Prelims 2017

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Day 24

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ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is the key to development. In fact, the amount of energy production and consumption is sometimes
considered as an index of a countrys economic development.
Conventional (Non-Renewable) Energy Resources
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are found inside the earths crust where they have formed through heat and compression of forests,
waste and other organic matter, which got buried due to earthquake, landslide, etc.
Classification of Fossil Fuels

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(A) Solid (e.g. Coal)

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Coal is the most abundantly found fossil fuel in the world. It contains carbon, water, sulphur and nitrogen. Coal
meets 70 per cent of the total energy needs of the world found and 87.4 per cent of all commercial energy.
In India about 58 per cent of commercial energy is obtained from coal and 38 per cent from petroleum along
with natural gas.
Coal is used for cooking, heating, in industries and thermal power plants. Petroleum is useful for transportation;
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agricultural equipments and, some industries. Natural gas is used both in cooking and in industries.
Types of Coal or Coal Energy
The amount of fixed carbon and hydro carbons forms the basis of classification of coal into various types
given as under:
Anthracite is a hard and dense coal which is relatively free of iron compounds and moisture. The amount
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affixed carbon may be as high as 95 percent. It is jet black, lustrous and has a fine texture. It burns with
a blue flame and gives no smoke.
Bituminous coal is unusually black and highly lustrous. The moisture content is relatively low. The fixed
carbon content ranges from about 50 to over 80% and that of volatile matter from 40 to 15 per cent.
Lignite is also known as brown coal. The higher grades vary from dark brown to almost black. It is
characterized by high moisture content, generally about 40%. The fixed carbon content is also about 40%.
The structure is fibrous, and sometimes woody. It has the tendency to crumble into fine coal in shipment
and in storage.
Peat occurs in bogs, especially in areas of cool temperate climates.
Advantages of Coal
Coal is present in large amount (Most abundant). So it can be used as an energy source.
Disadvantages of Coal
Release of CO2 and SO2 gas in the atmosphere cause Green House Effect and Global Warming.
In thermal power plants, burning of coal also generates large amount of flyash. Flyash is a toxic waste,
contains toxic heavy metals.
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Workers in the coal mines suffer from following lung diseases: Black-lung disease, Asthma, Bronchitis,
Lung cancer.
(B) Liquid (e.g. Petroleum)
Petroleum or Crude Oil
The gaseous fuels are basically derived from petroleum. It is a natural, underground fossil energy resource.
It is formed due to decomposition of micro plankton deposited upon the sea beds, lakes and rivers for
millions of years. The decomposition takes place by the action of bacteria, under lack of oxygen and also
by catalytic cracking. It is also called crude oil.
The following are the various uses of petroleum:
a) For heating homes particularly in the cold regions.
b) As industrial power to drive/move engines and for heating furnaces and producing thermal electricity.
c) As transport power for driving railways, motor cars, ships and aeroplanes.

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d) As lubricants of machines especially high speed machines.
e) As a raw material in various petro-chemical industries, such as synthetic rubber, synthetic fibres,
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fertilizers, medicines, etc.
Advantages of Petroleum
a) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is easy to transport.
b) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is comparatively cleaner.
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c) They have made possible the introduction and development of newer means of transport.
Disadvantages
a) After extraction it causes contamination in the water when the leakage takes place.
b) Its burning produces CO2 and enhances the green house effect.
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c) All combustion processes produce the pollutants like NO, SO2, CO, NO2, CO2, Smog.
d) Petroleum contributes to acid rain and urban pollution.
(c) Gaseous (e.g. Natural Gas)
Natural gas is a fossil fuel.
It is eco-friendly fuel.
It is a mixture, of hydrocarbon gases trapped under the earths surface. It is mainly consisting of methane
(CH4), Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10). After processing it is transported to supply filling stations.
Natural gas can be used in two different forms.
1. LPG (Liquefied petroleum Gas)
It is the mixture of Propane, Butane and Ethane.
2. CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
It is mainly Methane (CH4.).
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The major uses of natural gas include:

It is widely used as fuel in industries and in domestic cooking.
Petro-chemical industries use natural gas as fuel and raw material.
Chemical industries such as artificial rubber, plastics, fertilizers, ink, carbon, etc. use natural gas as raw
material.
Natural gas is sometimes used for artificial lighting.
Advantages
It is a clean fuel, requiring little processing.
It can be readily transported.
Smog formation is less in its use.

