TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

TECTONIC SETTING

4.1 Super Continent Pangea

A large super continent Pangea (Searle, 1991) existed till the end of Proterozoic
era (Piper, 1982). The single enormous ocean which surrounded Pangea is known as
Panthalassa (Nield, 1998). Before Pangea, the supercontinent, Rodinia, formed about
1.1 billion years ago during the Proterozoic era, and lasted until 700-750 Ma (Dalziel,
1995). Breakup of super continent initiated in Carboniferous to early Permian (Searle,
1991) and it result super continent divide in two parts, Gondwanaland (Suess, 1885) in
south and Laurasia in north and a new ocean Neo Tethys between them (Searle, 1991:
Powell, 1979). Among the Gondwana continents, India started to move rapidly
northwest relative to Australia and Antarctica during Late Cretaceous (Fig. 4.1)
As a consequence, the Neo-Tethys that was located between the Indian
continent and Asian plate started shrinking and this continental drift was facilitated by
the consumption of Neo-Tethys and opening up of the Indian ocean behind. Eventually
India collided with Kohistan Island arc at 67+2 Ma (Chaudhry et al., 1994; Valdiya,
2002) and the Kohistan Island Arc with southern margin of Eurasia (Powell, 1979) at 65
Ma prior to this collision (Searle, 1991). Propelled by the geodynamic forces, the Indian
plate traveled 5000 km northward (Powell 1979).
After the collision, Indian continental crust started to subducted beneath Eurasia
and northward movement of Indian plate slowdown and continuous up to present
(Powell, 1979).The subduction of the northern margin of the Indian plate finally closed
the Neo-Tethys and the Indian Ocean assumed its present widespread expanse (Treloar
and Izatti, 1993). This collision is characterized by deformation, crustal thickening and
surface uplift. The ongoing convergence caused the development of Himalayas along
the northwestern margin of Indian Plate (Spencer, 1993).

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TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Fig 4.1 Pangea at 255 Ma.

Figure 4.2 Present shape of pangea.

4.2 Himalayas

The Himalayan ranges of south Asia are a dilemma due to their complex
geology in modern plate tectonic theory. The process of sea floor spreading and
subduction together leads to drift of lower density buoyant continents and island arcs,
which can eventually, collided against each other, leading to thrusting. Thrusting builds
up a stack of lower density crustal sheets involving deformation and leading to
metamorphism and magmatism. This deformed metamorphosed and intruded stock
eventually starts rising to achieve new isostatic equilibrium giving rise to linear collision
mountains or orogenic belts. Tectonically the Himalayas are recognized as young
collisional orogen and mountain belt formed as result of collision at about 55 Ma or 65

27
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Ma between north moving Indian plate to south and Asian plate to the north (Lillie,
1988).
The tectonic elements of NW Himalayas (Fig. 4.2) include from north to
south as Asian Plate (Brad et al., 1976: Ghazanfar et al., 1991), Main Karakoram
Thrust, MKT (Ghazanfar, 1993), Kohistan Island Arc Complex (Brad et al., 1976:
Ghazanfar et al., 1991; Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Trelor et al., 1989; Chaudhry et al., 1984),
Indus suture or MMT (Ashraf et al., 1991; Tahirkheli et al., 1979) and Indian Plate
margin (Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1987; Ghazanfar, 1993).

4.2.1 Boundary Faults

On the basis of four regional faults systems, Pakistani Himalayas can be divided
into five litho-tectonic terrains, which are characterized by distinctive stratigraphy and
physiography. From north to south these gross geological belts and the major faults
systems separating them are as given and described respectively below (Fig 4.2).

4.2.1.1 Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT)

The Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) zone marks the contact between the
Eurasian Plate in the north and the Indian Plate in the south (Coward et al. 1982). The
Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) is major tectonic feature in northern Pakistan formed as
a result of the collision between the Karakoram block in the north and the Kohistan
Island Arc in the south (Gansser 1980). The MKT was previously named as the
Northern Suture (Pudsey et al,. 1986).

4.2.1.2 Main Mantle Thrust (MMT)

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

The MMT is marked by the mantle related ultra-mafics, metavolcancis,

metagabbros, phylitic sediments, blueschists, and garnet granulites (Jan, 1980, Jan and
Howie, 1981). The MMT bounds the Kohistan Island Arc (KIA) to the south and the
Indian Plate to the north. It formed as a result of collision and subduction of Indian Plate
underneath the KIA during Eocene time. It is the southernmost thrust involving lower-
crust crystalline rocks of the Indo-Pakistani shield (Desio, 1974 b).

