fd rod cra Garin SIAC TIS 4 DN TiO @r 177 (heCONTROL SYSTEMS A. Anand Kamar (© 2007 by PHI Leaming Pivate Limited, New Dall, All rights resewed. No pat ofthis book may. be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any oher means, without permission in wg from the publisher. 188N-978-81-203.5197-6 ‘The export rights of thie book are vested soley wth the publisher. Second Printing a a ‘September, 2008 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Dalhi-110001 and Printad by Rakkamal Bot Prose, £358, G7. Kamal Road Industal ‘Area, Delhi 10033,Contents Preface wi 1, Introduction to Control Systems 1-20 1.1 Introduction 1 112 Classifeaion of Conrol Systems 2 1.2.1 Open-Loop Control Systems 3 1.22 Closed-Loop Control Systems 4 1.23 Closed-Loop Sysiem versis Open-Loop System 3 1.24 Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems 7 1.23. Time-Invariant versus Time-Varying Control Systems 7 1.2.6 Continuous-Data versus Diserete-Data Control Sysiems 7 1.3. What Feedback is and What lis Effects are 8 1.3.1 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain 9 1.32. Effect of Feedback on Stability 9 1.33 Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance or Noise 10 1.34 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity 11 1.4 Servomechanism 11 1.4.1 Automatic Tank Level Control System 11 1.42 A Position Control System 12 1.43. DC Closed-Loop Control System 13 144 AC Closed-Loop Control System 13. Short Questions and Answers 4 Review Questions 19 Fill in the Blanks 19 2. Mathematical Models of Physical Systems 21-97 2.1 Modelling of Mechanical System Elements 21 2.1.1 Translational Sysiems 24 2.12 Rotational Systems 25 2.2 Electrical Systems 26vi Contents 23. Analogous Systems 28 2.3.1 Impulse Response and Transfer Functions of Linear Systems 29 24. ‘Transfer Function: Single-Input-Single-Output Systems 29 2.4.1 Proper Transfer Function 30 2.4.2 Characteristic Equation 30 2.5 Transfer Funetion (Multivarible Systems) 31 2.5.1 Sinusoidal Transfer Funetion 32 2.6 Procedure for Deriving Transfer Functions 32 2.7 Servomotors 64 2.7.1 DC Servomotors 65 2.72 AC Servomotors 73 2.8 Synchros 77 2.8.1 Synchro Transmitter 77 2.82. Synchro Control Transformer 79 2.83 Synchro as an Emor Detector 79 2.9 Gear Trains 80 Shori Questions and Answers 83 Review Questions 90 Fill in the Blanks 91 Objective Type Questions — 93 Problems 95 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graphs 98-169 3.1 Block Diagrams 98 3.1.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System 100 3.1.2. Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Multivariable Systems 101 13° Procedure for Drawing a Block Diagram 104 1.4 Block Diagram Reduction 105 3.2 Signal Flow Graphs 108 1 Construction of Signal Flow Graphs 109 2 Basic Properties of Signal Flow Graph 113 3. Signal Flow Graph Alecba 113 3.24 Construction of Signal Flow Graph for Control Systems 115 Shori Questions and Answers 159 Fill in the Blanks 163 Objective Type Questions 164 Problems 166 new 2. Time Response Analysis 170-271 4.1 Time Response of Control Systems 170 4.2 Standard Test Signals 171 4.2.1 Step Signal 171 4.2.2 Ramp Signal 172Contents vii 43 44 46 47 48 49 4.23 Parabolic Signal 172 4.24 Impulse Signal 173 Time Response of First-Order Systems 174 4.3.1 UnitStep Response of First-Order Systems 174 4.3.2 UnitRamp Response of First-Order Systems 176 4.3.3. UnitImpulse Response of First-Order Systems 177 4.3.4 An Important Property of Linear Time-Invariant Systems 177 Second-Order Systems 178 4.4.1 Response of Second-Order System to the Unit-Step Input 178 4.42. Time Response Specifications — 182 4.43 Derivation of Expression for Rise Time, Peak Time, Peak Overshoot, Settling Time and Steady-State Error 183 Steady-State Errors and Error Constants 187 4.5.1 Static Position Error Constant K, 188 4.5.2. Static Velocity Emcor Constant K, 188 4.53 Static Acceleration Emor Constant Ky 188 ‘Types of Control Systems 189 4.6.1 Steady-State Error: Type-D System 189 4.6.2 Steady-Siate Error: Type-I System 190 4.63 Steady-State Error: Type-2 System 190 Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros to Transfer Functions 192 4.7.1 Addition of a Pole to the Forward Path Transfer Funetion 193 4.7.2. Addition of a Pole to the Closed-Loop Transfer Function 193 4.73 Addition of a Zero to the Closed-Loop Transfer Function 193 4.74 Addition of Zero to the Fonvard Path Transfer Funetion 193 Dominant Poles of Transfer Functions 193 4.8.1 The Relative Damping Ratio 194 4.82. The Proper Way of Neglecting Insige Consideration of Steady-State Response 194 Response with P, Pl, PD and PID Controllers 231 4.9.1 Proportional Control 231 4.9.2 Derivative Control 232 4.93 Derivative Feedback Control 234 4.94 Imtegral Control 241 4.9.55 Proportional-plus-Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID Control) 243, ficant Poles with ‘Short Questions and Answers — 248 Review Questions 256 Fill in the Blanks 257 Objective Type Questions 261 Problems 267viti__Contents 5. 272-331 5.1 Introduetion 272 52 Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) Stability 273, 33 Necessary Conditions for Stability 277 54 Routh Siabilty Criterion 282 $.5. Difficulties in the Formulation of the Routh Table 283 S31 Difficulty 1283 5.52. Difficulty 2 283 5.6 Applicaion of the Routh Stability Criterion to Linsar Feedback Systems. 298 5:7 Relative Stability Analysis 314 Short Questions and Answers 318 Review Questions 323 Fill in the Blanks 323 Objective Type Questions 324 Problems 327 6. Root Locus Technique 332-404 6.1 Introduction 332 62 Root Locus Concepts 333 63. Corsiruction of Root Losi 337 6.4 Rules for the Construction of the Root Locus 338 6.4.1 Determination of Roots for @ Specified Open-Loop Gain 348 6.42 Determination of Open-Loop Gain for a Specified Damping of Dominant Rocts 349 65. Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros to G(s)M(s) 349. 6.5.1 Addition of Poles to Gis)H(s) 349 652 Addition of Zeros to Gsyif(s) 349 Shor! Questions and Answers 394 Review Questions 398 Fill in the Blanks 398 Objective Type Questions 400 Problems 402 7. Frequency Response Analysis 405-481 7.1 Introduction 405 7.2. Correlation between Time and Frequency Response 406 7.2.1 Second-Order Systems 407 7.22 Higher-Order Systems 413 Polar Pts 417 7.3.1 Inverse Polar Plots 420 74 Bode Plots 428 7.4.1 Basic Factors of G@Ha) 428 7.4.2 General Procedure for Constructing Bode Plots 439Contents _ix 7.5. All-Pass and Minimum-Phase Systems 443 7.5.1 Correlation between Phase Margin and Damping Ratio of a Second-Order Underdamped System 445, 7.6 Computation of Gain Margin and Phase Margin 446 7.6.1 Determination of Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Bode Plot 446 7.62. Relative Stability Related to the Slope of the Log Magnitude Curve of the Bode Plot 447 7.63 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Bode Plot compared to the Nyquist Plot 448 7.64 Gain Adjustment in Bode Plot 448 7.7 Experimental Determination of Transfer Functions 449 7.8 Log Magnitude Versus Phase Plois 450 7.9. Closed-Loop Frequency-Response 451 7.9.1 Frequency-Domain Specifications 451 Shori Questions and Answers 470 Review Questions 475 Fill in the Blanks — 476 Objective Type Questions — 477 Problems 479 Nyquist Plot 482-533 8.1 Introduction 482 82. Principle of Argument 483 8.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 486 8.3.1 Open-Loop Poles on the j@-Axis 492 8.4 Nyquist Stability Criterion Applied to Inverse Polar Plots S05 8.5. Effects of Addition of Poles and Zeros to G(s)H(s) on the Shape of Nyquist Plot 507 8.5.1 Addition of Poles at s=0 507 8.5.2 Addition of Finite Non-zero Poles 507 8.53. Addition of a Ze 507 8.6 Assessment of Relative Stability Using Nyquist Criterion $08 8.6.1 Gain Margin and Phase Margin 509 8.7 Constant Mand N Circles S19 8.7.1 Constant M Circles 520 8.7.2. Constant V Circles 521 8.8 The Nichols Chart 523 Short Questions and Answers $24 Review Questions 527 Fill in the Blanks 527 Objective Type Questions $29 Problems 531X_Contents 9. Compensation 9.1 Introduction $34 9.2 Types of Compensators 535 92.1 Selection of a Compensator 53: 9.3. Realization of Basic Compensators 536 9.3.1 Lead Compensator $36 9.3.2 Lag Compensator $39 9.3.3 Lag-Lead Compensator S41 9.4 Cascade Compensation in Frequency-Domain 543 9.4.1 Lead Compensation S44 9.42 Lag Compensator $50 9.43 Lag-Lead Compensation 555 95 PID Controller 558 Short Questions and Answers 561 Review Questions 565 Fill in the Blanks 565 Objective Type Questions 367 Problems 568 10. State-Space Analysis 10.1 Modern Control Theory 570 10.1.1 Modein Control Theory versus Conventional Control Theory $70 10.2 Concepts of State, State Variables and State Model 572 10.2.1 State-Space Equations $73 10.2.2 State Model of Linear Time-invariant Systems S74 10.2.3 State Model for Single-Input-Single-Output Lineer Systems 575 10.3. State-Space Representation 576 10.3.1 State-Space Representation Using Physical Variables 76 10.3.2 State-Space Representation Using Phase Variables 590 10.4 Decomposition of Transfer Functions 603 10.4.1 Direct Decomposition 604 10.4.2 Cascade Decomposition 609 10.4.3 Parallel Decomposition 612 10.5 Diagoralization 616 10.5.1 Similarity Transformation 617 10.6 Solution of State Equations: State Transition Matrix. and State Transition Equation 627 10.7 Computation oF the State Transition Matrix, 630 10.7.1 Computation of the STM by Infinite Series Method 630 10.7.2 Computation of the STM ty Laplace Transformation 631 10.7.3 Computation of the STM using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 534-569 570-693 033Contents _xi 10.7.4 Computation of STM by Canonical Transformation 637 10.7.5 Computation