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It is cheaper than petroleum.
Disadvantages



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It requires both high pressure and low temperature for compression.
Thick walled tanks are required for storage as it is stored at a high pressure.
Methane is a green house gas.
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Leakage, in any case, is a serious threat to the environment.
Shale gas
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks
that can be rich resources of petroleum and natural gas. Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by the accumulation
of sediments at the Earths surface and within bodies of water. Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone,
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limestone, and shale.

Environmental Impact
Unavoidable impacts are area consumption due to drilling pads, parking and manouvering areas for trucks,
equipment, gas processing and transporting facilities as well as access roads.
Major possible impacts are air emissions of pollutants, groundwater contamination due to uncontrolled gas
or fluid flows due to blowouts or spills, leaking fracturing fluid, and uncontrolled waste water discharge.
Fracturing fluids contain hazardous substances, and flow-back in addition contains heavy metals and
radioactive materials from the deposit. Groundwater contamination by methane, in extreme cases leading
to explosion of residential buildings, and potassium chloride leading to salinization of drinking water is
reported in the vicinity of gas wells.
The impacts add up as shale formations are developed with a high well density (up to six wells per km).
Coal bed Methane
Coal Bed Methaneis methane (natural gas) trapped in coal seams underground.
To extract the gas, after drilling into the seam, it is necessary to pump large amounts of water out of the
coal seam to lower the pressure.
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It is often also necessary to frack the seam to extract the gas.

There are a similar catalogue of negative environmental and social effects as with Shale Gas.
This includes methane migration, toxic water contamination, air pollution, increased carbon emissions and
a general industrialisation of the countryside. Impacts that are specific to CBM include depletion of the
water table and potentially subsidence.
Nuclear Energy
It is a highly developed alternative for energy production in place of coal.
Nuclear energy by can be derived by two processes: Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion.
Nuclear Fission (Chain-Reaction Mechanism)
a) The heavy nucleus on bombardment with neutron splits into lighter nuclei (Barium and Krypton)
releases large amount of energy. One a.m.u. (Atomic Mass Unit) of uranium-235 yield energy equal
to burning of 15 metric tons of coal.

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b) Nuclear reactors are the devices need to liberate energy from nuclear fuels, under controlled conditions.
The output of these reactors is in the form of a high temperature fluid. This can be used in the
generation of electricity or as a direct source of heat for intensive industries.
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Advantages of Nuclear Energy
a) Large amount of energy is produced in nuclear fission reaction.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
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a) High safety measures are required in the operations of Nuclear Reactors.

b) Highly equipped (knowledge + equipments) engineers are required for operating nuclear reactors.
c) Radioactive waste is released from Nuclear Power plants. It cannot be buried inside the earth and
under the groundwater.
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d) Due to high safety measures, nuclear reactors are located in isolated areas. To reduce the risks.
Nuclear power plants are far distance away from the industries that require high energy in the areas
of high population.
e) Due to uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction in the nuclear reactor, explosion Occurs. e.g. Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in Chernobyl, 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster, 2011.
Due to radioactive pollution of iodine-131; Cesium 134, Cesium 137, thousands of people died and suffered
from variety of diseases biz. loss of hair, thyroid; blood cancers, nausea, anaemia and ulcerating skirt:
Large social and economic loss occurred.
Genetic Diseases: Sudden change in the genes is known as mutation, causes genetic diseases. Atom bomb
explosion in Hiroshima Nagasaki, Japan also caused genetic diseases and large socio-economic loss.
Renewable Energy Resources
Solar Energy
Solar energy is available in very large amount, thus considered perpetual energy resource and is considered
major future source of energy.
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Ultimate source of energy in an ecosystem is Sun.

