Organizational Behaviour

and Management
 To Orla, the first of the new generation to join our organization!
To Louise, Sarah and Mark, who for better or worse have also decided to join!
To Jeffrey, Richard and Shona, who had no choice but to join.
And last but not least, to Valerie who helped to create our organization.
Organizational Behaviour
and Management
THIRD EDITION

John Martin The University of Hull

Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States

Organizational Behaviour and Management, Third Edition

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 1-86152-948-1

First edition 1998, reprinted 2000

Second edition 2001, reprinted 2002
This edition 2005

Text design by Design Deluxe

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 Brief Contents

Part 1 Introduction to Management and

Organizational Behaviour 1
Chapter 1 Organizational behaviour today 3
Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and
academic perspectives 37

Part 2 Individuals within Organizations 77

Chapter 3 Perception and attitude formation 79
Chapter 4 Personality and individual difference 123
Chapter 5 Learning within organizations 165

Part 3 Groups and Teams within Organizations 207

Chapter 6 Groups and teams: formation and structure 209
Chapter 7 Groups and teams: dynamics and effectiveness 249

Part 4 Managing Organizations 291

Chapter 8 Management within organizations 293
Chapter 9 Leadership in organizations 335

Part 5 Managing People within an Organization 381

Chapter 10 Managing people and stress 383
Chapter 11 Motivation and performance management 427
Chapter 12 Ethics and organizational culture 471

Part 6 Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure 521

Chapter 13 Work design and organization 523
Chapter 14 Technology and work 567
Chapter 15 Organizational structure and design 611

Part 7 Managing the Processes and

Dynamics of Organizations 667
Chapter 16 Communication, decision making and negotiation 669
Chapter 17 Power and control 711
Chapter 18 Conflict and organizational politics 745
Chapter 19 Organizational development and change 789

[v]
 Fu l l C o n t e n t s

List of Management in Action Panels xiv

List of Employee Perspective Panels xv
List of Case Studies xvi
Guided tour xvii
Preface xx
Acknowledgements xxviii

PART 1 Introduction to Management and Organizational

Behaviour 1

Chapter 1 Organizational behaviour today 3

Introduction
What is organizational behaviour? 4
Why study organizational behaviour? 6
How to study organizational behaviour 7
Research and organizational behaviour 8
A first look at organizations 13
A first look at management 16
A first look at employees 23
The challenges facing organizations, managers and employees 29
Conclusions 31

Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and academic

perspectives 37
Introduction 38
Early organizational and management practice 38
Studying organizations and management 53
Scientific and administrative management 56
The human relations and quantitative schools 58
Systems approaches to management 60
Sociological and other perspectives on management 62
New thinking about organizations and management 64
Looking into the 21st century 67
Conclusions 71

PART 2 Individuals within Organizations 77

Chapter 3 Perception and attitude formation 79

Introduction 80
The significance of perception and attitude 80
A model of perception 81
Selection of stimuli for attention 84
Organizing stimuli into meaningful patterns 87

[ vii ]
[ viii ] Full contents

Interpreting the significance of a stimulus 88

Response behaviour to a stimulus 91
The learning loop 92
Person perception 92
Attribution theory and perception 99
Attitude formation 103
Impression management 107
Perception and attitudes within an organizational context 110
Perception and attitude formation: an applied perspective 113
Conclusions 117

Chapter 4 Personality and individual difference 123

Introduction 124
The study of individual difference 124
Nomothetic perspectives 126
Idiographic perspectives 134
Other perspectives on individual difference 136
Measuring personality and individual difference 145
Emotion, intelligence and emotional intelligence 149
Individual difference, perception and attitudes 151
Organizational applications of individual difference 153
Individual difference: a management perspective 158
Conclusions 160

Chapter 5 Learning within organizations 165

Introduction 166
Learning, training and development 166
Behaviourist theories of learning 170
Cognitive approaches to learning 176
Social and experiential learning 180
Other approaches to learning 182
The learning organization 186
Knowledge management 190
Learning within organizations 193
Learning: a management and organizational perspective 197
Conclusions 202

PART 3 Groups and Teams within Organizations 207

Chapter 6 Groups and teams: formation and structure 209

Introduction 210
Groups and teams are they different? 210
Groups, teams and organizations 213
The significance of groups and teams 216
Formal and informal groups 218
Why groups form 220
Organizational research approaches 223
Group formation and development 229
Role theory and group structure 235
Job design, technology and teams 239
 Full contents [ ix ]

Group formation and structure: an applied perspective 240

Conclusions 243

Chapter 7 Groups and teams: dynamics and effectiveness 249

Introduction 250
Communication within groups and teams 250
Analyzing behaviour within groups and teams 252
Controlling behaviour within groups and teams 254
Decision making within groups and teams 260
Group dynamics 261
Dynamics between groups 273
Group effectiveness and satisfaction 275
Groups, teams and organizations 281
Group dynamics and effectiveness: an applied perspective 284
Conclusions 286

PART 4 Managing Organizations 291

Chapter 8 Management within organizations 293

Introduction 294
What is management? 294
Fayol and the management process 297
Managing in a social world 298
What managers do 302
Management: context influences 304
Management roles and skills 311
Management and diversity 315
Management and organizational effectiveness 317
Critical incident management 319
Management and power a critical reflection 322
Meetings and humour in management 325
Management: an applied perspective 328
Conclusions 331

Chapter 9 Leadership in organizations 335

Introduction 336
Leaders or managers? 336
Leaders, entrepreneurs and vision 342
Leaders, power and virtual working 344
Do leaders need followers? 347
Leadership as symbolism 349
Trait theories of leadership 349
Style theories of leadership 350
Contingency theories of leadership 358
Other approaches to leadership 361
Alternatives to leadership 366
Leadership and the organizational lifecycle 367
Leadership and success 367
Leadership: an applied perspective 372
Conclusions 374
[x] Full contents

PART 5 Managing People within an Organization 381

Chapter 10 Managing people and stress 383

Introduction 384
Models of people management practice 384
People management issues and activities 386
The psychological contract and work-life balance 395
People management and the line manager 397
Stress what is it? 400
Sources of stress 404
Effects of stress 406
Dealing with stress 410
Managing people and stress: an applied perspective 416
Conclusions 420

Chapter 11 Motivation and performance management 427

Introduction 428
Early approaches to motivation and performance management 428
The theories of motivation 430
Content theories 433
Process theories 443
Additional perspectives on motivation 450
Performance management and motivation 453
Motivation and performance management: an applied perspective 459
Conclusions 465

Chapter 12 Ethics and organizational culture 471

Introduction 472
Philosophy and ethics 472
Ethical perspectives in organizations 474
Ethics and research 477
Social responsibility 479
Cross-cultural perspectives on ethics 481
Ethics and antisocial behaviour 482
Ethics and management 484
Defining organizational culture 490
The dimensions of culture 492
Cultural frameworks 493
The determinants of culture 500
National culture 502
Globalization and culture 506
Managing culture 508
Changing organizational culture 510
Ethics and organizational culture: an applied perspective 511
Conclusions 514
 Full contents [ xi ]

PART 6 Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure 521

Chapter 13 Work design and organization 523

Introduction 524
The nature of a job 524
Work study, ergonomics and job analysis 527
Approaches to designing jobs 531
Technology and work organization 536
Groups and work organization 538
Organizational influences on work organization 540
Fordism and post-Fordism 544
Flexibility, empowerment and patterns of work 548
Changing the design of jobs 551
Alienation, satisfaction and productivity through work organization 553
Quality of working life and quality circles 556
Work organization: an applied perspective 557
Conclusions 560

Chapter 14 Technology and work 567

Introduction 568
Technology a definition 568
The evolution of technology 570
Perspectives on technology 574
Japanization, technology and work 578
Assumptions about technology 581
The politics of technology 583
Technology and alienation 584
Determinism, rationality and control 585
The impact of technology 587
Technology, innovation and diversity 590
Technology and change 592
Information technology 596
New technology applications 597
Technology: an applied perspective 602
Conclusions 606

Chapter 15 Organizational structure and design 611

Introduction 612
Perspectives on organizational structure 612
Organizational lifecycle 625
Structural frameworks 628
BPR, flexible and flatter organizations 639
The virtual, federal and networked organization 642
Alternative organizations 645
Factors influencing organizational design 648
Charting organizations 653
Organizational structure and design: an applied perspective 657
Conclusions 660
[ xii ] Full contents

PART 7 Managing the Processes and Dynamics of Organizations 667

Chapter 16 Communication, decision making and negotiation 669

Introduction 670
Communication within organizations 670
Communication processes 673
Decision making within organizations 681
Decision-making models 686
Negotiating within organizations 693
Negotiator characteristics 698
Communication, decision making and negotiation: An applied perspective 699
Conclusions 705

Chapter 17 Power and control 711

Introduction 712
Power, influence and authority 712
Perspectives on power 716
Sources of organizational power 721
Power and decision making 725
Control within organizations 729
Form and characteristics of control 730
Power, control and resistance 735
Power and control: an applied perspective 736
Conclusions 739

Chapter 18 Conflict and organizational politics 745

Introduction 746
Sources of organizational conflict 746
Forms of organizational conflict 750
The consequences of conflict 756
Perspectives on conflict 759
Conflict as resistance to control 764
Conflict handling strategies 765
Politics within organizations 769
Political strategies 772
Using political behaviour 775
Managing political behaviour 778
Conflict and organizational politics: an applied perspective 779
Conclusions 783

Chapter 19 Organizational development and change 789

Introduction 790
Pressure for change 790
Forces acting on organizations 791
Impact of change on organizations 795
Organizational development and change 799
Power, politics and change 802
Approaches to organizational change 804
 Full contents [ xiii ]

Contingency perspectives on change 810

Systems perspectives on change 815
Chaos and change 816
The change agent 817
Resistance to change 818
Innovation as a change strategy 821
Organizational development and change: an applied perspective 824
Conclusions 826

Glossary 832
Bibliography 841
Index 862
 List of Features

Management in Action panels 8.1 Managing a Personal Assistant (PA) 305

8.2 Centre of attention 309
1.1 Pret A Manger staff help choose the 8.3 Same indifference 319
new recruits 8 8.4 Micro management 326
1.2 Implementing Japanese management
methods 16 9.1 Taking the lead in leadership 338
1.3 Survival skills for a new breed 19 9.2 The managers dilemma 340
1.4 Cut out the middlemen 25 9.3 Leaders listen more 351
1.5 Misery of rag-trade slaves in 9.4 The inspirational leader 365
Americas Pacific outpost 27 9.5 Without leadership there is no
change 375
2.1 Babylonian management practice 41
2.2 Sun Tzu The art of war or 10.1 How to become an employer of
management 42 choice 391
2.3 The Arsenal of Venice 46 10.2 A global conversion 399
2.4 The Soho Foundry 52 10.3 Managers working more than before 402
2.5 Beam yourself up to the boardroom 68 10.4 Alternative ways to take out stress 412
10.5 Cheers all round for employee
3.1 Attitudes and perceptions in times of counselling 413
change 82
3.2 The wonder years 98 11.1 Early printing in Korea 430
3.3 The new managers tale 100 11.2 SAD syndrome assistance in Capital
3.4 More than the jobs worth 108 One 437
3.5 Have long holiday, will travel 11.3 Moving tale of a fair days work 447
nowhere in job 111 11.4 Can nice guys finish first? 454
11.5 A cold feat 461
4.1 Personality and teams 127
4.2 How to cheat on personality tests 147 12.1 Poverty pay of Barbie doll workers 487
4.3 Psychometrics on line for B&Q 148 12.2 Secrets of the Semler effect 497
4.4 Developing multiple intelligence 152 12.3 Winning ways with culture 501
4.5 How to plan an assessment centre 156 12.4 Cultivate your culture 503
12.5 Real change dealer 512
5.1 The domestic supervisor and
conditioning 175 13.1 Why not simply stop working? 525
5.2 Who checks the checkers? 184 13.2 Matching AMT jobs to people 537
5.3 Action learning in action 187 13.3 Juggling act 550
5.4 e-learning 196 13.4 Work-life balance for men 558
5.5 Trial separation 198
14.1 Digital depression 571
6.1 Keeping the peace 212 14.2 Tournament of the skies and other
6.2 Sense of involvement 221 simulations 590
6.3 Construction on a united front 222 14.3 Jobs for all in the global market? 598
6.4 Family fortunes 231 14.4 Piano gives a lesson for the
6.5 How to build teams 237 workplace 603
14.5 Singapore dials long distance to
7.1 Teams and progress 261 find staff 605
7.2 Flying information 262
7.3 The anti-management workforce 265 15.1 Outsourcing service departments 626
7.4 Park life 285 15.2 Return to the centre 633

[ xiv ]
 List of Features [ xv ]

15.3 Business process re-engineering 6.4 The female managers story 239
(BPR) 641 6.5 The team controls the work 243
15.4 What a way to run a company! 643
16.1 The power of time 680 7.1 Negotiating with one hand tied
16.2 Getting a better company car 688 behind your back part 1 255
16.3 Put on your thinking caps 702 7.2 Negotiating with one hand tied
16.4 On the road to procrastination 704 behind your back part 2 257
17.1 Influence without authority 714 7.3 The grey squirrels are taking over! 258
17.2 Promoting the function? 719 7.4 Instrumental approach to work 276
17.3 How to cure bullying at work 723 7.5 Richard and his conflicting
17.4 Thou shalt not cook the books 731 objectives 286

18.1 For what we are about to receive 751 8.1 Do as I say, not as I do! 296
18.2 Time for a break 752 8.2 How can I keep my door open? 303
18.3 Getting rid of the boss 754 8.3 Lose the accent if you want to
18.4 The importance of stamping out succeed 316
loyalty 782 8.4 Harrys nervous breakdown 323
8.5 Dont joke, show respect! 327
19.1 Off with their overheads 792
19.2 A measure of success 794 9.1 What does it take to be an
19.3 Executive action for acquisition entrepreneur? 345
success 807 9.2 Managers views on more senior
19.4 Strongest links 826 managers 347
9.3 The style of interim managers 361
9.4 Bills experience on a sinking ship 368
List of Employee Perspective panels 9.5 Dropping out of the rat race 369
2.1 Slaves or masters? 43
10.1 Anils experience at work 387
2.2 Being on strike against Scientific 10.2 Forcing Mary to become involved 393
Management 57 10.3 Stress in the Liffe! 408
2.3 Good time workers 59 10.4 Disputes in the office 417
2.4 Generation X employees 70
11.1 Julias expectations 431
3.1 Dealing with the customer! 90 11.2 Time-sheet compliance 434
3.2 Perceptions about empowerment 97 11.3 Ediths time off for a new career 438
3.3 Chasing the targets! 105 11.4 Practise what you preach 456
3.4 Teflon worker! 108 11.5 Should I earn more than my boss? 465
3.5 Doctoring the health service 117
12.1 Ethical can be profitable 479
4.1 Personality or achievements? 128 12.2 What counts as taking work home? 488
4.2 Organizations are zoos! 135 12.3 Whistleblowing can get you
4.3 The personality of HR people 139 dismissed! 489
4.4 Shonas personality did not match 154 12.4 Breaking the conventions 499
4.5 Change and its effects 159 12.5 Bribes as a way of life? 507

5.1 To develop or not to develop, 13.1 Cleaning in the factory 535

that is the question? 167 13.2 Workplace satisfaction survey 545
5.2 Valerie shouted back! 171 13.3 To work from home or not,
5.3 Orlas induction to work 180 that is the question? 551
5.4 Marys indiscretion 192 13.4 David was furious with his bank 555
5.5 Johns fighting and imprisonment 199
14.1 Changing an industry 594
6.1 David was a team leader, or was he? 213 14.2 Technology can be simple 595
6.2 Sarahs first day at work 217
6.3 Is it a cohesive department or not? 234 15.1 Control through workload models 616
[ xvi ] List of Features

15.2 Short term only please 632 List of Case Studies

15.3 How can I work for more than one
boss? 638 The reality of management life! 32
15.4 Customers replace employees 646 To lie or not to lie, that is the question? 73
15.5 How do you know when you have
made it? 658 The promotion 119
John and the sales administrator 161
16.1 Reading between the lines 677
16.2 Mouth in gear, brain in neutral 681 Banking on money 204
16.3 Looking after the pennies 683
The evolution of a union branch 246
16.4 The boss who lost his temper 696
Employees fighting amongst themselves 289
17.1 You know what you can do with the
job! 716 Mixing the sexes 333
17.2 Independence has a price 724 The supervisor was taking bribes 378
17.3 Reasonable expenses 727
17.4 I wont apologize! 734 Work-life balance, the psychological
18.1 A bosss life at the sharp end 760 contract and stress in further education 423
18.2 To smoke or not to smoke, Changes to the management of police
that is the question? 767 services 468
18.3 Getting rid of a subordinate 773
18.4 Sharing out the overtime! 777 Breakfast cereal games at the
18.5 How many days do I have to work? 780 supermarket 517
19.1 The attitude survey negative Job simplification on a slicing line 563
feedback 800
19.2 Reorganizing to get rid of the Martha the Martini employee 609
problem? 803
Premium bonding 663
19.3 The effects of reorganization 817
19.4 Dismissed by text message! 820 Controlling the invisible? 742
Not paying the wages and conflict 785
Involvement and failure 829
 G u i d e d To u r

CHAPTER 7

Groups and teams: dynamics and

effectiveness

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter and working through the associated Management in Action panels,
Employee Perspectives, Discussion Questions and Case Study, you should be able to:
Learning Objectives to be achieved
Outline the nature of the dynamic processes that occur within and between
appear at the start of every chapter

groups.

Describe the similarities and differences between models of how groups can be made
to help you monitor your progress.

more effective.

Explain how decisions are made in groups and the difficulties that can be encountered in
reaching agreement. Each chapter also ends with a
Understand how control can be achieved within groups through such mechanisms as
socialization and authority. conclusion section that recaps the
Assess the implications of issues such as groupthink and the risky shift phenomena on
group functioning. key content for revision purposes.

[ 249 ]

Key Terms are highlighted in the text where they first Employee Perspective this new feature looks at what OB
appear and defined in the margin. All the terms are means in practice from the perspective of the employee rather
collated in a Glossary at the end of the book, allowing than the employer in order to provide as complete a picture
you to find explanations of key terms quickly. of the organizational experience as is possible.

Chapter 3 A model of perception [ 81 ] Chapter 3 Attitude formation [ 105 ]

without too much difficulty. A mental map of the room exists in the persons head indi-
cating where things are normally to be found, thereby providing an indication of the
relative spatial relationships between the objects.
The significance of perception within organizations is the basis for action that it
provides for the people involved. Susskind et al. (2003) studied the perception of
service provision among employees along with customer satisfaction of the service
provision. They found that co-worker support was significantly related to the customer
focus of employees and this was in turn related to customer satisfaction. They also
found that support from supervisors was not as significant (as co-worker support) in
encouraging a customer focus among employees. This research suggests that co-
workers are more significant in terms of their impact on how staff will relate to
customers and the service encounter than supervisors. Within organizations, as in
life, there is no certainty that any two people (or groups of people) will perceive the
same stimulus in exactly the same way.
The perceptions and attitudes that people hold are formed throughout life as a
result of experience and socialization. Some attitudes are deeply held and as a
consequence probably difficult to change. Other attitudes are perhaps less entrenched
and liable to change in line with experience. For example, attitudes towards fashion
are notoriously fickle and liable to change quickly. There are obvious and strong links
between perception and the attitudes that people hold. Attitudes are formed on the
basis of perceived information. Perceptions are interpreted in the light of experience
and attitudes. Management in Action 3.1 provides examples of these links.
management if the individual is to continue to be accepted by the organization. This is
reflected in the instrumental approach to work in which employees do what Instrumental
management want because they need to keep the job (and income), not because they approach to work
believe or agree with managements requirements. The following Employee Based on a trading
Perspective (3.3) demonstrates that complex links exist between what workers and value approach to
perceive and what they actually do in earning their wages. work and the
determination of
Attitudes and perception contribution relative to
benefits gained.
There is a twofold relationship between attitudes and perception. First, individuals
perceive the attitudes of other people. They do this through the receipt and interpreta-
tion of a range of visual, speech, body language, dress etc., clues. People then classify
the people they perceive around them based on the clues detected. For example, a
group of young males all with very short hair and outlandish clothing perhaps torn and
covered with studs and chains might be interpreted by an old person as likely to be
Socialization violent thugs looking to beat up and rob some innocent individual. In that example,
(social doping) The the perceiver is not experiencing the real attitudes of the group of young people, they
process of learning are observing a number of stimuli and drawing conclusions (stereotypical) from them
how things should be about the attitudes and intentions of the group. In turn, their own behaviour will be
done in a particular influenced by their presumptuous interpretation of the signals.
context.

EMPLOYEE PERSPECTIVE 3.3 Chasing the targets!

A MODEL OF PERCEPTION
One company introduced an incentive scheme for its allowed to increase, but thanked staff for their contri-
customer service employees without consulting them bution. The service to the customers did not improve
Perception as a process can be described as a sequence of events from the receipt of a
first. Management felt that it would provide a means of and some took their business elsewhere. The longer
stimulus to the response to it (see Figure 3.1). The following sections of this chapter
sharing out the work more equitably and motivating serving staff and those with readily transferable skills
will consider each of the elements from this model in greater detail.
staff to work harder in support of the company objec- began actively looking for jobs elsewhere or sought
It is often assumed that as individuals we all perceive the reality of the world
tives. Managers, without any discussion with employ- retirement at the earliest opportunity. They were
around us in the same way. However, a glance at a range of newspapers covering politi-
ees, also decided the targets for use in the new generally replaced by staff that had no experience of
cal or industrial relations events should provide adequate support for the view that
scheme. Over a period of about one year staff became the previous service standards within the company.
there are always at least two points of view in any situation. This reflects something
familiar with the scheme and although no formal They simply accepted the incentive scheme and the
that has been acknowledged by psychologists for some considerable time. Look at
complaints were made, customers began to notice a targets that went with it and sought to maximize their
Figure 3.2. What do you see?
difference in service. Whereas prior to the new incen- income. Generally they only stayed until a better job
Do you see a young woman or an old woman in the picture? Now ask one or two of
tive scheme staff had been only too willing to help opportunity came along, or they could stand the situ-
your friends what they see? Does everyone you ask see the same? The raw material
customers, now they tended to act mechanically and ation no longer. Management continued to claim that
(the picture) is interpreted in the light of a range of internal and external influences.
were very reluctant to go beyond the basic provision of the new incentive scheme was a great success in
There has been some suggestion that younger people tend to see the young woman,
the service, saying that they were too busy or that it helping the company achieve its objectives.
whereas older people tend to see the old woman. Whatever the case, there are two
was someone elses responsibility to deal with other
issues. A small number of customer complaints were Tasks
received, but management took the view that things 1. If you were an employee who had worked in this
FIGURE 3.1
Receipt of a
Selection of Organization of would settle down, and as productivity had gone up company for many years why do you think your atti-
stimulus stimulus into a
stimulus this indicated that the scheme was successful. tudes would be as they are? What would you do and
for attention meaningful pattern
The following year staff were asked to help why?
Learning loop
management review the targets used within the 2. Do you consider that the attitudes of the new staff
scheme in order to improve it. A couple of the staff did are supportive of managements objectives in any
Interpretation of so, but their ideas were largely ignored as they sought real sense of the term? Why or why not?
Response
behaviour
the significance to make the case for more staff and to make the 3. Do you think that the management attitude that
of the stimulus targets more realistic. Management said that no everything is fine can be supported? Why or why
concessions could be made as cost could not be not?
The perceptual process

[ xvii ]
[ xviii ] Guided Tour

Management in Action provide applied examples of aspects of [ 662 ] Organizational structure and design Part 6

OB as experienced by managers in a real organizational context.

[ 82 ] Perception and attitude formation Part 2
MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 3.1
The organization in question was going through a
significant period of change. As part of this, the person-
nel department was expected to manage many aspects
of the process and a number of new appointments
were made in order to strengthen the ability of the
function to achieve these objectives. This involved the
recruitment of a number of experienced personnel
specialists from outside the industry; training and
industrial relations being two examples of the addi-
tional expertise sought.
The process also involved the reallocation of a
number of the existing personnel staff to new duties.
One of the existing personnel staff perceived that the
newly appointed specialists were a threat to their
standing within the organization and began to engage
in hostile behaviour towards them. The situation
became extremely political and resulted in many addi-
tional problems for the organization until the personnel
director was able to stabilize the situation.
Interpretation of this story from an attitudes and
perception perspective suggests several things:
The existing personnel specialist held a number of
attitudes that led him to perceive the new people
from outside as having skills that were more valued
by the organization. This led him to interpret this as
a threat to his future career and position within the
organization. This resulted in attitudes and
Stop Consider
Was the situation described inevitable as a result of the likely perception and attitudes
of people in that situation?
Could the problems have been anticipated and how might the situation have been
dealt with in order to avoid some if not all of them?
FIGURE 3.2
Explain the limitations of the standard organization
chart in describing activity within an organization.
The standard organization chart reflects little more
than reporting arrangements. It shows the major
compartments that exist and the job titles that exist
within those departments. It usually gives no
indication of the relative seniority of the people or jobs
indicated in the chart or of the cross-functional
Attitudes and perceptions in times interactions and process relationships that exist.
There are charts that seek to compensate for these
of change
deficiencies, by seeking to incorporate relative
behaviour that were openly hostile to the people seniority and other factors; however these are
involved and anything suggested by them. generally limited in scope as their inclusion can
The new personnel specialists had been brought in quickly make any chart look a mess as a result of the
to supplement the existing resources of the number of lines included. The almost continual
organization. They arrived with a set of attitudes movement of people into and out of jobs,
that implied that the organization was not unique in departments and the organization itself, combined
the process that it was going through and that with job changes and other activity changes also
adopting their previously learned skills would means that any organization chart is out of date
enable it to achieve its objectives. Resistance from almost as soon as it is published. There are other
the established specialists was at first seen as a charting devices that are intended to reflect other
minor irritation and inevitable. However, the aspects of activity within an organization and these
continued display of hostile behaviour led to are discussed in the chapter.
deterioration in the working relationship between Discuss the contingency model and its relationship
the people involved. The new staff began to to organizational structure. The contingency model
interpret this behaviour at a personal level and as a of structure is an approach which suggests that
criticism of their skills. Consequently, the negative structure reflects an interactive relationship with the
attitudes of the existing specialists produced an
increasingly negative response from the new staff.
In effect a doom loop of deteriorating attitudes,
fuelled by perceptions of other peoples behaviour,
was happening. This led to appeals to higher DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
authority to resolve the perceived problems (by
removing the other people). Several conflict- 1. What is a virtual organization and how does it differ
resolving sessions were held and one or two of the (if at all) from the federal form?
new specialists left of their own accord. Some three 2. Is the concept of a horizontal organization the same
years later the situation was not completely as the matrix organization? Identify the differences
resolved and a form of uneasy truce existed and similarities. Which would you prefer to work in
between the individuals concerned. and why?
3. To what extent does the view that theatre can be
used as a metaphor for organization offer any value
in understanding structural issues?
4. Organizations with fewer layers of management will
face significant problems in the future as their
managers will not have the opportunity to gain
experience of major decision making before they
have that responsibility. Discuss the implications of
this statement for organizational structure.
5. Describe bureaucracy and its various forms. In what
ways and to what extent does bureaucracy have a
part to play in modern organizational design?
environment. Figure 15.4 provides an indication of
the contingency approach to structure. It suggests
that there are two categories of contingency variable,
external and internal contingency factors. Both of
which include a range of elements particular to the
specific organization and its context. These factors
are detected to a greater or lesser extent by managers
who must also interpret them in seeking to
understand them in relation to their business (and
personal) objectives. This in turn produces an
intention which is filtered through a number of
factors such as the capability and willingness of the
organization to change or adapt (if that is the
intended course of action). Out of all of these
processes emerges the actual organizational form
that exists for the particular organization in question.
It is an approach to organization structure that allows
for differences between the structures of
organizations of common size, in the same industry
and in the same location as common environmental
forces (external and internal) can be interpreted
differently by the managers. Equally factors such as
the will to make changes, or the capability to make
the necessary changes might differ between
organizations. The contingency approach captures
all of this complexity by simply suggesting that
structure depends upon the circumstances!
6. Is it inevitable that centralization and
decentralization will be cyclical trends in
organizational design? Why or why not?
7. Business process re-engineering offers nothing new
in seeking to simplify organizational structure; it
simply reflects the application of scientific
management. Discuss this statement.
8. Describe the contingency approach to designing an
organization. How does it differ from the traditional
views on structure?
9. Structure reflects nothing more than the means
through which power and control over employees
can be exercised by managers. Discuss this
statement, justifying your views
10. What is a flexible firm and to what extent does it
reflect the contingency approach to organizational
design?

