STEELSTRUCTURES

B.ARCH4thSEMESTER

SteelRoofTrusses
Trussesaretriangularframeworks,consistingofessentiallyaxiallyloadedmemberswhicharemore
efficientinresistingexternalloadssincethecrosssectionisnearlyuniformlystressed.Theyare
extensivelyused,especiallytospanlargegaps.

Trussesareusedinroofsofsinglestoreyindustrialbuildings,longspanfloorsandroofsofmultistory
buildings,toresistgravityloads.

Generallytrussmembersareassumedtobejoinedtogethersoastotransferonlytheaxialforcesand
notmomentsandshearsfromonemembertotheadjacentmembers(pinnedjoints).

Themembersofthetrussesexperiencebendingmomentinadditiontoaxialforce.

Mostcommontypesofrooftrussesarepitchedrooftrusseswhereinthetopchordisprovidedwithaslopein
ordertofacilitatenaturaldrainageofrainwaterandclearanceofdust/snowaccumulation.

Thetypicalspantomaximumdepthratiosofpitchedrooftrussesareintherangeof4to8,thelargerratio
beingeconomicalinlongerspans.

Configurationoftrusses

(a) Pitchedrooftrusses (b)Parallelchordtrusses (c)Trapezoidaltrusses

Pitchedrooftrusses

InPratttrusseswebmembersarearrangedinsuchawaythatundergravityloadthelongerdiagonalmembers
areundertensionandtheshorterverticalmembersexperiencecompression.However,thewindupliftmay
causereversalofstressesinthesemembersandnullifythisbenefit.

TheconverseofthePrattistheHowetruss.Thisiscommonlyusedinlightroofingsothatthelongerdiagonals
experiencetensionunderreversalofstressesduetowindload.

Finktrussesareusedforlongerspanshavinghighpitchroof,sincethewebmembersinsuchtrussaresub
dividedtoobtainshortermembers.

Fantrussesareusedwhentheraftermembersoftherooftrusseshavetobesubdividedintooddnumberof
panels.Acombinationoffinkandfancanalsobeusedtosomeadvantageinsomespecificsituationsrequiring
appropriatenumberofpanels.

Mansardtrussesarevariationoffinktrusses,whichhaveshorterleadingdiagonalseveninverylongspan
trusses,unlikethefinkandfantypetrusses.

Theeconomicalspanlengthsofthepitchedrooftrusses,excludingtheMansardtrusses,rangefrom6mto12
m.TheMansardtrussescanbeusedinthespanrangesof12mto30m.

Parallelchordtrusses
TheparallelchordtrussesareusedtosupportNorthLightrooftrussesinindustrialbuildings.Parallelchord
trussesarealsousedasprefabricatedfloorjoists,beamsandgirdersinmultistoreybuildings.

Warrenconfigurationisfrequentlyusedinthecaseofparallelchordtrusses.Theadvantageofparallelchord
trussesisthattheyusewebsofthesamelengthsandthusreducefabricationcostsforverylongspans.
ModifiedWarrenisusedwithadditionalverticals,introducedinordertoreducetheunsupportedlengthof
compressionchordmembers.

Thesawtoothnorthlightroofingsystemsuseparallelchordlatticegirderstosupportthenorthlighttrussesand
transfertheloadtotheendcolumns.Theeconomicalspantodepthratiooftheparallelchordtrussesisinthe
rangeof12to24.Theinclinationofthewebmembersarearound45degrees.

InthecaseofverydeepandveryshallowtrussesitmaybecomenecessarytouseKanddiamondpatternsfor
webmemberstoachieveappropriateinclinationofthewebmembers.

Trapezoidaltrusses
Incaseofverylongspanlengthpitchedroof,trusseshavingtrapezoidalconfiguration,withdepthattheends
areused.Thisconfigurationreducestheaxialforcesinthechordmembersadjacenttothesupports.

Thetrapezoidalconfigurationshavingtheslopingbottomchordcanbeeconomicalinverylongspantrusses
(spans>30m),sincetheytendtoreducethewebmemberlengthandthechordmemberstendtohavenearly
constantforcesoverthespanlength.

 NorthLightRoofTruss

Northlightrooftruss(spansupto20mto30m)

Whenthefloorspanexceeds15m,itisgenerallymoreeconomicaltochangefromasimpletruss
arrangementtooneemployingwidespanlatticegirderswhichsupporttrussesatrightangles.
Inordertolightupthespacesatisfactorily,rooflightinghastoreplaceorsupplement,sidelighting
provisionmustalsobemadeforventilationformtheroof.
OneoftheoldestandeconomicalmethodsofcoveringlargeareasistheNorthLightandLatticegirder.
Thisroofconsistsofaseriesoftrussesfixedtogirders.Theshortverticalsideofthetrussisglazedso
thatwhentheroofisusedintheNorthernHemisphere,theglazedportionfacesNorthforthebestlight.
Itcanbeusedforspansfrom2030m.
Usedforindustrialbuildings,drawingroomsetc.