4.2.1.3 Main Central Thrust (MCT)

This thrust was initially defined by the Auden (1937) and Heim et al. (1939) as a
thrust fault which has brought the high grade crystalline rocks over the low grade meta-
sediments (Kazmi, 1997). The main central thrust (MCT) is an intracontinental thrust
that separates the Higher and Lesser Himalayas. It was first described by the Heim and
Gansser (1939) as a tectonic boundary between the Himalayan autochthonous
sedimentary sequence and the overlying crystalline complex. It has been traced from
Nepal and up to Southern Kashmir (Gansser, 1964). In NW Himalayas, It is north
dipping, generally 5 to 20 Km thick, low to high angle shear zone associated with
mylonization, strong stretching lineation and strong foliation. It is also marked by inverse
metamorphism and sudden jump in metamorphic grade from greenschist to upper
amphibolite facies with different tectonic style on either side of the shear zone. This
ductile shear zone develops in the turbidites of Kaghan as well as Malakand area
(Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999).

4.2.1.4 Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)

MBT is hairpin-shaped system of faults that can be followed around the

Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. It truncates the Murree Formation on the east, north and west
(Treloar et al., 1989 a, 1990, Chaudhry et al., 1997a). It abuts the Mesozoic and the
earlier rocks against the Murree Formation. The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
represents the southward migration of Himalayan deformation from the site of MMT.
From northeast to southwest, it extends along the front of the northern fold and thrust

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

belt around Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxes (Calkins et al., 1975). The MBT zone is
comprised of a series of parallel or en-echelon thrust faults dividing the northwest
Himalayan sequence into a deformed sedimentary southern zone or foreland zone, and
a deformed and metamorphosed northern zone or the hinterland zone (Di Pietro et al.,
1996).

4.2.1.5 Salt Range Thrust (SRT) and Trans Indus Ranges Thrust (TIRT)

Salt Range Thrust (SRT) / Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) or the Main Frontal
Thrust (MFT) runs along western margin of Salt Range between Jhelum and Indus
River in NW Himalayas of Pakistan. It is low angle fault or sub horizontal fault and throw
of the fault is good enough to expose pre-Cambrian strata (Salt Range Formation). In
northern Pakistan most of the youngest thrusting has occurred along frontal thrust
system in Salt Range along Salt Range Thrust (SRT) in the east and in Trans-Indus
Ranges Thrust (TIRT) in the west (Blisniuk et al., 1998). The frontal thrust system has
accommodated about 20 km of shortening in Salt Range (Lillie et al., 1987) and ~ 10
km in Trans Indus Ranges. Along this thrust front Eocambrian Salt Range Formation in
the Salt Range (Gee, 1980); Permian rocks in the Surghar Range and the Cambrian
Jhelum Group rocks in the Khisor Range are thrusted over the Punjab Foredeep in the
south (Kidwai, 1973).

4.3 Subdivision of Himalaya

With the demarcation of basement of Indian plate and boundary faults, now it is
possible to divide NW Himalayas into four tectonic units of Gansser (1964), as in
Eastern and Central Himalayas. NW Himalayas are enumerated from north to south as
Tethyan Himalaya, Higher Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya.

4.3.1 Trans Himalayas

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Trans Himalaya or Tibetan-Tethyan Himalaya occur north of Higher Himalaya and

consists of Proterozoic to Eocene siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks
interbedded with Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanic rocks resting over Pre-Cambrian
higher Himalayan basement with tectonized unconformity (Baud et al., 1984; Garzanti et
al., 1986, 1987). Tethyan sequence has developed as continental margin shelf deposit
on the northern edge of Indian plate which occurs as low grade meta-sediments
(Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999).
The Tethyan Himalayas are limited to north by Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone in NW
Himalaya and this zone also acts as the northern most boundery of the Indian plate.
Indus suture or MMT demarcate boundary between Indian plate and Kohistan island arc
and comprised of dismembered ophiolites (Tahirkheli et al., 1979). MMT is the true
extension of Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone which occurs at 65 Ma (Spencer, 1993;
Chaudhry et al., 1994; Smith et al., 1994). Until very recently the Tibetan-Tethys zone of
Himalaya was considered absent in the Pakistan. Mapping in Kaghan and Swat
however, have indicated that the Tibetan-Tethys zone of Himalaya is indeed present in
Pakistan, though much attenuated and discontinuous (Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1987;
Chaudhry et al., 1992, 1993, Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999).