of STM by Sylvester’s Method 642 10.8 Transfer Function from the State Model 651 10.9 Stability 653 10.10 Controllability of Linear Systems 655 10.10.1 Alternative Form of the Condition for Complete State Controllability 656 10,10.2 Condition for Complete State Controllability in the Plane 657 10.10.3 Output Controllability 657 10.11 Observability of Linear Systems 662 10.11.1 Definition of Observability 663 10.11.2 Conditions for Complete Observability in the s-Plane 665 10.113 Alternative Condition for Observability 655 10.114 Observable Phase Variable Form 667 Shori Questions and Answers 669 Review Questions 677 Fill in the Blanks 678 Objective Type Questions — 681 Problems 682 Index 695-699xiv Preface ‘The design and compensation of control systems can be carried out in time-domain or frequency-domain, but design and compensation in frequency-domain is much simpler. In frequency-domain, compensation using Bode plots is much simpler than using other plots and is diseussed in Chapter 9 State variable approach is the modern direct, time-domain approach for the analysis and design of control systems. Detailed analysis of systems using state variables as well as the controllability and observability of control systems are the topies discussed in Chapter 10, ‘A large number of examples have been worked out to help students understand the con- cepts. Extensive short questions and answers are given at the end of each chapter to enable the students to prepare for the examinations very thoroughly. Review questions, Fill in the blank type questions, objective type multiple choice questions and numerical problems are included at the end of each chapter to enable the students to build a clear understanding of the subject matter discussed in the text and also to assess their leaming. The answers to all these are also given, Almost all the solved and unsolved problems presented in this book have been classroom tested, express my profound gratitude to all those who directly or indirectly helped me in the successful completion of this book. First of all I thank Mr. V. Srinivasa Rao of Adam’s Engineering College, Palvancha who drew all the figures and typed some part of the manuscript ‘and Mr. P. Venkateswara Rao of our college who typed the remaining part of the manuscript. Tam grateful to Mr. Burugupalli Venugopalekrishna. Chairman Sasi Educational Society, Velivennu, who encourezed and provided me with all the facilities to carry out this work in this institute, I thank Mr. N. Tirumaia Rao, ‘Treasurer, Mr. 8. Ravi Kumar, Executive Director, Dr. Y. Sudeer Babu, Principal, Mr. C. Seshu Babu, Administrative Officer and Mr N.V.V. Satish Cashier of Sasi Institute of Technology and Engineering for their encouragement throughout this. work, [express my sincere appreciation to my friends Dr. K, Koteswara Rao Chairman Gautham concept School, Gudivada and Mr, Ramesh Babu yeluri Detroit, USA for their constant encour- agement during the preparation of the manuscript. thank my publishers M/s PHI Leaming for accepting to publish this book. My thanks in particular go to the editor Mr. Sudarshan Das for meticulously editing the manuscript. I also thank Ms. Pushpita Ghosh, Managing Editor and Marketing Director for her encouragement in the early completion of the manuscript. Finally, Iam deeply indebted to my family: my wife A. Jhansi, who is the source of inspiration for this activity and without whose cooperation this work would not have been completed, my sons Dr. A. Anil Kumar and Mr. A. Sunil Kumar, and daughters-in-lew Dr. A. Anureet Kaur and A. Apurupa for motivating and encouraging me constantly to undertake and complete this work, ‘The author will gratefully acknowledge constructive criticism (rom both students and staf for further improvement of this book. Anand KumarIntroduction to Control Systems 1.1 INTRODUCTION A gystem is a collection of objects (components) connected together to serve an objective, or a system is a combination of components that act together to perform an objective. A control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism, or other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner, or simply a control system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, ‘A physical system is ¢ collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective. No physical system can be represented in its full physical intricacies and. therefore, idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis of systems, An idealized physical system is called a physical model. A physical system can be modelled in ‘a number of ways depending upon the specific problem to be dealt with and the desired accuracy. Once a physical model of a physical system is obtained, the next step is to obtain a ‘mathematical model, which is the mathematical representation of the physical model, through use of appropriate physical laws. Depending upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead to different mathematical models. A control system ‘may be modelled as a scalar differential equation describing the system or as a state variable vector-matrix differential equation. The particular mathematical model which gives a greater insight model of a physical system is solved for various input conditions, the resuit represents the dynamic response of the system. Mathematical models of most physical systems are characterized by differential equations. ‘A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coe are either function only of the independent variable or are constants. If the coefficients of the describing differential equation are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical model is linear time-varying. On the other hand, if the coefficients of the describing differential equations are constants, the model is linear tim: into the dynamic behaviour of the physical system is selected, When the mathematical 12 contro) systoms The differential equations describing a linear time-invariant system can be reshaped into different forms for the convenience of analysis. For example, for transient response or frequency response analysis of single-input-single-output linear systems, the transfer function representation forms a useful model. On the other hand, when a system has multiple inputs and outputs, the vector-matrix notation may be more convenient. The mathematical model of a sysiem having been obtained, the available mathematical ‘ools can then be utilized for analysis or synthesis of the system. Powerful mathematical tools like the Fourier and Laplace transforms are available for use in linear systems, Unfortunately, no physical system in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore, ceriain assumptions must always be made to get a linear mode! which is a compromise between the simplicity of the mathematical model and the accuracy of results obtained from it. However, it may not always be possible to obiain a valid linear model, for example, in the presence of a strong nonlinearity or in the presence of distributive effects which cannot be represented by lumped parameters 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS Control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of classification 1. Depending on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as (a) Open-loop control systems (b) Closed-loop control systems (©) Optimal control systems (0) Adaptive control systems (©) Learning control systems 2. Depending on the presence of human being as a part of the control system, control systems may be classified as (@) Manually controlled systems (b) Automatic control systems 3. Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as (@) Open-loop control systems (b) Closed-Loop control systems or feedback control systems 4, According to the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as (@) Position control systems (b) Velocity control systems (©) Process control systems (6) Temperature control systems (©) Traffic control systems, ete.Introduction to Control systems 3 Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of classification. 1. According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as linear control systems and nonlinear control systems. 2. Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant or vary with time, control systems may be classified as time-varying control systems or time-invariant control systems. 3. According to the types of signals used in the system, control systems may be classified as (a) Continuous-data control systems and discrete-data control systems (b) ac (modulated) control systems and de (unmodulated) control systems. 4, Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as position control systems, velocity control systems, process control systems, traffic control systems, etc. 5. Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems and multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) control systems. MIMO systems are also called multivariable systems 6. Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may by classified as (a) Type-0 (b) Type-1 (©) Type? ete. systems, 7. Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be classified as first-order control systems, second-order control systems, etc, 8. Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as (a) Undamped systems (b) Underdamped systems (©) Critically damped systems (@) Overdamped systems. 