Ambiguous figure (originally published by Hill, WE (1915) Punch, 6 November)

Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter help

Stop-and-Consider appear at the end of each Management in reinforce and test your knowledge and understanding, and
Action panel and help the reader actually think and reflect on the provide a basis for group discussions and activities.
case material in some depth. This feature also identifies
alternative perspectives and links with other concepts.

Chapter 2 Conclusions [ 71 ]

Conclusions provide a thorough CONCLUSIONS

re-cap of the key issues in each This chapter has considered in some detail the
historical origins of management. It briefly reviewed
some of the major organizational themes emerging
also attempted to introduce some of the topics that
will be considered in much greater detail later in
this book and which form much of the substance of

chapter, explicitly linked to each over many thousands of years, attempting to

demonstrate that management has a much longer
tradition than is frequently implied. This chapter
the organizational behaviour approach to the study
of management and organizations.

chapters learning objectives,

helping you to assess your Now to summarize this chapter in terms of the contexts and at a time when computer technology
relevant Learning Objectives: was unavailable to contribute to organizational

understanding and revise key Understand that there is no one perspective or

model of organization, management or employee
processes. However, they have now become deeply
ingrained into the philosophy of management and
even changing social and technological conditions
content. that totally explains these concepts. This chapter
introduced a number of the academic traditions that
have not fundamentally replaced these perspectives.
The Wilson (1999) paper referred to in the chapter
seek to offer an understanding of employees,
makes the point that the basic tenets associated
management and organization and which contribute
with scientific management have simply become
to the study of organizational behaviour. This
more insidious in the application of virtual
material has been presented in such a way as to
organizational frameworks.
demonstrate that each tradition and discipline can
at best offer a partial understanding of the Outline the relative contribution towards an
complexity that defines an organization and the understanding of management from each of the
people who work within them. different perspectives described in this chapter.
Each of the academic traditions reviewed in this
Discuss the significance of a historical perspective
chapter has a slightly different perspective to offer
in developing an appreciation of modern
on the sphere of interest that they embrace. These
organizations and management. It is frequently
perspectives are not mutually exclusive or capable
assumed that management began with the work of
of offering indisputable truth about a particular
FW Taylor in developing scientific management.
theme. The inherent difficulty in seeking to explain
Nothing could be further from the truth. Collective
fully individual human behaviour in a complex and
activity has existed for thousands of years, as has the
dynamic social environment should be apparent
practice of management and the function of being an
from the material introduced in the first two
employee. This chapter has set out to present a brief
chapters in this text. Each of the traditions reviewed
overview of some of these historical perspectives in
offers some insight into the phenomena in focus
order to establish that much of what we experience
and it is necessary to reflect on the positive and
today has its origins far back in time. Also, it begins to
negative aspects of the various perspectives
be apparent when looking back in history, that many
presented in order to formulate your own models
of the organizational problems evident today would
and theories of what managing and working in an
be recognized by people from the past, albeit the
organization means. This reflects the point made by
social context and technology are different.
Watson (1994) earlier in this chapter.
Explain the significance of the scientific and Appreciate that management theory is continually
administrative management approaches to
changing in the light of new research. The sections
managing an organization. These two traditions to
in this chapter that consider some of the more
the study and management of organizational activity
recent perspectives associated with management
emerged many years ago, and yet still find
and organizational theory demonstrate clearly that
significant relevance today. As methods of managing
new ideas are constantly being generated. Research
and controlling the use of the labour resource within
is a never ending process, it involves revisiting old
organizations, they emerged in particular social
 Guided Tour [ xix ]

Annotated Further Reading at the end of each chapter
allows you to explore the subject further, and acts as a
starting-point for projects and assignments.
FURTHER READING
Armistead, C and Rowland, P (1996) Managing
Business Processes: BPR and Beyond, Wiley,
Chichester. This is an edited book with contributors
drawn from a wide range of organizations and
academic disciplines. It seeks to review the basis of
process approaches to organizations and what it
means to manage from that paradigm. As such it
does intersect with the design of organizations at a
number of levels.
Brown, H (1992) Women Organizing, Routledge,
London. Chapter 3 is worth reading in the context
of the contingency and systems approaches as it
provides a detailed review of social context within
which organizations function and the basis of
women creating organizations for their own needs.
Clark, H, Chandler, J and Barry, J (1994) Organization
and Identities: Text and Readings in Organizational
Behaviour, International Thomson Business Press,
London. Contains a broad range of original articles
on relevant material themes and from significant
writers referred to in this and other textbooks on
management and organizations.
Daniels, JD and Radebaugh, LH (1989) International
Business: Environments and Operations, 5th edn,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. This text covers a
considerable amount of material relevant to interna-
tional operations, their finance and management. It
Chapter 15 Further reading [ 665 ]
also incorporates a broad review of the structural
and design choices facing organizations.
Goold, M and Campbell, A (2002) Designing Effective
Organizations: How to Create Structured Networks,
John Wiley, Chichester. Seeks to explore the virtual
organization and how to achieve it without destroy-
ing what already exists.
Handy, CB (1989) The Age of Unreason, Arrow Books,
London. This text takes a view of organizations and
their relationship with the environment as its core.
It explores how this relationship has changed and
the potential for future design frameworks.
Josserand, E (2004) The Network Organisation: The
Experience of French World Leaders, Edward
Elgar, Cheltenham. Reviews the French experi-
ence of four industries in which decentralization
and cross functional relationships became essen-
tial for success.
Martin, S (2001) Industrial Organization: A European
Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Considers a range of business factors including the
structure of the firm, market structures and innova-
tion in relation to the integration of the EU.
Mintzberg, H (1979) The Structure of Organizations,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. This text
provides a broad review of the issues surrounding
the topic of organizational design.
CASE STUDY Employees fighting amongst themselves
This Case Study is based in the same company used in
the Case Study at the end of the Chapter 4, on person-
ality. Therefore, you should read that case to refresh
your memory of some of the details. In that case it was
indicated that John as the production manager was
seeking to negotiate new terms and conditions of
employment with the trade union representing the
factory employees working for the company. As indi-
cated, there was a lack of trust among all levels
working at the company and so the negotiation of a
new deal was proving very complex and slow progress
was being made.
One of the major problems to be addressed was the
issue of how easily employees could manufacture
overtime for themselves, and hence additional earn-
ings. This was in addition to the productivity bonus
scheme which also paid additional money if work was
produced more quickly than the previously negotiated
targets. Over the years, various production managers
had made numerous concessions on these targets and
they bore no real relationship to the actual time needed
to undertake the work required. This provided some
employees with an opportunity to inflate their earnings
without too much difficulty. Essentially it was the older
products that allowed the earnings levels to be inflated
and so it was only a part of the workforce (those with
longest service) that could benefit from these weak-
nesses. This inevitably caused friction and argument
between employees, as everyone wanted the lucrative
jobs, but once achieved they were not given up will-
ingly or quickly.
This situation led to difficulties for the negotiators
from both sides as they sought to deal with the prob-
lems. There were essentially two groups within the
factory workforce, both of which were represented by
the same trade union. One group had the opportunity
to inflate earnings quite easily as a result of the slack
work standards and also to manufacture the need to
work overtime if they chose to do so. This group of
employees tended to be the older, longer serving
employees and they also had considerable influence in
the trade union group within the company. This group
Chapter 7 Case study [ 289 ]
was also the largest number of employees within the
factory. The other group had some ability to inflate
earnings by delaying orders and working overtime. The
work standards for their jobs tended to be more accu-
rate and so it was necessary for employees to find
ways of delaying work without sacrificing bonus earn-
ings in the process. In doing so they had to balance
the additional money earned from overtime, with any
potential loss of production bonus, never an easy
calculation to make accurately. The number of employ-
ees in this group was smaller that the other group and
they generally had shorter service with the company.
Equally, they were not in such a prominent position
within the trade union branch, so it was more difficult
for them to get the trade union to take their case seri-
ously and act accordingly.
So the basic position of the parties in the negotiation
was that management wanted to develop a new incen-
tive scheme which was consistent and fair to all employ-
ees and which would encourage higher productivity. The
trade union group had a majority of members on the
negotiation committee who had something significant to
lose by any changes to the bonus arrangements. But, it
also had on it a smaller group who would have liked to
see an improved bonus scheme implemented which
would provide an opportunity to earn more money
without needing to manufacture the overtime as the
means of doing so. It was against that background that
the management and trade union negotiating committee
was seeking to find solutions.
Tasks
1. If you were John, as the senior company representa-
tive on the negotiating committee, how would you
seek to make progress against this background?
2. If you were the senior trade union representative in
this situation how would you seek to make progress
against the background of a lack of agreement
among the people that you represent?
3. How might an understanding of group dynamics
help either of the two leading negotiators in this
case?

COMPANION WEBSITE

Online teaching and learning resources:

Visit the companion website for Organizational Behaviour and Management 3rd edition at:
http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3 to find valuable further teaching and
learning material:

Refer to page 35 for full details.

Case studies at the end of each chapter show how each
chapters main issues are applied in real-life business
situations in different types of organizations. Each case
study is accompanied by questions to help you test your
understanding of the issues.

Chapter 1 Companion website [ 35 ]

COMPANION WEBSITE

Online teaching and learning resources:

Visit the companion website for Organizational Behaviour and Management 3rd edition at:
http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3 to find valuable further teaching and
learning material:

For students:
Interactive multiple choice questions to help you test your understanding of the chapter
PowerPoint slides for use as an overview to each chapter and as a revision aid
Extra case material
Weblinks to all case companies and other relevant sources of information
Online glossary to explain key terms
Learning objectives and chapter summaries to help you check your understanding and progress

For lecturers:
A password protected site with teaching material
Instructors Manual with teaching notes
Model answers for selected questions
Video sources to help bring a wider relevance to the classroom

Supplementary resources:
ExamView:
This testbank and test generator provides more than a thousand different types of questions, allowing
lecturers to create online, paper and local area network (LAN) tests. This CD-based product is only available
from your Thomson sales representative.

Online Courses:
All of the supplementary web material is available in a format that is compatible with virtual learning
environments such as Blackboard and WebCT. This version of the product is only available from your
Thomson sales representative.
 Pr e f a c e

This preface introduces the major features of the third edition of this book, along with suggestions
on how students and lecturers might make use of the content. Another important feature of this
book available to both lecturers and students is the accompanying website, which is also described
in this preface. Specifically for lecturers who adopt this text will be a hard copy of a lecturers guide
intended to support the use of the book in a wide range of teaching arrangements.
This book is intended for those people who seek to gain an insight into the world of people and
their association with the organizations that form an integral part of their experience. This book is
therefore intended to appeal to anyone who seeks to better understand this important aspect of
human life. Topics included in the book include:
A reflection on the nature of organizations and management.
Consideration of those aspects of individuals and groups that form the human face of
organizations.
A review of processes such as motivation, learning, communication, decision making and
negotiation that takes place within organizations.
Management and leadership.
The structure and design of organizations.
The nature of work and its relationship to the technology used by organizations.
Organization culture.
Stress.
Ethical perspectives within organizations.
Power and control, conflict and organizational politics.
Managing change.

CHANGES AND NEW FEATURES IN THE THIRD EDITION

There have been a number of changes to this edition of this book, based on a comprehensive review
of the strengths and weaknesses of the second edition by a number of anonymous reviewers, to
whom a great debt of thanks is due. The significant changes introduced in this edition include:
Restructuring of some of the chapters to better reflect people management practice within
organizations, together with the needs of lecturers and students.
The introduction of new material to capture some of the latest trends in people
management issues within modern organizations.
The creation of part introductions intended to establish the reason for inclusion of the
material in that part in the context of what has already been studied and what is yet to be
developed.
The introduction of a completely new feature Employee Perspective panels to capture
this aspect of the human experience within organizations.
The introduction of another completely new feature a Case Study at the end of each
chapter in order to provide practice opportunity in dealing with organizational behaviour
issues.

[ xx ]
 Prelims
Preface [ xxi ]

A number of new Management in Action panels have also been introduced in this edition.
The specific inclusion of international perspectives to many of the Management in Action
panels, Employee Perspective panels and Case Study material.
In-chapter tasks have been provided for almost all Management in Action and Employee
Perspective panels.
New to this edition is a Glossary designed to provide a reference point for the key terms used
in the book.
The introduction of more tightly structured learning objectives at the start of each chapter
along with another new feature an outline of the key learning points associated with each
learning objective placed in the Conclusion for each chapter.
An updated Further Reading section for each chapter.
The Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter have been reviewed and some new
ones added.
A considerable number of new reference sources have added to the text in order to ensure
that it is as current as it can be in terms of research and practice in this area.
The website and lecturer support material has been completely updated to better reflect the
needs of adopters and students.

THE AUDIENCE

There are many courses and degree programmes that contain aspects of organization, management
or the people issues associated with running public or private sector businesses. These can include
undergraduate degree programmes in management and business studies or those degrees with
management as a minor component, as well as postgraduate degrees and other post-experience
qualifications such as the Diploma of Management Studies, MA and MBA programmes. There are
also the many professional qualification schemes in management, accountancy, engineering and
related disciplines that include behavioural, managerial and organizational modules, for whom this
book would be an important contribution. Such courses are invariably offered on both a full- and
part-time basis and many self-study or distance learning approaches to these routes to personal
development also exist. This book together with the associated support material is designed (based
on the authors considerable experience in teaching the subject to all of these groups and using
each of the forms of delivery indicated) to be a valuable asset in the delivery of the subject.
Specifically, this book will appeal to a wide range of people including:
Undergraduate students on a wide range of organizational behaviour, introduction to
management or people management modules.
Practising managers who seek to develop an academic understanding of the topics through
which to interpret their experience, perhaps as part of a diploma or degree programme.
A second category of reader would be those with an academic background in either business
or management who, having gained some management experience, have returned to higher
education to further their development through an MBA or other masters programme.
A third group of readers would include those without formal management experience, but
perhaps with some employment experience, who are studying aspects of human behaviour
and management within an organizational context, perhaps as part of a part-time degree
programme.
A fourth category of reader would have an academic background in either the social
sciences or one of the science disciplines, and have some subsequent organizational

[ xxi ]
[ xxii ] Preface

experience. Such individuals would be likely to study this book in seeking to further their
studies in the business, organizational or management fields through one of the many
masters programmes intended to achieve this objective.
A fifth category of reader would include those individuals studying for the professional
qualifications offered by the professional associations and who inevitably include aspects of
organization, management and behaviour within the syllabus.
Another category would be those people who work in organizations and who are undergoing
some form of in-company or in-service training in managing people or organizational
behaviour topics.

The blend of theory, critical perspective and practical application is balanced throughout the
book in an accessible and engaging writing style. This will appeal to the wide cross-section of
individuals indicated, offering challenges to each, without oversimplification or obfuscation
and in each case seeking to further the understanding of the individual in this challenging and
exciting field.

OBJECTIVES OF THE BOOK

It is human beings who both design organizations and work within them. Human beings, there-
fore, determine both what is done and how it is to be achieved. Against this background the
purpose of this book is to develop an understanding of the most important features of this aspect
of human experience, including:
What defines organizations and management.
The nature and impact of individuality on work activities.
The ways in which groups form and interact as they carry out much of the work undertaken
within organizations.
The influence of technology on work organization.
The nature of processes such as motivation and decision making on the functioning of
organizations.
The design and structural determinants of organizational form.
Management issues such as leadership and ethics.
The nature and impact of change on people and organizations.
The power, political and control dimensions of organizational activity.
The nature and impact of stress on people and organizations.
Specifically in relation to this purpose, the text sets out to achieve a number of objectives:
Provide an introduction to organizational behaviour. While offering an up-to-date and
reflective perspective, the text does not seek to be of interest only to readers seeking to
develop their existing knowledge in this area. It is intended to be of interest to those
readers who need to develop the breadth and depth of their understanding of what makes
an organization function. Such readers will find that the clearly presented theoretical
material, supported by the applied illustrations, will effectively meet their development
needs.
Include a critical perspective. In addressing the first objective the text goes beyond the
purely descriptive and introduces a critical perspective to the material, by seeking to
recognize the embedded nature of much theory and the underlying power dimensions to
management activity. A critical perspective suggests that knowledge as well as organizations
 Preface [ xxiii ]

are grounded in the social context that created them and any real understanding must take
that into account and this text seeks to achieve that perspective while not losing sight of the
other objectives.
Demonstrate an applied relevance. To be of any value the study of organizational behaviour
needs to retain a relevance to actual organizations and the experience of those within them.
This is achieved in a number of ways, including the incorporation of applied research
studies, the Management in Action panels, the Employee Perspective panels and Case
Study at the end of each chapter.
Provide a basis for further study. The reference sources used as well as the Further Reading
are intended to provide a basis for readers to take their interest in particular topics further.
This is an objective that can also be achieved through the use of the links indicated in the
web pages associated with this book.
Provide a student-centred perspective. There are a number of student-centred devices that
have been used in the text as an aid to encouraging learning. These include the Part
summaries and Learning Objectives at the beginning (and Conclusion) of each chapter,
frequent headings and the introduction of a Glossary to the text, the Management in Action
panels, Employee Perspective panels and the Discussion Questions and Case Studies at the
end of each chapter.
Encourage students to develop research as well as practical and theoretical understandings.
The inclusion of Research activities on the website, Stop and Consider, and Tasks associated
with the Case Studies, Management in Action panels, Employee Perspective panels and
Discussion Questions will all encourage students to become actively involved in their own
learning in relation to the subject matter. It will also help them to understand the difficulties
of carrying out field and desk research as a necessary part of creating understanding in the
management and organizational field.
Interactive approach to learning. The use of group activities as part of the activities in each
chapter allows students to develop collaborative skills in seeking to explore relevant features
of the subject matter.
Learning support. The website at http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/
businessandmanagement/martin3 provides students and lecturers with extensive support
material directly linked to topics in the text.
To cater for this breadth of audience, the material is presented as both academic and practical in
nature. It is also presented in a way which encourages students to interact with the material. For
students studying alone, perhaps on a distance learning programme, the website should be particu-
larly useful in helping to offset the feeling of isolation that often accompanies such study patterns.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

Each chapter is essentially self-contained but inevitably forms part of an integrated whole. For
example, the groups that form part of every organization are made up of individuals, they are also
part of the organizational hierarchy and there will be some degree of organizational politics
displayed within them. However, for ease of research, study and book organization these issued
have to be compartmentalized. Students should recognize that much of the richness and complex-
ity of organizational behaviour arises from the multiple elements active in any particular situation.
This should become evident as students work through the book and it is reinforced through the
Management in Action panels, Employee Perspective panels and Case Studies throughout the text.
Chapters 1 and 2 serve as an introduction to the study of management and organizations along
with an overview of the evolutionary development of management across history. This and the
subsequent material provides the following framework:
[ xxiv ] Preface

Introduction to management and organizational behaviour

Individuals within organizations
Groups and teams within organizations
Managing organizations
Managing people within organizations
Managing work design, technology and structure
Managing the processes and dynamics of organizations.

KEY FEATURES

Part summary. Each part or group of chapters begins with a brief outline of the content
which is intended to provide a clear indication of the range of material included and how it
fits in with the material that went before and the material that is to follow.
Learning Objectives. The Learning Objectives for each chapter provide a clear statement of
what students should expect to master by the end of their work on that material. The main
points implied by each of the Learning Objectives are summarized at the end of each
chapter in the Conclusions. Progress in achieving the objectives can be assessed by
individuals as they work through the Discussion Questions; as well as the Stop and
Consider topics and Tasks associated with the Management in Action panels, Employee
Perspective panels and Case Studies.
Management in Action panels. These are included to provide an indication of aspects of
organizational behaviour as experienced by managers in a real organizational context. They
also provide the basis for Stop and Consider activities as a means of reflecting upon the
material in some depth and also identifying alternative perspectives and links with other
concepts.
Employee Perspective panels. There are inevitably more employees in most organizations
than there are managers. The inclusion of this feature is intended to specifically introduce
this perspective to the understanding of what organizational behaviour means in practice,
often in an international context. Of course most managers are employees and so some of
these panels provide illustrations of their perspective as employees, being managed by more
senior managers in order to provide as complete a picture of this aspect of organizational
experience as it is possible to do.
Case Study. In order to allow an in-depth review of the chapter material in an applied and
often international context each chapter contains a Case Study with associated tasks that
will allow students to explore the complex implications associated with organizational
behaviour.
Further Reading. These suggestions provide students with a wide and diverse range of
additional sources of material on aspects of the topics discussed within each chapter.
Discussion Questions. A range of questions that could be used as the basis of discussion,
essays or exams is provided to allow students to test and further their understanding of the
material covered.
Research activities. This feature is provided on the website for the book and is intended to
provide more specific field- and library-based research opportunities to individuals and
groups of students. They are the type of activity that would be most appropriate to block-
teaching activities as research inevitably takes time to set up, carry out and be interpreted.
Website. This represents an innovative feature for this book and provides extensive on-line
support for lecturers and students.
 Preface [ xxv ]

HOW TO USE THE BOOK

Everyone has their own preferred way of studying. Most courses differ in the way in which they
approach a topic and the emphasis given to particular perspectives. It is, therefore, not practical to
offer precise advice on how to use this book and the available support material for every situation.
There are, however, a number of general pointers that may be of use in seeking to gain maximum
advantage from this book and your study of organizational behaviour. They include:
Recognizing that this book is not attempting to provide you with a formula through which
to manage other people or guarantee organizational success. That holy grail does not exist;
individuals and situations are too complex and dynamic for that type of simplistic approach
to be credible.
Evolution of knowledge is occurring all the time. New ideas, perspectives and
interpretations are emerging almost every day. The study of organizational behaviour is not a
fixed event. It is for that reason that monitoring appropriate sections of the business press
and the management and academic journals and magazines pays dividends.
Resources exist to be used in support of your study. This book is not a novel, but it does
represent a major resource for your journey of discovery in organizational behaviour. The
Part summaries and Learning Objectives are intended to guide you in your travels. Also the
Glossary, Discussion Questions, Tasks and Further Reading act as pointers, maps and guides
to help you gain the maximum benefit from the minimum effort en route. They are there as
a help, not a hindrance or a chore; do use them. During your course you will be examined
or tested in some way. The resources provided through this book attempt to prepare you for
that process as well as ensure a fuller understanding of the subject. For example, the
Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter are designed to assist in your development
of a breadth and depth of understanding of the theoretical material as well as the practical
implications of it. Through discussion with other people of your collective views about these
questions you will become better able to develop your understanding of them along with the
ability to address any assignment or examination questions.
Personal experience. Every student reader has had direct experience of organizational
behaviour in some capacity. It may have been extensive through working in organizations as
a paid employee or even a manager. It could have been a vacation job as a student. However,
it may also have been through school, or membership of a sports or youth club. The
important thing to keep in mind throughout your study of this book is that you will have
seen many of the concepts in practice, whether you realize it or not. Consider for a moment
a primary school and the way the total activity is organized (structure), the way teachers
lead the learning process (leadership, management and control) and the interpersonal
behaviour of the children (individuals, groups, power, etc.). Reflect on your experience and
its ability to enhance and illustrate this subject.
Networking is an important aspect of any managers experience. The same is true in your
study of organizational behaviour. Every student will know many people who have been or
are currently involved in organizations. Parents, grandparents, family members, friends,
other students and lecturers are all likely to have had direct experience of a wide range of
organizations across a considerable period of time. These are all valuable sources of
material, examples and illustrations of organizational behaviour in practice.
When studying each chapter consider the integrated nature of human behaviour. It is not
possible to consider each chapter as an isolated chunk of material than can be ignored
once it is finished. Look for and consider the links between ideas and concepts as you work
through the book.
[ xxvi ] Preface

SUPPORT MATERIAL

Organizational Behaviour website

The supporting website for the new edition of Organizational Behaviour is at http://www.
thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3. This comprehensive resource provides
open access learning materials to students of Organizational Behaviour, including chapter
overviews, links to the home pages of companies discussed in the cases, extra essay-style questions
and a full list of organizational behaviour definitions from the Thomson Learning Pocket IEBM
(International Encyclopedia of Business and Management). Students and lecturers can contact
John Martin through the site to post their comments and queries about the book and the website.
The lecturers area of the site is password protected and the password is available to lecturers
who recommend the book on their courses. Please register through the website for your password.
There will be no printed manual provided with this edition but all resources which previously
appeared in the printed manual will now be provided online. The extensive lecturer resources
include teaching notes, PowerPoint slides, extra case materials, and suggested course outlines.
The research activities are designed to further students understanding of the material through
library, Internet and field research activities. These should be used to further a students under-
standing of, and practice in, research in this field.
The website is a totally optional resource. Use of the book is not dependent in any way on the
website. Full value can still be obtained through the many excellent features included in the book.
However, the Internet provides an opportunity to enhance the level of support and understanding
in ways not available though the medium of the printed word. For example, the website offers
students the opportunity to explore the enormous potential of the Internet in their study of orga-
nizational behaviour. The primary links have been selected because of their relevance to the
subject matter and potential interest to readers. The website resource will be regularly updated so
that it retains its value to students and lecturers as the most appropriate starting point on the
Internet for organizational behaviour topics.
A further benefit of the website is the opportunity to update illustrative examples of organiza-
tional behaviour and learning materials after publication of the book. This will ensure that the
book retains its currency and freshness throughout its life a major benefit to both lecturers and
students. Users can send comments back to the author about the book and the website, as well as
interesting examples of organizational behaviour in practice that they have encountered.
The Organizational Behaviour website is a valuable resource that highlights the importance of
Organizational Behaviour as a book and as a subject at the heart of the management of
organizational endeavour. It also demonstrates the commitment to keeping this book at the forefront
of both teaching and debate in this area. Why not visit the website and experience this for yourself?
Lecturers will have their own ideas on how they will use this book and the support material
provided in delivering their modules. The Lecturers Guide is being provided to assist in the
process of achieving the best match between the needs of lecturers and students on the one hand
and the material provided through this learning package on the other. It provides a number of
features that will assist lecturers to make the most of the book and web based support material in
supporting a wide diversity of module designs and delivery patterns.
The Lecturers Guide will consist of a number of elements including:
1. Outline teaching plans for a number of different module lengths and delivery patterns.
2. Ideas for lecturers on how to use on the book in different ways in support of module
learning objectives.
3. Suggestions to provide students with additional ways of enriching their study of material in
the book.
4. Ideas for each chapter on how lecturers could encourage students to reflect on the key
learning objectives and ideas from the chapter and seek out further study opportunities.
 Acknowledgements

Any organizational activity inevitably reflects the efforts of a great many people. Writing a book is
no exception. It is not possible specifically to mention everyone who played a part in helping to
create this text.
The following people were particularly generous with their time and talent in reviewing material
and offering advice on the content of the first edition of this book.
Professor Michael Brimm, Professor of Organizational Behaviour at INSEAD
(Fontainebleau, France).
Professor Gordon C Anderson, Principal of Caledonian College of Engineering, Sultanate of
Oman and Visiting Professor of Business, The Philips College, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Professor Derek Torrington, Emeritus Professor of Human Resource Management, UMIST.
Professor Eugene McKenna, Professor Emeritus, University of East London, Chartered
Psychologist and Director of Human Factors International Ltd.
Professor Dave Tromp, Professor of Industrial Psychology and Chairperson of Industrial
Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Dr Jim Barry, Reader in Organization Studies, University of East London.
The contribution of the above people played a significant part in making the first edition of the
book the success it was which helped to create the opportunity to develop the second and third
edition. In addition, may I offer my deepest thanks to the panel of anonymous reviewers who
offered their time and talent in reviewing the second edition along with the proposals for the third
edition. Their comments were both helpful and appropriate. The end result can only be described
as a considerable improvement as a consequence of their efforts. I can but hope that they feel
justified in devoting the time that they did when they inspect the finished third edition. The
responsibility for any mistakes, errors or omissions remains, however, firmly my own.
At Thomson Learning a number of people have been supportive of the whole project and of
invaluable help in attempting to steer the work in appropriate directions. Worthy of particular note
in this context are Geraldine Lyons, Marie Taylor and James Collins. Without them this edition
would never have happened.
There are many academics, managers, bosses, subordinates and colleagues with whom I have
had the pleasure (and sometimes pain) of working over the course of my career. Individually and
collectively these have all played a considerable role in shaping my fascination with, and views on,
organizational life and behaviour. The benefits and effects of their impact on me are in no small
way reflected in the views and perspectives offered in this book.
Finally, and by no means least, I would like to place on record the support and interest of my
wife, family and friends, who tolerated the time spent on the project as well as continually showing
interest in how it was progressing.
I would also like to place on record my appreciation to the many copyright holders who have
given permission to use material for which they hold the rights. Every effort has been made to
identify and contact all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently omitted the publisher
will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the earliest opportunity.
PART ONE
Management and organizational
behaviour

Chapter 1 Organizational behaviour today

Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and
academic perspectives

T he purpose of this section of the book is to introduce the reader to organizational

behaviour as an area of academic and practical study of vital importance to those
who work in organizations and particularly those who aspire to manage them.
It sets out to prepare the ground for the more specific sections that are to follow
and which will explore some of the major issues associated with the study of how
human beings interact with organizations and how in turn humans are impacted
upon by the organizations that they work within.
This section will review issues such as the nature of research in the social world in
which organizations and the people who work in them exist. It will also take a pre-
liminary look at what an organization is; together with some consideration of the
nature of management and what defines the role of an employee. This will be followed
in the second chapter by consideration of how management has evolved over the
course of history and of how academic thought has developed to create the different
disciplines that now contribute to the understanding of how organizations function
and interact with the human resource available to them.
This section seeks to establish the background for the next section which will
explore the fundamental unit within any organization the individual.

