ECONOMIC MINERALS

ECONOMIC MINERALS

8.1 Economic Minerals and Industrial Rocks

Economic geology is the study of fuels, metals and other material of the earth
that are of interest to industry or the economy in general. It is concerned with the
distribution of the resources, the cost and the benefits of their recovery and the value
and benefits of the existing material. These materials include metallic, non metallic
minerals, construction grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal and water (McGraw-Hill,
1997).

Geological explorations basically concern with the hunting of new economic

mineral deposits and natural resources present within the earth. Industrial rocks and
minerals of the Potwar Plateau area are characteristically hosted by the Cambrian to
Paleogene sedimentary formations and therefore occur in the Salt Range and in the
zone of shingled thrust faults and folds. Minerals of economic value constitute the back
bone of economy of the country. The scope of our work was restricted to the
lithostructural mapping, study of depositional environment and seismic interpretation but
it is necessary to write something on economic deposits present in mapped area. Main
economic deposits found in the study area are:

Coal

Laterite

Fire clay

Limestone

Dolomite

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8.1.1 Coal

Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon. The

energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of
years ago in swampy forests. Coal is readily combustible rock containing carbonaceous
material more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume, formed
from compaction or induration of variously altered plant remains, similar to those of
peaty deposits. Differences in the kinds of plant materials (type), in the degree of
metamorphism (rank) and range of impurities, are characteristics the varieties of coal
(Boggs, 1994).

8.1.1.1Classification of Coal

A common method of classifying coal is by rank, based on the degree of

coalification, attained by coal owing to burial and metamorphism (Boggs, 1994):

Peat: It consists of unconsolidated, semi carbonized plant remains with high moisture
content.

Lignite: Lignite or brown coal is the lowest rank coal.

Bituminous: These coals are hard, black color and contain lesser amount of volatiles
and moisture.

Anthracite: It is hard, dense, black coal containing more than 90 percent carbon .

Coal is the most important mineral present in the Study Area. There are a
number of Coal mines in the Study Area ( Fig: 8.1). Coal mining is done by the private
enterprises throughout the study area. Most of the locals are employed in the coal
mines.

Pakistan contains large deposits of low quality (lignitic to sub bituminous) coal of
Tertiary age. The reserves are estimated to be 447 million tons and a yearly
production of about 1.15 million tons (Hundal and Gauhar, 1975) is obtained. The coal

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fields are situated in Indus Basin in three general areas, termed as Coal provinces,
which are Salt Range, Quetta and Hyderabad.

Most coal and carbonaceous shale deposits in the Salt Range are contained
within the Paleocene Patala Formation; limited occurrences are in the Lower Permian
Warchha Formation at Burikhel area (Gee, 1938; Bhatti, 1967; Shah, 1980; Alam and
others, 1987).

The Late Paleocene Salt Range coal is found in the Patala Formation ( Fig: 8.2).
It is mined from escarpment faces formed by erosional valleys. The dip of producing
strata varies between 10-22 degrees. Thickness of coal seam varies from few inches to
about 4 feet. The coal of the study area has been classed as high volatile, bituminous
and is high in ash and sulfur content. It is poor quality coal and due to presence of sulfur
content, is not used in industries (Alam and others, 1987).

Coal mining industry, in the study area, is totally unmechanized. Exploration is

done by only private enterprises and they use very primitive and crude methods. Man
carries coal on their shoulders out of the mines and then is transported to the metalled
road by camels or donkeys.

A few mines are accessible by trucks near Wahali Bala and khajula Village. Coal
of the study area is used as solid fuels in brick and line burning Killen, ginning factories
and domestic uses. Small quantity of selected grade is used in hand fired boilers of
power stations and in railway locomotives.

8.1.1.2 Economic Value of Coal

Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could potentially limit
escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that
will occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity
becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for petroleum.

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Fig 8.1: Coal Mines in the Study Area, Eastern Salt Range.

Fig 8.2: Coal of Patala Formation, near Chua Saidan Shah, Eastern Salt Range.

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8.1.1.3 Uses of Coal

Coal has three major markets: electric utilities, industrial/retail users and the
steel industry:

Coal first largest market is electricity generation by producing heat and running
turbines.

Coal's second largest market is industrial and retail users. Among the industries
using coal, the largest consumers are chemical manufacturers, users of stone, clay and
glass, paper mills, primary metal industries and the food industry. Industry uses coal as
a chemical feedstock to make dyes, insecticides, fertilizers, explosives, synthetic fibers,
food preservatives, ammonia, synthetic rubber, fingernail polish, medicines, etc.

The third largest market is the iron and steel industry, where coal is used to make
the coke.

8.1.2 Laterite

Laterites are the products of intensive and long lasting tropical rock
weathering which is intensified by high rain fall and elevated temperatures. Formation of
the most of laterites started in Tertiary (W.Schellmann).

It is a pact soil residue, composed of secondary oxides of iron, aluminum or both.

In region of extreme weathering intensity, even kaolinite is unstable and silica is leached
from the clay minerals bearing as amorphous residue.

Several occurrences of residual lateritic deposits are also reported from Indus
Basin (Ahmad, 1969). These deposits are mainly associated with the omni-present
unconformity between Cretaceous and Tertiary systems in the Indus Basin. In the

Salt Range, it is associated with Hangu Formation in its basal part which shows
economically explore-able.

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The laterite mostly occurs along with bauxite which is the main source material for
aluminium.