4.21 Open-Loop Control Systems ‘Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action, ie. on the inpat are called ‘open-loop control systems. In other words, in an open-loop control sysiem, the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. Open-loop control systems are not feedback systems. Any control system that operates on a time basis is open-loop. In any open-loop control system, the output is not compared with the reference input. Thus, to each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating condition: as 9 result, the accuracy of the system depends on the calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not perform the desired task because when the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to correct the output. In open-loop control systems, the4 contro: systoms changes in output are correcied by changing the input manually. Open-loop control systems can be used in practice only if the relationship between the input and the output is known and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances. One practical example of an open-loop control system is a washing machine—soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, ic. the cleanliness of the clothes. ‘A traffic control system that operates by means of signals on a time basis is another example of an open-loop control system. A room heater without any temperature sensing device is also an example of an open-loop control system. The general block diagram of an open-loop system is shown in Figure 1.1, Reference Actuating Contolled ionat Signal | Controlled | “Suriabie Controller +| "process Toten) — | uu) Figure 1.1. General tlock atagram of an oper-oop system. 1.22 Closed-Loop Control Systems Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control systems. In practice, the terms, ‘closed-loop control’ and “feedback control” are used interchangeably. In a closed-loop control system, the actuating error signal which is the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself or a function of the output signal and. its derivatives and/or integrals) is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a desired value. A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference as a means of control is called a feedback control system. The term “closed-loop control” always implies the use of feedback contral action in onder to reduce system error. ‘The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in Figure 1.2. It consists of an error detector, a controller, a plant and feedback path elements, Error Reference detector Error ‘Actuating input signal ah Ps e Controller Pant Feedback Signal Feedback path elements Figure 1.2 General block diagram ofa clasei-oop contro sytem. ‘The reference input corresponds to desired output. The feedback path elements convert the output to a signal of the same type as that of the reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to the output signal and is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error detector is the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. TheIntroduction to Control systems 5 controller modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed t0 the plant to correct its output. An example of a feedback control system is a room temperature control system. By ‘measuring the actual room temperature and comparing it with the reference temperature (desired temperature), the thermostat turns the heating or cooling equipment on or off in such a way as to ensure that the room temperature remains at a comfortable level regardless of outside conditions. ‘The following are some examples of control systems: ‘Traffic control system: Traffic control by means of traffic signals operated on a time basis, constitutes an open-loop control system. The sequence of control signals is based on a time slot given for ezch signal. The time slots are decided based on a traffic study. The system will not measure the density of the traffic before giving the signals. It gives the signals in sequence as per the setting irrespective of the actual traffic. Since the time slots do not change according, to traffic density. the system is an open-loop control system, This open-loop traffic control system can be made as a closed-loop system if the time slots of the signals are based on the density of traffic. In a closed-loop traffic control system, the density of the traffic is measured on all the sides and the information is fed toa computer. The timings of the control signals are decided by the computer based on the density of traffic. Since the closed-loop system dynamically changes the timings, the flow of vehicles will be better than in that of an open-loop system. Room heating system: A room heater without any temperature sensing device is an example of an open-loop control system. In this, an electric fumace is used to heat the room, The output is the desired room temperature. The temperature of the room is risen by the heat generated by the heating clement. The output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to the heater remains ON. The ON-OFF time of the heater is set @s per some calculation. Whatever ‘may be the room temperature, afier the set time, the heater will be OFF, The actual temperature is not compared with the reference temperature and the difference is not used for correction. The above system becomes a closed-loop system if a thermostat is provided to measure the actual temperature, and the actual temperature is compared with the reference, and the difference is used to control the timing for which the heater is ON. Washing machine: A washing machine without any cleanliness measuring system is an example of an open-loop control system. In this, the soaking, washing, and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine ON time is set based on some calculation. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is the cleanliness of the clothes. Once the set ON time is over, the machine will automatically stop. whatever may be the level of cleanliness. This can be a closed-loop control system, if the level of cleanliness can be measured and compared with the desired cleanliness (reference input) and the difference is used to control the washing time of the machine 1.23 Closed-Loop System versus Open-Loop System An open-loop system can be modified as a closed-loop system by providing feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances. Hence the closed-loop control system is called an automatic control sysiem6 contra systoms An advantage of the closed-loop control system is the fact that, the use of feedback make the system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the case of the open-loop system. From the point of view of stability, the open-loop control system is easier to build becouse system stability is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem in the closed-loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors that can cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude. It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in which there are no disturbances, it is advisable to use open-loop control. Closed-loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and / or unpredictable variations in system components are present. Note that the output power rating partially determines the cost, weight, and size of a control system. The number of components used in a closed-loop control system is more than that for a corresponding open-loop control system. Thus, the closed- loop control system is generally higher in cost and power. To decrease the required power of a system, open-loop conirol may be used where applicable. A proper combination of open-loop and closed-loop controls is usually less expensive and will give satisfactory overall system performanee. The advantages and disadvantages of open-loop and closed-loop control systems are summarized in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Open-loop vs closed-loop Qper-loop control ssstem Closed-loep control system 1. The open-loop systems are simple and ‘economical 2. They consume less power, 3. The open-loop systems are easier to construct because of less number of components required. 4. Stability is not a major problem in open-loop control sysiems. Generally, the open-loop systems are stable 5. The open-loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable. 6. The changes in the output die to externsl disturbances are not corrected automatically. So they are more sensitive to noise and other disturbances, The closed-loop systems are complex and costlier ‘They consume more power The closed-loop systems are not easy 10 construct because of more nunber of components required Stability is a major problem in, closed-loop control systems and more care is needed 10 design a stable closed-loop system The closed-loop systems are accurate and more reliable. The changes in the output due to external disturbances are corrested automatically, So they are less sensitive to noise and clher disturbances. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the The feedback in a closed-loop system may lead to oscillatory response, because it may over correct errors, thus causing oscillations of constant ot changing amplitude,Introduction to Control systems 7 1.24 Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems The classification of control systems into linear and nonlinear is made according to the method of analysis and design. A. system is said to be linear, if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of superpesition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is equal to the sum of the two individual responses. Hence for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the resulis. Strictly speaking, linear systems do not exist in practice, since all physical systems are nonlinear to some extent. Linear feedhack control systems are idealized models fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis and design. When the ‘magnitudes of signals in a control system are limited to ranges in which system components, exhibit linear characteristics, the system is essentially linear, but when the magnitudes of signals are extended beyond the range of the linear operation, depending on the severity of the nonlinearity, the system should no longer be considered linear. Common nonlinear effects focused in contiol systems are saturation, backlash, dead play between coupled gear members, nonlinear spring characteristics, nonlinear friction force or torque between moving members, and so on, Quite often, nonlinear characteristics are intentionally introduced in a control system to improve its performance, or to provide more effective control. For instance, to achieve minimum time control, an on-off type of controller is used in many missile or spacecraft control systems. For linear systems, there exist a wealth of analytical and graphical techniques for design and analysis purposes. Nonlinear systems on the other hand are usually difficult 10 treat ‘mathematically, and there are no general methods available for solving a wide class of nonlinear control systems, 4.25 Time-Invariant versus Time-Varying Control Systems When the parameters of a control system are stationary with respect to time during the operation of the system, the system is called a tinte-invariant system. If the parameters of a control system vary with respect to time during the operation of the system, the system is called a time-varying sysiem. In practice, most physical systems contain elements that drift or vary with time, For example, the winding resistance of an electric motor will vary when the motor is first being excited and its temperature is rising. Another example of a time-varying system is a guided missile control system in which the mass of the missile decreases as the fuel on board is being, consumed during flight. The analysis and design of linear time-varying systems are usually much more complex than that of the linear time-invariant systems. 1.26 Continuous-Data versus Discrete-Data Control Systems A continuous-deta control system is one in which the signals at various parts of the system are all functions of the continuous time variable and among all continuous-data control systems, the signals may be further classified as ac or de. An ae control system usually means that the signals in the system ate modulated by some form of modulation scheme, On the other hand, when a de control system is referred 10, it does not mean thet all the signals in the system are unidirectional, then there would be no corrective control movement. A de control system simply implies that the signals are unmodulated, but they are still ac signals according to the conventional definition.8 Contraisystoms In practice, not all control systems are strictly of the ac or de type. A system may incorporate a mixture of ac and de components using modulators and demodulators to match the signals at various points in the system. Discrete-data control systems differ from the continuous-data control systems in that the signals at one or more points of the system are in the form of either a pulse train or digital code. Usually diserete-data control systems are subdivided into sampled-data control systems and digital control systems. Sampled-date control systems refer to a more general class of discrete- data control systems, in which the signals are in the form of pulse data. A digital control system refers to the use of o digital computer or controller in the system so that the signals are digitally coded, such as in binary code. In general, a sampled-data control system receives data or information only intermittently at specific instants of time. Strictly, a sampled-data system can also be classified as an ac system, since the signal of the system is pulse modulated Sampling may be inherent or intentional. There are many advantages of incorporating sampling into @ control system. One important advantage of the sampling operation is that expensive equipment used in the system may be time shared among several control channels. Another advantage is that pulse date are usually less susceptible to noise. Because digital computers provide many advantages in size and flexibility, computer control has become increasingly popular in recent years 1.3. WHAT FEEDBACK IS AND WHAT ITS EFFECTS ARE One use of feedback is for the purpose of reducing the error between the reference input and the system output. The reduction of system error is merely one of the many important effects that feedback may have upon a system. Feedback also has effects on such system performance characteristies as stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity. When feedback is deliberately introduced for the purpose of control, its existence is easily identified. However. there are numerous situations wherein a physical system that we normally recognize as an inherently nonfeedback system tums out to have feedback when it is observed in a certain manner. In general, we can state that whenever a closed sequence of cause-and-effect relationships exist among the variables of a system, feedback is said to exist. This view point will inevitebly admit feedback in a large number of systems that ordinarily would be identified as nonfeedback systems. Figure 1.3 Feedback system with one feedback loopIntroduction to Control systems 9 ‘The input-output relation of a single loop control system shown in Figure 1.3 is given by <_ G + 1+GH ay 1.3.1. Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain As seen from Eq. (1.1), feedback affects the gain G of a nonfeedback system by a factor V(\_ + GH), The system of Figure 13 is said to have negative feedback, since a minus sign is assigned to the feedback signal. The quantity GH may itself include a negative sign, so the general effect of feedback is that it may increase or deerease the gain. In a practical control system, G and H are functions of frequency, so the magnitude of | + GH may be greater than 1 in one frequency range but less than 1 in another. Therefore, feedback could increase the sysiem gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another. 1.3.2. Effect of Feedback on Stability Stability is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input command, or be used in general. In a nonrigorous manner, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of control. To investigate the effect of feedback on stability, refer to Eq. (1.1). If GH =—1, the output of the system is infinite for any finite input and the system is said to be unstable. Therefore, we may state that feedback can cause a system that is originally stable to become unstable, Certainly, feedback is a two-edged sword, when used improperly, it can be harmful In general, GH = ~1 is not the only condition for unstability. ‘One of the advantages of incorporating feedback is that it ean stabilize an unstable system. Let us assume that the feedback system shown in Figure 1.3 is unstable because GH = -1. If wwe introduce another feedback loop through a negative feedbsek gain of F as shown in Figure [.4, the input-output relation of the overall system is © G £. _¢ _ 12 rr 1+GH+GF a) a +f + aT° te , : 6 . -e rsa ele = 4 F Figure 1.4 Feedbeck system with two feedback loops10 comeisyeeme 1k is sore! hat alhous he properties of Can ar such tha i ener lop feibuk system is unable, because CH= I, he ove sytem canbe saleby groper selection of the eur loop feedback gin F. In practice, GH is a function of frequen and the sabiliy cordon ofthe elesrsiop system depends onthe magnitude ard phase of GH. So we cen orelude ta feedtack can improv sablty or be hail 1 stably i i is oot applied repent 41.33. Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance or Notse All physical systems ae subjet 1 some types ofextranous signals or noise during operation Examples of these sigels are thermal noise voltage in electronic circuits and brush ot coramutator toi in elec moter. Exemral disturbances, for sxample wine gst sting cn an antenra, ae also quite commen is ental systems. Therefore inthe design ofa coml systom, corsierations should be given so tat the syste is insensitive to noise and dstuanees and sensitive ipa commanis. Me eet of feedbuckon nose and disurance depends greatly on where these exaneses ‘signals occur in the sytem. No geverl conclusions can be reached, but in many siuatons, Feedback can reduce te effect of aube and disturbance on system performance, Refer 10 Figue 1.5 in which r detest comma sign and nis the mise sigan the absence of feedback, 7 0, the ouput ¢ due to m astng slons is c= Gn a3) Win the presse of feedback the system ouput due tb m acing alone is G “Tae” ad ‘Comparing Egs. (13) and (14), we can conclude thatthe nose companent in the oupat of Eq. (14) is reduced by a factor 1+ GiGyt He later is greater than unity and te system is hep suble- sgaotaes J Lea: a a) fe ge 13 Fesstaksysem un ree snaIntroduction to Contt systems 14 1.3.4 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity Sensitivity considerations often are important in the design of control systems. Since all physical elements have properties that change with environment and age, we cannot always consider the parameters of a conirol system to be completely stationary over the entire operating life of the system. For instance. the winding resistance of an electric motor changes as the temperature of the motor rises during operation. In general, a good control system should be very’ insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to input commands. Let us investigate what effect feedback has on the sensitivity to parameter variations, Referring to the general block diagram of a closed-loop control system of Figure 1.3, we consider G to be a gain parameter that may vary. The sensitivity of the gain of the overall system, M, to the variation in G is defined as wy _ OMIM _ Percentage change in M ” OGG ~ Percentage change in G (5) where OM denotes the incremental change in M due to the incremental change in G, 9G. oe aS 1.6) 0G M$ 14+GH oy This relation shows that if GH is a positive constant, the magnitude of the sensitivity function can be made arbitrarily small by increasing Gi1, provided that the system remains stable. It is apparent that in an open-loop system, the gain of the system will respond in a on to-one fashion (0 the variation in G. (Le. $f = 1). In practice, Gi is a function of frequency ‘The magnitude of 1 + GH may be less than unity over some frequeney ranges, so that feedback could be harmful to the sensitivity to parameter variations in certain cases. In general, the sensitivity of the system gain of a feedback system to parameter variations depends on where the parameter is located. 