[1]
CHAPTER 1

Organizational behaviour today

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter and working through the associated Management in Action panels,
Discussion Questions and Case Study, you should be able to:

Understand the distinction between research in the natural and in the social sciences.

Explain the particular difficulties involved in studying and developing theories in the area
of management.

Outline the essence of the relationship between organizations, managers and employees.

Appreciate that the concept organization incorporates many different forms.

Discuss how the study of organizational behaviour can contribute to an understanding of

management.

[3]
[4] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

INTRODUCTION

Organizations are an inescapable feature of Consequently, we are heavily dependent upon

modern social experience for all human beings.
From the remotest village high in the Himalayan
foothills to life in a large metropolis, organiza-
tions impact on all aspects of the human experi-
ence. Everyone experiences organizations in a
number of different ways. We are the customers
of organizations when we purchase goods in a
supermarket or other shops; we are the employ-
ees of organizations when we work for them; we
might be a manager within an organization.
organizations in all aspects of our lives. We
certainly spend a great deal of our working lives
in them as employees and managers. It makes
sense therefore to develop some understanding
of the things that go on inside organizations.
This chapter begins that process by exploring
what constitutes organizational behaviour and
then introduces the major themes of the rest of
the book, namely, management, employees and
organizations.

WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?

Organizational Organizational behaviour provides one of the mainstream approaches to the study
behaviour of management and organizations. Its main sphere of interest is anything relevant to
Approach to the study the design, management and effectiveness of an organization, together with the
of management and dynamic and interactive relationships that exist within them. It drew some of its main
organizations inspiration from the human relations school of thought that emerged from the
Hawthorne Studies, which were directed by Elton Mayo during the late 1920s and
incorporating anything
early 1930s. These studies first highlighted the complexity of human behaviour in an
relevant to the design,
organizational setting. This in turn led to recognition of the importance of the social
management and
context within which work occurred and of the ways in which groups become a signifi-
effectiveness of an
cant influence on individual behaviour.
organization. However, organizational behaviour incorporates many more features than might be
considered at first glance appropriate to a behavioural approach to human activity
within an organization. The study of organizational behaviour involves two distinct
Hawthorne studies features:
A series of research
studies exploring 1. Interdisciplinary. There are many areas of study that can be integrated into
aspects of group organizational behaviour. It involves aspects of psychology, sociology,
working, carried out anthropology, political science, philosophy, economics and the systems
during the late 1920s sciences. Each of these disciplines has something to offer through a
and early 1930s. contribution to the human, structural, work, interactive and dynamic aspects
of the human experience of working in an organization. To this wealth of base
material can be added a critical theory perspective on the embedded nature
(accepts the context) of much mainstream literature. Critical theory seeks to
emancipate people from existing constraints and power relationships. Yet in so
doing it invariably imposes another reality, albeit a different one, on the
situation.
2. Explanatory. Organizational behaviour sets out to explain the relationships
between variables. However, it does not provide an intention to prescribe the
relationships or interactions between variables that should exist. This
distinction is inevitable because when dealing with human behaviour at any
level one is concerned with probability rather than certainty. In other words,
no two people would react to a situation in exactly the same way, and even the
same person might react differently on different occasions.
 Chapter 1 What is organizational behaviour? [5]

The areas of interest falling within the subject of organizational behaviour can be
most easily reflected in a diagram, Figure 1.1. Rather than make Figure 1.1 look a
complete mess with lines going in every direction, this has been shown as two-way
lines between individual boxes and the linking theme box of organizational behaviour.
Each section within this book takes as its focus one aspect of organizational behaviour.
Compartmentalization is a convenient means of considering complex material from a
teaching and learning perspective. However, the reality of organizational behaviour is
that there are considerable and significant interdependencies and interrelationships
between all the topics discussed.

Organizational
FIGURE 1.1
effectiveness

Individual Motivation

Groups Learning

Communication.
Job design
Decision making
and
and
technology
Negotiation

ORGANIZATIONAL
Management
BEHAVIOUR Organization
and
structure
Leadership

Ethics Culture

Power
Change
and
processes
control
Conflict
Stress and
politics

The world of organizational behaviour

[6] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

WHY STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?

People within an organization are invariably trained to carry out their specific job
responsibilities. But this tends to be a practical or technical process, involving learning
how to do the job, whether that be in sales, marketing, finance, computers or what-
ever. But the technical aspects of any job represent only a small part of any work activ-
ity. Very few people have no contact with other people as part of the work that they do.
People work in teams, or small groups within a department; they have customers and
suppliers (inside and outside of the organization) and they have superiors and subor-
dinates to report to and control. The resulting webs of relationships can be both formal
and informal in nature, but they all involve other people. Most jobs involve some
degree of persuading people to co-operate with some priority, action, or request involv-
ing a degree of inconvenience to themselves. As a manager it is necessary to deal with
problem employees (not everyone co-operates all of the time), or with other managers
who are seeking to advance their careers and are therefore in competition for more
senior appointments. It is also necessary these days for managers to be able to improve
consistently the operational performance of their departments in the constant drive
for higher productivity.
The world of work is constantly changing. This is an ongoing process and is unlikely
to end. The actual changes that occur within an organization might be large or small,
but they are all changes. If one employee retires, leaves or is promoted to another job
several things will change as a direct consequence. The work to be done will probably
remain the same, but the new person might do it in a slightly different way. The new
person will also be different to the person who last did the job and so the interpersonal
relationships within the work group will change to some extent. In addition, managers
might take the opportunity of someone leaving to restructure the work being done and
even the department, thereby creating major change for the people remaining within
the company. At an organizational level, change can be brought about as a result of
product or market activity, mergers or acquisitions, or simply through the appointment
of a new chief executive officer who will want to establish their reputation by signifi-
cantly improving profit levels.
It should be apparent from this brief discussion that working successfully within
an organization at any level involves a wide range of competencies beyond those
required to carry out the technical aspects of a job. Therefore, the simple answer is
that you should study organizational behaviour in order to understand better the
complexities of the world of work. However, that is not the only reason to study it. It
is not possible, as has already been suggested, for organizational behaviour as a disci-
pline to be prescriptive in setting out exactly what to do in specific situations. Life is
never that simple and there are always many more variables active in any situation
than could make that a realistic possibility. Equally, as will become apparent the more
that you study the subject, there are many different theoretical perspectives that
need to be taken into account. One example of this indicated earlier was the range of
separate academic disciplines that help to inform the mainstream perspective
termed organizational behaviour. Studying organizational behaviour helps to
understand and come to terms with the ambiguities that exist in the social world
and to be more able to work with and around those uncertainties in whatever work
experience you encounter.
People are the most fascinating and frustrating aspect of any organizational experi-
ence, yet no organization could exist without them. It is human beings who establish
organizations and run them; it is human beings who work inside them and who are
the customers and suppliers of these same organizations. We cannot escape organiza-
tions or other people at any stage of our life, indeed it would not be a real life if we
 Chapter 1 How to study organizational behaviour [7]

were able to do so. Therefore, it is an area worth studying for its own interest in order
to understand better how human beings interface with organizations as well as to be
able to better survive the experience of doing so.

HOW TO STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Get involved is the short answer!

It is not a passive subject, it responds to involvement and active participation. Do
not expect to be able to simply read the chapters and know what it is all about. Think
about the organizations that you have encountered in your life. They include, schools,
colleges, shops and supermarkets, television and other media publishers including,
newspaper, magazine and book publishers, cinema and theatre production companies,
mobile phone companies to mention just a few. They all have people working within
them, including managers and employees. They all impact on you in some way or
another. For example, schools process you as a pupil in a way which enabled you to
pass examinations and learn those skills and facts that society deemed it necessary for
you to acquire. In so doing you encountered the school staff who taught you, but the
system also included the local authority support staff and education department
managers who were responsible, along with the head-teacher, for ensuring that the
school met the objectives set for it.
Think about the jobs that you have had during your career. As such you were (or
are) an employee, or an associate as some organizations now prefer to call employees.
Perhaps you were one of the special category of employee called a manager. Whatever
your experience of organizations, you have more direct experience than you perhaps
realize. Consider the experience that you do have and bring it with you when you read
and interact with the material in this book. For example, did you manage other people
if you were a manager; or how were you managed if you were an employee? Was it
simply a process of giving and following orders, or did it involve more subtlety than
that? What about any experience as a student working part-time in a supermarket.
Perhaps you have had several such jobs, was the style of management different across
the organizations that you worked for? If so why and what difference did it make to
how you worked and how effectively the customer was served? These experiences can
all add to the material that is presented to you in this book, and which will be intro-
duced to you by the staff teaching your particular module. Also consider examples of
management practice that you read about in magazines and the press. For example,
Management in Action 1.1 represents aspects of staff involvement in Pret A Manger, a
large sandwich and snack retail operation in the UK.
Also consider the movies, computer games, novels and magazines that you read.
The stories and games that you read and engage in are usually based around some
form of organization. What can you learn about the ways in which human beings
interface with organizations from these sources? For example, a spy thriller might
include aspects of how the undercover agent has not only to deal with danger and
opponents who are trying to kill them, but also how to deal with the civil service
bureaucracy in obtaining new gadgets and equipment for use in field operations. The
biography of a political leader might also provide interesting insights into the politics
and power issues that inevitably need to be dealt with by any manager seeking to
compete with other managers for scarce resources.
So many parts of your life involving both current and previous experience, have
prepared you to study organizational behaviour. Actively bringing this prior knowledge
and experience to your study of it will enable you to better understand the processes
[8] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

Pret A Manger staff help choose the

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 1.1
new recruits

Esther OHalloran, recruitment and retention manager
at Pret A Manger reported to the Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Developments 2002 Human Resource
Development conference that enabling staff to become
involved in the recruitment of colleagues had reduced
employee turnover in the company. As part of the
second interview process, job candidates are expected
to work in a shop for part of the day. The team that they
work with then make the decision as to whether the
candidate should be offered work. Ms OHalloran
believed that this approach was directly responsible for
a threefold reduction in staff turnover to less than 100
per cent, which compared well to an industry average
of about 150 per cent.
Reducing labour turnover had many advantages,
but chiefly it would allow the growth in the number of
retail outlets owned by the company from 118,
employing 2300 people in 2002 to 163 shops
employing about 3400 staff by 2005. OHalloran indi-
cated that getting the teams in the shops involved in
the recruitment process meant that the staff felt respon-
sible for the new recruit and would help them become
an effective part of the team more quickly. That in turn
meant that the new recruit would be more likely to stay
with the company for a longer time.
Other tactics used by the company include giving
staff who are promoted 50 vouchers, which they
can then pass on to colleagues who have helped
them gain promotion. This is intended to encourage
team building and a mutually supportive working
environment in the shops. Staff are also allowed to
audit the performance bonus of managers as part of a
process of encouraging good staff relations. Senior
managers are also required to spend 10 days each
year working in the shops making sandwiches to
ensure that they stay in touch with the basics of the
business and to experience the daily challenges
facing shop staff.
Adapted from: Nelson, P (2002) Pret A Manger staff help
choose the new recruits, Personnel Today, 23 April, p 4.

Stop Consider
What does this example suggest about the differences between being a manager and
being an employee, together with the relative responsibilities of both in running a
business?
Would this approach work successfully in all organizations? Why or why not?

involved when people and organizations interact, and more effectively prepare you for
your future career, in whatever form that might be.

RESEARCH AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The discussion so far has provided an introduction to organizational behaviour that

suggests a high degree of complexity as well as high levels of interdependence between
the active components. This provides a fertile basis for research activity as well as the
opportunity for the parallel existence of competing explanations. The main research
approaches will be explored more fully in Chapter 2, but it is worth considering for a
moment the main research approaches that are available through which to create
knowledge and theory.
In attempting to understand organizations as entities in their own right and
management as one form of human activity within that context, it is necessary to be
able to offer explanations that stand up to critical evaluation and replication. The
 Chapter 1 Research and organizational behaviour [9]

natural sciences have developed mechanisms over many centuries that are able to
meet that need. However, the primary difficulty for organization or management
research is that it is not possible to isolate the key variables and replicate organiza-
tional functioning in the laboratory. Study of these phenomena therefore rests firmly
within the social science arena.
It is frequently suggested that the study of organizations and management
provides many competing theories but is unable to offer clear guidance to practi-
tioners. For example, there are many theories of motivation, but on what basis
should a manager choose between them? It is only within the last 100 years that
writings in management encompassed more than merely a reflection of the experi-
ence of practitioners offering their own recipes for success or an intuitive analysis
of organizational functioning. It is hardly surprising that the study of management
and organizations is still comparatively unsophisticated and crude in its ability to
offer comprehensive explanations.
The study of people and organizations is different from the study of the physical
properties of metal or chemical reactions. However, that does not mean that it is
impossible to apply the principles of scientific enquiry into social areas. For example,
there are many psychologists working at the micro level of human behaviour that
provide robust scientific explanations for aspects of it. Theories developed in this way
are frequently based on laboratory studies in which much care is taken over the
control of variables and other conditions. The difficulty comes from the need to
extrapolate adequately from laboratory conditions to the complexity and richness of
human experience within an organizational concept.
Consider as an example a laboratory experiment in which decision-making strate-
gies among managers were to be investigated. Variables such as the decision-making
topic, characteristics of the individuals concerned, restrictions on extraneous factors
and time limits could all be controlled and accounted for. Equally, the measurement of
the process could take a number of forms. For example, the actual decision made,
time taken to reach a decision, individual interaction patterns and information used in
the process. However, it is difficult to be certain what such an experiment indicates
about decision making by real managers in real organizations in real time and, perhaps
more important, dealing with real problems with real outcomes. There are so many
additional variables that can influence decision making in practice. Power, control,
politics and the dynamics of organizational experience cannot be totally accounted for
in a laboratory experiment.
The experience of the world around each and every human being is dependent
upon their ability to undertake three activities:
1. Detect. It is first necessary to be aware of the objects and situations outside the
individual that provide the form for reality. This requires the input of
information to the individual through the senses of hearing, sight and so on.
However, the human senses are not aware of all possible stimuli available. For
example, we cannot detect radio waves or see very well in the dark.
2. Interpret. Having detected the existence of things around the individual it is
then necessary to impose meaning onto them. As a simple example consider
the act of seeing a motor car. The reality of its being a motor car comes from
the ability of the individual to add meaning and significance to the visual Frame of reference
image from past experience and learning. The problems and consequences of Internal frameworks
this inability to apply an existing frame of reference to reality has been the held by an individual
basis of many science fiction books and films. that informs their
3. Predict. Having perceived a motor car then the implications arising from it understanding of the
can be predicted. For example, if the individual is attempting to cross a busy world and how to
street then it should be avoided, as it could do great harm to them. So it is relate to it.
[ 10 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

necessary (or at least sensible) to wait for a more appropriate time to cross.
Without prior knowledge and experience of the object it would not be
possible accurately to predict possible outcomes or develop an appropriate
behavioural response.
From that basis it is clear that reality is not something that exists in a purely physical
form outside the individual, but as a social construction experienced within the mind
of each individual. The physical objects may be identical for all individuals in that situ-
ation, but their experience of them may be very different. Figure 1.2 illustrates this
point by showing that two people looking at the same solid object will experience very
different representations of it. Each person has only partial insight into the whole.
One of the most frequently referenced works in this field is that of Berger and
Luckmann (1967) in which they explore the sociology of knowledge. Much of the
possible variation in interpretation of stimuli is eliminated by the education and social-
ization processes to which all human beings are subjected as they develop within a
Conditioned particular society. In effect, we are conditioned how to see and interpret the world
The behaviour of an around us. This forms the justification for induction courses which provide new
individual which employees with the organizations preferred ways of seeing (and responding to) the
results from the world.
application of When social scientists attempt to theorize about the world inhabited by human
behaviourism beings they are, to a very real extent, researching themselves as well. When attempting
techniques. to understand an interpretation of the social world offered by a researcher it is impor-
tant to consider their perspective in relation to it. However, this is able to offer only a
partial insight into the perspective of the individual in question. Figure 1.3 attempts to
illustrate this phenomenon by showing that it is never possible fully to understand
anothers perspective because in observing it only provides a partial view of the target
persons overall perspective.
The scientific process that forms the basis of the natural sciences is described in
Figure 1.4, adapted from Wallace (1971). It demonstrates a circular process that
allows for hypotheses to be developed from existing theory (or understanding of the
world). In turn, these must be operationalized and subjected to some form of testing
in order to verify or refute the theory being examined. A cyclical process of identifying
and testing hypotheses leads to more generalizations about the world, which in turn
leads to the development of more theory.
The process reflected in Figure 1.4 is frequently described as the positivist
approach to research or, more accurately, logical positivism (Remenyi et al., 1998,
Paradigm p 32). In this paradigm the researcher would hold the view that an observable social
A model based on reality existed and that the end product from the research would be the creation of
particular law-like generalizations, applicable in every organizational and human context. This is
assumptions about the perspective that suggests that the real world exists outside each human being and
the nature of social the laws that govern the social world are simply out there, waiting to be discovered.
science and of society. The researcher is, therefore, an objective analyst and observer of a tangible social
reality (p 33).
This can be contrasted to the paradigm that holds that the real world exists only in
the mind of the individuals perceiving it. This is the phenomenology perspective and

FIGURE 1.2
Perspective Focal Perspective
object

Person Person
B A

Different perceptions of the same focal object

 Chapter 1 Research and organizational behaviour [ 11 ]

holds that the social world is different for each person experiencing it, as they will
interpret their perceptions of it in line with their internal schemas (mental models),
based on past experience, socialization, education, etc. In that sense there will be
considerable degrees of overlap in understanding between some individuals in the
same situation, but there will also be considerable degrees of difference. For example,
the workers view of a proposed 5 per cent pay rise would probably not be the same as
their bosses. To the phenomenologist the researcher is not independent of what is
being researched but is an intrinsic part of it (Remenyi et al., 1998, p 34). The world
is socially constructed and meaning can only be identified in terms of the understand-
ings of the actors in that situation. Experiments and the attempt to create law-like
generalizations simply will not work in this paradigm.
The debate between these two paradigms can get acrimonious at times as
the protagonists view research (and the world in which it functions) from diametri-
cally opposing positions. The debate is not just academic in essence, although that
is the arena in which it is carried out. For if either side of the debate is ultimately
correct, in the sense that the other is wrong, then a significant aspect of research
becomes inappropriate and of no value in helping to explain or run organizations.
The debate also impacts on the choice of research approach that could and should
be adopted. For example, the positivist tends to favour the use of scientific method

Person A
(target) Area of target persons
FIGURE 1.3
perspective not visible
to person B
Focal Perspective
object
Pers

Area of target persons

pect

perspective visible
ive

to person B

Person B

Understanding the perspectives of others

FIGURE 1.4
Logical Theory Logical
induction deduction

Hypotheses
Generalization Hypotheses
testing

Measurement Experimental
Observation design

Scientific research processes (adapted from: Wallace, W (1971) The Logic of Science in
Sociology, Aldine-Atherton, Chicago)
[ 12 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

based on hypothesis and a deductive research process (Gill and Johnson, 1997,
p 28). The deductive approach is based on the development of conceptual and
theoretical structures before testing begins as a process of empirical observation
through questionnaires, surveys, experiments, etc. By comparison, induction
moves from observation to the provision of explanation. It reflects the ethnographic,
case study and participative enquiry (Reason, 1994) approaches to research
methodology.
Another important feature of social science research is the level at which it is being
carried out. Essentially, the level in this context can be described as a scale running
from macro to micro issues. There are five levels as follows:
1. Individual. This represents the micro level and takes as its focus of attention
the individual within an organizational setting. This field is predominantly
based on the work of psychologists. Issues such as perception, attitude
formation, individual difference and motivation are common topics under this
heading.
2. Group. Most human behaviour within an organization takes place in a group. It
is important therefore to understand how groups form and perform the work
expected of them.
3. Managerial. Managers are individuals and they also operate in groups just like
other employees. However, there are a number of distinctive features associated
with management activities that make it worthy of special categorization. For
example, the nature, act and process of managing others are major areas of study.
4. Organizational. Typically, this would seek to address issues such as job design,
structural frameworks and technology.
5. Societal. Issues such as power, control, politics, conflict and change fall under
this umbrella heading. They represent part of the dynamic of the ways in
which organizations function as a small-scale version of society. They also
reflect the environmental forces that act upon any organization and within
which it must function.
In addition to the obvious differences between the natural and social sciences there is
the ethical issue of carrying out research on human subjects. Any of the research fields
which involve human beings are faced with ethical problems. For example Finch
(1993) discusses the need to be sensitive to how any output might be used in unin-
tended ways (which might betray the implied trust between researcher and subject)
when carrying out research grounded in the feminist tradition with other women.
From another field, chemists working in the field of new drug treatments inevitably
reach a point at which they must be tested on human beings, which of course raises
ethical issues.
There are research guidelines on how human beings should be studied and by
which researchers must abide if they are to attract funding and recognition for their
work (see, for example, the British Sociological Association, 1973). The primary diffi-
culty presented by such requirements is that research subjects should knowingly
participate and should not be subjected to risk, harm or damage in any way as a result
of the process. The challenge for researchers under these conditions is to develop and
test theory (or otherwise create understanding) in such a way that it is not affected by
the subjects knowing that they are being studied, or at the very least that they give
their informed consent to the process. Reason (1994, p 1) goes so far as to suggest that
research should be carried out with people, not on them. The basic problem is how the
behaviour of the subjects might have changed as a result of knowing that they were
being studied. This however is only one of the problems in the research process. For
example, how might the presence of the researcher influence the behaviour that they
 Chapter 1 A first look at organizations [ 13 ]

are seeking to record and understand? Again, to what extent does any response from a
subject simply reflect what that person feels the researcher wishes to hear, rather than
their true opinion?

A FIRST LOOK AT ORGANIZATIONS

When asked to describe what is meant by the term organization, most people indicate
the many public and private sector bodies that provide the goods and services neces-
sary for life and employment. However, there are many bodies that bear a strong simi-
larity to commercial organizations but which are undeniably different in function or
purpose. For example, is the Church of England (or any other religious grouping) an
organization in the same way that IBM is? Is a trade union, a students union or a
sports club an organization in the same sense of the term as a university or hospital?
No two commercial organizations are the same. Figure 1.5 identifies some of the
major variables that influence the physical manifestation (profile) of individual
organizations.
A number of the variables identified in Figure 1.5 are relatively obvious, others less
so. Although there is a degree of interrelationship between the variables, there is scope

FIGURE 1.5

Culture
Location
Profitability

Management Size
preference

Scope of Age
operations

Company
profile
Industry
Structure

Management Technology
style

Patterns of
Job design employment

Employee Control
characteristics Processes

Determinants of organizational form

[ 14 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

for management choice. For example, it is not unusual for some owners to restrict the
growth of their organization deliberately in order to retain direct involvement in
running the business. Taking each variable in turn:
Size. The physical size of an organization is a major determinant of how it
appears. The small corner shop selling a range of grocery items and sweets,
employing two people would be vastly different in appearance from a large
national supermarket chain with many thousands of employees. The size of an
organization could also influence many of the other variables, such as the level
of technology that it is able to support.
Age. There is an apparent stability and security that comes from the appearance
of age financial institutions deliberately create this image. The age of an
organization could also be expected to impact on many structural and
functional issues.
Industry. The nature of the product or service from which the organization
derives its income is another primary determinant of its form. A company
engaged in quarrying minerals would be expected to differ in many ways from a
bank of roughly similar size and age.
Technology. The type and level of technology used by an organization is another
variable that is both influenced by and influences the organization. The use of
robotic assembly processes has reduced human involvement in the assembly of
products such as motor vehicle and other consumer goods, thereby driving up
productivity as well as influencing the profile of the organization.
Management style. The dominant style of management within the organization
also influences the appearance that it presents to the outside world. The use of
hierarchical control through layers of supervision and management produces a
tall, thin organizational form. This can be contrasted with the approach to
management that relies on self-managed work teams and which would provide a
flatter organization as a consequence.
Structure. The functional approach to organizational activity in which
departments are organized around job expertise such as personnel, finance and
production provides a very different appearance to one which is based upon
product groupings with mixed operational teams.
Scope of operations. A wholesaler of childrens toys is acting as a distributor
within the supply chain. Such an organization would appear very different to
another organization in the childrens toy industry which made some toys and
retailed a much wider range directly to customers.
Management preference. The application of the same set of principles across
every organization is doomed to failure because of the situational variety
experienced in practice. Managers exercise a degree of preference and choice in
designing their organizations.
Profitability. The larger the monetary resource available, the greater the degree
of elaboration possible. The scale of finance available provides an opportunity to
influence the form that individual organizations take.
Culture. Issues such as the degree of individuality and formality influence work
preferences and the way in which work is undertaken within an organization.
There is an inevitable tension within large international organizations between
the need for a global corporate identity and the dominant culture within local
operating environments.
Employee characteristics. The employees available to be employed within the
organization also bring with them a wide range of variable characteristics that
 Chapter 1 A first look at organizations [ 15 ]

will influence the nature and profile of it. For example, education levels within
the general population influences a broad range of issues including the way that
high technology might be used. The general experience of what work means
within a society will influence expectations in relation to job design,
management style and work ethos.
Job design. There are many choices available in relation to how the work will be
organized. For example, the degree of automation adopted, the involvement of
employees in the full range of work activities and job flexibility all influence the
combination of tasks in the jobs actually carried out.
Patterns of employment. Attitudes and conventions with regard to the length of
the working day, number of days worked each week, holidays, shift working and
religious festivals all influence the way in which the workforce and organizations
interact. Equally issues such as equality of employment opportunity, attitudes
towards family and responsibilities for caring for the old and young can all
influence the patterns of employment undertaken within a particular context.
Location. There are cultural, legislative and dominant business practice issues
that vary across the world and which shape organizations within each national
border. Aspects such as communications and transportation also influence
activities significantly. For example, mining operations are frequently carried out
far from the location of the users of the extracted minerals and the company
head office.
Management in Action 1.2 demonstrates some of these issues as identified by a
Japanese company setting up business in the UK during the 1980s.
So far the discussion has not provided a clear differentiation of the parameters of
an organization. How can a commercial organization be differentiated from a social
club? The ultimate answer is that there is no clear distinguishing criterion as all forms
of social grouping contain elements of similarity in terms of purpose, structure, people
and systems. A number of writers offer definitions of an organization that offer broad
similarities, including:
A. Organizations are collections of people working together in a coordinated and
structured fashion to achieve one or more goals, Barney and Griffin (1992, p 5).
B. Organizations are consciously created arrangements to achieve goals by
collective means, Thompson and McHugh (1995, p 3).
C. Organization: a social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in
pursuit of collective goals, Huczynski and Buchanan (2001, p 884).
Each of these definitions is able to segregate out the more obvious non-organizational
forms such as friendship groups. But what of other organizations such as youth clubs
or pressure groups? A club with specific goals for the social development of members,
or a pressure group to fight the building of a new road could easily fall within these
definitions and yet would be of little interest to management and organizational
researchers. Yet to incorporate terms such as profit, budget or commercial into the
definition would cut out many non-profit organizations that do form a legitimate focus
of study. The short answer is that there is no single definition that draws a boundary
tightly around the notion of an organization. There is a wide range of research activity
which seeks to explore different aspects associated with the concept of an organization
and which consequently uses slightly different meanings. This is just one level of
complexity in attempting to understand organizations, the managers who run them
and the employees who work within them.
[ 16 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

Implementing Japanese
MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 1.2 management methods

Yuasa Battery was set up in the early 1980s in Wales
to make sealed lead-acid batteries. It fell to the
Japanese Managing Director, Kazuo Murata, to build
and establish the factory as a viable operation. Two
important lessons were learned from the experience of
opening Yuasa Battery:
Do the simple things right.
Create conditions for improvement.
In seeking to establish the company, a number of prob-
lems endemic to western companies were identified.
They included:
Worker attitude to the wage/work bargain.
Lack of the strict application of company rules.
Workers not involved in determining improvements
in productivity and working practice.
Individualism emphasized within western culture.
Kazuo Murata, began the process of unlearning the
bad habits and creating the improvement necessary.
This included:
Fairness. The strict application of rules, procedures
and standards in a fair manner resulted from this
strategy. Rules are intended to benefit the
organization and they should be applied
consistently and fairly if they are to have any value.
Discipline. Consider a sports team or a military
force. Each must exercise a disciplined approach to
its task if it is to be successful. This implies a
controlled approach to work and getting the basics
right.
Improvement. The two earlier points are the basics
of good organization, but to become a world-class
organization continuous improvement is also
necessary. Everyone must feel challenged by this
necessity every working day. This implies critical
self-examination and the development of better
ways of working.
Based on: Harrison, A (1994) Implementing Japanese
management methods, Professional Manager, January,
pp 1012.