Monitorroof
Aroofwitharaisedextensionabovearidge,themonitorthatcanprovidelightandventilationtotheroom
below.

 ForcesonTrussMembers

SomeDefinitionsofTrussMembers
Span:Itisthehorizontaldistancebetweensupportsofthetruss.
Rise:Theverticaldistancebetweentheapexandthelinejoiningthesupportistheriseofthetruss.
Pitch:Itistheratiooftherisetothespanofthetruss,thusPitch=(Rise/Span).
Slope:Slopeoftheroofistheanglewhichtheinclinedroofsurfacemakeswiththehorizontal.Valueof
slopeisnumericallytwicethatofpitch.
TrussSpacing:Thespacingoftrussesisthedistance(centretocentre)betweenadjacenttrusses.
RidgeLine:Itisthelinejoiningtheverticesofthetrusses.
EavesLine:Itisthelinejoiningthelowestpointoftherooftrusses,oneitherside,wherethedrained
wateriscollectedandleadtorainwaterpipes.
TopChord:Theuppermostlineofmembersextendingfromtheeavestotheridgeisthetopchord.Itis
alsocalledtheprincipalrafter.
BottomChord:Thelowermostlineofmembersextendingfromsupporttosupportisknownasthe
bottomchord.Itisalsoknownasmaintie.
Ties:Membersofthetrusswhicharemainlyundertension.
Struts:Thosemembersofthetrusswhichareprincipallyundercompression.
Joints:Thepointwheremorethanonemembermeet;theyareusuallyconnectedtoagussetplateby
meansofweldsorrivets;andareknownasweldedorrivetedjoints.
Panel:Itisthedistancebetweentwoadjacentjointsinthesamelineinamember.
Purlin:Thepurlinsarehorizontalmembersspanningacrosstopchordoftrussesandsupporttheroof
cladding.
SagTie:Asagtieisaverticalmemberjoiningtheapexofthetrusstothemidpointofthebottomchord.
Itisprovidedtoreducethedeflectionofthebottomchordmember.
BearingPlates:Whenarooftrussissupportedonmasonry(stoneorbrick)walls,theloadistransferred
toasuitableconcretebasethroughsteelplateswhichareconnectedtoitbysuitableanchorbolts.The
sizeoftheplatedependsuponthesupportreactionandtheallowablebearingpressureonthewall.
 RoofTrusses
Rooftrussesareplaneframesconsistingofslopingrafterswhichmeetattheridge.Amaintieconnectsthefeet
oftherafters,andtheinternalbracingmembers.Theyareusedtosupporttheroofcoveringinconjunctionwith
purlins.
Purlinsaresecondarymemberslaidlongitudinallyacrosstherafterstowhichtheroofcoveringisattached.
Latticegirders,alsosometimescalled'trusses',areplaneframesofopenwebconstruction.Theyusuallyhave
parallelchordsorboomswhichareconnectedwithinternalwebbracingmembers.Therearetwobasictypesof
latticegirder,the'N'typeandthe'Warren'type.
NtypeLatticegirders

Thediagonalbracingmembersarearrangedsothattheyactasties.Ifreversedtheywouldbecomestrutsand
theshorterverticalmemberswouldbeties.

Trussmembers
Themembersoftrussesaremadeofeitherrolledsteelsectionsorbuiltupsectionsdepending
uponthespanlength,intensityofloading,etc.
Rolledsteelangles,teesections,hollowcircularandrectangularstructuraltubesareusedinthe
caseofrooftrussesinindustrialbuildings




PropertiesofLoadBearingCapacityMaterials
Elasticity:Theabilityofamaterialtoreturntonormalafterbeingpulledandpushedoutof
shape.Ex.Rubber.Metalsarebasicallynotelastic,althoughsomesteelscanbemadeinto
springshapeswhichpossesscertaincharacteristicsofelasticity.
Durability:Thisrepresentstheabilityofamaterialtoresistwearandtear.Adurablematerialis
onewhichislonglastingandnonperishable.
Fusibility:Thisisthemeltingpointofamaterialandindicatesthetemperatureatwhichasolid
changestoaliquid.Metalsbeingweldedhavetobeheatedtothemeltingpointofthematerial
inorderto"fuse"togetherwiththefillerrod.
Malleability:Theabilityofametaltobeworked(bossedorhammered)intoanewshape
withoutbreaking.Mostmetalsbecomemoremalleablewhentheirtemperatureisincreased.
Ductility:Thisdenotestheabilityofametaltobestretchedwithoutbreaking.Agoodexample
ofaductilemetalwouldbecopperwhichcanbedrawnouttoformtubesandwires.
Tenacity:Amaterial'sabilitytoresistbeingpulledapartorpulledfromitspresentposition.
TensileStrength:Thisisameasureofthetenacitycontainedbyamaterial.Theforceatwhich
thematerialbreaksisameasureofitstensilestrengthandisexpressedinN/m.