4.3.2 Higher Himalayas

With the delineation of Main Central Thrust or MCT in (Chaudhry et al., 1997b;
Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1986, 1990; Chaudhry et al., 1994a, 1994b), now it is
possible to establish the different tectono stratigraphic regions of Himalaya, such as
Higher Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya in Pakistan. Higher Himalayas
are limited by MMT in north and MCT in south. MCT is intracontinental thrust which
demarcates the boundery between the Lesser and Higher Himalayas (Brunel, 1986;
Valdiya, 1984; Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1986).
In Pakistan,the Higher Himalayas includes the Nanga Parba-Haramosh massif
(Yeats and Lawerence, 1984).It extends from Bajaur on the Pakistan Afghanistan border
in the west to the Neelum valley of Kashmir in the east. Higher Himalaya comprised of

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Proterozoic to Late Proterozoic basement and Phanerozoic to Mesozoic cover in

Pakistan (Ghazanfar, 1993; Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1987). Basement rock represents
the oldest exposed rocks of Pakistan and composed of lower autochthonous to Para-
autochthonous granitoid-migmatite complex, pelite-psamites with turbidites and
associated minor quartzite and marble horizons. Basement is overlained by cover
sequence which is composed of calc-pelites and marbles with some garnetiferous calc-
pelites, amphibolites and pelites (Ghazanfar, 1993; Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1987;
Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1985; Chaudhry et al., 1994a, 1997; Ghazanfar et al., 1983,
1999a) (Fig. 4.3).
Basement and cover sequence rocks are grouped in different areas of Higher
Himalaya. Kel Group, Purbinar Group and Pacha Group constitutes the basement rock
in Neelum Valley, western Kashmir, Upper Kaghan Valley and Swat area respectively
and Sharda Group, Burawai Group and Alpuri group represent cover sequence
respectively. The rocks of Higher Himalaya are metamorphosed to upper amphibolites
facies and kyanite-silliminite grades just north of Batal area in Naran area of Kaghan
(Ghazanfar et al., 1983, 1999a; Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1985, 1987; Chaudhry et al.,
1994a, 1997).

4.3.3 Lesser Himalayas

Lesser Himalaya is confined between MCT and MBT in north and south
respectively. MBT formed due to compressional deformation. In Pakistan, Lesser
Himalayaextends in Lower Neelum Valley, Lower Kaghan Valley, Hazara area and Swat
area across the Indus River. Lesser Himalaya has biotite-garnet grade rocks (Chaudhry
et al., 1997a).
The Lesser Himalayas division in NW Himalayas includes Hill Ranges (including
Margala, Kala Chitta, Attock, Kohat Hills and Safed Koh), Plio-Pleistocene basins
(Peshawar and Campbellpur basin) and the Lower Kohistan (Yeats and Lawerence,
1984). Lesser Himalayas are divisible into two distinct units, Northern metamorphic

32
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Zone and Southern Sedimentary Zone, and Panjal fault marks boundary between them
(Ghazanfar, 1993; Ghazanfar et al., 1999a).
Northern Metamorphic Zone represents a terrain of meta pelite-psamite
sequence which are intruded by Cambrian granites and some younger ones, and
overlained by younger rocks including slates, phyllites, meta conglomerates, graphitic
schist, limestone, marble, agglomeratic schist and basic volcanics of Kashmir basin and
Peshawar basin. This meta pelite-psamite sequence is designated as Kundalshahi
Group in Neelum Valley, Kaghan Group in Kaghan Valley and Tanawal Formation in
Hazara area (Chaudhry et al., 1992; Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1985; Chaudhry and
Ghazanfar, 1987; Ghazanfar et al., 1983). Kundalshahi Group is intruded by Jura
granite of Cambrian age in southern parts and younger Neelum granite in north
(Ghazanfar et al., 1983). Southern Sedimentary zone is characterized by the Pir Panjal
ranges in east and Attock Hazara Fold and Thrust Belt, AHFTB, in west of Hazara
Kashmir Syntaxis and south of Kashmir basin and Peshawar basin (Ghazanfar et al.,
1999a). AHFTB is possible continuation of parautochthonous folded belt (Wadia, 1931)
or Panjal Imbricate zone or Pir Panjal range of Kashmir.