Stop Consider
To what extent does the approach adopted by Kazuo Murata at Yuasa Battery provide
an example of seeking to adapt the organization to the people and context, or does it
reflect a desire to change the people to match the needs of the organization?
To what extent is it likely that people can be changed to meet the preferred require-
ments of the organization?

A FIRST LOOK AT MANAGEMENT

Managers are, by definition, the individuals that organize and control the organiza-
tions that employ them. In a small company they may actually own the organization
itself, but usually they run an organization on behalf of the people to whom the organi-
zation legally belongs. It is the task of the management of the organization to opera-
tionalize and achieve the objectives of the beneficial owners. As Stanley (2002) puts it,
managers are stewards of the business and therefore need to exercise great care in
administering the resources of the organization. It is from those requirements that
their decision-making functions and powers originate.
However, even in that simple paragraph there are a number of assumptions that
when examined create complexity for the research into management. For example, it
assumes that it is the beneficial owners of an organization who should have
the primary say (or influence) on issues such as how the company is run. That is a
 Chapter 1 A first look at management [ 17 ]

viewpoint that can be questioned from many different perspectives. For example, a
Marxist point of view would fundamentally bring into doubt the idea of capitalism,
suggesting in turn that common ownership requires that everything is owned by the
state in trust for the people. Consequently, a different approach to the determination
of primacy in decision making must apply under that model.
Equally, it could be argued from a capitalist perspective, that in seeking to maxi-
mize returns to shareholders in the long run it is necessary to gain the highest levels of
commitment from all employees. In so doing, if their interests are not put first, then
they will not be motivated to produce the best returns for all concerned. This approach
led to the stakeholder perspective on organizations. Stakeholder is defined as any
group or individual who can affect, or is affected by, the activities of the organization Stakeholder
(Freeman, 1984). The best levels of success can only be achieved by balancing the An individual or group
needs and contributions from each of the possible stakeholder groups, of which the with some form of
shareholders represent only one category. For example, Henry Ford was famous for
association or an
developing the assembly line approach to manufacturing motor cars in the early
interest in the
1900s. His efforts achieved considerable success in developing production technology,
organization.
cheap mass-appeal products and profits for the company. However, in 1913 labour
turnover was 380 per cent. In order to keep 15 000 positions filled management had to
recruit 50 000 people each year. In order to achieve a net increase of 100 people in the
factory they had to recruit 963 people, because so many would not be able to stand the
pace and conditions of work on the assembly lines (Losey, 1999). Management did not
integrate the worker group as a significant stakeholder in their planning of the factory
process. Management in Action 1.1 from earlier directly addresses these issues in one
modern organization.
It is only over recent years with the delayering of organizations that managers
have seen their own position come under threat. Prior to this form of cost cutting, Delayering
managers tended to have a much higher degree of job security than other categories of The act of removing
employee. They also enjoyed higher pay, better benefits and greater career opportuni- layers from an
ties. As a consequence, their primary loyalty was to the absentee owner, from whom
organization thereby
these benefits accrued. However, in the search for ever higher levels of productivity
making it shorter in
and cost efficiency senior managers (and owners) found that, having reduced the
the vertical
numbers of employees significantly, the only areas left within which to seek dramatic
dimension.
cuts in cost were the previously protected management areas. This trend was also
fuelled by the desire of organizations to get closer to the customer by seeking to
become more horizontal and less vertical. This delayering process created a situation
in which managers began to experience high levels of stress and job insecurity, the
result being the emergence of feelings of alienation and an increase in trade union
membership among managerial employees. In short, they were recognizing the need
to find ways of looking after their own interests in response to the employer not being
willing to do so. The employer in this case being more senior managers. Therefore, the
idea that management represents a single group or category of employee is not
tenable. A point which is frequently missing from the literature.
Management is a strange type of work in that it is an activity in which an employee,
no different in principle from any other employee, is expected to act in loco-parentis
for the owner. It is expected in principle that the manager should act in ways that may
be to their own disadvantage in pursuit of the objectives of the owner. The delayering
of organizations is a clear result of this requirement of managerial activity. It is because
managers have traditionally become so personally and closely aligned with the objec-
tives of the beneficial owner that the implications of delayering and related forms of
cost saving produced such a traumatic shock. Managers are paid by the owners of the
organization to act on their behalf. Managers forget at their peril that the basis of that
relationship is contractual, not automatic! Equally, among the implications of that
situation is that the interests of managers and beneficial owners can (and sometimes
[ 18 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

do) conflict. Because it is managers who run the organization on a day-to-day basis
they may be tempted to favour themselves over the interests of the organizations
owners in some of their actions. There is an inherent conflict of interest in terms of
the expectations and requirements of the owners and those of the manager as an
employee. It is for that reason that it is difficult in practice for the stakeholder concept
to be fully implemented in running an organization. While the rhetoric may be evident
in the sense of talking partnership etc., the dominance of hierarchical thinking and
shareholder primacy is deeply ingrained, if difficult to guarantee.
It is difficult to be precise about management in theoretical or practical terms
because it does not represent a homogeneous activity. There are two major differences
identifiable in management activity:
Level. There are many different ways to describe the level of management
activity, the most common being a reflection of seniority. For example, director,
senior manager, junior manager and supervisor. While that approach provides a
useful basic reference criterion, it also contains considerable ambiguity. For
example, simply knowing that an individual is a chief executive provides no clue
to the level of responsibility involved. The company might employ ten people in
one location, or many thousands in locations throughout the world.
Job. The second major difference in managerial activity refers to the work of the
individual. A manager might be responsible for the work of a personnel
department, an engineering department, an accounting department, or a
production department. They might even be a general manager, responsible for
the work of several functions and having specialist managers reporting to them.
In this last case the manager will be responsible for activities in which they have
no direct experience, which in itself creates complexity.
Figure 1.6 reflects these two variables and their impact on jobs.
In addition to the two determinants of management activity just described, many of
the variables described in Figure 1.5 also impact on management work. For example,
the industry is a significant factor in this respect. Consider the very obvious differ-
ences between the job of a branch manager of a major bank and the job of a depart-
mental manager in a manufacturing company. Both are responsible for the operational
aspects within a defined part of the business, yet in other respects the jobs are very
different as a result of the manufacturing/service nature of the organization.
Individual preference is another major influence on the actual job of a manager. In
many management jobs there is a high level of opportunity to shape the actual work
undertaken by the individual holding that position. A personnel manager has some
degree of freedom to determine what tasks to delegate and which to retain for their
personal attention. They also have considerable latitude to practise a style of manage-
ment that they as individuals feel comfortable with, which can influence their own job
activities and those of their subordinates.
The conclusion from this first look at management is that the practice of manage-
ment reflects a complex process involving level, job, personal and professional vari-
ables. This process is carried out in a complex organizational environment. The result
being that it is not possible to talk of either organization or management as single enti-
ties. Management in Action 1.3 reflects one persons view of the skills needed by future
generations of managers.

FIGURE 1.6
Level Management Job

Major influences on management activities

 Chapter 1 A first look at management [ 19 ]

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 1.3 Survival skills for a new breed

The manager of the future will need different skills, it
was argued by Karen Clarke in the essay that won first
prize in an Institute of Management competition.
The skills required of managers in the past were
decision making, expert (in their field), boss and direc-
tor. This is progressively being replaced by three roles
as organizations begin the twenty-first century. They
are:
Leader. The person setting the future direction for
the business and concentrating on the wider picture
(not day-to-day activity). The role of the leader
becomes one of ensuring that progress towards the
goal is maintained.
Coach. The job of a coach is one of encouragement
and of ensuring that everyone is pulling in the same
direction. It is a process which allows
empowerment and change to flourish.
Facilitator. This is the process of identifying
continuous improvement and encouraging a self-
critical evaluation of work activity and performance.
It is argued by Clarke that it is now essential to achieve
strategic positioning and operation of the business
through the effort and ability of the staff employed
within it. In order to achieve the world class service
and manufacturing levels increasingly necessary for
survival, staff must be committed to meeting the needs
of customers. Consequently, delegation and empower-
ment are key factors in employee work activities of the
future.
The desirability for managers to be the decision
makers is increasingly being questioned. In the face of
global competition, there is simply not the time for
employees to pass decisions back in the system for
someone else considered more appropriate to decide
on. It is employees who are closest to the needs of
customers and they must be allowed to operate as the
customers representative within the organization.
Adapted from: Clarke, K (1993) Survival skills for a new
breed, Management Today, December, p 5.

Stop Consider
Do you agree with Karen Clarkes analysis that the roles she describes reflect different
skills from those required in the past, or do they represent the same skills but
expressed in a different social context?
Think about any organization that you have worked for in the recent past. Do the
claims proposed by Clarke reflect your experience or not? If not, why might that be so?

Organizations are the entities that require the skills that managers possess, to
perform the roles involved in managing as an active process. Management can there-
fore be described in terms of three main functions:
1. Direction. Before any work can be done, there is a need for a plan of action. It
is necessary for management to decide what the organization should do and
how it should achieve those objectives. Once done at the level of the
organization, this process can be broken down into the strategies and goals to
be achieved by each sub-unit within the company. For example, once a
chocolate manufacturer has decided that it will make Easter eggs in particular
varieties and sizes, it is then the job of the various section managers to set
about determining the production schedule and other operational parameters
so that the sales and profit objectives can be met.
In practice, this top-down approach is much too simplistic as there may well
be constraints in the system that limit the ability to achieve the overall
objective. For example, the chocolate company may not have the warehouse
[ 20 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

capacity to store the volume of Easter eggs produced. Therefore, the

development of strategy at any level of the organization is based on an iterative
process and contains elements of bottom-up determination.
2. Resources. Another important function of management is to provide the
resources to enable the desired task to be achieved. There are many resources
necessary, including money, organization structure, job design, technology,
procedures, systems and appropriately skilled people.
3. People. In all but the very smallest of organizations managers do not physically
produce whatever it is they are responsible for. One way of conceptualizing
management is to think of it as a series of subcontracting arrangements. The
owners subcontract the running of the company to the board of directors. The
board of directors in turn subcontracts the departmental work to line
managers. This process cascades down to the people who actually make the
products or deliver the service. This demonstrates that managers achieve their
objectives through the efforts of other people. Therefore, in order to achieve
their goals, managers find themselves in the position of having to manage the
people rather than the operational process.
One of the other major aspects of organizational activity that managers are having to
come to terms with is the effect of globalization. Even very small companies
are experiencing some form of global activity. This might include selling products
made by the company through a sales agent in another country. At the other end of the
spectrum it could involve a very large organization operating across several national
boundaries and with a truly multinational workforce and global perspective on its
operations. Organizations need to develop an expertise in operating in locations that
may have cultural and operating conditions very different from those prevailing at
home. Individual managers need to develop the skills and ability to deal with govern-
ments, customers, suppliers, employees and colleagues from different countries.

Why organizations need managers

Managers plan, organize and control the acquisition, disposal and application of
resources within the organization in pursuit of the goals determined by the owners.
That view reflects the classical model described by Fayol (1916). From that perspec-
tive management is a very rational process and one category of employment within
the organization. As such it requires someone to undertake specific duties associated
with managing, just as a cleaner in a factory undertakes that particular job. One
implication of this view is that being a manager confers no special status or rights
over any other form of employment. Yet in practice (as was suggested earlier) one of
the major functions of management is to act in loco-parentis for the absentee owner,
which implies going beyond the wage/work bargain that forms the basis of most paid
employment relationships.
There are other fundamental differences between the jobs of managers and those of
most employees. Most employees are engaged to undertake a range of duties associ-
ated with the creation of the product or service that forms the rationale for the exis-
tence of the organization. Even employees who act as a support to the creation process
contribute in a very necessary way by preventing the waste of productive resource.
Managers, for the same reason, do not do that. They are specifically tasked to direct,
organize and control the activities of others. They represent the most indirect of all
operational jobs. It is this remoteness from direct operational activity and their agency
function (loco-parentis) that sets them apart from other employees.
The type of work expected of managers is different from that of other employees.
The impact of managements activities on other employees fundamentally
 Chapter 1 A first look at management [ 21 ]

influences the relationship with them. For example, it is management that decides
who to recruit and who to dismiss. The power to take away someones job is a partic-
ularly powerful weapon, right or responsibility, irrespective of how it is defined. It is
such a potent tool that it is a right not usually given to every level of management.
Managers are able to direct, channel and change the organizational experience for
employees. Employees are not able to impact on managers in the same way. That is
not to suggest, however, that employees are powerless within the organizational
context. Indicated below are the main features that one magazine in the manage-
ment field thinks are the main elements of a management job (Supervision, 2003,
p 9). You might like to consider whether you agree with this list or not, based on your
experience so far:
They routinely enable people to work together productively and in a timely
manner.
They are ready to tackle the unexpected.
They tap into peoples self-motivation.
They create opportunities and solve dilemmas at any hour. They get involved in
the job of managing, even when they are not at work.

Why managers need organizations

Perhaps a more interesting question to ask is why do managers need organizations? At
first it would appear to be a nonsensical question based on the assumption that organi-
zations created the need for managers. However, there are a number of issues that
suggest that the relationship between management and organizations is more complex
than would at first appear to be the case.
One common joke in management circles suggests that there are only two skills in
management. One is to create enough problems to justify the need for the job to exist.
The second is not to create more problems than make for an easy life. This may be a
cynical view of managerial activity but it does reflect aspects of the power and influ-
ence that managers have. This view of management can be reinforced by the shock
that was experienced by many managers as organizations began to downsize and
delayer. Up to that time redundancy was something that happened to other employ-
Psychological
ees, not managers. The basis of the psychological contract between employer and
contract
managers had been fundamentally changed. The basis of the old contract was that
The nature and
managers put their best efforts into furthering the interests of the capital owner in
boundaries of the
return for a career and the appropriate status. Frequently the best efforts willingly
contributed by managers involved long working hours with no additional payment, employment
taking work home and generally putting the job before family. relationship
Organizations are having to seek new ways of achieving that level of management prescribed through the
involvement in conditions which are fundamentally different and less directly bene- unwritten and
ficial to the individual. A new rhetoric is evolving about portable careers and related unstated rights and
ideas to suggest that uncertainty and insecurity should not be considered as nega- obligations of both
tive events. Worrall and Cooper (1999) report from the Quality of Working Life parties.
survey (the third year of a five-year tracking study) a number of interesting results
that suggest that managers are changing their working patterns in response to the
new business enviornment. They are beginning to move away from a reliance on the
company as the source of all things and in some cases see the need for a better
balance between home and work lives. Some of the relevant results are included in
Table 1.1.
So what are the significant factors that create a reciprocal need between managers
and organizations?
[ 22 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

Career Individual managers expect to have a career. Organizations need managers

for more senior positions. Performance appraisal systems, career development and
succession planning all provide a basis for career development.

Status/power With a managerial position comes status and power and hence the
ability to have other people do what the individual manager wants. Being considered
as a significant member of the local community can also reflect the status of a
manager.

Work preference Being a manager gives the individual some degree of choice in
their work activities. They can delegate aspects of their work. They are able to shape
events and the direction of work under their control.

Professionalization There is an increasing trend to professionalize management.

The professional associations to which managers belong and the educational estab-
lishments offering management training are making efforts to raise the status of the
job, thereby making it more attractive as a career option. It is not just the law and
accountancy that can now lay claim to be a profession.

Self-interest Management is a political process as much as it is a decision-making

one. There are few managers who are as quick to take responsibility when something
goes wrong as there are when accolades are being handed out. The question to be
answered is not does self-interest feature in management practice but to what extent
will a manager put self-interest ahead of other criteria in any given situation?

Lifestyle A higher salary, better benefit package, and so on, generate a whole range
of lifestyle differences. Not that all managers earn more than those whom they super-
vise. Frequently, for first-line managers the opposite is true as a result of the loss of
bonus or overtime payments. However, there are differences in the social groupings in
which people mix and the leisure activities that they undertake that create a raft of
lifestyle differences.

Expectation Individuals are conditioned to expect differences as a result of becom-

ing a manager. They expect respect, a higher income and greater freedom to influence
events around them. Consequently, having experienced some of these benefits the
result is an expectation (and desire) that they dont lose them, leading to a need to
perpetuate such positions. For example, it is not in the interests of most managers to

Working hours reduce 1997 38% work more than 50 hours a week
1999 32% work more than 50 hours a week
Working weekends 1997 13% always work weekends
1999 8% always work weekends
Relationships with children 1999 41% of junior managers express concern
Balance between work and 1997 25% feel work is less important than home
home life 1999 30% feel work is less important than home

TABLE 1.1MManagers changing attitudes (source: Worrall, L and Cooper, CL (1999)

The Quality of Working Life: The 1999 Survey of Managers Changing Experiences. Institute of
Management and UMIST, London)
 Chapter 1 A first look at employees [ 23 ]

see too many management jobs disappear or for radical alternatives in the form of
self-managed teams to be developed. It would simply eliminate much of the oppor-
tunity and potential benefits available and require individuals to seek other forms of
employment.
Many of these issues are generalizations which interlink and reinforce each other.
For example, career and expectation are strongly linked together, as are the status and
lifestyle benefits that result from promotion. The line of argument here is not that
managers originally created organizations because they needed them, but that once in
existence there is a reciprocal dependency that perpetuates a need for organizations to
exist in order to continue to fulfil a broad range of needs including personal and
professional.

A FIRST LOOK AT EMPLOYEES

Organizations do not exist in any real sense of the word. They exist as legal and finan-
cial entities on paper, but it is people that breathe life into the formal documents.
Management in Action 1.4 illustrates some of these people perspectives within organi-
zations in the context of the introduction of business process re-engineering Business process
(BPR). re-engineering
The earlier discussion on management stated that the manager is acting on (BPR)
behalf of an absentee owner. This view is usually referred to as an agency perspec- Reorganization of the
tive the manager acting as an agent of (on behalf of) the owner. The clear implica- business by the
tion being that most managers are in fact employees, just like every other type of elimination of
worker. From a different perspective, as early as 1964, Cyert and March were writing extraneous activity
about coalitions and Rhenman was writing about stakeholders in the running of and the rapid
organizations. Networks and coalitions formed between the many internal and transformation to a
external stakeholder groups linked with the organization are implied by these views.
process focus.
Figure 1.7 illustrates some of the primary stakeholder groups that can be identified
in relation to any organization.
Each one of the stakeholder groups identified in Figure 1.7 has an interest in some
aspect of the focal organization. Owners are interested in a financial return for their
money; employees might be interested in a secure and interesting job that pays a real-
istic wage; suppliers in the opportunity to create long-term strategic alliances for
commercial benefit; government as a source of employment and taxation. Internal to
the organization some of the stakeholder groups will be temporary and seek to achieve
specific goals.
Stakeholder groups are essentially people-oriented and so provide a basis for analy-
sis. Human beings are complex as individuals and even more so in collective situa-
tions. Each person has many similarities with other humans, but, critically for
organizational purposes, also a great many differences. Personality factors differ, as do
the education level and life experience of each person. These form the basis of how
individuals interpret and relate to the world in which they live. People can be unpre-
dictable, which makes consistency of behaviour in an organizational setting difficult to
achieve. Illness, mood and temperament are just some of the variables that can affect
how each person will behave on any particular day. This does not just affect employ-
ees, it affects managers as well. No individual can be expected to function consistently
and at peak performance all day, every day even if business process re-engineering
(or any other model) assumes that they can or should.
Employees are generally described as the non-management workers within an
organization. However, as we saw in the previous section, many managers are also
employees. But for the purpose of this aspect of our discussion, we shall stick to the
[ 24 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

predominant view that the classification employee refers to those workers who are
not managers. It is the management group who are supposed to function in the best
interests of the beneficial owners of the business by directing the activities and behav-
iour of the employees in order to achieve the business objectives. From that perspec-
tive, it suggests that employees exist to be manipulated (or directed) by managers in
pursuit of organizational objectives. They are not therefore expected to think or to
have any interest in the business beyond selling their labour to be used at manage-
ments behest. At least that represents the classic capitalist view of how labour is posi-
tioned relative to management and the owners of capital. However, it is being
increasingly recognized that it is necessary for managers to acknowledge the funda-
mental nature of the human employee if they are to be able to manipulate (or harness
effectively as managers would prefer it to be described) the employees available to
them. For example, Management in Action 1.1 describes the effects of employee
involvement in what would previously be regarded as a management domain the
recruitment of new employees. The Harvard Management Communication Letter of
December 2002 addresses another aspect of this issue by setting out a strategy for
managers to ensure that employees adapt more readily to changes decided upon by the
company. It is premised on the ideas that change alters how employees define them-
selves and also that change creates uncertainty. There then follow a number of
prompts intended to help managers raise employee concerns in a way which allows
the employees to address their concerns.
Writers such as Fox (1985) suggest that the employment relationship in Britain is
based on the traditional relationship between master and servant as a reflection of the

FIGURE 1.7
Employees Competitors
family Customers
Suppliers
Government
Outside stakeholders

Trade
Organizations
associations
providing goods
and services
to employees

Owners Banks/City

Trade The
unions organization

Temporary
coalitions
Inside stakeholders

Interest
groups
Internal
customers and
suppliers
Managers

Departments
Professional
groups
Employees

Primary stakeholder groups

 Chapter 1 A first look at employees [ 25 ]

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 1.4 Cut out the middlemen

The techniques and formulas that are used as the
basis of seeking out the best way of working and the
lowest cost of operation are often silent on the human
impact of their activity. At best these approaches
assume a rationality in the way that human beings
can easily be fitted into any organizational design or
that communication can overcome any unwillingness
on the part of employees to accept the need to
produce more for less.
Business process re-engineering is the latest in a
long line of approaches to attempt to ensure that organ-
izations become truly efficient. Michael Hammer is one
of the leading gurus in this field and insists that it is a
process that is about eliminating work, a process that
should not be considered as the same as eliminating
people (simple downsizing). The net result, however, is
the same, but it is argued that by concentrating on the
fundamental redesign of the business process an effec-
tive organization will then result and one into which the
people can be accommodated. The major area of
impact for this approach to efficiency is the middle
manager levels, what Hammer calls the death zone.
Re-engineering he describes as a process intended to
replace the organizational forms that emerged during
the Industrial Revolution when workers needed to be
closely supervised for many reasons, including low
levels of trust.
In the re-engineered company, teams are essential
and a customer rather than boss focus is required. This
invariably leads to the notion of self-managed teams with
a much-reduced role for managers in the traditional
sense of the job. Management becomes a role requiring
lead-and-enable skills rather than those of command
and control. It also reduces the ratio of managers
required from approximately 1:7 to anything approach-
ing 1:50. As an indication of the impact of re-engineer-
ing, Taco Bell moved from 350 area supervisors for its
1800 fast food outlets in 1988 to 100 market managers
responsible for 2300 outlets a few years later. The effect
on sales was an increase (on average) of 22 per cent per
year and profits by 31 per cent per year.
Based on: Flood, G (1994) Cut out the middlemen,
Personnel Today, 22 March, p 36.

Stop Consider
Is business process re-engineering (BPR) yet another attempt to find the elusive
formula that would guarantee the success of a company?
If BPR were to be successful would every company follow it and therefore find the same
solutions to the question of minimal cost with maximal customer focus? What might
this imply?
What do you think about the view that a process focus should predominate with the
human workforce being fitted around that?
How might employees and middle managers react to BPR approaches and what might
the long term effect on organizations be?

relative status of both parties. It can be argued (for example, Beardwell and Holden
(2001, pp 4569) that much of the recent move towards human resource manage-
ment and away from personnel management, is governed by the desire to go beyond
the contract in getting better value for money from the employee resource. The tradi- Compliance
tional compliance-based authority structures of organizations are being replaced Employees follow the
with an emphasis on commitment-based work organization. However, writers such rules precisely, paying
as Sisson (1994) suggest that much of the difference between these two positions is only lip service to the
rhetoric rather than reality, reflecting an attempt to, mask the reality of the harsh underlying aims and
face of managerial prerogative in the service of capital. Legge (1995, p 314). objectives sought by
Management in Action 1.5 clearly indicates that the relationship between some management.
[ 26 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

management and employee groups can be exploitative in nature, far from harmonious
Commitment and on occasion can lead to physical violence.
Employees internalize The reality of the precise nature of the relationship between managers and
managements values employees, is therefore open to question, and will depend to some extent on the
and norms and in so views of the debaters. Some will argue that the relationship of old has changed and
doing commit now is based on commitment rather than compliance. Others will argue that it is not
themselves to really a commitment-based relationship as it is based upon fundamental inequality.
managements aims Capital can take its need for labour elsewhere and indeed dispense with it altogether
and objectives. through the use of technology. Employees are very much dependent upon the work
opportunities that exist in order to earn the money that they need in order to survive
in modern society. The debate goes on, and will undoubtedly do so for some consid-
erable time into the future. The major consequence of this is that it is not possible to
assume that employees will have the same perspectives on anything relating to what
happens within an organization as the managers. Indeed, it is not possible to assume
that all managers will have the same perspective as each other. Both of these situa-
tions arise because the perspective and attitudes of each individual are determined
by many factors, including personality, experience, education, objectives status,
information available and peer group pressure. These are all factors that will be
discussed at various points throughout the book. Consequently, the employee
perspective will be introduced where it can be expected to have a pertinent contri-
bution to make to the discussion.
The relationship between individual employees and the organizations that employ
them is a complex one. At a basic (and perhaps cynical) level, the human employee is
simply a flexible alternative to a machine or computer; to be replaced as soon as a
more reliable and cheaper alternative becomes available. However, that view is overly
simplistic. As the technology associated with work activity evolves, some jobs are elimi-
nated, but new ones are created. The jobs created tend to be more cerebral than
manual as machine-minding tasks are eliminated, and so the skill levels and educa-
tion levels required to perform them also increase. During the transition period when
new jobs are being created there are inevitably shortages of appropriately skilled and
trained employees and so wage costs increase, bringing with it increased numbers of
people willing to undertake the training required. There are of course many other
forces acting upon the job choices that people make. For example, social and peer
pressure can make some jobs more attractive than others, as can parental influence.
Government policy can encourage (or inhibit) people to stay on at school and univer-
sity, thereby channelling young people in certain directions. Government (and
company) policy and grants can also encourage the retraining of older employees into
new skill areas.
Human behaviour also influences the perception and understanding of organiza-
tions themselves. Morgan (1986) and Gharajedaghi and Ackoff (1984) both describe
Metaphor organizational activity in terms of the differing metaphors that can be employed by
The explanation of people to understand it. They represent the ways in which an individual interprets an
something complex organization, which determines the characteristics that will be attributed to it and
through reference to assumptions about how it functions. For example, considering an organization in
something simpler, metaphorical terms as a brain or as a machine bestows on it qualities associated with
but which conveys those structures. The metaphor adopted also conditions how individuals will assume
additional meaning. that an organization works. The decisions and expectations of individuals in relation to
the organization are also influenced by the metaphor adopted.
Whatever the situation, the position and perspectives of employees are fundamen-
tally different to those of managers, even though many of the latter are also employees.
The metaphor adopted by each category is inevitably different. It is to influence the
metaphor held that so much management effort goes into seeking to influence
the ways in which employees think about their role and responsibilities within
 Chapter 1 A first look at employees [ 27 ]

Misery of rag-trade slaves in

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 1.5 Americas Pacific outpost

The capital of American Samoa, Pago Pago is home to
a number of high volume garment factories, all with the
right to claim that the goods are made in the USA.
However, as a recent court heard from US attorney
general (John Ashcroft) conditions in some factories
were nothing less than modern-day slavery. In a
particular court case it was said that the 251 Chinese
and Vietnamese workers at one factory paid 126 per
month for room and board, which consisted of a bunk
in a 36 bed dormitory and three meagre meals each
day. The pay for the workers was routinely withheld
and when workers went on strike to recover lost earn-
ings, the managers turned off the electricity making the
conditions in the living areas unbearable. During one of
these disputes one of the women workers was dragged
from her machine by several men and had one eye
gouged out with a plastic pipe.
The clothes being made were for large name retail
stores such as Sears and JC Penney as well as for the
MV Sport and Spalding brands. Only JC Penney agreed
to pay the workers the back pay owed to them.
Workers are attracted to work at the factory by the
higher wages available than could be earned in
Vietnam. Sewing jobs paid $400 each month
compared to the average in Vietnam of $30 per month.
However, it was necessary to pay $4500 to a local
labour export company in order to get a job in Pago
Pago. The parents of one worker had to remortgage
their home in order to guarantee the fee. One worker
earned only $672 during her nine months employment
at the factory before it was closed down and could not
pay off her debts unless she got more work in a similar
factory.
Charles Kernaghan, Director of the National
Labour Committee in Washington said that the situa-
tion in American Samoa made it a perfect location for
exploitation of labour. It was a US territory with an
economy in desperate need of stimulation and it had
no import tariffs in relation to mainland USA, looser
immigration laws and tax incentives to encourage
inward investment. Being eligible to display the
Made in the USA symbol on the labels of goods
made there, it even implied that quality and labour
practices were as they would be everywhere else in
the USA, a distinct sales advantage. However, being
more than 7000 miles from Washington it was in
practice only lightly regulated, with government
labour inspectors saying that they do not have a
budget for travel to such remote locations in order to
monitor working conditions.
Similar conditions apply to Saipan, another US
territory in the Northern Mariana islands. But here
workers have brought a class action case against
leading American clothing and retail companies for
alleged exploitation and sweatshop employment
conditions.
Adapted from: Fickling, D (2003) Misery of rag-trade
slaves in Americas Pacific outpost, The Guardian,
Saturday 1 March, p 20.