Fig 8.3: Laterite of Hangu Formation near Chua Saidan Shah

8.1.2.1 Economic Value of Laterite

Lateritic weathering has a considerable economic significance all for the mining
of relevant metals predominantly nickel and aluminum. High grade iron ores of tropical
deposits of banded iron formations are also attributed to lateritic weathering which
causes dissolution and removal of siliceous constituents in the banded iron ore. Laterite
has also a great significance as building material.

8.1.2.2 Uses of Laterite

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It is used in cement industry, steel mills and stationary etc.

Laterite is used as building material for the construction of simple houses and as
road building material.

8.1.3 Fire Clay

Fire clay is clay that can withstand high temperatures without disintegrating or
turning pasty. Flint clays are non-plastic. Fire clays are microcrystalline clay rocks
composed predominantly of kaolin. Much fire clay is derived from under clays beneath
coal beds but all under clays are not fire clays. Fire clays are generally dark in colour.
The overall reserves are about three million tons. It is widely mined from Mianwali,
Jhelum, Khushab and Chakwal districts (Ahmad et al., 1969).

Fireclay deposits are reported from various places and are worked extensively in
the Salt Range and Trans Indus ranges. The clay beds occur mainly in Jurassic Datta
Formation and Paleocene Hangu and Patala Formations. In the Eastern Salt Range fire
clay is found at Wahali Bala in the basal part of Patala Formation underlying the
carbonaceous shales of the Formation (Shah, 1977).

8.1.3.1 Uses of Fire Clay

Fire clay is widely used in manufacturing of clay, crucibles and fire bricks and as
a binder in molding sands.

The main use of fire clay is in manufacture of heavy products, chemicals,

cements, portrays and stoneware.

8.1.4 Limestone

Limestone, a sedimentary rock that is dominantly composed of the calcium-

bearing carbonate minerals calcite and dolomite which are of different crystal forms of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcite is chemically calcium carbonate (formula CaCO3).
Dolomite is chemically calcium-magnesium carbonate (formula CaMg(CO3) 2).

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Limestone is the most abundant mineral commodity in Pakistan. Limestone of

the Indus Basin and axial Belt are Late Paleozoic to Tertiary in age. Limestone is
present in the Nammal Formation and Sakesar Limestone of the study area.Geological
survey of Pakistan has given reserves of limestone upto 1120 million metric tons after
deducting 10% quarry losses by taking average area of 7778163 sq. meters, average
high above ground surface to 64m and specific gravity of 2.5. These reserves will be
sufficient to be lost for 909 years even if the limestone is mined at the rate of 2850 tons
per day (Shah Z.H., 2006).

8.1.4.1 Mining of Limestone

Limestone has been a valuable resource since Missouri became a state. In

early open pitoperations, limestone was mined and crushed by hand and removed from
the quarries by mules, carts and tramways.

Limestone is now mined using surface and underground methods. Surface

quarrying is the most common method of producing limestone in Missouri. Also, it is
typically the most economical method. Many surface operations are simply hillside cuts
or open pit quarries. Controlled blasting at the quarry face is used to break the rock into
pieces. If necessary, this material is further reduced to various size grades by rock
crushers. The rock is then screen-separated and cleaned.

Underground mining is performed using the room-and-pillar method, which

involves the removal of limestone rooms while leaving an array of pillars to support
the overlying roof. These operations can be extensive and often encompass many
acres. Underground mining is commonly used when a specific rock layer is desired in
areas where there is thick material overlying the desired rock. In this instance it is more
economical to mine horizontally underground , following the rock unit, without
removing all the overburden. The rock is processed using the same methods employed
at surface quarries.

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8.1.4.2 Uses of Limestone

Limestones that are sufficiently dense and durable and not fractured may be cut
intomarble blocks that are used for dimensional building stone and architectural
enhancement

High-calcium limestone is used to make Portland cement that is used in concrete

and mortars

The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium

hydroxide).

Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil

conditions.

Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs.

Manufacture of glass, paper, plastics, thermoplastics, rubber, ink, paint,

whitewash, dyes, adhesives, coatings and sealants.

Rematerializing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe

corrosion and to return essential nutrients.

Dusting agents to prevent explosions in underground coal mines .

8.1.5 Dolomite

Dolomite is a common mineral with the ideal chemical composition

CaMg(CO3)2. It is colourless and transparent or white when pure. Hardness is 3.4 on
Mohos Scale. Dolomite is harder and denser than the calcite form of calcium carbonate
or limestone and is more chemically inert and more impervious to acid attack and the
specific gravity is 2.85. It is mostly found in association with limestone and evaporite
rocks and is of digenetic origin.

In Punjab, its estimated reserves are over 900 million tonnes and mainly found
in the district Chakwal and Mianwali. In fact, the process of dolomitization is so common

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in the rocks that most of the limestone of the country are observed to have been
dolomitized to a lesser or greater degree (Raza, H. A. 1973).

In Eastern Salt Range Jutana Formation (Cambrian) is the major dolomite

bearing formation (figure no 8.4). and Salt Range Formation (Precambrian) containing
minor amount of dolomite. Dolomite is of good grade, close to the theoretical value of
dolomite.

Fig 8.4:Jutana Dolomite near Chua Saidan Shah in study area.

8.1.5.1 Uses of Dolomite

It is used in different forms for various purposes such as:

Massive dolomites are used in the building stones, monumental stone and
sculpture.
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Chips dolomites are used in road metal paths, graves, white concrete, agriculture
fertilizer, sugar refining, water purification, tooth-pastes, scouring powder, glass,
ceramics and paints.

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