Solar energy influences earths climate. Wind energy, biomass and hydropower are the resultant of solar
energy.
Applications of Solar energy
A. Photovoltaic: Conversion of Solar Energy of Electricity
Semiconductors when irradiated with sunlight, electrons present in their ground state get energized to
jump to an excited state i.e. flow of electrons occur and generates electricity. The phenomenon is
known as Photovoltaics (PVs).
Thus, Photovoltaics are the arrays of cells consisting of semiconductors that effectively converts
solar radiation into electricity (Direct Current), used to power bulb or equipment or to recharge a
battery. An inverter converts DC to AC for, grid connected power generation.
B. Solar Thermal

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Solar Thermal Power systems, also known asConcentrating Solar Power systems, use concentrated
solar radiation as a high temperature energy source to produce electricity using thermal route.
C. Other Applications of Solar Energy


Solar cooker
Solar water heater
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Solar furnace
Solar power plant
Solar toys
Solar air-conditioning
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Solar vehicles
Solar chimney
Space cooling and heating
Day lighting (solar street lights and traffic lights)
Solar desalination
Advantages of Solar Energy
(i) It is renewable energy resource.
(ii) Solar power is pollution free.
(iii) Solar powered instruments are easy to install and use e.g. solar panels, solar water heaters, solar lighting,
solar Pumps, solar fountains.
(iv) Long life and low maintenance.
(v) Solar system based electricity is a cheaper source of energy as compared to energy obtained from conventional
electric systems.
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(vi) Solar Photovoltaics are used for the electricity generation in remote and isolated areas e.g. forest, hills,
deserts. PV is frequently used in watches, pocket calculators and toys.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
(i) Solar energy production is hampered when the Sun is not available (i.e. during nights, less sunny days and
cloudy days).
(ii) Technology is to be kept advancing in such a way to efficiently capture the solar radiations over a larger
area.
(iii) Initial cost of installation is high. In case of photovoltaic cell, price of silicon wafers makes it very costly.
(iv) Solar cooking is a long time taking process. The food kept in the container can be over-heated if not
removed from solar-cooker timely.
(v) Solar cooker cannot work as a substitute of LPG chullas because all type of foods cannot be prepared
in solar cooker, e.g., chapatti.
Potential available in India

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India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident
over Indias land area with most parts receiving 3-5 kWh per sq. m per day. Based upon the availability
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of land and solar radiation, the potential of solar power in the country has been assessed to be 750 GW.
Hydro Energy
Generation of electricity by using the force of falling water is called hydro electricity or hydel power. It is
cheaper than thermal or nuclear power. Dams are built to store water at a higher level; which is made to fall
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to rotate turbines that generate electricity.

The basic principle behind hydropower energy is the damming of rivers to create artificial in waterfalls,
sometimes natural waterfalls are also used. The falling water is used to turn the turbines that drive electrical
generators.
Advantages:
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(i) Clean source of energy (eco-friendly or non-polluting).

(ii) Cheaper than thermal power plants.
(iii) Other benefits e.g. fishing, beauty of land- area.
Disadvantages:
(i) Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS). The continuous pressure of water column on the earth core increases
the probability of occurrences of earthquakes.
(ii) Water-borne and water induced diseases are caused.
(iii) Flood is caused if leakage occurs in the dam.
Potential:
India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-
potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable
hydro-power potential to the tune of 148700 MW of installed capacity.
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Wind Energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Wind energy systems
convert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of power.
The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of23,439.26MW (as onMarch31, 2015). In terms
of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked5th in the World. Today India is a major player in the global
wind energy market.
Advantages
(i) Cost of production is not high, can be reduced by research.
(ii) Initial investment is moderate.
(iii) Operation and maintenance cost is not high.
(iv) Eco-friendly.

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(v) Available in large amount.
(vi) Produce more energy due to high efficiency.

Disadvantages
(i)
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(vi) Land below turbines can be used for growing crops and stock (animal) grazing.

Availability depends on steady (continuous) winds or climate.

