2. Inference analysis is used to generate conclusions about the populations characteristics based
on the sample data.
3. Difference analysis is used to compare the meanof the responses of one group to that of another
group.

4. Association analysis determines the strength and direction of relationships between two or more
variables (questions in the survey).

5. Predictive analysis allows insights into multiple relationships among variables.

Central Tendency

The basic data analysis goal involved in all measures of central tendency is to report a single
piece of information that describes the most typical response to a question. The term central
tendency applies to any statistical measure used that somehow reflects a typical or frequent
response.

Mode (moda) = el nmero ms frecuente

Median (mediana) = nmero en la mitad de un set de nmeros.

Mean (media) = promedio

Variability

All measures of variability are concerned with depicting the typical difference between the
values in a set of values.

- A frequency distribution is a tabulation of the number of times that each different

value appears in a particular set of values.

- The range identifies the distance between lowest value (minimum) and the highest
value (maximum) in an ordered set of values.

- The standard deviation indicates the degree of variation or diversity in the values in
such a way as to be translatable into a normal or bell-shaped curve distribution. The
variance is the standard deviation squared.

Reporting Descriptive Statistics to Clients

Reporting Scale Data (Ratio Interval Scales)

 Scale data is summarized with the following descriptivem
easures: average, median, mode,
standard deviation, minimum, and maximum.

Reporting Nominal or Categorical Data

Nominal data is summarized with the following descriptive measures: frequencies, frequency
distribution, percents, percent distribution, and mode. It is important to note that usually only
one categorical variable is summarized in each table because the categories are unique to the
variable (such as male and female for gender or buyer and nonbuyer for type of customer).

Statistical Inference: Sample Statistics and Population Parameters

Values that are computed from information provided by a sample are referred to as the
samples statistics, whereas values that are computed from a complete census, which are
considered to be precise and valid measures of the population, are referred to as parameters.

Statistical inference takes into account that large random samples are more accurate than are
small ones. Two types of statistical inferences often used by marketing researchers are described
in this chapter: parameter estimates and hypothesis tests. A parameter estimate is used to
approximate the population value (parameter) through the use of con dence intervals.
Hypothesis testing is used to compare the sample statistic with what is believed (hypoth- esized)
to be the population value prior to undertaking the study.

1. P
arameter estimation is the process of using sample information to compute an interval that

describes the range of a parameter such as the population mean () or the population
percentage (). It involves the use of three values: the sample statistic (such as the mean or the
percentage), the standard error of the statistic, and the desired level of con dence (usually 95%
or 99%).

Confidence Intervals

Confidence intervals are the degree of accuracy desired by the researcher and stipulated as a
level of confidence in the form of a range with a lower boundary and an upper boundary. By
far, the most commonly used level of confidence in marketing research is the 95% level,
corresponding to 1.96 standard errors.
A hypothesis test is a statistical procedure used to accept or reject the hypothesis based on
sample evidence

The hypothesized population parameter value can be determined using either a percentage or a
mean. The equation used to test the hypothesis of a population percentage is as follows:

Captulo 13: Implementing basic differences tests

Diferenciacin: diferentes tipos de consumidores, segmentarlos es fundamental. La

segmentacin se basa en las diferencias entre grupos de consumidores. Para que
sea til para la investigacin de mercado,la diferenciacin debe ser estadsticamente
significativa, estable, accionable.
Cuando la muestra n<=30 se usa T.
Cuando la muestra n>30 se usa Z.
Muestras independientes: son tratadas como representaciones de dos poblaciones
potencialmente diferentes.
(N) formula significancia de la diferencia entre dos porcentajes:

p1: porcentaje de la muestra 1

p2: porcentaje de la muestra 2
sp1-p2: estndar error de la diferencia de la muestra 1 de la muestra 2.
 Frmula significancia de la diferencia entre dos medianas

X1: mediana de la muestra 1

X2: mediana de la muestra 2
Sx1-x2: error estndar entre medianas

Anlisis de la varianza: ANOVA es una tabla de anlisis de Varianzas, permite

comprender la significancia de los distintos grupos, es una herramienta valiosa para
entender las diferencias entre los distintos segmentos del mercado. Cuando la
significancia en la tabla es cero, quiere decir que existe una diferencia significativa
entre los grupos.
Market segmentation holds that different types of consumers have different
requirements, and these differences can be the bases of marketing strategies.
Lets look at differences from the consumers side. The needs and requirements of
each of these market segments differ greatly from the others, and an astute marketer
will customize his or her marketing mix to each target markets unique situation.
One commonly used basis for market segmentation is the discovery of statistically
significant, meaningful, stable and actionable differences.
1. The differences must be significant, Statistical significance of differences means that
the differences found in the sample(s) truly exist in the population(s) from which the
random samples are drawn.
2. The differences must be meaningful: to be potentially useful to the marketing
researcher or manager, differences must, at minimum, be statistically significant. A
meaningful difference is one that the marketing manager can potentially use as a
basis for marketing decisions.
3. The differences should be stable: Thus, a stable difference is one that will be in place
for the foreseeable future. To be useful to the marketing researcher or manager,
differences must, if statistically significant and meaningful, be stable.
4. The differences must actionable: An actionable difference means that the marketer
can focus various marketing strategies and tactics, such as product design or
 advertising, on the market segments to accentuate the differences between the
segments. To be useful to the managers, differences must be statistically significant,
meaningful, stable and actionable.
The great advantage to using statistical analysis routines on a computer is that they
are programmed to compute the correct statistic.
With SPSS, the analyses of differences are referred to as T tests, but now that you
realize that SPSS will always determine the correct significance level, whether it is a
T or Z, you do not need to worry about which statistic to use. The talent you need to
acquire is how to interpret the significance level reported by SPSS.
Testing for significant differences between two groups
A researcher will want to compare two groups of interest.
Statistical tests are used when a researcher wants to compare the means or
percentages of two different groups or samples.
Independent samples are treated as representing two potentially different population.
To test whether a true difference exists between two group percentages, we test the
null hypothesis, or the hypothesis that the difference in their population parameters is
equal to zero.
To perform the test of significance of differences between two percentages, each
representing a separate group (sample), the first step requires a comparison of the
two percentages.
SPSS: SPSS does not perform tests of the significance of the difference between the
percentages of two groups, but you can use SPSS to generate the relevant
information and perform a hand calculation.
Testing for significant differences in means among more than two groups: analysis of
variance
ANOVA (analysis of variance) is an investigation of the differences between the
group means to ascertain whether sampling errors or true population differences
explain their failure to be equal.
ANOVA is used when comparing the means of three or more groups.
ANOVA is a valuable tool for discovering differences between and among multiple
market segments.
ANOVA has two distinct advantages over performing multiple T tests of the
significance of the difference between means.
1. It immediately notifies the researcher if there is any significant difference,