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Fig 4.3: Tectonic map of North Western Himalayas of Pakistan by Chaudhry et al (1992).

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

4.3.4 Sub Himalaya

Murree Fault or Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Salt Range Thrust (HFT) act
as northern and southern boundaries of Sub-Himalaya respectively. The Himalayan foot
hills form the Sub-Himalayan zone from the Punjab to Assam. These hills are comprised
of a narrow belt of folded Neogene Murree and Siwalik red colored molasse type
sediments.
The Sub Himalayas of Pakistan in the longitudnal sense can be subdivided into
Azad Kashmir Zone in the east and the Punjab Zone or Punjab foreland in the west. In a
transverse sense the Punjab foreland can be subdivided into North Potwar or
Rawalpindi Zone (a fold and thrust belt culminating in the Khair-e-Murat structure and
intensity of deformation increases northward), the Soan Zone (comprising a broad
syncline under the plateau in the east and Kohat Basin in the west), the upthrusted inlier
of Salt Range and Trans Indus Range and the only slightly deformed Punjab Plateform
further to south (Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999). Simply to say, Sub Himalayas
subdivision includes Potwar Plateau, Kohat Plateau, Salt Range and Trans Indus Salt
Ranges (Yeats and Lawerence, 1984).
The Salt Range Fold and thrust belt gives way northward in the Potwar plateau to
a broad syncline, the axis of which is followed by Soan River. This syncline is
asymmetric and verges south further north, the intensity of folding increases, and north
dipping thrust fault appeared (Pinfold, 1980; Gill, 1953), culminating in the faults Kala
Chitta and Margalla Hills along the nothern margin of Potwar plateau. West of Potwar
plateau, Eocene through Siwaliks strata are involved in complex folding, in which
Eocene salt occupies the core of many of the anticlines (DeJong and Qayum, 1981).
The Kohat plateau structure differs from that of Potwar plateau largely because of this
higher salt detachment horizon in Kohat area (Yeats and Lawerence, 1984).

4.4 Tectonic Settings of Salt Range

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Salt Range and Trans-Indus Salt Range represent the surface expression of up
thrusting of a decollement in which basement is not involved and decollement exists in
Cambrian to Eocambrian evaporites (Seeber and Armbuster, 1981; Crawford, 1974).
Strata in the Salt Range generally dip northwards into the Potwar Basin (Sameeni,
1997). Structurally, the Salt Range is the result of tectonic forces imposed during the
later phases of the Himalayan Orogeny in Late Cenozoic time, the occurrence of thick,
incompetent Salt Range Formation at the base of sedimentary sequence has strongly
influenced the structure). After the MBT zone under the Kala Chitta Range to the north
was locked some 2 Ma ago compression was transferred to the plateform sequence to
the south of MBT, as the result of which Salt Range thrust developed and Salt Range
rises to surface (Yeats et al; 1984) .
Salt Range rises as 180 km (roughly ENE-WSW trending) long range at the
southern edge of Potwar Plateau, making an abrupt escarpment against the Punjab
plains in south. Its width is 150 km (Sameeni, 1997). The Salt Range forms an isolated
E-W trending arc across the Indus River. It is a discrete structural zone bounded in
north by north-dipping Main Boundary Thrust (Sarwar et al. 1979, Yeats et al. 1984,
Coward et al. 1985), in south by the Salt Range Thrust, in west by Kalabagh fault and in
East by Jhelum fault (Fig. 4.3). Tectonically, the Salt Range is the Himalayan equivalent
of the Jura Mountains in the Alps and the Pine Mountains of the Appalachians (Qayyum,
1991).

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 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

Fig 4.4: Geological Map of Salt Range and Trans Indus Ranges showing Salt Range Thrust.
(SRT)

Fig 4.5: Generalized cross section of western Potwar and Salt Range (after Jaum & Lillie,
1988, Gee, 1989).