1.4. SERVOMECHANISM In modem usage, the term servomechanism oF servo is restricted to feedback control systems in which the controlled variable is mechanical position or time derivatives of position, e.g. velocity and acceleration. Few servo mechanisms are illustrated below. 1.41 Automatic Tank Level Control System Figure 1.6 shows an automatic tank level control system. The purpose of this system is to ‘maintain the liquid level / (output) in the tank as close to the desired liquid level Has possible, even when the output flow rate is varied by opening the valve V). This has to be done by controlling the opening of the valve 13. The potentiometer acts as an error detector. The slider arm A is positioned corresponding to the desired liquid level Hi (the reference input). The power amplifier and the motor drive form the control elements. The float forms the feedback path element. The valve V3 to be controlled is the plant.12 contr systems ‘The liquid level is sensed by a float and it positions the slider arm B on the potentiometer. When the liquid level rises or falls, the potentiometer gives an error voltage proponional to the change in liquid level. The error voltage actiates the motor through a power amplifier which in turn conditions the plant (i.e, decreases or increases the opening of the valve V3) in order to restore the desired liquid level. Thus, the control system automatically attempts to correct any deviation between the actual and desired liquid levels in the tank. Mechanica link Dash poe Error detector (potentiometers) 1 | Moor |__| Power drive [17] amplifier Figure 4.6 Automate tank level control system 1.4.2. A Position Control System Figure 1.7 shows a servosystem used to position a load shaft. In this, the driving motor is geared to the load to be moved. The potentiometer is used as the error detector. The output and desired Generator Motor f — Gears ‘Amplifier potentiometer potentiometer Figure 1.7. A positon control system,Introduction to Cont sysioms 13, positions > and @ respectively are measured and compared by the potentiometer pair whose oulput voltage Vs is proportional to the error in angular position @p= @ — Bp. The voluge Vic= Kye is amplified and is used to control the field current of a de generator, which supplies armature voltage to the driving motor. The position control systems have innumerable applications, ramely machine tool position control, control of sheet metal thickness in hot rolling mills, radar tracking systems, n guidance systems, ete. 4.43 DC Closed-Loop Control System Figure 1.8 shows a typical de (unmodulated) control system. The output signal 4, represents the actual load position and the reference input 6, represents the desired position of the load. A potentiometer error detector is used. The electrical error signal proportional to the difference in the positions of the actual and desired load positions is amplified by the de amplifier and this, output drives the de motor which in turn through the gear box decides the position of the lead. The signals are all unmodulated (i.e. de). DC motor Load Conirolled 4 variable of + Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram of atypical de closed-loop system, 1.44 AC Closed-Loop Control System Figure 1.9 shows the schematic diagram of a typical ac control system. The output signal 8, representing the load position is applied to the synchro control transformer. The reference input 6, representing the desired output is applied to the synchro transmitter. The synchro pair acts as an error detector. The error signal is amplified by an ac amplifier and drives the ac servomotor which in tum positions the load through the gear box. The signals in this system are modulated (i.e, ac type).14 contr systems Synchro & Syachro transmitter conta I ae | wine OS Hein me Figure 19 Schematic diagram of a typical ac clasedloop contol system, SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |. What do you mean by a system? A system is a collection of objects (components) connected together to serve an objective, ot a system is a combination of components that act together to perform a certain objective 2. What do you mean by a control system? ‘A. A conirol system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism, or some other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner. or ‘A control system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity. 3. What do you mean by a physical system? ‘A. A physical system is a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective 4. What do you mean by a physical model? ‘A. An idealized physical system is called a physical model What do you mean by a mathematical model? ‘A. ‘The mathematical representation of the physical model is called the mathematical model.Introducten to Cont systems 15, When do you say that the mathematical model is tinear? ‘A mathematical model is said to be linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients which are either functions only of the independent variable oF are constants. When do you say that the model is linear time-varying? If the coefficients of the differential equation describing a system are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical mode! is said to be linear time varying, When do you say that the model is linear time-invariant? Ifthe coefficients of the differential equation describing a system are constants, then the ‘model is said to be linear time-invariant. How are control systems classified? A. Control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of 10, . Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the classification. (@) Based on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as (open-loop control systems Gi) closed-loop control systems Gii)_ optimal control systems (iv) adaptive control systems (¥) learning control systems (b) Based on the presence of human being as part of the system, control systems may be classified as, (@ manually controlled systems i) automatic control systems (0) Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as (open-loop control systems (Gi) closed-loop control systems or feedback control systems (@) Based on the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as, (position control systems i) velocity control systems (ii) traffic control systems iv) temperature control systems, ete. How are feedback control systems classified? Purpose of classification, (@) According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as ear contol systems and nonlinear control systems. (b) Depending on whether the parameters of the syste ime. control systems may be classified as time-invariant control systems and time- varying control systems. remain constant or vary with16 Contr Systems Mu. 1B. 14, 15, 16, . Aa open-loop control system is one in w (©) According to the types of signals used in the system, control systems may be classified as continuous-data control systems and discrete-data control systems or ‘ac (modulated) control sysiems and de Cunmodulated) control systems (0) Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as position control systems, velocity control systems, etc. (©) Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems and multi-input-multi-ourput (MIMO) control systems. MIMO systems are also called multivariable systems, (f) Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may by classified as ( Type Gil) Type (ii) Type, ete. control systems. (g) Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be classified as first-order control systems, second-order control systems, etc, (1) Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as (i) undamped systems, Gi) underdamped systems, (ii) criticallydamped systems, and (iv) overdamped systems. What are the two major types of control systems? ‘The two major types of control systems are (a) open-loop control systems and (b) closed- loop control systems. What do you mean by an open-loop control system? the output quantity has no eifeet on the input quantity, that means, the output is not fed back to the input for correction, ie. a system in which there is no feedback is called an open-loop control systen What do you mean by a closed-loop control system? A closed-loop control system is one in which the output has an effect on the input. The ‘output is fed back, compared with the reference input and the difference between them is used to control and bring the output of the system to a desired level. What do you mean by feedback? Feedback is a contro! action in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is given to input for automatic correction