Stop Consider
What does this example of the treatment of people at work suggest about what
customers, managers, governments and consumers actually think about employees?

organizations. Managers are also employees with one major distinction; they are
supposed to act in the interests of the beneficial owner of the business, while ordinary
employees have no such special status. At best they are one of the stakeholders within
the organization, at worst a necessary resource to be manipulated in pursuit of organiza-
tional objectives and replaced whenever practical. The behaviour and attitudes of
employees towards work and organizations also reflects the diversity of perspective about
them. Sometimes it reflects favourable attitudes and underlying values, sometimes an
open hostility and rejection of organizational purpose and management objectives. It all
depends upon a wide range of factors, including the individuals themselves and their
prior experience of how organizations and managers actually treat them.
[ 28 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

There exists a view among certain academic writers and practising managers that
the world of work has changed, bringing with it the need for employees to change as
well. It has already been suggested earlier that the relationship between managers and
organizations has changed with the introduction of downsizing and other cost reduc-
tion initiatives. This represents an example of what is termed the psychological
contract. This represents the largely unwritten expectations that exist between
employee and employer. It establishes the basis of what each can expect from the
other. It has been argued that in the past this was based on the individual giving their
full support to the company in return for career and regular wage increases etc. Whilst
this may have been true in the case of administrative, technical and managerial posi-
tions, it would not be a common experience of most manual workers, unless they
worked in the public sector. It is now argued by writers such as Hiltrop (1995, p 286)
that:
There is no job security. The employee will be employed as long as he or she adds
value to the organization, and is personally responsible for finding new ways to add
value. In return, the employee has the right to demand interesting and important
work, has the freedom and resources to perform it well, receives pay that reflects
his or her contribution and gets experience and training needed to be employed here
or elsewhere.
The extract form Hiltrop is interesting in that it suggests that there still exists a
balance of give and take in the employment relationship, albeit in different form to
that existing previously. It suggests a personal career in which each individual takes
responsibility for themselves and their own development in order to be marketable
now and in the future in an increasingly uncertain world. But is such a rosy perspec-
tive part of the real experience of most employees? Consider the case study included
at the end of this chapter in this context and a slightly different psychological contract
appears to exist. Equally, Management in Action 1.5 presents a different perspective
on the employment relationship. Perhaps the psychological contract described above
represents an ideal type of relationship that might be hoped for among some categories
of employee in some organizations, but not all. As is evident in the case study for this
chapter, the real experience for some employees can be very different.
It is the predictable consistency in operation provided by computer-based technol-
ogy that makes it such an attractive option in most work settings. It is not possible for
human beings to match the unfailing and relentless consistency of performance
achieved by robots in a factory, for example. However, human beings do have some
advantages over computer technology. They are adaptable, flexible and can demon-
strate a level of initiative beyond that available through any computer. Consequently,
there is still a need to employ and a benefit to be gained from, that unpredictable but
fascinating beast of burden the human being. Call centres represent a modern orga-
nizational development in which new patterns and forms of work are emerging based
on computer and telecommunications technology. As such, new ways of work are
evolving in these environments and as a consequence some people refer to these as
the modern-day equivalent of the sweatshops of old, with demands for high work
rates over extended periods, highly repetitive work of a low level, constant manage-
ment monitoring of work and high labour turnover. During November 1999 the first
major strike of employees in call centres was organized by the Communications
Workers Union in the UK over what were described as an oppressive management
style and persistent under resourcing (Lamb, 1999a). This action demonstrates the
difficulty facing managers in effectively blending together the opportunities available
between new technology and human beings. Also, consider the experience of lower
level employees working in call centres, who now find their jobs being transferred to
India in the search for cost reduction made possible by using the latest technology and
 Chapter 1 The challenges facing organizations, managers and employees [ 29 ]

wage-based economies of scale, why should they be supportive of management objec-

tives? For example, the scale of the potential savings is evident from research by
Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (reviewed by Crabb, 2003) which indicates that the top 100
financial services companies could save between 432 million and 618 million each
over a five year period by switching operations to the developing world.
It is people who create organizations, either as a source of income or in response to
a perceived social, political or personal need. It is people who operate the organization,
taking decisions and physically arranging to produce the products or services. It is yet
more people who regulate the organization in terms of safety, taxation, financial
matters and fraud. Even more people are the suppliers and customers of the organiza-
tion. Within the organization, careers are worked out and living standards are deter-
mined, individuals seek to advance their own position and status at the expense of
others. On occasions they also seek revenge for some real or imagined injury or hurt
from the past. In short, the human aspect of organizations is the story of human life
and experience plus that of society, albeit writ small!

THE CHALLENGES FACING ORGANIZATIONS,

MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES

The basic challenge facing all organizations, managers and employees is that of
change. The world is constantly changing and that rate of change is now becoming
faster. Some of this change is evolutionary and other revolutionary. For example, the
development of computer technology is subject to continual refinement. This is some-
thing that is evolutionary in nature. A change process experienced as a series of small
frequent (incremental) amendments to the existing situation. Considering this type of
change on a daily basis would offer no noticeable difference, but over a period of years
considerable change is achieved.
Revolutionary change, in comparison, is a sudden and dramatic process that funda-
mentally alters the situation. One example of this is the arrival of the out-of-town
shopping and leisure complex. Over a relatively short period of time town centres have
become deserted as people find it more convenient to drive to one of these centres.
The effect has been to force many town centre businesses either to relocate to a new
complex or to close down altogether.
Change has always been a part of life. It has been argued by many writers that the
pace of change impacting on organizations is occurring ever more rapidly. So much so
that one catchphrase over recent years has been an exhortation to innovate or die!
This carries the clear implication that unless change becomes institutionalized the
organization will not stay in business for long. There is a counter-argument to this
view which suggests that by forcing change into an organization, managers are creat-
ing the very instability that can inhibit their ability to survive. Inevitably, change within
an organization impacts on all the people within it. Change means different things to
different people within the organization. To a significant extent the perspective on
change depends upon the implied impact for the individual or group. So for a main
board director it may mean growth of the company, a big merger deal bringing personal
reputation and kudos. For the senior managers a particular change may mean addi-
tional resources to enhance the service they provide, or less resources through which
to provide an enhanced service. To junior managers it might simply mean more work
and having to ensure that lower level employees adopt new working practices that
mean they have to do jobs differently to the way they were done in the past. For the
lower level employees it may mean job losses and uncertainty as to how many jobs will
[ 30 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1

exist after the change has been made. In addition it may well require remaining
employees to undertake the work previously done by their displaced colleagues,
leading to increased pressure and stress. In short, change is something that at the
lowest levels of an organization is invariably viewed in negative terms because it
usually means having to learn new things and do more with fewer resources, or at least
that is the general perception of the impact. The challenge, particularly for managers,
is to find ways of embracing change that do not engender negative and hostile reac-
tions among employees.
There are many ways of categorizing change. Johnson and Scholes (1999) describe
a PESTLE analysis process that provides a systematic basis for considering the envi-
ronmental influences surrounding an organization:
Political. Factors influencing the organization from surrounding political
sources. For example, the political orientation of the government in power.
Economic. These reflect the economic conditions and trends that can influence
the environment within which the organization must operate.
Social/cultural. Changes to the populations (customer and workforce)
surrounding the organization can also have a significant impact on its
functioning. For example, in Europe there is an expectation among employees
that they are entitled to increasing levels of involvement in company decision
making.
Technological. The changes to the technology available to organizations affects
both the products and services available and also the ways in which companies
operate.
Legal. The legislative rules may change. For example, increases in fuel tax may
increase transport costs causing an increase in cost of operations and reductions
in profit.
Environment/ethical. There is pressure on all organizations to reduce damage to
the environment and to act in an ethical way. Pressure groups constantly
monitor company statements on their performance in these areas and often
hold managers to account in public to demand action where it can be argued
that not enough is being done.
Asch and Salaman (2002) draw together a wide range of variables to demonstrate that
the problems facing managers in relation to the challenges of the future are based
upon the interaction of two factors:
The changing nature of complex and unpredictable environments.
The plethora of (often competing) advice and exhortations of how to deal with
such unpredictable environments.
In addition to the processes identified, there are the political reasons that lead
managers to seek change within their organizations. For example, new managers often
seek to make change in order to demonstrate a clear break with what existed previ-
ously. Equally, managers can attempt to enhance their own career prospects by seeking
to be regarded by senior managers as proactive in pursuing change.

CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has introduced organizational behaviour
together with the concepts of organization, manage-
ment and employee, which form the basis of much of
the emphasis in the rest of this book. It has also
included some of the research orientations and
approaches for the study of these issues in the real
Now to summarize this chapter in terms of the relevant
Learning Objectives:
Understand the distinction between research in
the natural and in the social sciences. This chapter
has sought to introduce the distinction between
natural and social science research. In the natural
sciences, it is possible to utilize the scientific
method of research and to seek to control closely
each of the variables active in any situation in
laboratory-based experiments. In the social world it
is not often possible to provide such control and
equally behaviour is an interactive, dynamic process
occurring in real time and with many other variables
influencing events. Consequently different research
methods have to be employed to illuminate such
events and equally it is rarely possible to offer
definitive explanations of particular behaviours.
Explain the particular difficulties involved in
studying and developing theories in the area of
management. The previous outline has provided a
brief explanation of this objective. There are so many
variables at work in even the simplest forms of
human behaviour in an organizational context that it
is very difficult to provide complete explanations or
theories that might explain them. Therefore any
theory is at best simply reflecting a probability that
certain behaviours will occur in certain situations,
given a range of other prerequisites. This is
particularly true when considering management as a
separate activity within organizations.
Outline the essence of the relationship between
organizations, managers and employees. There
exists a complex relationship between the three
main terms indicated. Each needs the other to a
significant extent in order to produce whatever
product or service is offered by the organization. It is
not simply a one-way relationship. Organizations
create goods and services, people are needed to
achieve that. Absentee owners fund large
organizations, therefore, they need managers to
realize the objective of making money from the
Chapter 1 Conclusions [ 31 ]
world by real people. The purpose of this chapter has
been to set the scene for much of the later work in
the book. It also set out to provide readers with some
background to the research issues and approaches
that are used to inform thinking in this and other
areas of the study of management and organizations.
capital. Equally, managers need the organization to
provide job opportunity, status, and career
possibilities. Both managers and employees need
the money earned from work to purchase the goods
and services that make life meaningful and
enjoyable. This creates a reciprocal need between
organizations and the people who work in them.
Appreciate that the concept organization
incorporates many different forms. The definition of
an organization covers many different types. Not all
organizations are of interest to every researcher,
teacher or student of management. In some
situations, the focus of interest will be management
in a large multinational organization, in others
management of small owner-manager companies.
The public sector and voluntary sector are also
significant types of organization that form the focus of
interest in particular situations. Therefore, there are
many forms of organization and it is frequently
unstated or assumed that private sector large
commercial organizations are the model on which all
theory and explanation should be based.
Discuss how the study of organizational behaviour
can contribute to an understanding of
management. The study of organizational behaviour
is about understanding how people and
organizations interact. As has already been
suggested this represents a complex relationship
with many factors active in any situation. The
purpose of studying organizational behaviour is to
begin to understand the variety of forces influencing
behaviour within an organization, including the
behaviour of other people, the design of
organizations, the role of technology, political forces
and stress. Management requires the achievement
of objectives through other people at all levels both
inside and outside of an organization. Therefore
organizational behaviour seeks to illuminate the
nature and responsibilities of management (among
those of other stakeholders) in running organizations
more effectively.
[ 32 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Management represents the combination of
experience and practical skill, it cannot be taught.
Therefore there is no point in studying
management. Discuss this question and in so
doing justify the study of organizational behaviour.
2. Management is a manipulative process. Discuss
the extent to which you agree with this statement
and explain why.
3. It is not possible to generate robust social science
theories because there are so many variables at
work. It requires the development of a totally new
science. To what extent would you agree with this
statement and why?
4. There is no such thing as a typical organization or
management job therefore it is pointless attempting
to theorize about them. To what extent would you
agree with this view? Justify your answer.
5. Managers need organizations. To what extent do
you agree with this view and why?
CASE STUDY The reality of management life!
The case study is based in a large multinational service
organization operating in the UK, although the parent
group is based in the USA. The company makes and
supplies office equipment and maintains existing
equipment in client premises under service agree-
ments. It also refurbishes equipment as clients need it
updating or changing. The specific incidents reflected
in the case study occurred in the refurbishment division
of the company in the UK. The refurbishment division
was headed by a manager (Mark) who had reporting to
him seven field managers, each responsible for up to
seven engineers who carried out any refurbishment and
commissioning of equipment on client premises. Each
field manager was responsible for a refurbishment in a
specific geographic location of the UK. In addition, the
refurbishment manager had reporting to him seven
sales managers, one in each geographic area as indi-
cated for the field managers; and a number of other
senior technical and administrative staff, including a
planning manager, secretary and two administrative
assistants. The refurbishment manager reported to the
director of operations for the UK company.
The case study is based on a situation that devel-
6. To what extent and why should employees be
regarded as one of many resources available to
the organization, providing managers with the
necessary labour needed to achieve objectives?
7. Because employees actually do the work of the
organization they are in a stronger position than
managers to know how to do things more
effectively. To what extent might this be taken to
imply that if employees could be motivated more
effectively, most management jobs could be
eliminated?
8. Why do you think that people seek jobs as
managers?
9. The study of organizational behaviour enables
managers to become more effective at their job.
Discuss this statement.
10. Change can be equated with the challenges facing
organizations and managers. Is this a valid
comparison to make? Examine both sides of the
argument and justify your own point of view.
oped involving one of the field managers. The individ-
ual concerned (James) was 63 years of age and had
worked for the company for 35 years, beginning as a
service engineer and working his way up to the position
of field manager. He had always worked in the same
geographic area of the country and was well known
and respected by both clients and fellow engineers. He
had held his present position for three years at the time
of the incidents described. At the time that James was
appointed to his current position the company had
undertaken a major reorganization of its activities. He
along with all of the other managers had to undergo a
recruitment and selection process involving interviews,
psychometric tests and assessment centres intended to
select the best candidates for the reduced number of
management jobs within the new organization struc-
ture. James met the appropriate criteria and was
appointed to the position of field manager (refurbish-
ment). This itself was a new department within the
company as previously refurbishment had been under-
taken as a service activity within the company.
As a consequence of the reorganization the refur-
bishment department was created from among existing

employees brought together with the intention that a
viable team and working unit would emerge over time.
In some cases line managers within the company had
engineered situations in which a number of their
weaker employees were transferred over to the new
department as a way of getting rid of low performing
individuals, those with less capability and those
regarded as lazy or simply trouble-makers. Whilst there
was no suggestion that James was one of these
employees, some of his engineers fell into that cat-
egory, as did some of the support staff moved into the
department.
The refurbishment manager (Mark) was moved into
the department from the position of area sales manager,
having gone through the internal recruitment process
and being identified as a high-flyer within the company.
The brief that Mark was given was to generate increased
sales of 10 per cent in the first year, to reduce customer
complaints by 10 per cent over the same period and to
create an effective refurbishment department across the
entire UK operations. Not surprisingly there were many
teething problems in the new department and Mark
spent the first year fire-fighting in an attempt to limit the
damage and achieve the objectives set whilst maintain-
ing effective customer relations. He spent much of his
time on the road visiting his managers, the worksites
and customers. It quickly became apparent that the
difficulties with the new department went further than a
few underperforming employees. It was clear that prior
to the change-over to the new structure a number of
managers had either deliberately or accidentally allowed
jobs to become seriously delayed or badly planned. Also
a number of unrealistic promises (and quotations) had
been made to clients and potential customers. This
situation increased the pressure on everyone in the
refurbishment department, particularly the managers.
A broad sweep of measures was instigated by Mark
to improve the effectiveness of the new department,
including team meetings and team building activities.
This was on top of Mark spending a considerable
amount of time with each team in order to monitor their
work and ensure that they were working to the new
procedures and requirements. It quickly became appar-
ent to Mark that the department did not have enough
people to undertake all of the work expected of them.
The sales engineers were able to bring in enough
orders, but the engineering side were unable to carry
out the refurbishment work fast enough. This was
partly due to the lack of engineers, partly due to the
inexperience of some of the field managers, partly due
to the quality of some of the staff (as implied earlier)
Chapter 1 Case study [ 33 ]
and partly due to the need to improve team working
across the new department. One particular area of diffi-
culty was in the area under the leadership of James. He
had considerable experience of the company, its prod-
ucts and the engineering processes involved, but there
always seemed to be more problems in his area than in
the others. Mark tried several ways to overcome the
difficulties. He spent more time with James than with
any of the other field managers; he helped James to
plan his work and to deal with problem engineers.
However, nothing seemed to work. One of the major
problems was that James was finding it particularly
difficult to use the new company computer-based
systems. He did not like to use the email system and
was not comfortable with the inevitable politics that
accompany management activity. For example, the
sales engineers in his area were becoming so frustrated
with the lack of completed work for their clients that
they had taken to emailing James to complain on a
frequent basis, at the same time circulating the email to
Mark and even his boss (the director) for information.
This inevitably resulted in questions being asked of
Mark and pressure being put on him to take action.
Mark eventually sat James down and had a frank
discussion with him about what was going on.
Eventually during the discussion, it emerged that
James was very unhappy with the new job. It was
completely different to his previous managerial task
and required him to do jobs and tasks that he did not
enjoy or feel competent to do. He even admitted that it
was getting him down so much he was being physi-
cally sick most mornings before leaving home to go to
work. He just felt so helpless and out of his depth in
being able to do the job expected of him. Mark was
taken aback by this revelation, not having suspected
the personal nature of the situation. Thinking about the
meeting afterwards, he decided to speak to his boss
about a number of options. These included the possi-
bility of reassignment within the company and giving
James an early retirement package to allow him to
leave work with some dignity. In speaking to his boss, it
quickly became apparent that these were not going to
be options that would be considered. Marks boss said
that James was not up to the job and should either be
forced to resign or should be dismissed. It was not
going to be possible to find James alternative work
within the company that would make use of his consid-
erable experience and knowledge about the company,
its products, processes and customers. No enhanced
retirement or other package would be made available in
his case. The management view was that the company
[ 34 ] Organizational behaviour today Part 1
should get tough with underperforming employees and
they should be made to perform by the threat of
dismissal without any compensation. The fact that
James had very long service with the company and
had always been a good employee was deemed to be
irrelevant.
Mark was appalled by what he was told by his boss.
It represented a completely different attitude by a senior
manager to that common before the reorganization.
Clearly, a new get tough approach was to be the new
way of managing people within the company. Mark
pushed as hard as he could within the company for a
special case to be made for James, but to no avail.
Mark was essentially told that if he did not deal with
James he would be replaced as well. Mark arranged to
see James, told him of the situation, and suggested
that he would have good ground for legal action against
the company if they dismissed him. James said that
FURTHER READING
Burrell, G and Morgan, G (1979) Sociological
Paradigms and Organisational Analysis: Elements
of the Sociology of Corporate Life, Ashgate,
Aldershot. A classical review of the different ways of
seeing things in organizational theorizing.
Clark, H, Chandler, J and Barry, J (1994) Organization
and Identities: Text and Readings in Organizational
Behaviour, International Thomson Business Press,
London. Contains a broad range of original articles
on relevant material themes and from significant
writers referred to in this and other textbooks on
management and organizations.
Clegg, SR and Palmer, G (eds) (1996) The Politics of
Management Knowledge, Sage, London. This text
explores the relationship between management
knowledge, power and practice within an increas-
ingly global organizational environment.
de la Billire, General Sir P (1994) Looking For
Trouble, HarperCollins, London. An autobiography
of a senior military officer, this book provides an
insight into the nature of leadership as well as mili-
tary organization.
Gunn, C (1993) Nightmare on Lime Street, 2nd edn,
Smith Gryphon, London. This book provides a
perspective on the possibility of malpractice in
such an approach was not his style and that he was
going to resign and walk away with his dignity intact.
He handed Mark a letter of resignation and left the
office. Mark felt so angry at how James had been dealt
with that he also began to look around for another job
and left the company about three months later.
Task
What does this case suggest to you in relation to:
What management is?
What being an employee means?
The nature of the psychological contract?
How managers manage?
The signal that managements behaviour might send to
other employees?
What an organization is and how they change over
time?
Lloyds of London. It reflects the possibility that not
all employees can be trusted to act in the best inter-
ests of the owners.
MacGregor, I with Tyler, R (1986) The Enemies Within,
Collins, London. This is the story of the miners
strike in the British coalfields during 1984 and 1985
written from the perspective of the Chairman of the
then National Coal Board.
Mills, AJ and Murgatroyd, SJ (1991) Organizational
Rules, Open University Press, Milton Keynes. This
text introduces the existence of the formal and
informal rule frameworks that guide much of the
human activity within organizations.
Needle, D (2000) Business in Context: An Introduction
to Business and its Environment. Thomson
Learning, London. Provides an introductory text on
what business is and how it functions within its ever
changing environment.
Potter, J (1996) Representing Reality, Sage, London.
This book provides a review of various constructionist
views of scientific knowledge as well as providing
examples from conversations and other interactions.
Turner, J (2002) How to Study, Sage, London. Provides
a broad range of material and ideas on study at
university level.
 Chapter 1 Companion website [ 35 ]

COMPANION WEBSITE

Online teaching and learning resources:

Visit the companion website for Organizational Behaviour and Management 3rd edition at:
http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3 to find valuable further teaching and
learning material:

For students:
Interactive multiple choice questions to help you test your understanding of the chapter
PowerPoint slides for use as an overview to each chapter and as a revision aid
Extra case material
Weblinks to all case companies and other relevant sources of information
Online glossary to explain key terms
Learning objectives and chapter summaries to help you check your understanding and progress

For lecturers:
A password protected site with teaching material
Instructors Manual with teaching notes
Model answers for selected questions
Video sources to help bring a wider relevance to the classroom

Supplementary resources:
ExamView:
This testbank and test generator provides more than a thousand different types of questions, allowing
lecturers to create online, paper and local area network (LAN) tests. This CD-based product is only available
from your Thomson sales representative.