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(ii) Unsteady winds affect power production.
(iii) Noise pollution (a) due to rotation of blades; (b) due to rotation of turbines.
(iv) Large open area is required for electricity production.
Geothermal Energy
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Geothermal Energy is the energy obtained from heat stored in the earth crust and used for various purposes
like electricity generation or direct heating applications. Geothermal energy is basically stored in earth crust up
to depth of 3 to 4 km.
Hot water and steam from deep underground can be piped up through underground wells and used to generate
electricity in a power plant.
Benefits of Geothermal Energy
It is a clean fuel as compared to fossil fuel such as oil, gas or coal. A geothermal field emits only 1/6th
CO2 as compared to any clean natural gas fired power plant. Binary plants are further less polluter among
all geothermal power plants.
Ground Source Heat Pumps can be a good source of saving money for consumers by reducing electricity
bill as it includes only capital cost and maintenance cost is very less.
The capital cost of geothermal power plant is very high but average units produced per year is very high
as compared to other renewable energy resources such as solar, hydro, wind, etc.
Salts and dissolved minerals contained in geothermal fluids are usually re-injected with excess water back
into the reservoir at a depth well below groundwater aquifers. This system prolongs the life of the reservoir
as it recycles the treated waste water.
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Geothermal Energy (Other than Power) can also be applied in Cold Storage, Tourist Resorts and pools,
Melting snow, Poultry & Fish Farming, Mushroom Farming, Horticulture, Greenhouses, Aquaculture,
Industrial processes, Space heating, etc.
Geothermal Energy in India
In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI (Geological Survey of India) has
identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the country. The most promising of these is in Puga valley of
Ladakh. The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.
The major sites for geothermal energy are:
Himalayas: J&K, HP and Sikkim; PUGA hot spring in J&K and Manikaran in HP.
Sohana: Haryana, Rajasthan.
Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA): MP, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand; Tattapani spring in Chhattisgarh.
Cambay: Mainly Gujarat and some parts of Rajasthan

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Godavari: AP
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Mahanadi: Orissa, Taptapani Spring in Orissa.
Hydrogen as a source of energy
Hydrogen energy is at present only at the Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) stage.
Hydrogen is burned electrochemically with oxygen to produce electricity. Electrodes are clipped in electrolyte
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preferably Sodium Hydroxide.

Hydrogen and oxygen is passed in the fuel cell and following chemical reaction generates electricity:
Advantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen has highest calorific value (150 kj/g). Thus it is an excellent fuel.
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(ii) It is an eco-freindly source of energy.

(iii) Source of hydrogen (water) is present in large amount.
(iv) Simplest and lightest fuel in gaseous form.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen gas is highly explosive (inflammable).
(ii) High (safety measures) are required in storage an transportation saferty measure.
(iii) Production of hydrogen is costly.
Biogas
Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases consists mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and
is formed from the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic compounds, i.e. without oxygen. The gases
formed are the waste products of the respiration of these decomposer microorganisms and the composition
of the gases depends on the substance that is being decomposed.
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The principal benefits of biogas include:

a) Conversion of natural organic waste into fertilizer: The conversion is carried out in a machine called the
polythene bio gas digester. Cow dung slurry is put into the machine. The product is organic fertilizer of
high quality. The fertilizer obtained is rich in nitrogen. It has been analyzed, that, fertilizer made by the
polythene bio gas digester contains nitrogen content 3 times more than the product made by conventional
processes. It is completely natural and free from harmful synthetic chemicals.
b) Eco friendly energy production: The calorific value of biogas is equal to that of half liter of diesel oil
(6 kWh/m3). Methane is a key component of the gas. Biogas is fully capable of replacing other rural
energy sources like wood, hard coal, kerosene, plant residues, and propane. Hard coal possesses a calorific
value of 8.5kWh/kg per 0.7 kilograms. Larger biogas plants generate and feed electricity into mainstream
power grids. Smaller biogas production units can support lighting and cooking requirements.
c) Considerable workload reduction in rural areas: This is particularly true for rural women engaged in day
to day household work. Installing a biogas unit will relieve her of the tiring and tedious job of collecting
and ferrying firewood. Since, biogas burns cleanly, the rural homes will not suffer from smoke and