of any changes in system output. Which feedback is employed in control systems? Negative feedback is employed in control systems. What are the basi¢ components of a closed-loop control system? The basic components of a feedback control system are: plant, feedback path elements, error detector and coniroller.n 1. A a, ruse Conte Sas 47 Why negative feedback is prefered in contol systems? [Neve feedck i invciahly preferred in clos-aop contre systems here: negaive feadback results in beter stibilty im stealy-tate and rejets any disturbance signals, t alo has low sensiviy to parameter variations. ‘What ar the charts of negative fhednack? “The charversies of meatve Feeback ze as Zllows (a) Accuracy in tracing steadystate value (©) Rejection of disturbance signals (Low sensitivity paratte varinions (@ Reduction in gain a the expense of bener stability ‘What isthe effet of poste feedback om stability” The effect of psitivefeecback cn sibility is—pesitive feedback increases the enor signal and érives the output to insabiity, but some times positive feedback is used in minor oops in eon systems to aml certain imemal signals or parameters. Compare operioop and cleseoo9 contol systems. Comparison of open-lop and clasel-lop cotta ystems i gives inthe following table: Opembop conte stems Closeop cont sens 1 ascarid orb 2 Cansime less poe 4 Simple and economical 4 The changes in out doe to extra “Acct ad eal Consume mor pow Cpl an cost “The hangs in eutpst da 9 extemal dxttaoes we nt cores iutanes ae secs atonal Sacral, 1. Thy are gery sale 5 font te ned dvign a ale stm Distinguish between linear end norlinear contra systems. A linear control stem is one fr which the principle of superpesiton andthe principle of homogeneity are valid anc a noalnearconrol stem is one for which the principle of superpston and she principle 9f homogenety are not valid. Sti the principle of surernsion. The principle of superposition stes that the response rrocuced by the simultaneous application of two diferent forcing finctons is equal tothe sum ofthe two individual responses. 3. Distinguish between time-invariant and time-varying contr systems A time-invariant contol system one in which the parameters of the system are ‘tionary with respec to ime during the operon of he stem. Its ouput characterises do nt change with time and i ean be represented by const coefceatdilrertial cuatons18 Contr Systems 24, A time-varying control system is one in which the parameters of the sysiem are not stationary with respect to time during the operation of the system, ie. the parameters of the system vary with time. Its output characteristics change with time and the coefficients of its differential equation are functions of time. Distinguish between continuous-daia and discrete-data control systems. ‘A continuous-data control system is one in which the signals at various parts of the system are all functions of the continuous time variable, A discrete-data control system is one in which the signals at one or more points in the system are either in the form of a pulse train or a digital code. . Distinguish between ac and de control systems. ‘A. The ac control systems are those in which the signals are modulated. The de control 21. 28, 29. 30. 31. systems are those in which the signals are not pure de, but they are unmodutated. . Distinguish between sampled-data and digital control systems. A sampled-daia control system refers to a more general class of diserete-data control systems in which the signals are in the form of pulsed-data A digital control system is one which uses a digital computer or controller so that the signals are digitally coded, What is the advantage of sampling? One important advantage of the sampling operation is that expensive equipment used in the system may be time shared among several control channels, What is the effect of feedback on overall g: ‘The feedback affects the gain G of a nonfeedback system by a factor M(I + Gi). Ina practical control system, Gand 1 are functions of frequency, so the magnitude of I + GH ‘may be greater than 1 in one frequency range but less than I in another. Therefore, feedback could increase the system gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another. What is the effect of feedback on stability Feedback may cause a system that is originally stable to become unstable. In some cases feedback can stabilise an unstable system. So feedback is a two-edged sword, when used improperly it ean be harméul What is the effect of feedback on external disturbance? . The effect of feedback on noise and disturbance depends greaily on where these extraneous signals occur in the system. No general conclusions can be reached, but in ‘many situations feedback can reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on system performance. What is the effect of feedback on sensitivity? In general, a good control system should be very insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to input commands. Feedback could be hermful to the sensitivity to parameter variations in certain cases. In general, the sensitivity of the system gain of a feedback system to parameter variations depends on where the parameter is located,Introducten to Cont systems 19 1 2 3 4 1 2: a 4 Gia alu With neat diagram explain the working of an automatic tank Ievel control system, With a neat diagram explain the working of a position control system, With a neat diagram explain the working of a de position control system, With a neat diagram explain the working of an ac position control system: A physical system is 2 collection of connected together. ‘An idealized physical system is called a The mathematical representation of the is called the mathematical model Based on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as (i) 0) ity (iy) and (v) Based on the presence of human being as part of the system, control systems may be classified as (i) and (ii) Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as @)_and Giiy Based on the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as @ () Gi) ete, According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as @ and (ii) Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant or vary with time, control systems may be classified as (i) and (ii) According to the type of signals used in the system, control systems may be classified as @ and (i) or () and Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as @) Gi) (iii) » ete Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as @ and (ii) Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may be classified as (i) Gi) systems, ete. |. Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be classified as (i) ( (i) etc, Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as (i) i Gi) and (iv) . The two major types of control systems are (i) and (ii)20 conto systems 17. An open-loop control system is one in which the has no effect on the 18, A closed-loop contol system is one in which the has an effeet on the 19, feedback is employed in control systems 20. The basic components of a feedback control system are (i) (ii) (i) and (iv) 21. A linear control system is one for which the and the are valid. 22, In ac systems, the signals are Whereas in de systems the signals are. 23. Sampling may be o Answers to Fill in the Blanks 1, physical objects 2. physical model 3. physical model 4. (i) open-loop control systems, (ii) closed-loop control systems, (iii) optimal control systems, (iv) adaptive control systems, (v)leaming control systems 5. (i) manually controlled systems, (ii) automatic control systems 6, (i) open-loop control systems, (ii) closed-loop control systems 7. (i) position control systems, (ii) velocity control systems, (iii) traffic control systems, ete, 8 (i) linear control systems. (ii) nonlinear contro! systems 9. (i) time-varying contro! systems, (i) time- invariant control systems 10, (i) continuous-data control systems, (ii) discrete-data control systems, of (i) ac control systems. (ii) de control systems 11. (i) position control systems, Gi) velocity control systems, (ii) traffic control systems, etc. 12. (i) single-input-single-ourput control systems, (ii) multi-input-multi-output control systems 13. (i) type-0, (ii) type Gili) type-2 14. (i) firstorder control systems, (ii) second-order control sysiems, (ii) third order control systems, etc. 15. i) undamped systems, (ii) underdamped systems, (ii) critically damped systems, (iv) overdamped systems 16, (i) open-loop control systems, (ii) closed-loop control systems 17. output quantity, input quantity 18. output, input 19. negative 20. (i) plant, (ii) feedback path elements, (iii) eror detector, (iv) controller 21. principle of superposition, principle of homogeneity 22, modulated, unmodulated 23. intentional, inherent.Mathematical Models of Physical Systems || MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM ELEMENTS Most contol systems contain mechanical at well a slestrcal componets,althoush some ssters ever have hydralic ard peumatc elomont. Fram a ruthomatical view rein, te that mest of the condition of linearity ae satisfied, Thesnort Neat tye Systane 28 cond ie thatthe ssiem i basicaly nonlinear of cperted in nonlinear gion, butt apply the linear analysis and design tools, we Lnearize the system abst a nominal operating post "The analysis is applicable only forthe range of variables in which the Hinearzation is valid. 