Salt Range is thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt (Lillie et al., 1987; Butler et al.,
1987 and Baker, 1987). The allochthonous nature of the Salt Range, with a detachment
in the Eocambrian Salt Range Formation, was recognized by many earlier workers (e.
g., Wynne, 1878; Wadia, 1945 a, 1945 b, 1957; Gee, 1945, 1947, 1980; Voskresenskiy,
37
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

1978). This range is essentially a complex salt anticlinorium with a series of salt
anticlines. The structure along its northern slope is comprised of simple, broad, shallow
folds followed by a gentle monocline. Southward the folding becomes tighter and the
folds are commonly faulted (Gee, 1989). The Eocambrian evaporites are exposed in
some of these overfolded and faulted anticlines (Qayyum, 1991). Because the Salt
Range formation is easily eroded, horsts form deep gorges, in which some of the classic
stratigraphic section of Salt Range are found (Khewra, Nilawahan and Warchha gorges)
(Yeats and Lawrence, 1984).
The overall structure of the Salt Range, except the easternmost part of the
Eastern Salt Range, involves basically a fault bend fold geometry modified due to the
presence of the underlying ductile salt. The roof sequence has been folded into sharp,
salt cored anticlines and broad, flat synclines, which in its southernmost part frequently
have been disrupted by forward and back verging thrusts and almost vertical dipping
apparent normal faults (Qayyum, 1991).
Longitudinally, Salt Range is divided from East to West into the Eastern, Central
and Western Salt Range. The Salt Range thrust is strongly emergent in its Central and
Western parts, whereas in the east it is entirely a buried thrust (terminology of Morley,
1986) and folding predominates (Lillie et al., 1987). Davis & Engelder (1985) suggested
that the difference in the structural style between East and West is the result of
eastward thinning of the evaporites.

4.4.1 Eastern Salt Range

Eastward, the Salt Range loses its stature and bifurcates into two narrow NE
trending ridges, the Diljabba and Chambal -Jogi Tilla. The Chambal-Jogi Tilla comprises
steeply dipping monoclines, complicated by complex thrusts and tear faults whereas the
Diljabba Hills is a steeply dipping anticline traversed by Diljabba-Domeli Thrust (Kazmi
and Jan, 1997).
The surface geology in the Eastern part of Salt Range is marked by the two NE-
SW oriented back thrusts (Gee, 1980) within the roof sequence. The northern back

38
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

thrust is quite persistent, extends further in the northeast direction, and is called the Dil
Jaba fault. Dil Jabba fault, in general, brings Salt Range Formation and, at places,
Chingi and Murree Formations over the Nagri Formation. The southern back thrust has
been named the Chail fault. It is a local fault and dies out in both NE and SW directions.
The broad, open synclines and close, often faulted anticlines of the plateau are
bounded to the NW by the Diljabba-Karangal Thrust, which terminates near Choa
Saidan Shah. It is replaced by one of similar trend, but of opposite throw, repeating the
complete sequence in Gandhala Valley to the southwest (Gee, 1989). The structure of
the Eastern Salt Range is manifested by making a balanced cross-section D-D'
constructed in the Eastern Salt Range (Qayyum, 1991) (Fig. 4.6).
In the Eastern Salt Range, unlike the west, the northern ramp is located
approximately in line with the basement normal fault observed in the Central Salt
Range. This suggests that the timing of the ramping of the roof sequence in the Eastern
Salt Range should be consistent with the initial ramping of the roof sequence over the
basement normal fault in the Central Salt RangeThe roof sequence, compared with its
central part, is relatively more deformed both in its northern and southern parts as it
rides over the northern ramp. The deformation in its northern part is due to the frontal
ramp and in its southern part is related to the back thrusts. The central portion is
relatively little deformed with small salt-cored anticlines and broad, flat-bottomed
synclines. Approximately 17.6 km of total shortening has been accommodated in
Eastern Salt Range (Qayyum, 1991).
Fig 4.6: Geological map of the Salt Range (simplified after Gee, 1980).

39
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

It

also shows the locations of a balanced cross section DD/ and petroleum
exploration wells used in this study area (Qayyum, 1991).

Fig 4.7: (A) Balanced cross section showing present day structure along D-D'
in the Eastern Salt Range. (B) Balanced and restored structural cross section shows
that about 17 km shortening has occurred along D-D' (Qayyum, 1991).