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consequently rural denizens will suffer less from physical problems like bronchial complications. Cooking
is also easier with a gas stove and takes less time.
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Visible improvement in rural hygiene: Biogas contributes positively to rural health conditions. Biogas
plants lower the incidence of respiratory diseases. Diseases like asthma, lung problems, and eye infections
have considerably decreased in the same area when compared to the pre-biogas plant times. Biogas plants
also kill pathogens like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and paratyphoid.
e) Environmental benefits on a global scale: Biogas plants significantly lower the greenhouse effects on the
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earths atmosphere. The plants lower methane emissions by entrapping the harmful gas and using it as fuel.
f) Protects the earths natural resources: 1 biogas plant is computed to save 32 liters of kerosene and 4 tons
of firewood every year. The organic chemical plant also contributes indirectly to the protection of soil.
Disadvantages of Biogas:
a) The process is not very attractive economically (as compared to other biofuels) on a large industrial scale.
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b) It is very difficult to enhance the efficiency of biogas systems.

c) Biogas contains some gases as impurities, which are corrosive to the metal parts of internal combustion
engines.
d) Not feasible to locate at all the locations.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is produced by chemically reacting a vegetable oil
or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol. The reaction requires a catalyst, usually a strong base, such
as sodium or potassium hydroxide, and produces new chemical compounds called methyl esters. It is these
esters are known as biodiesel.
Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends include
B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20.
The following plant species are known to be good sources for the biodiesel
1. Jatropha curcas (Jatropha)
2. Pongamia pinnata (Karanj)
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3. Azadirachta indica (Neem)

4. Madhuca indica (Mahua)Advantages of Bio Diesel
Bio Diesel is the most valuable form of renewable energy that can be used directly in any existing,
unmodified diesel engine.
Producing more biofuels will save foreign exchange and reduce energy expenditures and allow developing
countries to put more of their resources into health, education and other services for their neediest
citizens.
Biofuels burn more cleanly than gasoline and diesel. Using biofuels means producing fewer emissions of
carbon monoxide, particulates, and toxic chemicals that cause smog, aggravate respiratory and heart
disease, and contribute to thousands of premature deaths each year.
Marine Energy or Ocean Energy
a. Wave Energy
Wave energy is generated by the movement of a device either floating on the surface of the ocean

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or moored to the ocean floor.
Wave conversion devices that float on the surface have joints hinged together that bend with the
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waves. This kinetic energy pumps fluid through turbines and creates electric power.
Advantages:
a) Wave energy has this advantage over solar or wind energy that the energy has been naturally concentrated
by accumulation over time and space and transported from the point at which it was originally present
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in the winds.
b) A much greater amount of power is concentrated in the waves than in the wind. If we compare the power
concentrated in a good wind energy to the corresponding area having wave energy then we will find that
wave energy is 100 times greater than wind energy.
c) It is a free and renewable energy source.
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d) Wave power devices do not need huge land masses like solar energy wind energy.
e) These devices are almost pollution-free. After removing the energy from the waves waters are left in a
placid state.
f) No wastes or greenhouse gases are produced in the process. In my opinion this is the most important
advantage of wave energy.
Disadvantages:
a) The major demerit of wave energy, in comparison to wind, is that the energy is available in the ocean.
So the equipment needed for the extraction of wave energy must operate in a marine environment. The
transportation of energy is a great factor because the energy produced needed to be transferred to a great
distance from the shore.
b) Wave energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak stresses in storms.
c) Finding a proper site for the extraction of energy from the wave is pretty tough because wave energy is
totally related to ocean!
d) Devices needed for the harnessing of the wave energy are very complicated.
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e) Many economic factors are important in the installation of awave energy based power plant. These
factors are capital, maintenance cost, repair cost as well as replacement cost. For the power generation
companies economic factors can play as themajor disadvantage of wave energy.
b. Tidal Energy
The tidal cycle occurs every 12 hours due to the gravitational force of the moon. The difference in
water height from low tide and high tide is potential energy.
Similar to traditional hydropower generated from dams, tidal water can be captured in a barrage across
an estuary during high tide and forced through a hydro-turbine during low tide.
To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the height of high tide must be at least
five meters (16 feet) greater than low tide.
There are only approximately 20 locations on earth with tides this high and India is one of them.
The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum tidal