23.1 impulse Response ard Transfer Functions of Linear Systems “The slasial way of modeling linear systems f 0 use transfer fonctions 4 represent np ‘ulpa elon beter vaiables, One vy Wo dfie the tr furtion to use he imple response which is dened a fellows Inpelse response: Consider tht linear teinvaciant system sas the input) and the ‘outpet c. The system can be cherucerized by its Impulse responses), whch i defined as the opt wher he ina is «wit nla Faeton 9, Oreste nips resyonse of nea system is Kio the ouput of the system, (wh any inp (0) can be fend by using the transfor Function 2.4 TRANSFER FUNCTION: SINGLE-INPUT-SINGLE-OUTPUT ‘SYSTEMS Te mest incon ofa es inelrain syne ele othe Lape tanto of the nga reo whl the nel enor ett et. Le Gs) Sense ean flcton ofa sieleaptsngeata tm, wah nt) ant oust 2) and ple trou (Then ie roe hacion 0) eed 0) = 1 he rast fon ly) ed te Lat non he np and he pat seg te hiowig ate cos m0 ‘tte nil onion sto 20, and 19) and) ae Lape casera of 0 ii iirapectey: Tha rte con set ea ft Lapeer Sf he out Be Lge: anton of te pt witha il codons neglected Aitoup he tear fc ote sons dtd intr of he Use spas, tinal wi Ere sears Sen wi cons dup oben crn by a ilrntl eqn Gt his mae coremrt ode ‘Se rater retin dey te teeta eqn Ltn esr pope Teatro iar ncrurt ue dite be foing mh Oe eter ‘ution vi ost al eefes Gi afte, 4, fe opr tee en0 coor spree (Ones the input 10) For 2 fy and the nts eandtions of (and derivatives of o() are specified a the inital time # = the output response) for 1 is determined by solving Eq. (21), However, de solution of higherarder deena equations is quite tous. So the analysis and design of Inear systems is done using transfer futons. To obi the taster tuncion of the linear system, simply take the Lape transform on both sles of &q. (2.1) and assume zero ial conditions ‘The results Ca? + ays sg © 4) C8) = Cs + Bt 8 + By) ROD ‘The eansfir funtion basen 70) anc) Is given by yt abst 9th RG) ag as" tags to tag FO, The properties of the transfer furction areas follows |. The wens fantion is defined oaly fora Enea ine ivaran system tis rot defines for sclineae ayes 2 The transfer funtion between an input variable end on output vaabe of system is efined asthe Laplace wansform af tha ispalbe response, Alematively, the uansfor function beeen a pat of igput and output yaiables of & system isthe rabo of toe Laplace tearm of the ouput the Laplace transform the inp 4. Al inal condions of the system ate set to zero. ‘The taneer function i independent ofthe inp ofthe ste. 5. The tafe funtion of a cominsourdata sytem is expresoed only ana Surction ofthe complen yrible » It not = fnction of the real vars time, or ay other veriable tha is weds the indenendert variable. For disretewata systems medelled by difference equations. the wansfer function isa function f= when the =-ransom is sed. 244. Proper Transfer Function ‘Te transfer funrton is said 1a be srety proper, ifthe order ofthe denominator polyoma ale than thet of the numer polyensiat (.e. > m). The tamer Cnet i said to be proper, if the onfer of the numerator polyncmi i equal t that of the denominator polynomial (12. m =). The wensfsrSunetion is seid 10 be improper, ifthe order of the ‘numeraioe polynomial i grater than that of te denominator polynomial (L2.m >) 242 Characteristic Equation ‘he eheracensc equation ear system 4 tines a8 the equation otiaited by seting the denier polyol of Ue tmsir fenton cer, Ts, de earacriic eto of he system deserted above isenemas Moco Pryce Systm 31 I 4 ONE Et OHH ay =O 0) Equation (2.2) isealled the characerse equation because It characte es the Behav the syte. ‘The ebbilty of limar single inputingle- output eyveme ic governed completely by the rots of the charcteste sqitios 2.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION (MULTIVARIABLE SYSTEMS) ‘The definition of a transfer funtion is easy extended toa stern with multiple inpats and outputs. system ofthis ype ole revered 0 asa mulvariae sie. ln a muliarable system, a difeental eyution of the form deseibed above may be wed to describe the relationship between an input-output pai, when all other inpuls are set to zero, Since the Brincipls of superposition is ali for linear stems, the total elfect on any output de to a the inpets acting simultaneeusly is obaired by adcing up the extputs due to each irput acing sone, a 7) gy) [BR Ore Ley oe? Sar oo “ L ny @ gue 25 tlie syns Ifa system has two inputs ane two cups 3s shown in Figure 21a), then the outputs are sven by GO) = G49) RO) | G6) RAO) CE) = Ga{9) HU + Gab) RO The transfer fanetion G2) represerts the arse function between eutput 1 and input 1 when inp 2 is zero, Simiardefitin: can be given to the other transfer ‘unctions, G9) and G6). In general if a near system has p inputs and 4 oupus a siown in igure 2b) the wansfer function Seomeen the jh pu andthe Mh oupu:fs defined as cus) RG) Ase, Note that Gy 1) defined with only the fa np in ett, There the cher inputs are set a ze When al the inp ave natin, the Aho vransfonn is writen 35 C4) = Gy + CoLIRIE) + ~ = GYlDRY) In vecornatx form, the input-output relation of a mutvarible system is G8) = GRE) Gy)82_comnisyeems where col fe the g > 1 tnsfermed outpt vector, fs the po 1 transfered input vector; ant Gus G08) Gei= G9) Gy) > Gl) isthe gp transfer feneion mati 254. Sinusoidal Transfer Function “The seny-snte esponse of a contol stem to 8 Snuiekdal pt is obtained by replacing» swith join the wansfer fiction of tho system. "The amor function obtained 2y replacing «with fo in the orginal tanefer fio ic called the siusvidal anor funtion, 2.6 PROCEDURE FOR DERIVING TRANSFER FUNCTIONS ‘The following assumpons are made in deriving wansfr functions of physical systems, 1. Is sssumed that ther sno losing ie. no pone is drawn atthe outpet of he ystem. Ifthe sytem has more than one nor-oading elements in easeade, then the transfer finevon of each elemert can be deteined independertly, and the overall wansfer fneton of the physieal system Is determined by mutipiing te indivicual transfer funtion. n case of systems consisting of elements which Toad each ater, the overall tianser fureton shuld be derived by basie analysis without wezard w individual lwanser Tancions 2. The system stool be spproxinatsl y aca lune, estat puraeter model by aking suitable assumptions ‘Te unite pat 1 sve, et ws sues (wo ideal AC cris eamecied in easee 0 thot he euput fora the fst eto is fea input to the second ar chown in Figure 26,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 33. Figure 2.6 RC ciraits i cascade, 12 equations for this system are as follows: 3) 4) Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.3) and 2.4), assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain [h(s)- Lis] + KA (9) = Fils) 25) 1 Fle Ho] R1 = -L b= Fy) 06) Reorganizing Eq. (2.5), we get 1 1 to[Red nord ne 1 40th) cement ot 1o)= & ene) en Pa 1+ RCs cs Reorganizing Eq. (2.6), we get 109] e+] E09) ‘Substituting the value of /4(s) fom Eq. (2.7) in the above equation, we get 1)_ Css) +O) Gs] Gsar RCs) bs) + E,(s) 1+ RCs ie. exes | ie), SES) | FRCS Cs + RCS) -E,(3) Ee hs) = CsE(6)]TRG a ssolesnensi-ia el fii tes tin 2.) Ei Pade) where = RC The trinserfmetion ofeach ofthe individ RC crete T“TeRer eer The diference inthe transfer factions is due tothe fact that while Jerving the vans. function ofa single AC’ ciruit iis assumed thatthe ouput is unbaded. However, when the Input of the secon crt Is ob:neé tem the ouput ofthe fst, 2 cern émoun of energy 4s daa fom the fist cout an’ heave is original war Faction fs mo ker val, THe degre 1 which the cveral transfer function i mocifed fom the product of advil anefer fimetions depen pom the mown of lading Exampie 2 For the nasvopeing dashpot system shown In Figure 27(2), tan the wanier fayetion. Also obtain the analagoes clceial network based on (a) free-vokge sralgy an (6) force current analous- 1 Bf ete ETT ft Tr i ® w Figure 27. Exale 21: (6) nectanical aie, ) Feeds daar ard) mata nok. Solution: The e-bay diagram of the mechanical system o° Figure 27() is shown in igre 2.70), Applying Newton's law of moti tat te algebraic sum of the forces ating or agi body = mass acceleration, the aqui of moth isenensca voces Psa Systems 95 a er FasG Rea é a ie. Pet Es fe k “ Ba wena Taking the Laps tion bo si ad ngs the in onto Mis fee Aterrarive wa: Forte given mechanical system, frst draw the mechanical network showe in Figue 2700. There is only one nede Let the mde varile be displacement x or velocity v. One end of ail the three elements i eoenected to ground so the diplscement of tht end is zero. The ober ‘end ofthe thre elements has a displacement x oF veloeky ». So the deserting eqeatian is Soke Ss prenfou Tn alg quo of te iva ce selon cee i taeSpa italy deel o sachs het feat and the analogous clsctical network is es shown ia Figur 2 8(2. ts emety ideal tothe rmecharieal network. Once the mectaniel newerk of «traction sytem is draw, the snalogcus clerical aework bssel on ferve-curent analogy can be easly drawn like tis: the structure of tie electrical newwork Is exactly the sme a the structure of the mechanical ‘two, Le. acies elenens i dhe mehanical network vermin ap series clement in the ‘ecrcal network and shint cements in the mechanical nctwork rain a8 shunt cements the electrical setwork. Just replace the fore FU) hy a curert source (0) (= Fl) mass M by capecance C (= M, Fieton f by resisance R (= Uf), soring K by inductance 1 (= 1/R Aispincement «by fh 6, and velocity v ty voltage e. The node equations of the eleerca network ill be analogous to the node equitons of the mechanical network,@ © Faure 24 Exarole 2; (2) andovos dete ciel baz on Fi ana and (angen lee ec al or Fe roy “The analogous equation ofthe elec ceut based on foreevolage analogy Is atte tt aa « enidien Af analogous elctical network ses shown in Figure 2.8(). Once a mechanical network IS aalabe, the analogous eleeical nawork bated on force-volge aralegy can be drawn casily Uke thi, In this, the series slerens ofthe recharical netwerk become analogous shunt ‘lemon’ andthe shunt elements ofthe mechanical network become anslogo.s seis slemente Replace the frce FU) bya voltage source ef) (= FU). mass M by inctence Z (= i, fiction ‘by resistance R (= /), sring K by capacitance C (= VA) displacement x by chase q and ‘elocity v by cueret Xi). The loop ecuatons will be snalogous to the rode equations of rmecharical network, Example 22 Write the torque equations ofthe rotational sysiem shown in Figure 2. Ob the taster Frtion Ao cbisn the algo ectitrework tased on (@) force-voltage analogy and (by force-curent analogy. 