 Trussconnections
Membersoftrussescanbejoinedbyriveting,boltingorwelding.
Duetoinvolvedprocedureandhighlyskilledlabourrequirement,rivetingisnotcommonthese
days.
Highstrengthfrictiongrip(HSFG)boltingandweldinghavebecomemorecommon.

GussetPlates

BasesforsmallStanchions

StanchionswithSlabBases

ConnectionsofBeamstoStanchions
Theentireloadistransmittedfromthebeamtothestanchionthroughtheseatingcleatandits
fixings.

WeldedBeamstoStanchions

 BeamConnectionstoCornerStanchions

BeamtoBeamConnections
Wherebeamtobeamconnectionsaremade,webcleatsoranendplateareusedtotransmit
loadsfromthesecondarytothemainbeams.

 Ge
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 lanternlight
Alanternlightisconstructedwithglazedverticalsidesandahippedorgableendedglazedroof.
TheverticalsidesoftheLanternlightareusedasopeningsforventilation.
Lanternlightswereoftenusedtocoverconsiderableareas.
Theadvantageoflanternlightisthefacilityofventilationfromtheopeningupstandsidesthat
canbecontrolledbycordorwindinggearfrombelowtosuittheoccupantsoftheroomor
space.
Theadvantageoflanternlightisthefacilityofventilationfromtheopeningupstandsidesthat
canbecontrolledbycordorwindinggearfrombelowtosuittheoccupantsoftheroomor
space.

IS800:1984Codeofpracticeforgeneralconstructioninsteel(secondrevision)and

IS806:1968Codeofpracticeforuseofsteeltubesingeneralbuildingconstructionfirstrevision),

IS2062:1999 Specificationforsteelforgeneralstructuralpurpose(fifthrevision)

PLANSANDDRAWINGS

Plans,drawingsandstresssheetsshallbepreparedaccordingtogoodpractice.

Plans
Theplans(designdrawings)shallshowthecompletedesignwithsizes,sections,andtherelativelocationsofthe
variousmembers.Floorlevels,columncenters,andoffsetsshallbedimensioned.Plansshallbedrawntoascale
largeenoughtoconveytheinformationadequately.Plansshallindicatethetypeofconstructiontobe
employed;andshallbesupplementedbysuchdataontheassumedloads,shears,momentsandaxialforcesto
beresistedbyallmembersandtheirconnections,asmayberequiredfortheproperpreparationofshop
drawings.Anyspecialprecautiontobetakenintheerectionofstructurefromthedesignconsiderations,the
sameshallalsobeindicatedinthedrawing.

ShopDrawings
Shopdrawings,givingcompleteinformationnecessaryforthefabricationofthecomponentpartsofthe
structureincludingthelocation,type,size,lengthanddetailofallwelds,shallbepreparedinadvanceofthe
actualfabrication.Theyshallclearlydistinguishbetweenshopandfieldrivets,boltsandwelds.Foradditional
informationtobeincludedondrawingsfordesignsbasedontheuseofwelding,referenceshallbemadeto
appropriateIndianStandards.Shopdrawingsshallbemadeinaccordancewithgoodpractice.Amarking
diagramallottingdistinctidentificationmarkstoeachseparatepartofsteelworkshallbeprepared.Thediagram
shallbesufficienttoensureconvenientassemblyanderectionatsite.

AllthedrawingsshouldbepreparedinaccordancewiththefollowingIndianStandards:

IS962:1989Codeofpracticeforarchitecturalandbuildingdrawings(secondrevision)

IS8000Geometricaltolerancingontechnicaldrawings:parts1to5.

IS8976:1978Guideforpreparationandarrangementofsetsofdrawingsandpartslist

MATERIALS
AllmaterialsusedinstructuralsteelconstructionshallconformtoNationalBuildingCodeinIndia2005,Part5
BuildingMaterials.Structuralsteel,rivets,weldingconsumables,steelcastings,boltsandnuts,washersand
steeltubesshallbeinaccordancewithacceptedstandardsandotherrelevantIndianStandards.

ConnectionsinSteel:
Theconnectionsbetweenmembersshouldbecapableofwithstandingtheforcesandmomentstowhich
theyaresubjected,withinacceptabledeformationlimitsandwithoutinvalidatingthedesignassumptions.
Thedetailingofconnectionsshouldtakeaccountofpossibledimensionalvariationsduetorollingmargins
andfabricationvariations.