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range of 11m and 8m with average tidal range of 6.77m and 5.23m respectively.
Advantages of Tidal Energy:
a)
b)
c)
It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
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Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesnt produce greenhouse gases.
As 71% of Earths surface is covered by water, there is scope to generate this energy on large scale.
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d) We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they follow cyclic fashion.
e) Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as compared tocoal, solar or wind energy. Its efficiency is around
80%.
f) Although cost of construction of tidal power is high but maintenance costs are relatively low.
g) Tidal Energy doesnt require any kind of fuel to run.
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h) The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.

i) The energy density of tidal energy is relatively higher than other renewable energy sources.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy:
a) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.
b) There are very few ideal locations for construction of plant and they too are localized to coastal regions
only.
c) Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there can be damage to power generation units.
d) Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt migration of fish.
e) The actual generation is for a short period of time. The tides only happen twice a day so electricity can
be produced only for that time.
f) Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of the obstructions.
g) This technology is still not cost effective and more technological advancements are required to make it
commercially viable.
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h) Usually the places where tidal energy is produced are far away from the places where it is consumed. This
transmission is expensive and difficult.
c. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is a technology that converts solar radiation to electric power.
OTEC systems use the oceans natural thermal gradient, consequently the temperature difference
between the warm surface water and the cold deep water below 600 meters by about 20o C, an
OTEC system can produce a significant amount of power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable
resource, with the potential to help us produce billions of watts of electric power.
OTEC has a potential installed capacity of180,000 MWin India.
Advantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and cold water from the ocean
depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity.
b) Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other polluting chemicals.

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c) OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity. This is a significant advantage in island areas
where fresh water is limited.
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d) There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean surface layer to provide most
of present human energy needs.
e) The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the states almost complete dependence on
imported fossil fuels.
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Disadvantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated from fossil fuels at their
current costs.
b) OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 20 C occurs year round.
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c) Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic operation.
d) Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause localised damage to reefs
and near-shore marine ecosystems.
e) Discharging the cold water at the oceans surface could change local concentrations of nutrients and
dissolved gases.
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SCHEDULED & TRIBAL AREAS

Article 244 in Part X of the Constitution envisages a special system of administration for certain areas
designated as 'scheduled areas' and 'tribal areas'. The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the
administration and control of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes in any state except the four states of
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram1.
The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, on the other hand, deals with the administration of the tribal areas
in the four northeastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
Article 244 (1) - Provisions of 5th schedule shall apply to administration & control of schedule areas in
every state other than Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam & Mizoram.

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Article 244 (2) - Provisions of 6th schedule shall apply to administration & control of tribal areas of
Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam, & Mizoram.
FIFTH SCHEDULE
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The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the administration and control of Scheduled Areas as well
as of Scheduled Tribes in States other than Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura. The main features of the
administration provided in this Schedule are as follows:
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The Executive power of the Union shall extend to giving directions to the respective States regarding the
administration of the Scheduled Areas.
The Governors of the State in which there are "Scheduled areas" have to submit reports to the President
regarding the administration of such Areas, annually or whenever required by the President.
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Tribes Advisory Councils are to be constituted to give advice on such matters as welfare and advancement
of the Scheduled Tribes.

The Governor is authorised to direct that any particular Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the
State shall not apply to a Scheduled Area or shall apply, only subject to exceptions or modifications. The
Governor is also authorised to make regulations to prohibit or restrict the transfer of land by, or among
members of the Scheduled Tribes.

The Governor may make regulations for the peace and good government of any area in a State which
is for the time being a Scheduled Area.

These provisions of the Constitution relating to the administration of the Scheduled Areas and Tribes
may be altered by Parliament or by ordinary legislation.
The Constitution provides for the appointment of a Commission to report on the administration of the
Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the States.
The President may appoint such Commission at any time, but the appointment of such Commission at
the end of 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution was obligatory.
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SIXTH SCHEDULE
The tribal areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are separately dealt with and
provisions for their administration are to be found in the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution.
Meghalaya: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills Autonomous District council.
Mizoram: Chakma, Lai, Mara Autonomous District Council.
Tripura: Tripura Tribal areas Autonomous District council.
Assam: Dima Hasao, Karbi Anglong Autonomous council, Bodoland Territorial Council.
Salient provisions are:
The governor is empowered to organise and re-organise the autonomous districts. Thus, he can increase
or decrease their areas or change their names or define their boundaries and so on.
If there are different tribes in an autonomous district, the governor can divide the district into several
autonomous regions.