Online Courses:
All of the supplementary web material is available in a format that is compatible with virtual learning
environments such as Blackboard and WebCT. This version of the product is only available from your
Thomson sales representative.
 Glossary
Action-centred leadership An approach to managing
which consists of three elements achieving the task,
developing the individual and building and maintaining
the team.
Action research (or learning) A problem solving process
in which a group defines the problem to be examined
and then uses their combined skill and experience to
understand it in order to then take action to deal with it.
An iterative and dynamic process of learning about
problems by trying to solve them.
Adhocracy A form of organization structure typified by few
levels of management; little formal control;
decentralized decision making; few rules, policies and
procedures; specialization of work function.
Administrative management Considers management as
activities aimed at running the organization as a whole.
Also see Classical management theory and Bureaucracy.
Alienation The detachment of the individual from the
work that they do and/or the organization for which they
work. Sometimes described as feelings of powerlessness,
meaninglessness, isolation or self-estrangement in which
the person no longer feels part of, or involved with, the
work that they do.
Assessment centre A group recruitment or development
process using a series of tests, interviews, group and
individual exercises that are scored by a team of
assessors in order to evaluate the candidates.
Attitude A predisposed feeling, thought or behavioural
response to a particular stimulus. Acquired through
socialization, education, training and previous
experience of the stimulus.
Attitude set The totality of attitudes about a particular
object held by an individual.
Attribution theory (of leadership) Suggests that leaders
observe the behaviours of individual subordinates and
vary their reactions accordingly.
Authority The ability of someone in a job or position to be
able to require certain actions or behaviours to be
undertaken by another person.
Autocraticdemocratic style of leadership A continuum
view of leadership with one extreme involving the leader
taking all the decisions, and at the other the leader
involving subordinates in decision making.
Autokinetic phenomenon Visually perceiving something
to move when in fact it is stationary, a visual illusion.
Autonomous work groups A work team with delegated
responsibility for a defined part of an organizations
activities with the freedom to organize its own resources,
pace of work and allocate responsibilities within the
group.
Balanced business scorecard Developed by Kaplan and
Norton as the means to measure the performance in
four major areas of organizational activity: Financial;
Innovation and learning; Internal processes; and
Customers.
[ 832 ]
Benchmark A process in which aspects of company
operations are compared with other organizations in
order to measure relative performance and
effectiveness.
Blame culture Describes an organization in which every
error is regarded as the fault of an individual or group.
Such cultures encourage a cover your back at all costs
approach to work.
Breakthrough leadership An approach to leadership
which emphasizes the personal journey of discovery that
each leader undergoes, includes elements of emotional
intelligence and self-knowledge.
Brownfield site A term used to describe a location which
already contains an operational unit, which may be
about to undergo reconstruction or some form of
transition or change. See also Greenfield site.
Bullying and harassment The act of intimidating or
seeking to force someone to do something by subjecting
them to persecution intended to undermine their
confidence and self-esteem.
Bureaucracy see Bureaucratic.
Bureaucratic An approach to organizing the activities
within an organization which involves specialization of
task, plus a hierarchy of authority and decision making.
See also Classical Management Theory and
Administrative management.
Burnout The feeling of helplessness and of being unable
to continue experienced by some individuals under
prolonged exposure to stress.
Business process re-engineering (BPR) An approach
to reorganization in which the key business processes
are identified, followed by the elimination of other
activity and the rapid transformation of the organization
to the desired process orientation.
Cabal An informal group that attempts to take the
initiative within an organization to further views
supported by members or enhance their status and
position.
Cafeteria or flexible benefits An approach to employee
benefits that allows individuals to select a personal
benefits package up to a set limit, from the total range
available.
Change agent Someone who plays a leading part in
sponsoring the need for change or its implementation.
Charismatic leadership The ability to exercise
leadership through the power of the leaders personality.
Classical conditioning An approach to learning
developed by Pavlov in which he used dogs to
demonstrate that when the conditioned stimulus (bell)
was associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food)
over several repetitions a conditioned response resulted
(salivation to the sound of the bell).
Classical management theory An approach to
organizing described by writers including Fayol, Mary
Parker Follett, Oliver Sheldon, Lyndall Urwick and

James Mooney. See also Administrative management
and Bureaucracy.
Cliques A particular type of informal group in which
individuals have a common interest and purpose;
frequently the defence of members against the interests
of other groups and individuals.
Coercive power The ability of a holder of such power to
achieve control over another person through the threat
of direct action, force or violence.
Cognitive dissonance Used to explain behaviour in an
individual in situations where conflict exists between
attitudes or beliefs.
Commitment This involves the employee internalizing
the underlying values and norms held by management
and in so doing committing themselves to managements
aims and objectives.
Communication A process of sharing information and
creating relationships in environments designed for
manageable, goal-oriented behaviour.
Company doctor A senior manager brought into an ailing
company in an attempt to turn it around.
Competency The characteristics and capabilities of an
individual which directly contribute to superior job
performance.
Compliance This involves the employee following the
rules precisely, paying only lip service to the aims and
objectives determined by management.
Compulsory sociability An approach to building teams
with a strong culture by requiring individuals to join in
group activities and follow particular patterns of
behaviour or face sanctions.
Conditioned The behaviour of an individual which results
from the application of behaviourism techniques.
Conflict This frequently arises when the differences
between two or more groups or individuals become
apparent.
Conflict model of customer experience and
organizational functioning This reflects the
difficulty of functional groups being able to meet
customer needs within a hierarchical organization.
Conflict model of decision making An algorithmic
approach to taking decisions which is only intended to
apply to life decisions and when certain other conditions
can be met.
Conformity see Group conformity.
Content theories of motivation These concentrate on
identifying the motives that produce behaviour.
Contingency theory Applies to the leadership, motivation
and structure areas within organizational behaviour.
Takes the view that the best style of leadership, form of
motivation, or organizational structure depends upon
the factors active in the situation.
Continuous improvement An approach to improvement
adopting incremental and frequent changes aimed at
improving operational effectiveness over a long period of
time. It is often described as a journey without end.
Contract approach to ethics An approach to resolving
ethical dilemmas grounded in the notion that
agreements whether they be explicit or tacit should be
honoured. It comes in two variations, Restricted
contractarianism and Libertarian contractarianism.
Glossary [ 833 ]
Control Processes intended to achieve the outcome
desired by the designer of the system.
Corporate anorexia Describes those organizations that
cut employee numbers, out of a fear of becoming fat,
perhaps to the point of extinction.
Corporate governance Defined by the Cadbury
Committee as the systems through which companies are
directed and controlled. It is about the ways in which
ethics finds expression in business activities.
Corporate social responsibility This refers to the rights
and responsibilities of an organization relative to its
social context.
Countercultures These reflect a situation where one or
more groups have objectives that run counter to those of
the dominant group.
Crisis management The aspect of management that
deals with major unplanned events that pose significant
risk to the organization, its employees or other
stakeholders.
Critical incidents research An approach involving
asking what makes an individual feel good or bad about
something, subsequent content analysis identifies the
important issues.
Cultural web Based on the notion that the routines,
rituals, stories, symbols, power structures, control
systems and organization structure all contribute to the
form of a particular culture.
Culture The acquired and conventionally accepted ways of
thinking and behaving among a group or society.
Cycle model of decision making An iterative approach
to decision making based on a nine step process.
Decision making A process through which a particular
course of action is selected or solution identified from
among the many options available.
Delayering The act of removing layers from an
organization, thereby making it shorter in the vertical
dimension.
Delegated authority An action by managers in which
they give some of their authority for decision making to
subordinates.
Delegation The passing of some area of responsibility to a
subordinate.
Devils advocate A person specifically tasked with trying
to disprove or challenge the argument or opinion put
forward by another person or group.
Diffusion of responsibility The claim by someone
(usually within a group) that they were not solely
responsible for a particular decision or act, thereby
avoiding any personal responsibility.
Division of labour The term describes breaking up the
overall task into specialized and smaller activities in the
search for higher levels of productivity and job
specialization.
Downshift The decision by an individual to seek to move
jobs to one at a lower level, with less responsibility, salary
and stress.
Downsizing/rightsizing/delayering Processes which
involve the elimination of jobs or entire levels within the
organization on the assumption that unnecessary activity
will be eliminated and a closer customer focus will
result.
[ 834 ] Glossary
Drives The physiological and biological needs of the
human body that direct behaviour. See also Motivation.
Emotional intelligence An approach to intelligence
which describes it in terms of the ability to perceive, to
integrate, to understand and reflectively manage ones
own and other peoples feelings.
Employee assistance programme A scheme provided by
an employer (usually through a specialist consultancy)
to offer assistance to employees who experience a
problem and who might find it beneficial to have the
opportunity to talk it through with a support worker. The
intention being to assist the employee to find a way of
dealing positively with the difficulty.
Employee involvement Represents an opportunity for
employees to become involved beyond the normal scope of
their job in decision making and/or running the business.
Employer of choice This implies that people will actively
seek employment with the company and so contribute
high performance over a long period of time.
Empowerment Means that employees are given the
freedom to take action (within defined boundaries)
without the need to have specific approval.
Enacted role What the individual actually does in
fulfilling their role responsibilities.
Environment The elements and forces surrounding an
organization with which it must interact and which can
influence events, decisions and processes within the
organization.
Ergonomics It sets out to identify how humans interact
with the work-based physical environment and then to
design the equipment in such a way as to have minimal
negative impact on the people using it.
Ethics Takes as its focus of interest right, wrong, good and
bad in relation to behaviour in an organizational context.
Expectancy theory of motivation A view of motivation
that suggests that the desirability of particular outcomes
is what motivates behaviour.
Expected role The specific role that an individual is
expected to fulfil according to the organization,
frequently specified in a job description.
Expert power This source of power originates from the
knowledge, skill and expertise of an individual in a
particular context.
Extrinsic motivator This represents a source of
motivation that originates outside the individual worker
and which influences their behaviour. See also Intrinsic
motivation.
Extroversion One aspect of personality. The extrovert
likes excitement, is sociable and lively. An introvert, by
comparison, has a quiet and retiring aspect to their
personality.
Federal organization Reflects the joining together of
separate groups under a common identity for a specific
purpose.
Felt fair A term used within reward management and
employee relations that means that something should be
felt to be fair by the people subjected to the system or
procedure.
Fight or flight response The process which allows a
living organism to either stay and fight, or to run away
and avoid confrontation.
Flexible firm There are a number of forms that flexibility
can take, job, location, temporal, numerical and
financial. It also relates to a specific organizational
model which includes core and various forms of
peripheral employee.
Focused deviancy The toleration of bending of the
official rules as long as it contributes to the overall
objective and does not become normal practice.
Forcefield analysis model A change model which
proposes that any situation is held in place as the result
of the balance of change and restraining forces acting
upon it.
Fordism An alternative term for Scientific management.
Fordism and post-Fordism Refers to ways in which
Scientific management principles are used in the
running of manufacturing and other organizations.
Formal group Designed and imposed by managers on the
workforce as a way of achieving organizational objectives
through structure, departments and teams.
Frame of reference The internal frameworks held by an
individual that informs their understanding of the world
and how to relate to it.
Free association Refers to the right of employees to
associate with whom they choose, perhaps against the
wishes of management. It has a different meaning in
psychoanalysis in that it reflects the process of allowing
a patient to respond freely to a particular stimulus
without prompting by the analyst.
Functional foremanship The principles of Scientific
management as applied to first line management.
Garbage can model of decision making This is based
on the idea that organizations are comprised of bundles
of available solutions looking for problems. The garbage
can is a receptacle for solutions and situations, both
waiting to be matched up.
Gatekeeper Person (or post) within an organization able
to grant or restrict access to a more senior person.
Golden handcuff An attempt to lock the employee into
the company through the use of some incentive to stay,
usually high wages or an incentive payment based on
service.
Grapevine The rumour mill or gossip networks that exist
in all organizations as a way of passing information, real
or imagined around employees at all levels.
Graphology The study of handwriting.
Great man view of leadership This view suggests that
there are certain people who are born with the
appropriate characteristics to make them successful
leaders.
Greenfield site A term used to describe a brand new
operational location as compared to a Brownfield site
which describes an existing site.
Groups Consists of two or more people who have some
purpose and interact with each other in such a way that
they are psychologically aware of each other and are
influenced by each other.
Group cohesion Reflects the strength of mutual bonds
and attitudes among members.
Group communication The patterns through which
individuals within a group communicate with each
other.

Group conformity The degree of compliance to the group
norms by individual members.
Group decision making The processes by which a group
will take decisions.
Group development Process of individuals coming
together to form a group capable of achieving task
objectives and member satisfaction.
Group dynamics The behavioural interactions and
patterns of behaviour that occur when groups of people
meet.
Groups, instrumental value of The benefits that an
individual gains from joining a group, including meeting
social and affiliation needs and gaining support for their
objectives.
Group norms The patterns of behaviour, attitudes and
beliefs that are held by a particular group and to which
members are expected to subscribe.
Groupthink The tendency of a strongly cohesive group to
emphasize unanimity at the expense of critical
evaluation of a problem and available options.
Groups types within an organization
Hierarchical differentiation.
Specialism groupings.
Activity groupings.
Boundary spanning.
Professional.
Habituation Constant repetition of a stimulus can lead to
the senses turning off from the awareness of it.
Halo (or horns) effect The bias introduced when
attributing all of the characteristics of a person (or
object) to a single attribute. When this is positive it is a
halo effect, when negative a horns effect.
Hawthorne effect The tendency of people to change
their behaviour as a result of being subjected to research
and observation, first identified during the Hawthorne
studies.
Hawthorne studies A series of four research studies
exploring aspects of group working within the Western
Electric Company in the USA during the late 1920s and
early 1930s.
Helicopter perspective The ability to take an overview of
a situation.
Hidden agenda An intention that is not apparent but
forms a significant motivation for an individuals
behaviour in a particular context.
High performance organization An organization in
which the combination of people, technology,
management and productivity are integrated effectively
to provide competitive advantage on a sustainable
basis.
Human relations movement The school of
management thinking that originated from the work of
Elton Mayo in which the significance of social groups
and processes was emphasized.
Human resource management An approach to the
management of people that supposedly represents a
more central strategic management activity than
personnel management.
Human resource planning The process of seeking to
match present and future human availability to the
needs of the organization.
Glossary [ 835 ]
Ideal type An example or typical model which would not
be found in practice in its exact form, but would be
identifiable to a greater or lesser extent from what is
found.
Idiographic theories of personality These offer an
approach to describing personality based upon the
uniqueness of each individual and in so doing do not
rely on psychometric tests.
Individual difference See Personality.
Individualismcollectivism A cultural dimension
reflecting the underlying arrangement of society into a
loose collective framework; or an integrated, tight social
arrangement involving collective responsibility.
Industrialization Refers to the application of technology
in a particular location, moving it away from agricultural
to a factory based economy.
Influence The ability to direct the behaviour of another
person involving persuasion rather than force.
Influence diagram These seek to illustrate the influences
and relationships that exist between individuals and
groups within and outside an organization.
Informal groups Formed from employee friendship,
mutual support and dependency needs which cannot be
met through the formal groups provided by an
organization.
Instrumental approach to work An approach to work
which is based on a trading and value approach to
relationships and the determination of contribution.
Instrumental conditioning An approach to learning
based on the reinforcement of particular behaviours by a
trainer which consequently shapes it into the desired
pattern.
Interaction analysis This contains four categories of
interaction which can be used for recording interaction
patterns within groups.
Intelligence Often described in terms of a number of
primary mental abilities such as verbal comprehension,
number ability, or a capacity for learning.
Intellectual capital The sum total of knowledge,
expertise and dedication of the workforce in an
organization.
Interpersonal, Informational and Decisional roles
Three categories of role used to describe the main
features of a managers job.
Intrinsic motivator Motivation that originates inside the
individual as a response to the job itself and the
circumstances surrounding its execution. See also
Extrinsic motivation.
Introversion See Extroversion.
Job Essentially a collection of tasks brought together as a
practical chunk of activity, created and adapted by
people, for a particular purpose within an
organization.
Job analysis A systematic approach to the identification of
the content and responsibilities of a job, results in a job
description being written. See also Job description.
Job characteristics model A model of job enrichment
based on the need to incorporate a number of core job
dimensions (Skill variety, Task identity, Task
significance, Autonomy and Feedback) into the design
of a job.
[ 836 ] Glossary
Job description A document based on job analysis that
sets out the duties and other requirements associated
with a job.
Job enlargement An approach to work organization
which combines a range of tasks together that would
add breadth to the design of a job.
Job enrichment An approach to job design that requires
activities and responsibilities to be added to the design of
a job.
Job evaluation A process by which job descriptions can be
used to identify the rank order (or relative magnitude) of
jobs in an organization.
Job rotation An approach to work organization which
proposes that two (or more) simplified jobs are
combined into a pattern of employee rotation.
Job simplification An approach to job design based on a
minimization of the range of tasks into the smallest
convenient size to make the job efficient and cost
effective.
Just-in-time An approach in which processes are linked
together in an extended chain to ensure that good
quality components are delivered to the user just-in-time
for them to be used.
Karoshi A Japanese word meaning sudden death from
overwork.
Knowledge management The management of the
knowledge available to the organization from all sources
in such a way as to allow the creation of new knowledge
and the sharing of existing knowledge; together with the
manipulation of that knowledge in such a way as to
benefit the organization and the individuals working
within it.
Labour process theory Essentially, this seeks to explain
the use to which human labour is put in capitalist
organizations and the part played by managers in the
organization of that work for the benefit of capital owners.
Laissez faire An approach to leadership in which the
leader effectively abdicates responsibility for the decision
making within the group.
Law of requisite variety see Requisite variety.
Leadership A process in which the leader is able to
influence the behaviours and actions of those being led.
Learning The relatively permanent change in behaviour
or potential behaviour that results from direct or indirect
experience.
Learning organization The facilitation of learning for all
employees and the constant transformation of the
organization in response to that new knowledge and
ability.
Legitimate power The ability to exercise power as a
consequence of having the legitimate right to claim to be
able to do so.
Line manager Every employee reports to a line manager
their boss.
Line and staff functions A line function is involved with
the main purposes of the organization the operational
functions. The staff functions refer to the activities
which although necessary are supportive of the main
operational functions.
Linking pin model This model reflects the overlapping
and connected nature of groups within an organization.
Loco parentis Having the right to act as though you were
the parent of another person.
Locus of control The degree to which an individual
believes that they are subjected to outside control as
opposed to having internal control over the forces
influencing their behaviour.
Luddite The term originated from the bands of workers
who roamed England in the early 1800s breaking up
machinery and destroying the factories which they
perceived would cost them their jobs. These days used
to describe people who are resistant to change.
Management The jobs within an organization charged
with running the organization on behalf of the beneficial
owner.
Management by exception An approach to managing
that assumes that only where an exception or deviation
from a plan is identified does any action need to be
taken.
Management, principles of 14 elements of what being a
manager involved, developed by Fayol and included as
Table 8.1.
Management process The view of management
developed by Fayol, consists of: Forecasting, Planning,
Organizing, Co-ordinating, Commanding, Controlling.
Manpower planning See Human resource planning.
Manufacture of consent The achievement of employee
consent to control by managers through such
practices as collective bargaining, although managers
retain effective control over labour use, which
perpetuates the relative imbalance of power in a
capitalist society.
Marketplace bureaucracy In practice, the need to get
things done within an organization requires the
continuous trading of favours between colleagues over
and above formal reporting relationships or procedures.
Market testing Checking the cost of something against
market norms.
Marxist or radical perspective on conflict This
suggests that conflict is an inevitable function of the
exploitation of employees within a capitalist system.
Masculinity A cultural dimension reflecting the degree of
domination of societys values by masculine
characteristics.
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Theory X
managers consider workers as lazy and having to be
driven to achieve performance. Theory Y managers
consider workers enjoy the experience of work and have
a desire to achieve high performance. McGregor believed
that managers managed their staff on the basis of these
beliefs, irrespective of actual employee approach to
work.
McKinsey 7-S Framework A model consisting of seven
interacting elements Structure, Strategy, Systems, Style,
Skill, Staff, and Shared values (culture).
Metaphor The explanation of something complex through
reference to something simpler, but in a way which
conveys additional meaning in the process.
Method study The application of a range of techniques
which allow the critical examination of work activity in
order to facilitate the search for the most efficient
methods of work.

Mock bureaucracy The rules and procedures are largely
ignored by all inside the bureaucracy, having been
imposed on them by an outside agency.
Modernism An approach to management based on the
understanding of the social and natural world revealed
through the application of reason and science. See also
postmodernism.
Moral philosophy A branch of philosophy that takes as its
sphere of interest the norms or values, ideas of right and
wrong, good or bad, what should and what should not be
done.
Motivate To seek to create motivation in another person.
Motivation A driving force that encourages an individual
to behave in particular ways as they seek to achieve a
goal. The willingness or energy with which individuals
perform their work.
Motive Social processes directing controllable behaviour
in people. See also Motivation.
Negative power The ability to influence another party by
not doing something that would normally be done.
Negotiation Broadly reflects a process of difference
reduction through the forming of agreements between
individuals and groups who have mutually dependent
needs and desires.
Networking The development of relationships and
contacts that are not of immediate necessity, but which
might be useful in the future.
Neuroticism An aspect of personality reflecting a person
who worries, is anxious, moody and unstable. The stable
person by comparison tends to be calm, even tempered,
carefree and reliable.
Noise The peripheral and background contamination
surrounding a communication that interferes with the
ability of the recipient receiving the complete message
sent. For example, noise from a television playing in the
background can prevent someone hearing every word
spoken during a phone conversation.
Nomothetic theories of personality These offer an
approach based upon the identification and measurement
of characteristics through psychometric tests.
Norms see Group norms.
One best way The idea that through the application of
scientific management the one best way of doing any
task could be identified by management.
Open systems model A model of an organization which
represents it in terms of inputs being transformed into
outputs, in turn leading to feedback to the organization,
all taking place within a dynamic and interactive
environment.
Organization Social arrangements of people and other
resources working together in consciously created
structured arrangements in pursuit of collective objectives.
Organizational behaviour A mainstream approach to
the study of management and organizations
incorporating anything relevant to the design,
management and effectiveness of an organization,
together with the dynamic and interactive relationships
that exist within them.
Organization chart A diagrammatic means by which
organizations describe the structure and reporting
relationships that exist.
Glossary [ 837 ]
Organizational citizenship Defined in terms of
voluntary behaviour that generally contributes to
organizational effectiveness but not directly or
explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system.
Organizational development (OD) The systematic
application of behavioural science knowledge to the
planned development and reinforcement of
organizational strategies, structures, and processes for
improving an organizations effectiveness.
Paradigm A model based on the theoretical assumptions
made in creating an understanding of the nature of
social science and the nature of society.
Pathgoal theory A model based on the idea that it is
possible to identify a distinct path leading to the
achievement of particular goals.
Perceived role what the individual understands their role
to be.
Perception A generally subconscious psychological
process which enables individuals to understand the vast
range of things that are external to themselves,
necessary so that individuals can determine appropriate
response behaviours.
Perceptual defence A process that provides a measure of
protection for the individual against information, ideas
or situations that are threatening to an existing
perception or attitude.
Perceptual errors These reflect the mistakes of
judgement or understanding that can occur during the
process of making sense of perceptual information.
Perceptual set The predisposition to perceive what an
individual expects to perceive.
Perform see Performance.
Performance In human terms this reflects the level of
achievement by an individual, measured against what
they would be expected to achieve.
Performance management The many processes through
which managers seek to manage performance levels
within the organization.
Personality The personal characteristics such as
extroversion and stability that result in consistent
patterns of behaviour over time.
Personnel management See human resource
management.
Pluralism A perspective that regards organizations as
collections of groups which have some objectives in
common and some in competition. Conflict results but
can be usually resolved as all parties recognize the need
to compromise in order to achieve some of their
objectives.
Political decision making model Decision making as a
process intended to achieve personal or short term
objectives through organizational activity. One form of
this was described as the garbage can model.
Political process Any behaviour within an organization
which uses political means to achieve a desired
objective.
Politics This is defined as behaviour outside the accepted
procedures and norms of a particular context, intended
to further the position of an individual or group at the
expense of others.
[ 838 ] Glossary
Postmodernism An approach to management based on
the view that reality is a composite of many differing
realities and that it is constructed through the human
ability to express these realities.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A reaction
among individuals subjected to major trauma that can
lead to a range of negative psychological, medical and
social consequences.
Power A concept that reflects a directing, mobilizing and
energizing force in getting people to do what they might
not otherwise do and is related to force, influence and
manipulation.
Power distance A cultural dimension reflecting the
degree to which a society accepts that organizational
power is distributed unequally.
Principled negotiations An approach to negotiation
based on four elements: Separate the people from the
problem; Focus on interests, not positions; Invent
options for mutual gain; and Insist on objective criteria.
Process consultation An approach to organization
development in which the role of the consultant is to
facilitate understanding of how to explore problems and
find workable solutions.
Process theories of motivation These emphasize those
mechanisms that encourage (or reward) behaviour in its
dynamic context.
Productivity The relationship between inputs and
outputs, expressed as either a conversion index
reflecting (for example) the organizations sales for each
unit of labour, or a comparative index measuring
changes across time.
Professionalization of management The idea that
management is not just another job, but represents a
defined area of work with its own skills, knowledge base
and training requirements.
Programmed and non-programmed decision making
models Programmed decision making refers to the
situations in which known steps lead from problem to
solution. Non-programmed decisions are new, cannot be
anticipated, or do not have pre-existing methods for
resolving them.
Projection A psychological process of projecting onto
others characteristics that we see in ourselves.
Projective techniques (or test) A process based on
ambiguous images being presented to an individual who
is then asked to interpret the image; thought to provide
some insight into attitudes and personality
characteristics.
Psychological contract The actual nature and
boundaries of the relationship between employer and
employee prescribed through the unwritten and
unstated rights and obligations of both parties.
Psychometrics The process of mental measurement
through the application of tests that claim to measure
aspects of personality or other characteristics such as
ability or aptitude.
Punishment bureaucracy Represents a variant on the
mock bureaucracy in that rules are imposed on the
workers (who try to ignore them) by management.
Quality circle Small groups of people from the same work
area who voluntarily meet on a regular basis to identify,
investigate, analyse and solve their own work-related
problems.
Quality of working life An approach to management that
seeks to enhance the dignity of workers, improve an
organizations culture, and improve the physical and
emotional well-being of employees.
Quantitative school A mathematical approach to
management that seeks to find ways of modelling
relationships between variables so that causal
relationships can be identified and predictions made.
Rational decision making model This assumes that
decisions are made in the best interests of the
organization on the basis of data collection and analysis,
along with evaluation of alternatives.
Re-engineering See Business process re-engineering.
Referent power This source of power is based on the
characteristics of an individual, usually based on a
charismatic personality.
Reinforcement The encouragement of particular
behaviours through the application of positive and/or
negative rewards, based on the application of four
schedules; Fixed ratio, Variable ratio, Fixed interval,
Variable interval.
Repeated measures experiments An experimental
design which involves subjects attempting the same task
on a number of occasions, with only one variable
changed.
Representative bureaucracy The rules and procedures
are generally supported by those inside the organization
having been developed by managers with the
involvement of the workers.
Requisite variety The view that only variety can destroy
variety implying that complex situations require equally
complex processes to deal with them.
Restricted rationality decision making model Also
termed the bounded rationality model, this implies that
group dynamics and politics can influence decisions and
also individuals may lack the intellectual or technical
capacity to evaluate decisions rationally.
Reward power This is about achieving control over
another person by offering them something that they
desire. It represents the trading basis of power,
exchanging a willingness to be controlled for desirable
rewards.
Rich picture A drawing that provides a mechanism
through which a dynamic situation can be reflected in a
manner meaningful to the participants. It can reflect
how the processes function and how the people interact
within the organization.
Rightsizing See Downsizing.
Risky shift phenomenon The idea that groups tend to
take decisions that are more risky than the individual
members would take.
Role The behaviours and job activities undertaken by an
individual as a result of their organizational duties and
responsibilities.
Role ambiguity The degree of ambiguity in the minds of
individuals forming the role set as to exactly what their
respective roles should be at any point in time.
Role conflict This arises as a result of the conflicting role
requirements acting on an individual at the same time.