The S-shaped zone in ESR is in fact, a transitional zone from fault bend fold
geometry to fault propagation fold geometry. This zone developed due to the marked

40
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

difference in the shortening within the thrust wedge. As the thrust sheet ramped down
along the Lateral ramp, all the shortening has been accommodated within the thrust
wedge itself, which caused the E-W trend of folding (Qayyum, 1991).
In the Eastern end of the range, erosion was intense during the Late
Cretaceous and Late Eocene-Oligocene time. As a result, in Jogi Tilla only a thin Lower
Permian and Eocene-Paleocene sequence occurs between the Cambrian and
unconformable Miocene sediments, whereas is in Chambal and in the main range
immediately west of Jalalpur, the Murree Formation directly overlies the upper member
of Cambrian succession (Burbank, 1983).
Westward to Khewra--Choa Saidan Shah Area, the Salt Range Formation
and Cambrian-Jhelum Group continue in force the Tobra Conglomerates overlie a
variable thickness of the Baghanwala Formation. Within the Khewra Salt Mine, the thick
seams of good quality rock salt dip northward in general conformity with the overlying
sequence. In the Billianwala tributary valley immediately south of the Salt Mine, sub-
recent sandstones, clays, and gypsiferous conglomerates occur with northerly dips of
40, indicative of Late Quaternary to recent thrusting within the Salt Range Formation
(Qayyum, 1991).

4.4.2 Central Salt Range

The surface geology across the Central Salt Range manifests the gradual
exposure of older platform strata toward the South. The basement normal fault has
acted as a buttress against which the salt has thickened. It also constitutes the lower
part of the northern ramp and brings the older platform sequence to the surface. As the
roof sequence rides over the northern ramp due to the basement normal fault, the strata
become almost horizontal. The roof sequence is very gently folded into a series of small
salt-cored anticlines near the leading edge. These anticlines are generally bounded by
minor normal faults. Near the leading edge, there is a back thrust that brings Salt Range
Formation over either the Jhelum Group or the Nilawahan group. This back thrust may
have developed late in the geological history to build topography in order to maintain the

41
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

forward motion of the roof sequence. The back thrust results in a total shortening of 27
km in the Central Salt Range (Qayyum, 1991).
Westward near to Sakesar peak, the range widens to some 30 km. In the north,
the Eocene formations, capped in places by sandstone and clay-shales of the Early
Miocene and overlain unconformably by Late Pliocene-Pleistocene Kalabagh
Conglomerates, occur as broad, east and west plunging anticlines and synclines of
varying wavelengths. The plunge variation results in large domes and basins e.g.
between Dhariala and Kallar Kahar and westward via Vasnal and Khabakki in the
approach to Sakesar (Gee, 1989). Several of these folds are faulted.
A concealed duplex structure is newly recognized in central Salt Range
(Fig. 2.7). It was evolved along a dcollement with two ramps and extends more than 40
km along strike. The first ramp is within the Salt Range Formation. The second ramp
crosses the platform sequence and follows shaley horizons of the overlying Murree
Formation near the contact. The duplex structure is only present in the Central Salt
Range, which implies that the dcollement at its base must step down section and join
the main dcollement both in the west and the east. Further west along the duplex edge
the platform sequence is flat and has not yet ramped upward. This implies that the
dcollement at the base of the duplex structure steps down along a Lateral ramp to join
the main dcollement (Qayyum, 1991).

4.4.3 Western Salt Range

Westward, the Salt Range takes a NW bend near Warchha. Its structure remains
the same and it is separated by the Kalabagh Fault from the Trans Indus Ranges. This
directional change coincides with a change in strike of the formations accompanied by
complex faulted lineaments (Gee, 1989).
As the platform sequence rides over the northern ramp, it immediately becomes
horizontal with a few very gentle folds. The basement normal fault and the duplex
structures underneath the roof sequence, seen in the Central Salt Range, disappear.
The northern ramp that caused the surface exposure of the platform sequence is
entirely within the sedimentary sequence. It is located about 15 km south of the position

42
 TECTONIC SETTING OF THE AREA

of the basement normal fault that acts as a part of the northern ramp in the Central Salt
Range. This suggests that a Lateral ramp must connect these two structures. The major
component of shortening has been accommodated across the southern ramp
(McDougall and Khan, 1990). Palinspastic restoration indicates that 32 km of total
minimum crustal shortening has occurred (Leathers, 1987).
In the western Salt Range, the Salt Range Formation forms diapirs which
are localized along high-angle faults including the right lateral tear fault. The largest of
these diapirs is found at Kalabagh on the Indus River (Yeats and Lawerence, 1984).

Fig 4.8: Explanation for the different stratigraphic units and structural features such as
wedge shaped geometry, Basement normal fault and the deformational style of the roof
sequence (Modified after Qayyum, 1991).

43