E
Each autonomous district has a district council consisting of 30 members, of whom four are nominated
by the governor and the remaining 26 are elected on the basis of adult franchise. The elected members
OR
hold office for a term of five years (unless the council is dissolved earlier) and nominated members hold
office during the pleasure of the governor. Each autonomous region also has a separate regional council.
The district and regional councils administer the areas under their jurisdiction. They can make laws on
certain specified matters like land, forests, canal water, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance
of property, marriage and divorce, social customs and so on. But all such laws require the assent of the
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governnor.
The district and regional councils within their territorial jurisdictions can constitute village councils or
courts for trial of suits and cases between the tribes. They hear appeals from them. The jurisdiction of
high court over these suits and cases is specified by the governor.
The district council can establish, construct or manage primary schools, dispensaries, markets, ferries,
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fisheries, roads and so on in the district. It can also make regulations for the control of money lending
and trading by non-tribals. But, such regulations require the assent of the governor.
The district and regional councils are empowered to assess and collect land revenue and to impose certain
specified taxes.
The acts of Parliament or the state legislature do not apply to autonomous districts and autonomous
regions or apply with specified modifications and exceptions5.
The governor can appoint a commission to examine and report on any matter relating to the administration
of the autonomous districts or regions. He may dissolve a district or regional council on the recommendation
of the commission.
Famous Tribes of India
Andman Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese
Nicobar Shorn Pens, Holchu
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur. Palaeo Mongoloids
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Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh Tibeto -Mongoloids

Chhotanagpur Plateau Mundas, Santhals, Oraons
Central Vindhyachal and Deccan Plateau Gonds, Kondhs
Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Kinner, Phangwal, Lahuli
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand Jaunsari, Bhotia, Raji, Buxa, Tharu
Maharashtra Anal, Chiru and Konkanas + Kollam
West Bengal Mala and Savara tribes
Madhya Pradesh Bhuiya tribe
Rajasthan Banjaras, Moghias and Sathiyas
Gujarat Bhil + Maldhari (Gir lions)

E
Bihar Oraon, Munda, Chero, Parchaiya, Santhal, Asuras
Orissa Bhuiya, Baiga, Dharua, Gaaro, Ho, Koli, Lodha
J & K
Tamil Nadu
OR
Bakarwal
Oorali, Sholagar, Irular and Badaga
Karnataka Hakki-Pikki, Korgas, Kurubas, Soliga
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Kerala Kadars, Irulars, Paniyans, Korgas, ooralis
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CONTEMPT OF COURT
Contempt of court refers to any actions which defy a court's authority, cast disrespect on a court, or impede
the ability of the court to perform its function.
It is divided as:
1. Civil Contempt
Under Section 2(b) of the Contempt of Courts Act of 1971, civil contempt has been defined as wilful
disobedience to any judgment, decree, direction, order, writ or other process of a court or wilful breach of an
undertaking given to a court.

E
2. Criminal Contempt

any matter or the doing of any other act whatsoever which:

(i)
OR
Under Section 2(c) of the Contempt of Courts Act of 1971, criminal contempt has been defined as the
publication (whether by words, spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or otherwise) of

Scandalises or tends to scandalise, or lowers or tends to lower the authority of, any court, or
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(ii) Prejudices, or interferes or tends to interfere with the due course of any judicial proceeding, or
(iii) Interferes or tends to interfere with, or obstructs or tends to obstruct, the administration of justice in any other
manner.
Punishment
Article 129 and 215 of the Constitution of India empowers the Supreme Court and High Court respectively
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to punish people for their respective contempt. Section 10 of The Contempt of Courts Act of 1971 defines
the power of the High Court to punish contempts of its subordinate courts. Power to punish for contempt
of court under Articles 129 and 215 is not subject to Article 19(1)(a).
Under Section 12 of Contempt of Court Act, 1971, a contempt of court can be punished with simple
imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to two thousand
rupees, or with both.
However, in civil cases if the court considers that a fine will not meet the ends of justice and that a sentence
of imprisonment is necessary shall, instead of sentencing him to simple imprisonment, direct that the he be
detained in a civil prison for such period not exceeding six months as it may think fit.
The court is not supposed to impose a sentence for contempt of court in excess of what is prescribed under
this section either in respect of itself or of a court subordinate to it.
An accused may be discharged or the punishment awarded may be remitted on apology being made by the
accused to the satisfaction of the court. An apology is not supposed to be rejected merely on the ground that
it is qualified or conditional if the accused makes it bona fide.
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UNIFORM CIVIL CODE