Role definition The sum total of the things that define a
particular role, including formal statements such as a
job description, but can include things such as uniforms,
badges of rank and office location.
Role incompatibility Incompatible expectations between
members of the role set about their respective roles.
Role model Someone who is identified as a person with
the desirable qualities to be emulated by others.
Role overload/underload These arise when an individual
is either faced with too many roles, each competing for
pre-eminence, or they do not have enough role demand
placed upon them for their existing capability.
Role play The acting out of a situation which is not real,
perhaps for training purposes.
Role set This reflects the other roles around the focal role.
Role stress and strain The level of stress experienced by
individuals as they act out the various roles allocated to
them.
Role theory Suggests that in every job there are several
roles to be performed and that there are possible
conflicts and stresses inherent in and between them.
Sabotage A deliberate attempt to interrupt operations or
damage the interests of an organization by an individual
who wishes to do so, or considers that they have some
reason to feel aggrieved.
Scalar chain This reflects the height of an organization in
terms of the number of levels from the top to the
bottom.
Science of muddling through A short-term approach to
control, based on frequent reviews of performance
against target, rather than a strategic approach based on
the long term achievement of goals.
Scientific management An approach to management
based on the application of work study techniques to the
design and organization of work in order to maximize
output.
Self-interested behaviour Behaviour which is designed
to serve a particular and personal purpose for the
individual.
Self-managed team A work team in which the team
leader or supervisor is appointed from within the group
by the group members, not by management.
Shadow organization Some informal groups form a
parallel organization within the host organization and
become a threat to the ability of managers to control
events.
Shadow themes These reflect the area of contact
between the legitimate and the illegitimate in human
behaviour within an organization.
Shape To create or encourage particular behaviour
patterns in another individual through the principles of
reinforcement.
SMART objectives Refers to objectives that are Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bounded.
Social capital A way of describing people which
emphasizes their financial value to an organization (in
terms equivalent to machinery or buildings) as resources
which need to be acquired and maintained.
Social engineering An attempt to create particular
attitudes, practices, social structures, or social
relationships by a dominant group.
Glossary [ 839 ]
Social facilitation/audience effect The improvement in
performance in a particular task achieved as a result of
the active participation of others; or the mere presence
of others for the audience effect.
Socialization (social doping) The process of learning
how things should be done in a particular context.
Social loafing The inhibiting effect on the performance of
individuals as a result of being part of a group.
Social responsibility This seeks to explore the
responsibility business has towards society and the
various stakeholder groups that surround the
organization.
Sociogram A diagrammatic representation of individual
preferences and interactions among group members.
Span of control Refers to the number of subordinates
reporting to a single boss.
Spectator knowledge The knowledge gained as a result
of being a spectator rather than a participant in a
particular situation.
Stakeholder An individual or group with some form of
association or an interest in the organization.
Stereotyping The tendency to attribute everyone (or
everything) in a particular category with the
characteristics based on a single example.
Stress The pressure encountered as a result of life
experiences that place high levels of physical and/or
psychological demand on an individual.
Styles of leadership Suggests that successful leadership
is about the style of behaviour adopted by the leader,
usually described as falling within an
autocraticdemocratic scale.
Sub-cultures Refers to a sub-set of the dominant culture
in any particular context.
Subgroups Groups that exist within a larger group.
Survivor syndrome The reactions of those individuals
who are associated with some traumatic event but are
not directly affected by it can be identical to those who
are directly affected by the events.
Sweat the resource An attempt to get maximum output
from any resource.
Systematic soldiering A phrase meaning a deliberate
restriction on the amount of work done by employees to
protect their jobs and income levels.
Systems approaches to management These developed
from the biological sciences and are based on the view
that systems contain strong self-regulation tendencies
and reflect something that can be separated from other
systems by a boundary of some description.
Team Implies a small, cohesive group that works
effectively as a single unit through being focused on a
common task.
Team leader Person given the task of leading a team, may
be appointed by management or elected by team
members from among the group.
Team management profile questionnaire A tool used
as part of the Margerison and McCann Team
Management Wheel approach to group working which
allows the profile of individuals to be identified.
Team Management Wheel A model of individual work
preferences that relates to the roles that individuals play
in a team.
[ 840 ] Glossary
Team roles A model consisting of nine roles that exist
within a group, developed by Belbin they include plant,
resource investigator, implanter and completer.
Technology A broad term incorporating the equipment,
procedural and social perspectives associated with how
work is undertaken.
Total quality management (TQM) An approach to
quality based on the involvement of everyone in seeking
to continually improve the quality of the product, service
and customer experience.
Traction The natural rhythm in certain activities that pull
people along with the pace of work necessary to deliver
output.
Trait view of leadership This view holds that there are
certain human characteristics such as intelligence that
can be used to determine successful leadership.
Transactional and transformational model of
leadership Transactional leadership is about the
routine practice of management. Transformational
leadership is about the personal qualities needed to
recognize the need for change and to be able to bring it
about.
Triple I organization An organizational form that
recognizes that in future success will depend upon the
three Is of intelligence, information and ideas.
Type A and Type B personality profile A typology of
personality types in which Type A individuals (unlike
Type B individuals) are described as always being under
time pressure, impatient and having a pre-occupation
with achievement.
Uncertainty avoidance A cultural dimension reflecting
the extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertainty and ambiguity and actively seeks to
minimize these situations.
Unitarianism A perspective on conflict that regards
organizations as collections of groups but within a
cohesive whole. Inevitably conflict can exist between
these groups but the overriding unity of the
organization, based on the pre-eminence of the
management perspective, forms the basis of resolution.
Utilitarian approach to ethics This requires an
evaluation of the options available on the basis of the
future impact on those that are likely to be affected by
the consequences. It comes in two forms Act
utilitarianism and Rule utilitarianism.
Variety This implies complexity through the number of
differences that can arise in any particular system. For
example, a motor car engine might have 5000 different
ways of breaking down, reflecting the magnitude of its
variety.
Vertical dyad model of leadership Takes the view that
leaders interact differently with an in-group and an out-
group of subordinates.
Vicious cycle of control Reflects the view that control
can become a self-perpetuating and deteriorating cycle
of management tightening control leading to adverse
employee reactions, resulting in even tighter control etc.
Virtual organization A metaphor for an organization that
is capable of delivering more than its resources would
allow.
Virtual team A team that uses mainly electronic
interaction in order to achieve objectives without the
need to function as a team in the traditional sense of
the term.
Virtual working Working remotely and primarily through
electronic media and not as part of a conventional team
which would have the opportunity to meet.
Visioning and motivator roles Roles identified as part of
a managers job in outlining the desired future and
encouraging employees to work towards it.
Wagework bargain The subjective balance that exists in
employee and employer views as to what represents a
fair exchange in terms of the amount of work done for
the wages paid.
Web of relationships The idea that in any social
situation the relationships between individuals are
complex and involve a web of multiple people and
groups rather than a series of linear interactions.
Work-life balance The balance between work, family,
personal and leisure activities.
Work measurement Based upon the use of timing
techniques to identify how long particular tasks should
take to perform.
Work study A management discipline aimed at
maximizing productivity through the application of
method study and work measurement techniques.
Zone of indifference Reflects a situation in which the
demands of the organization on the employee do not
disturb them enough to create a negative reaction to the
requirement to comply.
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 I n d ex

Ackoff, R.L. 26 behavioural component Baron, R.A. 252

Ackroyd, S. 716 104 Barrick, M.R. 134, 318
action research (or learning) 800, cognitive component Barsoux, J.-L. 327
832 1034 Bartlett, C.A. 506
action-centred leadership 317, and behaviour 1067 Bass, B.M. 232, 362
3645, 832 cognitive dissonance 106 Bavelas, A. 250
Adair, J. 341, 349, 364 and conflict 754 Bawden, T. 112
Adams, A. 158 consequences of stress 410 Beardwell, I. 25, 167
Adams equity theory 4468 formation 1037, 11315 Beer, M. 385
Adams, J.S. 4468 communications Belbin, M. 235, 271, 283, 285
adhocracy 588, 832 11516 benchmark 793, 832
Adler, N.J. 219, 491 conflict determination/ Benjamin, J.D. 275
administrative management 58, resolution 115 Bennison, M. 389
6012, 832 culture 115 Bensman, J. 282
Adorno, J.W. 157 management style 116 Bentley, T. 690
Aggarwal, P. 99 participative management Berger, P. 10
Aiken, M. 660 116 Berkowitz, L. 264
Alatas, S.H. 700 power and control 116 Betz,F. 590, 822
Alderfer, C.P. 4389 reward structures 116 Beyer, J.M. 4989
Alderfers ERG theory of motivation work organization, job Bion, W.R. 269
4389 design/satisfaction Birkinshaw, J. 622
alienation 553, 5845, 832 116 Black, J.S. 507
Allen, R.W. 770 and organizations 11013 Blake and Moutons grid 3535
Alvesson, M. 54, 258 and perception 1056 Blake, R.R. 353
Ambrose, M.L. 657 and personality 1523 blame culture 325, 832
Anderson, N. 153 in times of change 82 Blanchard, K.H. 3556
Appelqvist-Schmidlechner, K. 81 attribution theory 99102, 364, Blauner, R. 546, 553
Argyle, M. 218 450, 832 Blyton, P. 738, 755
Arkin, A. 401 covariation 101 Boddy, D. 596
Armistead, C. 640 response behaviour 1012 Bodenhausen, G.V. 96
Armstrong, M. 314, 818 audience effect 223 Bolman, L.G. 619
Arnold, S. 790 authority 25860, 71213, 7334, Booth-Kewley, S. 157
Aronson, E. 726 832 Bordia, P. 820
Arucher, E. 691 autocratic-democratic style of Boudreau, J. 398
Asch, S.E. 258, 282 leadership 3501, 832 Boulding, K.E. 60
Ashby, R.W. 337, 639 autokinetic phenomenon 254, 256, boundary roles 405
Ashforth, B.E. 770 832 Bowen, D.E. 159, 389, 597
Ashkanasy, N.M. 490 autonomous work groups 23940, Boxall, P. 386
Ashton, D. 457 832 Bradshaw, P. 126
Ashworth, A. 306 Avolio, B.J. 362, 363 brainstorming 684
Ashworth, J. 148 Brannen, P. 721
assessment centre 155, 156, 832 Babbage, C. 54, 56, 531 Bratton, J. 394, 396
Athanasaw, Y. 234, 260 Baines, E. 573 Braverman, H. 569, 583, 600, 717,
Athos, A. 823 balanced business scorecard 457, 720, 736, 737, 761
Atkinson, J. 639 832 Bray, R. 279
Atkinson, P. 374 Baldamus, W. 428 breakthrough leadership 342,
attitude set 256, 832 Baltes, P.B. 151 832
attitudes 80, 832 Bamforth, K.W. 61, 538 Brennan, B. 394
basis 103 Barnard, C.I. C. 429, 713 Brenner, M.H. 420
affective component 104 Barney, J.B. 15 Brewster, C. 398

[ 862 ]

Briggs, A. 717 re-engineering/quality
British Sociological Association 12 approaches 806,
Brooks, D.J. 404 8089
Brown, G. 750 and chaos 81617
Brown, S.F. 282 contingency perspectives
brownfield site 832 81011
Browning, G. 463 Dunphy and Staces
Bruinshoofd, A. 270 model 81213
Buchanan, D.A. 15, 59, 235, 596, Kanter, Stein and Jicks
606, 729 big three model
bullying/harassment 116, 1578, 81415
715, 832 Kotter and Schlesingers
Burawoy, M. 720 model 81112
bureaucracy, bureaucratic 52, 58, Plants model 81314
61317, 832 cultural 51011
charismatic 61314 forces acting on organizations
mock 615 791, 793
punishment 615 business functioning 795
rational-legal 614 business structure 795
representative 615 control 795
traditional 614 demographics 7934
Burnham, D. 3656 efficiency 794
burnout 409, 832 fashion 795
Burns, T. 575, 621, 781 internal pressure 795
Burrell, G. 134 knowledge explosion 793
Bushe, G.R. 557 rapid production
business process re-engineering obsolescence 793
(BPR) 23, 25, 640, 806, 808, impact 7956
832 adaptive 7967
Butcher, D. 481, 778 crisis 796
Byrne, J. 642 fracturing 797
incremental 796
cabal 781, 832 planned 798
cafeteria/flexible benefits 4623, strategic 796
832 surprise 796
Cameron, K. 627 unplanned 798
Cameron, K.S. 747 innovation strategy 8214
Cameron, M.A. 110 and organizational
Campbell, A. 644 development 799801
Campion, M.A. 535 power/politics interaction
Cantril, H. 95 adaptation 802
career uncertainty 405 assurance 803
Carpenter, D.S. 700 ceremony 802
Cattell, R.B. 1302 encouraging supportive
Caulkin, S. 389 behaviour 804
Cederblom, J. 475 incorporation 802
Champy, J. 324, 808 managing transitional
change 2930 process 804
applied perspective 8245 mobilizing support 804
approaches 8045 process/purpose 802
Leavitts variables 805 simple first 802
Lewins forcefield model structure 802
80910 support 804
mergers/acquisitions timescales 803
8056 transition 804
Index [ 863 ]
unexpected 804
pressure for 7901
resistance 818
group/organizational
8201
individual 81820
systems perspective 81516
and technology 5926
change agent 81718, 832
adopters 818
generators 818
implementers 818
chaos 81617
charismatic leadership 3623,
832
Child, J. 300, 584, 622, 650, 702
Church, R. 394
Clark, J. 569, 585
Clarke, C. 367
Clarke, M. 778
Clarke, R. 457, 764
classical conditioning 832
classical management theory 58,
61718, 8323
Clegg, S. 586
cliques 252, 833
Clutterbuck, D. 394
codes of practice 4789
coercive power 722, 833
cognitive approach 13941,
17780
cognitive dissonance 106, 833
Cohen, M.D. 687
Collard, R. 394
Collins, P.D. 652
Collinson, D. 764
Collons, R.D. 41
commitment 256, 833
communication 6702, 833
applied perspective 699705
bad news
beware of rumour mill
701
keep it personal 701
offer support 701
plan for business as usual
701
tell it like it is 701
time it carefully 701
and conflict 759, 766
control of channels 7756
and the law 679, 681
management
automation 673
limitation 672
[ 864 ] Index

procedure 673 signals 765 recruitment/advancement 647

separation 673
teamwork 673
methods
electronic 6745, 679
non-verbal 674
oral 674
written 674
model 675
decoding 676
encoding 676
feedback 677
noise 677
source/receiver 676
transmission channel
676
non-verbal 6778
body language 678
environment 678
paralanguage 678
proxemics 678
temporal 6789, 680
processes 673
co-ordination 674
information 674
personal expression 674
visioning 674
company doctor 341, 833
competency 4567, 833
compliance 25, 833
compulsory sociability 491, 833
Conant, H. 533
conditioned 10, 130, 833
conflict 746, 833
applied perspective 77081
consequences 7567
autocratic leadership 758
less communication 759
low-quality staff 758
training 758
forms 7506
group 754
factionalism 7556
strikes and lock-outs 755
work restriction 755
work-to-rule 755
handling strategies conformity see group conformity
avoidance 7689 Conger, J. 362, 363
clarity/openness 765 consensual organizations 6478
collaboration/problem-
solving 769
competitive/authoritarian
769
compromise 769
procedure 7668
smoothing/ rules 647
accommodating 768 social control 647
style/structure 766 social relations 647
training/socialization 766 Contenau, G. 40
individual content theories of motivation 431,
absence and leaving 754 43343, 833
attitude 754 contingency model 6203, 659,
choice 753 833
ethical dilemmas 750 and change 81015
interpersonal disputes change/complexity 622
750, 753 external factors 621
misuse of resources 753 institutional arrangements
politicking and power 753 622
rumour and gossip 753 internal factors 6212
sabotage 750 and leadership 35861
work manipulation 753 managerial
model 687 perceptions/objectives 622
customer experience/ multiple perspectives 622
organizational organizational capability, will,
functioning 215, 833 politics 622
decision making 766, work organization 5423
833 continuous improvement 456,
perspectives 833
capitalism forces contract approach to ethics 4756,
minimization 7623 833
control as imperative 763 libertarian 476
institutionalized conflict restricted 476
7634 control 5857, 61819, 712, 729,
labour process theory 761 833
labour as special focus of applied perspective 7369
attention 762 and conflict 763, 7645
labour as unique discipline hierarchy 739
commodity 762 economic 730
Marxism 7601 form/characteristics 7302
pluralism 759 hierarchy/authority
unitarianism 760 7334
as resistance to control 7645 output 732
sources 7467 process 732
intergroup 749 skill 734
interorganizational social 735
74950 structure 733
interpersonal 7478 technology 735
intragroup 748 work design 7323
intraorganizational 749 physical 72930
intrapersonal 747 political 730
psychological 730
and resistance 7356
Cook, T. 297
authority 647 Cooper, C. 158, 489, 500
differentiation of labour 647 Cooper, C.L. 21, 131
former Yugoslavia 648 Corbitt, T. 597
incentive structures 647 Cordeniz, J.A. 464
kibbutz 648 Cordes, C.L. 409
mondragon 648 corporate anorexia 640, 833

corporate governance 478, 833
corporate social responsibility 833
Costa, P.T. 133
countercultures 499500, 833
Courpasson, D. 737
Covey, S. 70
Cox, C.J. 131
Cox, T. 408
Crabb, S. 29
Cray, D. 491, 492
crisis management 31921, 833
Crisp, R.J. 96
critical incidents research 441, 833
critical theory
dialectical/contradictory 54
embedded 53
multi-dimensional 54
reflexive 53
socially transforming 54
Croft, J. 483
Crozier, M. 615
cultural web 498, 833
culture 3889, 4901, 833
applied perspective 51114
changing 51011
determinants 5002
dimensions 4923
frameworks 493
Deal and Kennedys
cultural profile 4968
Handys four types 4934
Ouchis type Z companies
495
Peters and Watermans
excellence 4956
sub-and counter-cultures
499500
Trice and Beyers
organizational culture
4989
and globalization 5068
influences on motivation 452
levels of analysis 4912
managing 50810
national 308, 310, 5024
Hofstedes perspectives
5045
Trompenaars perspective
5056
and work organization 5434
Currie, R.M. 56, 429, 527
Curson, C. 549
cycle model of decision making
6912, 833
Cyert, R.M. 23, 703
Index [ 865 ]
Dale, B.G. 394, 808 downsizing/rightsizing/delayering
Dalton, M. 219 241, 833
Dansereau, F. 361 drives 428, 429, 834
Dany, F. 737 Drucker, P. 302, 343
Dawkins, W. 400 Dulewicz, V. 150, 151, 314, 457
De Dreu, C.K.W. 748 Dunford, R.W. 729, 815
De Grazia, S. 47 Dunkerley, D. 586
Deal and Kennedys cultural profile Dunphy, D. 801, 81213
4968
Deal, T.E. 472, 490, 4968, 543, Early, P.C. 449
619 Edmondson, A.C. 283
Deaux, K. 115 education 166
Deci, E.L. 450 Edwards, P.K. 679, 729, 738
decision making 670, 6813, 833 Elliott, B.B.R. 511
applied perspective 7015 Emery, F. 539
approaches 6834 Emler, N. 297
brainstorming 684 emotion 14951
problem-solving emotional intelligence (EI) 14951,
preferences 6846 834
and conflict 766 employee assistance programmes
group communication 2502 (EAP) 415, 834
models employee involvement 24, 3925,
conflict 687 734, 834
cycle 6912 downward communication 393
political 687 financial participation 394
pragmatic 691 representative participation
programmed/non- 394
programmed 687, upwards problem solving 394
68991 employees 239
rational/restricted challenges facing 2930
rationality 686 definition 234
and power 7259 impact of technology 600
within groups/teams 2601 low-quality staff 758
delayering 17, 833 relationship with management
delegated authority 240, 833 249
delegation 324, 833 employer of choice 390, 834
Dent, J. 738 empowerment 241, 834
DePaulo, B.M. 94 enacted role 236, 834
determinism 585, 61213 Ensley, M.D. 344
development 166, 167, 196, 390 entrepreneurial structure 627, 629
personality 1545 environment 250, 834
devils advocate 833 equity theory 4468
Dewe, P. 411 Erez, M. 449
Dickson, W.J. 227 ergonomics 5289, 834
diffusion of responsibility 325, Erikson, E.H. 136
833 ethics 3868, 472, 834
Digman, J.M. 133 antisocial behaviour 4824
discipline 50, 739 business 478
discrimination 157 codes of practice 4789
division of labour 527, 833 contract approach 4757
Domingo, R. 579 corporate/public interest 4856
Doolin, B. 804 cross-cultural perspectives
Dougherty, C.J. 475 4812
Dougherty, T.W. 409 and management 48490
downshift 358, 833 obligations at work 4867
[ 866 ] Index

organizational perspectives Follett, M.P. 617 Gowland, D. 660

4745 forcefield analysis model 80910, Graham, C.R. 233
privacy 487 834 Grainer, S. 394
research 4779 Ford, H. 546 grapevine 219, 834
role of work in society 485 Ford, J. 395 graphology 1489, 834
social responsibility 47981 Fordism 65, 5447, 834 great man view of leadership 349,
utilitarian approach 475 Fores, M. 300 834
whistleblowing 48990 Forester, T. 599, 601 Green, C.N. 615
working at home/work-life formal group 473, 834 Greenberg, E.S. 648
balance 4889 Foucault, M. 433, 720, 748 Greenberg, J. 252
Ettinger, J.C. 343 Fox, A. 24 Greenburg, J. 482, 489
Etzioni, A. 728, 736 frame of reference 910, 834 greenfield 581
Evans, B.K. 409 Franco, L.A. 684 greenfield site 834
Evans, J. 536 free association 136, 834 Greiner, L. 624, 625
Evenson, R. 449 Freeman, R.E. 17 Gretton, I. 642
excellence culture 4956 French, J.R.P. 345, 722 Griffin, R.W. 15, 54, 409, 775
expectancy theory of motivation French, W.L. 395 Griffith, S.B. 41
35960, 4436, 834 Freud, S. 1368 group 21011
expected role 236, 834 Friedman, H.S. 157 affinity 210
expert power 724, 834 Frost, B. 409 behaviour 2524
extrinsic motivator 432, 834 functional foremanship 298, 834 authority 25860
extroversion 129, 834 Furnham, A. 126 perception/attitudes 254,
Eysenck, H.J. 124, 128, 130, 138, 2567
141 garbage can model of decision socialization 2578
Ezzamel, M. 738 making 687, 834 cohesion 2634, 834
Garcia, J.E. 359 communication 250
Falbe, C.M. 774 Gardiner, M. 317 communicaton 834
Fayol, H. 20, 2978, 300, 301 Gardner, W.L. 364 conflict 7546
federal organization 644, 834 Garrahan, P. 112, 461, 580, 682 conformity 256, 835
feedback 677, 799 gatekeeper 158, 834 decision making 2502, 2601,
Feiner, M.C. 373 Gelade, G.A. 398 835
Feldman, D.C. 234 Generation X employees 70 risk 2647
Feloni, J. 700 George, C.S. 445, 47, 51, 429, development 2314, 835
Felstead, A. 397 612 adjourning 233
felt fair 392, 834 Gergen, K.J. 66 beginning of
Ferguson, E. 134 Gerver, I. 282 communication/decisi
Festinger, L. 106 Gharajedaghi, J. 26 on making 232
Fiedler, F.E. 3589, 717 Ghoshal, S. 506 forming 233
Fiedlers contingency model 3589 Giacalone, R.A. 482, 489 initial trust/membership
Fielding, N. 477 Giddens, A. 619 232
fight or flight response 400, 834 Giles, E. 580 norming 233
Filler, B.E. 529 Gill, J. 12 ongoing
Fisher, D.G. 409 Gillespie, R. 59, 281 maintenance/control
Fisher, R. 697, 769 globalization 5068 2323
Fitszimmons, J.A. 307 Glover, C. 278, 684 performance
Fitzsimmons, M.J. 307 Glover, I. 300 improvement 232
Flam, H. 149 goal theory 44850 performing 233
Fletcher, C. 456 Goffee, R. 341 storming 233
flexible firm 5489, 63940, 834 Gold, J. 394, 396 dynamics 217, 2613, 835
financial 639 golden handcuff 546, 834 attitudes 274
functional 639 Goldstein, S.G. 557 between groups 2735
numerical 639 Goleman, D. 150 cohesion 272
Flin, R. 320, 321 Gomez, C. 544 decision making 272
Flood, R.L. 394, 815 Gould, M. 644 determinants 2703
focused deviancy 282, 834 Gouldner, A.W. 540 effectiveness 2846
 Index [ 867 ]
Freud/psychotherapy marketplace bureaucracy Hastorf, A.H. 95
26870 219 Hatch, M.J. 615
goals 271 shadow organizations Hau, V.W.S. 781
inter-group relations 274 219 Haugh, H.M. 500, 502
interpersonal relationships instrumental value of 835 Haunschild, A. 548
273 and organizations 2814 Hawthorne studies 4, 2249, 257,
leadership 272 professional 214 835
member characteristics reasons for formation 2203 Heald, T. 724
271 significance 21618 Heckscher, C. 782
norms 271 dynamic basis of helicopter perspective 835
objectives 273 behaviour 217 Heller, R. 656
overlap 275 necessity 21617 Hellriegel, D. 322, 793, 818
resource competition specialism groupings 214 Hendry, C. 385
2734 types within an organization Herriot, P. 591
roles 271 835 Herselman, S. 504
size 271 and work organization Hersey and Blanchard situation
substitutability 275 5389 approach 3556
task competition 273 groupthink 267, 835 Hersey, P. 3556
uncertainty 274 invulnerability 267 Herskovitts, M.J. 500
effectiveness/satisfaction morality 267 Herzberg, F. 4413, 533
27581 pressure 268 Herzbergs two-factor theory of
formation 22931, 2403 rationalization 267 motivation 4413
norms 220, 227 values 268 Heseltine, M. 651
organizational 210 Grugulis, I. 510 Hickson, D.J. 503, 622
resistance to change 8201 Grunes, 96 hidden agenda 835
self-interest 210 Guilford, J.P. 150 high performance organization 398,
structure 2359 Gwyther, M. 328 835
leadership 235 Highouse, S. 116
liking 235 habituation 85, 835 Hill, T. 597
power 235 Hackman, J.R. 533 Hilton, P. 463
role 235 Haire, M. 96, 155 Hochschild, A.R. 397
status 235 Hall, C.S. 124 Hodgetts, R.M. 126, 263, 463
see also team Hall, L. 294, 400, 405 Hoffman, L.R. 271
groups 21316, 834 Hall, M. 679 Hofstede, G. 219, 452, 5045
activity groupings 214 halo (horns) effect 91, 835 Hofstedes cultural perspectives
boundary spanning 214 Hammer, M. 324, 552, 808 5045
British experience 224 Hampden-Turner, C. 509 Hogan, J. 134
formal 218 Handy, C. 216, 302, 349, 403, 405, Hogg, C. 408
decisions 218 4934, 500, 644, 6456, Holden, C. 125, 394
management 219 64950, 713, 715, 724, 725 Holden, L. 25, 167
tasks 218 Handys cultural types 4934 holding company 637
teams 218 Haney, C. 312 Holl, P. 296
technology 218 Harding, N. 395 Holland, B. 134
Hawthorne studies 2245 Harkins, S.G. 224 Holland, D. 330
bank writing observation Harrington, H.J. 808 Hollway, W. 433
room study 2279 Harris, H. 317 Holton, E. 454
illumination experiments Harris, L.C. 722 Homans, G. 229
225 Harris, M. 650 Hornsby-Smith, M. 477
interview programme Harrison, E.F. 686 Hosmer, L.T. 474
2267 Harrison, R. 493 House, R.J. 359, 362
relay assembly test room Hart, S.L. 314 Houses path-goal leadership theory
study 2256 Harvey, J.H. 102 35960
hierarchical differentiation 214 Harvey, P. 481 Howcroft, D. 583
informal 21920 Hasenfeld, Y. 6467 Howell, J.M. 363
grapevine 219 Hassard, J. 66 Hoxie, R.F. 528
[ 868 ] Index