because all he or she needs to do is to look at the Sig. Value, our signal
flag.
2. It arranges the means so the significant differences can be located and

interpreted easily.
ANOVA is much more advantageous than running multiple T tests of the significance
of the difference between means.
Post hoc tests are options that are available to determine where the pair(s) of
statistically significant differences between the means exist(s).
Duncans multiple range test provides output that use mostly a picture of what
means are significantly different, and it is much less statistical than most of the other
post hoc tests, so we have chosen to use it here for these reasons.
Captulo 14: Making use of associations tests

Associative analyses determine whether a stable relationship exists between two

variables.
Types of relationships between two variables
The term levels implies that the variable is either an interval or a ratio scale; while the
term labels implies that the level of measurement is not scale, typically nominal.
A relationship is a consistent and systematic linkage between the level for two scale
variables or between the labels for two nominal variables.
A causal linkage is one in which it is certain one variable affected the other; with a
statistical linkage, there is no certainty because some other variable might have had
some influence.
Nonmonotonic relationships
A nonmonotonic relationships is one in which the presence (or absence) of the label
for one variable is systematically associated with the presence (or absence) of the
label for another variable.
Monotonic relationships
In monotonic relationships, the researcher can assign a general direction to the
association between two variables. There are two types of monotonic relationships:
increasing and decreasing.
Monotonic increasing: are those in which one variable increases as the other
variable increases.
Monotonic decreasing: are those in which one variable increases as the other
variable decreases.
Monotonic means that the relationships can be described only in a general directional
sense. Beyond this, precision in the description is lacking.
Linear relationships
A linear relationships is a straight-line association between two scale variables.
Curvilinear relationships
Curvilinear relationships are those in which one variable is associated with another
variable, but the relationship is described by a curve rather than a straight line. A
curvilinear relationship means some smooth curve pattern describes the association.
Characterizing relationships between variables
The presence of a relationship between two variables is determined by a statistical
test.
Presence refers to the finding that a systematic relationship exists between the two
variables of interest in the population. Presence is a statistical issue.
Direction (or pattern)
Direction means that you know if the relationship is positive or negative, while pattern
means you know the general nature of the relationship.
Strength of association
Strength means you know how consistent the relationship is.
TABLA
Cross-tabulations
Cross-tabulations and the associated Chi-square value we are about to explain are
used to assess if a non monotonic relationship exists between two nominally scaled
variables.
Cross-tabulation analysis
When investigating the relationship between two nominally scaled variables, we
typically use cross-tabs, or the use of a cross-tabulation table, defined as a table in
which data is compared using a row and column format.
A cross- classification table can have four types of numbers in each cell: frequency,
row percentage, column percentage, and row percentage.
Raw percentages are cell frequencies divided by the grand total.
Chi-square analysis
Chi-square analysis assesses the statistical significance of non monotonic
associations in cross-tabulation tables.
Chi-square analysis is the examination of frequencies for two nominal scaled
variables in a cross-tabulation table to determine whether the variables have a
statistically significant nonmonotonic relationship.
Expected frequencies are calculated based on the null hypotheses of no association
between the two variables under investigation.
The Chi-square distributions shape changes depending on the number of degrees of
freedom.
Correlation coefficients and covariation
The correlation coefficient is an index number, constrained to fall between the range
of -1 and +1, that communicates both the strength and the direction of a linear
relationship between two metric variables.
Covariation is defined as the amount of change in one variable systematically
associated with a change in another variable. The greater the absolute size of the
correlation coefficient, the greater is the covariation between the two variables, or the
stronger is their relationship.
To use a correlation, you must first determine that it is statistically significant from
zero.
Correlation coefficients that fall between the absolute values of 1.00 and .81 are
generally considered to be strong. Those correlations that fall between the absolute
values of .80 and .61 are generally indicate a moderate association. Those that fall
between the absolute values of .60 and .41 are typically considered to be low, and
they denote a weak association.
The correlation sign: the direction of the relationship
The sign indicates the direction of the relationship. A positive sign indicates a positive
direction; a negative sign indicates a negative direction.
Covariation can be examined with the use of a scatter diagram.
The pearson product moment correlation coefficient
The pearson product moment correlation measures the linear relationship between
two interval-and/or ratio-scaled variables (scale variables) such as those depicted
conceptually by scatter diagrams.
The pearson product moment correlation coefficient measures the degree of linear
association between two variables.
 A positive correlation signals an increasing linear relationship, whereas a negative
correlation signals a decreasing one.