Uniform Civil Code generally refers to that part of law which deals with family affairs of an individual
and denotes uniform law for all citizens, irrespective of his/her religion, caste or tribe.
A Uniform Civil Code administers the same set of secular civil laws to govern different people belonging
to different religions and regions. This supersedes the right of citizens to be governed under different
personal laws based on their religion or ethnicity. The common areas covered by a civil code include:
a) Personal Status
b) Rights related to acquisition and administration of property
c) Marriage, divorce and adoption

E
Uniform Civil Code will in the long run ensure Equality. Also, UCC will help to promote Gender equality.
OR
The need for a uniform civil code is inscribed in Article 44 (Article 35 in the draft constitution). This
article is included in Part IV of the Constitution dealing with the directive principles of state policy. The
legal nature of the Directive Principles is such that it cannot be enforced by any court and therefore these
are non judicial rights. The Constitution further calls upon the State to apply these principles in making
laws as these principles are fundamental in the governance of the country.
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Article 44, which deals with the Uniform Civil Code states: "The State shall endeavor to secure for the
citizens, a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India". The objective of this article is to effect
an integration of India by bringing all communities into a common platform which is at present governed
by personal laws which do not form the essence of any religion.
In India, Goa is the only state to have implemented the directive principle on the Uniform Civil Code
and converted it into a law called the Goa Civil Code or the Goa Family Law. It is the set of civil laws
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that governs all the Goans irrespective of the religion or the ethnicity to which they belong.
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NOBEL PRIZE 2016

The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and
Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, and/or scientific advances Any of six international
prizes awarded annually for outstanding work in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, economics,
and the promotion of peace.
List of the Nobel Prize 2016:
Physics
David J. Thouless, F. Duncan M. Haldane and J. Michael Kosterlitz- "for theoretical discoveries of topological
phase transitions and topological phases of matter"

E
These theoretical discoveries revealed the possibility of a bizarre world where matter can take on different,
and strange, states. Using advanced mathematics, the trio examined weird states of matter, such as superfluids,

include thin magnetic films and superconductors.

Chemistry
OR
or substances that behave like liquids but have zero viscosity or resistance to flow. In superfluids, there is no
friction impeding the liquid's flow and so its particles act as one super particle. Other exotic states of matter

Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart and Bernard L. Feringa- "for the design and synthesis of molecular
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machines"
They have developed the world's smallest machines by linking together molecules into a unit that, when
energy is added, could do some kind of work. These machines, a thousand times thinner than a strand of hair,
included a tiny lift, mini motors and artificial muscles.
Physiology or Medicine
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Yoshinori Ohsumi- "for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy "in which cells take unneeded or damaged
material, including entire organelles, and transport them to a recycling compartment of sorts - in yeast cells,
this compartment is called the lisosome, while vacuoles serve a similar purpose in human cells.
The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
Oliver Hart and Bengt Holmstrm- "for their contributions to contract theory"
The two economists provided "a comprehensive framework for analysing many diverse issues in contractual
design, like performance-based pay for top executives, deductibles and co-pays in insurance, and the privatisation
of public-sector activities."
It has become especially relevant in the years after the 2008 financial crisis, which was blamed on the short-
term risk encouraged by huge cash bonuses paid to investment bankers. It also touches on themes of moral
hazard, which arises where those that take the risks don't share in the costs of failure.
Literature
Bob Dylan- "for having created new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition"
Peace Prize
Juan Manuel Santos- "for his resolute efforts to bring the country's more than 50-year-long civil war to an end"
Notes