Huczynski, A.A. 15, 59, 235, 729 franchising 635 nature of 5247
Hull, F. 652 functional orientation 636 rotation 532, 836
Hulse, S.H. 167 geographical business units simplification 531, 836
human relations movement 589, 635, 636 Johlberg, and Ryncarz, 484
835 international division 635 Johnson, G. 480, 498, 793, 8056
human resource management 393, licensing 634 Johnson, P. 12
835 multinational enterprise 635 Johnson, R. 106
human resource planning 835 product-based business units Jones, F. 447, 685
human service organization 6467 635, 636 Jung, C.G. 13941
humour 3258 interpersonal, information, just-in-time (JIT) 836
Hyman, J. 394 decisional roles 674, 6779,
Hyman, R. 764 835 Kahn, E.F. 818
Hyrks, K.H. 81 intrinsic motivator 432, 835 Kahn, R.L. 623
introversion see extroversion Kalleburg, A.L. 580
Iannello, K.P. 6478 Ivancevich, J.M. 400, 529 Kant, I. 473
ideal type 125, 835 Ivery, M. 398 Kanter, R.M. 618, 814, 818
idiographic theories of personality Kanungo, R.M. 362
126, 1346, 835 Jackson, J.M. 224 Kaplan, R.S. 457
impression management 80, 107, Jackson, M.C. 815 karoshi 400, 836
7767 Jackson, S.E. 385 Katz, D. 106, 219, 314, 623
career strategies 107 Jacques, E. 64 Katzenbach, J.R. 211, 214
managerial 109 Jacques, R. 490 Kedia, B.L. 369
public image 109 Jago, A.G. 359, 360 Keller, R.T. 263
individual difference see personality James, G. 556 Kelley, H.H. 101
individualism-collectivism 452, Janis, I.L. 264, 591, 687, 701 Kelly, G. 1435, 450
504, 835 Japanization 578 Kellys attribution theory 450
industrialization 5767, 835 cell 579 Kennedy, A. 472, 490, 4968,
Indvik, J. 360 competition 581 543
influence 712, 715, 835 continuous improvement 579 Kennedy, G. 670
influence diagram 654, 656, 835 effectiveness 581 Kennedy, K.W. 529
informal groups 219, 835 just-in-time 5789 Kerr, S. 366
information technology (IT) 5967 personnel practice 580 Kieser, A. 622
handling quality 578 Kilbridge, M. 533
capture 596 social, political, economic Kilman, R.H. 490
distribution 597 factors 580 Kirwan-Taylor, H. 371, 640
manipulation 596 structure/system 580 Kiuchi, T. 300
storage 596 team 579 Kivimaki, M. 408
Ingham, M. 825 work organization 579 Klein, H.J. 224
innovation 8214 Jay, A. 47 Klemm, F. 5703
elements 824 Jenkins, D. 619 Klimoski, R.J. 148
incremental 8223 Jensen, N. 256 Kline, P. 138
radical 822 Jensen-Campbell, L.A. 747 Knights, D. 324
systems 822 Jermier, J.M. 366, 736, 750 knowledge management 1901,
instrumental approach to work 105, Jevons, W.S. 56 836
835 Jick, T.D. 814 Koch, C. 776
instrumental conditioning 1726, job 18, 835 Kolakowski, L. 134
835 analysis 52930, 835 Kolb, D.A. 181, 511
intellectual capital 398, 835 characteristics model 5334, Konsynksi, B.R. 597
intelligence 14951, 835 835 Kopelman, R.E. 556
interaction analysis 253, 835 description 529 Koslowsky, M. 718
interactive leadership 3656 design 15, 23940, 5315, Kotter, J. 737, 806, 81112, 818
international organizations 634 5512, 5889, 7323 Krishnamurti, C. 612
agents 634 enlargement 5323, 836 Kuhnert, K.W. 362
direct investment 635 enrichment 5334, 836 Kunzmann, U. 151
exporting 634 evaluation scheme 529, 836 Kuratho, D.F. 126

labour process theory 7201, 836
and conflict 761
debate 583
laissez faire 836
Lamb, J. 109
Lammers, C.J. 503
Lampel, J. 637
Lane, F.C. 44, 45
lankford, S. 560
LaNuez, D. 736, 750
Larken, J. 321
Larsen, H.H. 398
Laurent, A. 219
Law of requisite variety see
requisitie variety
Law, S. 570
Lawler, E.E. 4456, 456
Lawrence, P.R. 575, 612, 621
leadership 336, 836
action-centred 3645
alternatives 3667
applied perspective 372
dealing with colleagues
3734
enhancing managements
position 372
increased control 374
increasing operational
effectiveness 3723
attribution theory 364
autocratic 758
breakthrough 3423
charismatic 3623
contingency theories 358
Fiedlers 3589
Houses path-goal 35960
Vroom, Yetton, Jago model
3601
followers 3478
innovation/entrepreneurship
3434
interactive 3656
management difference
complexity of 339
context 341
meaning of terms 3368
purpose 341
role 33941
scope 3412
situation 341
organizational lifecycle 367
power/virtual working 3447
style theories
artists, craftsmen,
technocrats 3568
Blake and Moutons grid
3535
early studies 3501
Hersey and Blanchards
situation approach
3556
Likerts four systems
3512
Tannenbaum and
Schmidt continuum
3523
success 36772
as symbolism 349
trait theories 34950
transactional/transformational
model 362
vertical dyad linkage model
3612
visionary 344
learning
action learning 1867
behaviourist theories
classical 1701
instrumental 1726
cognitive approach 17780
culture 187
definition 1679
feedback 1789
loop 92
organizational perspective
197202
social/experiential 1812
socialization 183
styles 1835
talent, skill, competency 186
TOTE 17980
learning organization 1889, 836
Leavitt, H.J. 250, 805, 823
Lee, R.T. 770
Legge, K. 25, 623, 659
legitimate power 724, 836
Leisinger, K.M. 481
Lengnick-Hall, M.L. 398
Lepak, D.P. 389
Lewin, K. 261, 80910
Lewis, P. 362
Leys, W.A.R. 476
Likert, R. 215, 345, 3512, 717
Likerts four systems of
management 3512
Lincoln, J.R. 580
Lindblom, C.E. 703
Lindzey, G. 124
line manager 397400, 651, 836
line and staff functions 6512, 836
Index [ 869 ]
linking pin model 215, 836
Linstead, S. 718
Lippit, R. 350
Littlefield, D. 509
Locke, E.A. 447, 4489
Lockes goal theory 44850
loco parentis 836
locus of control 419, 836
Lorsch, J.W. 575, 612, 621
Losey, M. 17
Lothian, N. 89
Luckmann, T. 10
Luddite 501, 836
Lukes, S. 720
Lussato, B. 542, 617
Luthans, F. 304, 317, 409, 463,
714, 724, 728
Lynch, R. 295
McCabe, D. 324
McCalman, J. 606
McCann, D. 271, 277, 279, 283,
285
McCanse, A.A. 353
McClelland, D.C. 4401, 729
McClellands acquired needs theory
of motivation 4401
Maccoby, M. 4523
Maccobys social theory 4523
McCrae, R.R. 133
McGregor, D. 276, 348, 450, 495
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
274, 450, 836
Machiavelli, Niccolo 478
McHugh, D. 15, 53, 645, 281,
403, 418, 490, 496, 515, 659,
761
McKee, L. 500, 502
McKelvey, W. 38
McKenna, E. 152, 403, 409, 418,
419, 686
Mackenzie, R.A. 302, 327
McKinsey 7-S framework 4956,
836
Maclagan, P. 436
McLoughlin, I. 585
Mahoney, J. 478, 482
Mainiero, L.A. 687
Makin, P.J. 149
Malhotra, Y. 808
Mallory, G.R. 491, 492
management 294, 836
accounting 298
activity 18
administrative 298
[ 870 ] Index

applied perspective 32831 background 389 modernism 65, 582, 837

attitude 22 industrial revolution 4853 Montgomery, D. 298, 299
challenges facing 2930 medieval world 428 Mooney, J. 617
commercial 297 management theory 545 Moore, J. 297
context influences 3046 behavioural 55 Moorhead, G. 409, 775, 818
functional responsibilities classical 55 moral philosophy 472, 837
308 contemporary 55 naturalism 472
levels of management integrating 55 rationalism 473
31011 quantitative 55 utilitarianism 473
location, management-by-exception 732, 836 Moreno, J.L. 252
organizational/nation managerialism 589, 600 Moreton, A. 461
al culture 308, 310 Mann, L. 687 Morgan, G. 26, 134, 484, 652, 653,
manufacturing/service Mant, A. 56 733
orientation 307 manufacture of consent 720, 836 Morgeson, F.P. 535
public/private sector manufacturing 307, 597600 Moritz, S. 398
3067 March, J.G. 23, 703 Morris, D. 98
size of organization 308 Marchington, M. 393 Moscovici, S. 264
technology 308 Margerison, C. 271, 277, 279, 283, motivate 428, 837
critical incident 31921 285 motivation 384, 410, 42830, 837
definition 2947 Marion, R. 816 applied perspective 45965
diversity 31517 market testing 306, 836 expectancy theory of 35960
enhancing 372 marketing 1557 and performance management
Fayol model 2978 marketplace bureaucracy 219, 836 4528
financial 297 Martin, J. 499 motivation theory 4303
first look 1620 Martinko, M.J. 364 content 433
function 1920 Marxist/radical perspective on Alderfers ERG theory
future possibilities 6770 conflict 7601, 836 4389
impact 201 masculinity-femininity 452, 504, Herzbergs two-factor
leadership differences 33642 836 theory 4413
loco parentis 20 Maslow, A.H. 4338 McClellands acquired
meetings and humour 3258 Maslows hierarchy of needs 4338 needs theory 4401
need for 202 Mason, B. 394 Maslows hierarchy of
new thinking 647 Mastenbroek, W.F.G. 48 needs 4338
organizational effectiveness matrix structure 6379 Hofstede, Trompenaars and
31719 Matteson, M.T. 400 cultural influences on
planning 836 Mayer, J.D. 150 motivation 452
and power 3225 Mayes, B.T. 770 Maccobys social theory 4523
in practice 3024 Mazlish, B. 348 McGregors Theory X and
principles of 836 Mead, G.H 134 Theory Y 450
process 836 meetings 3258, 776 Ouchis Theory Z 4502
co-ordinating 298 Meli, J.L. 712 process 443
commanding 298 mergers and acquisitions 8056 Adams equity theory
controlling 298 Merrick, N. 294, 651 4468
forecasting 298 Merton, R.K. 615 Kellys attribution theory
organizing 298 metaphor 26, 6523, 836 450
planning 298 method study 527, 836 Lockes goal theory
relationship with employees Meyerson, D. 499 44850
249 Miceli, M.P. 750 Vroom/Porter and Lawler
roles/skills 31115 micro management 326 expectancy models
security 297 Miethe, T.D. 48990, 715 4436
skills needed 19 Milgram, S. 259 motivator 314
in a social world 298302 Mills, C.W. 553 motive 428, 429, 837
technical 297 Mintzberg, H. 313, 3434, 588, 649 Mount, M.K. 134, 318
management practice Mitchell, T.R. 359 Mullins, L.J. 818
ancient world 3942 mock bureaucracy 615, 837 Mulvey, P.W. 224
 Index [ 871 ]
Murray, H.A. 1413 noise 677, 837 decline 627
Myers-Briggs, I. 140 Nolan, P. 49 elaboration 627
Myerson, J. 544 nomothetic theories of personality entrepreneurial 627
12634, 837 formalization 627
Nadler, D. 804 non-programmed decision making responses
Nadworny, M. 299 68791 defending 628
Naquyin, S.S. 454 Nordhoy, F. 264 generating 627
Nash, B. 330 norms see group norms preventing 628
Near, J.P. 750 Norton, D.P. 457 reacting 628
negative power 589, 837 organizational structure 612
negotiating 693 Occupational Personality applied perspective 65760
framework 6934 Questionnaire (OPQ) 154 BPR 640
tactics Oetzel, J.G. 766 bureaucracy 61317
avoidance 694 Ogbonna, E. 722 classical management 61718
compromise 694 Ogden, A. 95 consensual 6478
confrontation 6945 Oh, T.K. 310 contingency model 6203
emotion 6956 Oldham, G.R. 533, 549 design influences 6489
focus on interests not Oliver, N. 114, 578, 579 centralization/
positions 697 Oliver, R.W. 659 decentralization 651
forcing 694, 697 one best way 429, 837 clustering 650
get/give 695 open systems model 61, 837 crisis 650
getting upstairs 697 Orbanes, P. 315 delegation 650
good guy/bad guy 697 Organ, D.W. 615 division of labour 651
insist on objective criteria organization 653, 837 employees 649
698 challenges facing 2930 innovation 649, 650
invent options for mutual chart 6537, 837 levels 651
gain 6978 form 1316 line/staff functions 6512
managing the minutes future possibilities 6770 management 649
697 new thinking 647 motivation 650
poker face 697 perceptions/attitudes 11013 organizational metaphors
probing 695 theory 534 6523
separate people from organizational behaviour 837 policy 649, 650
problem 697 areas of interest 5 procedures 650
smoothing 694 definition 45 purpose 650
understanding not explanatory 4 reporting relationships
agreement 697 features 4 650
negotiation 670, 837 interdisciplinary 4 scalar chain 652
applied perspective 705 practicalities of studying 78 span of control 652
and conflict 766 reasons for studying 67 steady state 649, 650
negotiator characteristics 698 research approaches 813 support staff 649
argument dilution 699 organizational citizenship 683, 837 task 650
counterproposals 699 organizational development (OD) determinism 61213
defend/attack spirals 699 790, 799, 837 federal 644
irritators 699 action research 800 flatter 6402
label behaviour 6989 applied perspective 8245 flexible 63940
seek information 698 encounter groups 799 frameworks 628
summarize 698 planned approach to OD entrepreneurial 629
test understanding 698 interventions 800 holding company 637
Nelson, B. 404 process consultation 799 international 6346
networked organization 644 quality of working life 800 matrix/project-based
networking 257, 837 strategic change 8001 6379
neuroticism 129, 837 survey feedback 799 process-based 6314
Newell, S. 153 organizational lifecycle 367, 6257 product-based 6301
Nicholls, J.R. 356 phases human service 6467
Nicholson, G.J. 490 collectivity 627 lifecycle 6258
[ 872 ] Index
networked 644
organization chart 6537
power/control 61819
shamrock/triple I 6456
strategy and structure
6245
structuration theory 61920
systems view 6234
as theatre 619
virtual 642, 644
Orlitzky, M. 275
Osborn, A. 400
Ottaway, R.N. 818
Ouchi, W.G. 4502, 495
Ouchis Theory Z 4502, 495
Oxford Dictionary 294
Pak, H. 307
paradigm 1012, 837
Pascale, R. 822, 823
path-goal theory 443, 837
Patterson, M.G. 399
Pavlov, I.P. 1701
Payton, S. 597
Pean, P. 542
Pease, A. 99
Pedler, M. 314
Peiro, J.M. 712
Pemberton, C. 591
people management
issues/activities 386
culture 3889
employee involvement
3925
ethics 3868
people planning 38990
reward/performance
management 3902
training/development 390
line management 397400
models 3846
psychological contract/work-
life balance 3957
stress 40020
perceived role 236, 837
perception 80, 837
ambiguous figure 82
attitude formation 11316
and attitudes 1056
attribution theory 99102
expectancy 91
external factors 845
contrast 85
familiarity 85
intensity 85
motion 85 Perrin, S. 282
novelty 85 Perrow, C.B. 575
repetition 85 personal construct theory 1435
size 85 personality 124, 837
halo/horns effect 91 and attitudes 1523
internal factors 856 definition 124
learning/past experience emotion, intelligence,
86 emotional intelligence
motivation 86 14951
objectives 867 environmental influences
personality 86 culture 125
and language 89 experience 1256
and learning 92 family 125
meaningful patterns Freud and psychoanalysis
closure principle 87 1368
continuity principle 87 genetic influences 125
figure-ground principle 87 idiographic approaches 126,
proximity principle 878 1346
similarity principle 88 Jung and cognitive approach
mental map 81 13941
model 813 Kellys personal construct
organizational context theory 1435
actual/potential customers management perspective
110 1589
competitors 11112 measuring
control 11213 graphology 1489
employees 110 psychometrics 1458
regulators 112 Murray and personology 1413
shareholders 112 nomothetic perspectives 1267
supplier 111 Big Five model 1334
wider community 110 Cattells LQT-data 1303
person model 926 Eysencks types 12830
body language 979 organizational applications 153
projection 97 development 1545
self-perception 99 discrimination 157
stereotyping 967 marketing 1557
and personality 1512 recruitment/selection 153
significance 801 stress/bullying 1578
stimulus testing business 158
interpreting significance and perception 1512
of 8892 personnel management 837
organizing into personology 1413
meaningful patterns Pervin, L.A. 125
878 PESTLE analysis 30
receipt of 834 Peters, T. 4956, 822, 823
selection of 847 Peters and Watermans excellence
perceptual culture 4956
defence 92, 837 Pettigrew, A. 701
errors 901, 837 Petty, M.M. 554
set 115, 837 Pfeffer, J. 104, 322, 398, 535, 713,
performance 428, 429, 837 718, 726
performance management 3902, Phares, E.J. 149
42830, 837 philosophy 4724
applied perspective 45965 Pickard, J. 150
and motivation 4528 Piper, W.E. 263
 Index [ 873 ]
Pitcher, P. 356, 373 Foucauldian 71820 Quick, J.C. 408
Piva, M. 822 labour process theory Quick, J.D. 408
Plant, R. 813, 818 7201 Quinn, R.E. 314, 627
Platt, L. 397 traditional 71718
pluralism 757, 837 and resistance 7356 Rafaeli, A. 109, 148
political sources 7212 Ragan, J.W. 359
applied perspective 7812 coercive 722 Ramsey, H. 393
behaviour 775 expert 724 Raphael, D.D. 472, 473
control of communication information as power 725 rational decision making model
channels 7756 legitimate 724 686, 838
control of information 775 negative 725 rationalism 473, 585
control over decision- referent 725 Raven, B. 345, 722
making criteria 778 reward 7223 Raviv, A. 650
control over work/meeting power distance 452, 504, 838 Rawlins, N. 535
agendas 776 pragmatism 691 Rawls, J. 476
creating coalitions 778 Pratt, M.G. 109 re-engineering 8069, 838
game playing 776 Pratt, S. 367 Reason, P. 12
impression/image Pries, L. 589 recruitment/selection 153
management 7767 principled negotiations 697, 838 Redding, S.G. 491
managing 7789 Pritchard, R.D. 447 Reed, M.I. 63, 301
use of outside specialists Pritchett, P. 790 referent power 725, 838
776 private sector 3067 Regent, P. 701
decision making model 837 problem solving 6846, 769 reinforcement 1726, 838
model 687 process 431 Remenyi, D. 10, 129
process 285, 837 consultation 799, 838 Rentsch, J.R. 242
strategies theories of motivation 44350, repeated measures experiments
defensive 773 838 264, 267, 838
neutral 7734 process-based structures 6314 representative bureaucracy 615,
offensive 7723 product-based structures 6301 838
politics 746, 747, 76972, 837 productivity 428, 429, 5534, 838 requisite variety 220, 838
and change 8024 professionalization of management restricted rationality decision
Porter, L.W. 4456 3001, 838 making model 838
Porter, M.E. 624 programmed/non-programmed reward 3902, 7234
post-Fordism 5478, 834 decision making models reward power 838
post-traumatic stress disorder 68791, 838 Rhenman, E. 23
(PTSD) 409, 838 project-based structure 6379 Rice, A.K. 543
postmodernism 657, 838 projection 97, 838 rich picture 654, 838
Powell, G.N. 687 projective techniques (or test) 440, rightsizing see downsizing
power 3225, 61819, 838 838 risky shift phenomenon 264,
applied perspective 7369 psychoanalysis 1368 838
balance 7367 psychological contract 21, 3957, Roberts, Z. 125, 722
career 737 838 Robertson, I.T. 149, 318
domain 737 psychometrics 1458, 838 Rodrigues, C.A. 367
intuitive 737 psychotherapy 26870 Roethlisberger, F.j. 227
investment 737 public sector 3067 Rogers, C.R. 135
maturity 737 Pugh, D.S. 622 role 233, 838
relativity 737 Punch, M. 483 ambiguity 237, 405, 838
repertoire 737 punishment bureaucracy 615, 838 conflict 238, 405, 838
sensitivity 737 Purcell, J. 386 definition 237, 839
and change 8024 incompatibility 238, 405, 839
and decision making 7259 quality circle 5567, 579, 838 model 31214, 839
definition 713 quality of working life (QWL) overload 405
and dependency 71516 5567, 800, 838 overload/underload 238, 839
influence/authority 71216 quantitative school 59, 60, 838 play 31112, 839
perspectives 71617 Qubein, N. 452 set 236, 839
[ 874 ] Index

stress and strain 2389, 839 Shireman, B. 300 Strachey, J. 136, 268
theory 2359, 311, 839 Simon, H.A. 358, 687 strategy 6245
underload 405 Sims, D. 553 stress 1578, 839
Ronald, M.S. 484 Singh, J.A. 472 applied perspective 41620
Rosenberg, M.J. 103 Sisson, K. 25 contextual 401
Rosenmann, R.H. 157 situation approach 3556 dealing with 41016
Rothman, A. 336 Skinner, B.F. 1726 definition 4004
Rothschild, J. 48990, 647, 715 Slack, N. 808 determinants
Rowe, C. 341 SMART objectives 449, 839 experience 406
Rowland, P. 640 Smith, A. 527, 573 personality 406
Roy, D.F. 524 Smith, D.K. 211, 214 profile 406
Rubery, J. 644 Smith, K.A. 389 support 406
Ryterband, E.C. 232 Snell, R. 484 effects 40610
social individual consequences
sabotage 750, 839 capital 553, 839 4078
Salaman, G. 764 control 735 behavioural 407
Salancik, G. 104, 535 engineering 1589, 839 medical 407
Salovey, P. 150 facilitation/audience effect psychological 407
Sawyer, R.D. 41 223, 839 individual strategies 411
Sayer, A. 579 loafing 2234, 839 behaviour control 411
scalar chain 652, 839 responsibility 47981, 839 biofeedback 41213
Scase, R. 341 theory 4523 counselling 411
Schein, E.H. 801 social science research 913 exercise 413
Schermerhorn, J.R. 824 socialization (social doping) 81, networking 414
Schien, V.E. 799 2578, 839 relaxation/meditation 411
Schlesinger, L.A. 806, 81112, 818 sociogram 252, 839 role management 412
Schmidt, W.H. 3523 sociological approach to time management 411
Schminke, M. 657 management 624 insidious 401
Scholes, K. 480, 793, 8056 Somerlad, E. 457 organizational consequences
Schon, D.A. 583 span of control 652, 839 409
Schuler, R.S. 385 Sparks, K. 419 attitude 410
Schwarzwald, J. 718 spectator knowledge 282, 839 performance 410
science of muddling through 839 Spencer, C. 282 withdrawal 410
scientific management 568, 839 Spender, J.C. 543 organizational strategies 414
Scott, R.W. 614 Stace, D. 801, 81213 awareness programmes
Scott, W. 695 Stacey, R. 61, 219, 241, 746 414
self-censorship 268 stakeholder 17, 839 conflict management
mindguards 268 groups 234 41516
unanimity 268 Stalker, G.M. 575, 621 culture design 416
self-interested behaviour 254, 839 Stanley, 16, 336 employee assistance
self-managed team 241, 839 Starkey, K. 580 programmes 415
Selye, H. 400 Steel, R.P. 242 health programmes 415
Sengupta, J. 679 Stein, B.A. 814 involvement/communicati
service 307, 6001 Stephenson, T. 802 on 414
Shackleton, V. 153 stereotyping 967, 839 job design 414
shadow organization 219, 839 Stern, E. 457 organizational design 415
shadow themes 746, 747, 839 Stern, S. 318 personal development 415
Shaiken, H. 600 Sternberg, R.J. 150 planning 416
Shalley, C. 449 Stevens, J. 457 procedural frameworks
shamrock organization 6456 Stewart, P. 112, 461, 580, 682 415
Shamsie, J. 637 Stewart, R. 303, 341, 795 peripheral 402
shape 839 Stewart, S. 481 personal 401
Shaw, M.E. 210, 250, 263 Stiles, P. 396 sources 404
Sheldon, O. 617 Stock, J. 463 competitive 404
Sherif, M. 254 Stoner, J.A.F. 264 environmental 404
 Index [ 875 ]
job 405 communicating 127 products/services 592
organizational 4045 decision making 127 risk 593
personal 4056 involving others 127 transition 593
Strube, M.J. 359 using influence 127 control 586
structuration theory 61920 styles access 587
styles of leadership 350, 839 directors 127 adoption 587
sub-cultures 499500, 839 relaters 127 application 587
subgroups 252, 839 socializers 127 development 587
success 36772 thinkers 127 intention 587
Summers, D. 459 technology 23940, 308, 536, 735, definition 56870
survivor syndrome 405, 839 840 determinism/rationality
Susskind, A.M. 81 administrative 536 5856
Sviokla, J.J. 597 alienation 5845 effects
sweat the resource 284, 839 isolation 584 employment 601
Symons, J. 346 meaninglessness 584 health and safety 602
systematic soldiering 839 powerlessness 584 job quality 6012
systems approaches to management self-estrangement 584 social relations 602
602, 839 applications 597 engineering approach 569
systems theory 6234, 81516 administrative 6012 equipment 536
apparatus 568 evolution 5701
Tannenbaum, R. 3523 manufacturing 597600 age of rationalism 573
Tannenbaum and Schmidt organization 568 ancient history 5712
continuum 3523 service 6001 baroque period 573
Tawney, R.H. 48 technique 568 Middle Ages 572
Taylor, F.W. 56, 298, 300, 429, 541 applied perspective 6026 period of industrialization
Taylorism 5412 co-operation 606 5734
team 21011, 839 confidence 606 Renaissance 572
behaviour 2524 control of agenda 603 impact
controlling 25460 control of cost 603 cost 599
communications 2502 control of location 604 employee 600
composition 279 control of organization government policy
corporate influences 279 604 599600
decision making 2601 control of people 6023 job design 5889
individuals with no role 279 control of process 602 managerialism 589, 600
job design/technology 23940 control of resistance reliability 599
leaders 337, 839 6034 social factors 600
management profile control of skill 604 structure 5878
questionnaire 27981, 839 control of work 602 take-up 599
management wheel 2713, pressure 606 innovation/diversity 590
839 sharing 606 incremental 591
mental ability 278 visibility 606 radical 590
morale 278 assumptions system 591
and organizations 2814 de-skilling 582 IT 5967
personality 278 efficiency 5823 Japanization 57881
role reversal 279 impact 582 material/social 5689
roles 235, 2789, 840 modernism 582 new activity 5378
self-managed 241 neutrality 5812 perspectives
significance 21618 structure 582 Aston studies 576
unknown factors 279 change impact 592 continuum from routine
see also group careers 592 to non-routine 575
Team Management Profile economic activity 5923 industrialization 5768
Questionnaire 27981 employment 592 production 574
team working 127 fashion 593 resource/technology
Japanization method 579 internationalism 593 matching 5756
strengths limitations 5934 stability and change 5745
[ 876 ] Index

politics of 5834 Tushman, M. 804 Weary, G. 102

primary/secondary 569 Tyler, C. 284 web of relationships 481, 840
social 536 Type A and Type B personality Weber, M. 48, 540, 613
social approach 570 profile 41819, 840 Webster, E.C. 153
and work organization 5368 ter Weel, B. 270
Tepper, B.J. 362 Ulrich, D. 507 Weiman, C. 313
Theory X and Theory Y 310, 450 uncertainty avoidance 452, 504, Weiner, B. 101
Theory Z 4502, 495 840 Weingart, L.R. 748
Thomas, K. 768 Ure, A. 573 Welch, J. 107, 420, 602
Thomas, P.J. 315 Urwick, L. 617 Wheatcroft, J. 57
Thompson, J.D. 575 Ury, W. 697, 769 Whetten, D.A. 627, 747
Thompson, J.L. 343 utilitarian approach to ethics 473, whistleblowing 48990
Thompson, L. 553, 588, 589, 720, 475, 840 White, R. 350
753, 761 White, W. 481
Thompson, P. 15, 53, 645, 281, Vaidyanathan, R. 99 Whitmore, E. 89
403, 496, 515, 659, 761 Valery, N. 240 Whitt, J.A. 647
Thompson, R. 260 van Veldhoven, M. de Jong 401 Whittington, R. 409
Thompson, T.E. 685 Van Y Peren, N.W. 683 Whyte, W.H. 261, 615
Thorndike, E.L. 171 Vandekerchkhove, W. 322 Wilkinson, A. 40, 261, 510
Thorsrud, E. 539 variety 284, 840 Wilkinson, B. 114, 578, 579
Thurow, L. 70 Vas, A. 825 William, A.I. 560
Thurstone, L.L. 149 Vecchio, R.P. 359 Williams, F. 224, 400
Tiggermann, M. 317 vertical dyad model of leadership Willis, P. 764
Ting-Toomey, S. 766 3612, 840 Willmott, H. 54, 258, 300
Toffler, A. 628 vicious cycle of control 586, 840 Wilson, F. 70, 316
Torrington, D. 339, 528, 694 Vinnicombe, S. 317 Wilson, J.F. 71
total quality management (TQM) virtual organization 70, 642, 644, Wilson, M. 583
283, 394, 798, 8089, 840 840 Winner, L. 568
Townley, B. 62, 323, 433, 450, 618, common infrastructure 644 Winstanley, S. 409
720 define objectives 644 Witkin, H.A. 151
Townsend, R. 656 marry well 644 Wood, L. 166
traction 428, 429, 840 offer the best 644 Woodruffe, C. 314, 456
training 50, 166, 167, 1925, 390, play fair 644 Woodward, J. 612
548, 758, 766 virtual team 285, 840 Woolliams, P. 509
trait view of leadership 34950, virtual working 346, 840 work
840 visioning/motivator roles 314, 840 empowerment 549
transactional/transformational Vivarelli, M. 822 flexibility 5489
model of leadership 362, 840 Vroom, Porter and Lawler organization
Trice and Beyers organizational expectancy models 4436 bureaucracy 5401
culture 4989 Vroom, V.H. 360, 4435, 554 classical management
Trice, H.M. 4989 Vroom, Yetton, Jago model of view 542
triple I organization 646, 840 leadership 3601 contingency view
Triplett, N. 223 5423
Trist, E.L. 61, 538 wage-work bargain 7389, 840 culture 5434
Trompenaars cultural perspectives Waldrop, M.M. 816 groups 5389
5056 Wall, T.D. 534 Taylorism 5412
Trompenaars, F. 452, 5056, 509 Wallace, W. 10 technology 5368
Troup, C. 411 Walsh, J. 116 patterns of work 54950
Tsoukas, H. 67 Walton, R.E. 556 work measurement 527, 840
Tuckman, B. 233, 256 Warburton, F.W. 131 work organization
Tuden, A. 685 Warr, P.B. 92 alienation 553
Tung, A.W. 781 Waterman, R.H. 4956, 823 applied perspective 55760
Turnbull, P. 738, 755 Watson, J.B. 56, 65, 171, 339, productivity 5534
Turnbull, P.J. 580 513, 618 satisfaction 554, 556
Turner, M. 415 Watson, T.J. 71 social capital 553
 Index [ 877 ]
work study 5278, 840 Yen, H.J. 141 Zaccaro, S.J. 224
work-life balance 3957, 4889, Yetton, 360 Zavalloni, M. 264
840 Young, R. 285 zone of indifference 374, 840
Worrall, L. 21 Yukl, G. 774 Zuboff, S. 596
Wren, D. 42, 49, 58, 59, 429 Yurtsever, G. 478 Zwetsloot, G.I.J.M. 481
Wyatt, S. 224

Xiaoli, J. 504
Xinyi Xu 730