20 oe ae Dis x FP Mpls © * “eo ‘gue 23, Sample 2 (4) arts) etd gr and (machinearomatics Nol Pra yer 97 Solution: ‘The fee-boly diagram ofthe mechanical system of Figure 2.() is shown in Figure 29(0). Applying Newton's law of motion that the algebraic sum of torques on body ' memeat of inertia x angular acceleration, the equation of motion of the system is 7-(32-Ko=3$ a a ‘aking the Lapine trnstorm om fet ses Tei=us +f x16) ‘The warsfer fiction of the system is therefore (8) s+ eek Arte way Fue he Ben echt som fit dow the meh! nod as doesn rote 206) OF ood ehtcune Q) ud wonan ease) wen Soe Saeed unde hen suum 71 apled en bd) mame el Sake Saran vee thre Moen tow ade carole Pe cicrcae nccsmaleimseee oes arias toc ke Seeat hows yom hase Lee ae eh be B00 See stg on ee de raster Gene x rast rae wa ‘The analogous ecuaton ofthe electncal cit bios on trqun-current analogy it ee 1 de. @ Rat? © pact edeelf! ae th fd the analogous elect eit Fe shown in Figure 2.10). Hi exaely ideal tthe ‘mectanical nework, Once the mechan cal nework of a rotational system is dawn. the snalogotsclecrical nstwork based on lorqueeurert anlegy canbe easily dn like ths the structure of the electrical network is exaily che same a the streture of the mechanical retwirk, ia. series elenents fn the mechanical network remain as series elements in the lectical network and stunt elements in the mechanical network, remain 48 st elements in the electrical network. So the ode equations ofthe eletizal network willbe analogous 0 the ‘ode equations of mechanical nawork. Just replace te torque Moby cen: souee A) (= TU Inara J by capacitance C (=), tition fby resistance R (= Uf, spring X by inductance L(V), angular deplacemert by 6 and angular veecty aby voltgue 210 Earle 22: (a) aabyous eect nen toed on auecaTe ay ad (by ong cece nave bse on uevaige erly The analogous equation of the electrical crest based on frcuewollage analegy i er a a eee ‘of rotational system fs dra, the analogous clerical network based on force-volgesnslogy an be easly dawn like tls In his he series elemem ofthe mechanical network become ‘aalogoin abit element and te sot cleats of Ce mechanical network become analogous ‘aries elemerts. Replace torque Ti) by a voltige source <() (= 70), inertia by inductance TE, foton oy redunnce R(=f), ring Rhy copactarce C(= VK), angie depneament by charge, and angular velocity @ by (1). So the lop equations ofthe electrical network ‘ill be analogous o te rode equations ofthe mechanical nenwerk Example 23 Write the citfrent Figire2. (a) feqations for the mechani! system shown in feaes, bee Hm ad Sis) © gure 2-1 Exanle 23 (macro site: (mecha near nd (ree body aga.Acne Moto Pres Sytirs 98 Solution: The mechanical network forthe given mechanical rarslational syste showe in Figure 2.11, The fee body diagram is shown in Figure 211(c) The differential ecuations fsoverning the behaviour of that sysiem aw given as follows. The node variables may be Aispicemems or velocities. The diferemal equation for the syiter are a8 follows: +, rt ae Ca ae kano at a Beacgon neta ono @a (de ae, p(t Bt) aa = when BZ ens sn « a 2 fin -eeRfnd eR ‘Example 2.4 Find the transfer fanction aa ‘or the system shown in Figure 2.12(a). T T, i r Li, Longe! aT o ° © Figure 212 Example 24 (a) meal yin) heey graf) mahal etn. sca a acd alg in NaS aT lc sont eee TSN saint fete anit Tae pees oer ot sgh Meme ene rn ae Te rime Bh (He hea wpe B-B)ee ‘at apen on x ie MBEXIS) +8 [XA8) — X49] + K (C8) — X49] = 0 te BE ietecganon iin tind ith XO) Mi = fer40 comeisysers Example 2.5 Obtain the siffrenid equotions for the mechanicel stem shows ia Figo? 130) « ens "B lw | tan es , bea \ Kee » o Frqure 2.19 Esenpe 25 mecha sjem,(t) metho rer ant (fee ted agra Solution: The mechanical retwork fs shown in Figure 213(0). The fee body diagram s show ia Figure 2.196). The diffsental equations for he given mechuskal stan are aa we Kaye Keg— aro « a ex fiaen | «mao at Kinaaepfiieo « Kf Oo-paee j= Example 26 Consider the mechanics! sistem shown in Figure 2.14(a. Suppese tha the system is set inte moticn by unit impulse force. Find the resuling oscillation. Assume that he ‘atm is at rest inital 2 wool Figure 24 sample 26: (a) mechanl yam (2) chan atch and (co bet dagManone odes ciPrysca Some 44 Solution: ‘The mechanizal netwok is shows in Figure 2.400). The five body diagram is shown in Figure 2.14). The diferential equation ofthe sytem is Bye kee EE @ “Tikng the Laplace weston on bth sides en negleing th ail conctons 1= a8? + oe) 1 x | __Jee © on $1 Pal WEAK” (aE) HLF (very | “Taking the inverse Laplace transform x= yeesie WiKi ‘The resuking oscillation frequency is = VATA rads. ‘Example 27 Aseums thatthe car ie Figo 2 Aisplacement ofthe cor and) @) isthe output. Ob ie uanding el for # < 0,» (ie the ‘the transer function of the system, och be be ace w-9 “ Tg) 0-0 a I gu 218, samp 27 (a mectanea ten, | msc nwo and (6) Me oly la. Salaam: The mechanisal network of the sysiem ie shown in Fine 215(6), The fine body diagram is shows in Figure 215ic) The diferenial eqation ofthe system is WPS lg te ai li sw mp fe li ‘Ads? ¥(3) ~ fo{Ne) = Uis)] + KLM) - Wis] = 0 ie IM? + f+ A) TG) = 6 +1 OO) i aa Hn td Jenne42 conti eume Example 28 Write the differential euctions forthe mechanical system shown in Figure 2.16. Obiin the amlogous electrical networks based cn (a) force-curent analogy and (b) frce- voltage analogy. fen bes 0 Figure 216. Compl 20: Mechancal syste. Solution: ‘The ee-body diagram is shown in Figure 2.171). The mechanical network of the sytem is shown in Figure 2.176, BR: Set ng ero Kc 0. By ® o gure 217 same 22 (a) eo boty dram, an) mecha ret, ‘The erential equstions deseritng the behaviour of the given mechanical system are a pie (Bo ron eonSes(2-4) FOaM En th) wd sky a « myn fsa The clecical nerwarks hesee or frcecurest and force-vlte analogies are shown in Figure 21a) and Figure 2.18) respcively and the earesponing difererialeqsatons are also given as follows:» no © » Fire 238 aap 2) sora mt ad on cit may np) een re basl entrees 9 onc sSe8 nero ene ine aa ine Lit i+ Ra 28M ae rors a Example 29° Write he differential equations for the mechankal system shown in Figure 2.19). Abo draw the analogous clectical sitet based on forve-urret analogy ow » Figure 219, ample 29; 9) recta astm ad) rehire, Solution: The rsccheicl network is shown in Figte 2 10). No external fore nating ‘on the aystem and the displacements are due te intial condtiors enly “The diferent equations forthe system are ix-nrer( SMa (42-2)Fie 220, Exampe 29; Anapgous eel neta band en rece nay The it al equations forthe setvork of Figure 2.20 we as Follows Vfl nme Luo Faample 2410 Wile the diferente equmioes goveming the bhevlour of the mechaneal system shown ia Figuve 221. Also oan the analogous elec cris based 0 (a) Free Curent analogy and (b) fore volge aralogy. Ako find the transfer funtion X(eV/F). Figue 221 Bagi 270: Meat sem, Solution: The diferent equxsiors governing the behavour of the mechanical system ‘an be wien using te fre-body diagram or the mechanical network. Just fr ilustaton both the fre-bady diagram and mechanical network are dawn as shown in Figure 222) and Figure 2.22() respectivelyKas a Oy ® Figure 222, sare 2.10) eto doyam and) mech re ‘The dtferentialequstions cescribing the behaviour of the meshaniea system area follows rn E8f Sky oBila-n) ; “ te rom began furenf one My 28 46pm) Pky ie ay Beemf wama=0 Ie snl eri nea bed on foe-uren alg town in Fgue 223 tr} GoM, Figs 223. Carpe 210:Aracgadecticanena bad on racine any ‘The analepous elecricl equations res fll faa see othe ete fa-naeo ‘The analogous leccal network based on frce-volage analogy is shown in Figure 224.46. Figure 224 Ecop 2:16 Arsagus eee new asd on eee arony The analogous clerical equations are as follows: anenSierard fined farina er oats Lupa simple 211 Fer fe mechmicl gen sinwn i Fgite 225, ate he dion cunts deerbing boi Wt he alot cies airs Ms on Be ‘ehngs alo an fcr analy, dd fhe oresponing eters As ra echnical Nenad tan fe mae coe S/R), i: fol ee i | le | 4 | Neel Fig 224 Exanpl 21: Mecha spiton, Seluvon: The Gee-boly digg ofthe mechanical system s shove in Figure 2.26 ky J+ kes w bor a [6-39 gure 236 Caarpe 211 Fraebody dog er mechanical en of Figs 225,i ttn), = 9)+ Kay + nf B-B)emor-mern The describing equations in tems of velocities are x follows: oy ram tega-weR fora fos-nen fo nis relatos $0 "he equations or the analgous elcrical network based 07 Tere-curent analogy are as fotos 2G d eet! flee tw-6 te ee-artfa-ne 1 1 Lad be dead fie-marbert fear Mec ‘The eacspaing clerical elwork f show in Figure 227 x9-# Fue 227 Eonpa 211: Anaogas dtc rot based 2 treerent nabay48 conmisyaums "he equations 0” the analagous electrical network based on force-voltage analy are as follows gue 228. rare 211:Anaopae eciea neh ba on foe otige ong The mechanical network forthe givan mechanics system i shown fy Figure ity rs |L4] a & Haw Figure 229, Bmp 211 Messner K ‘The deserbing equtions a ondes and 2 of Figure 2.29 areas follows To obtain the transfer function take the Laplace rarsform ofthe describing equations of ‘he mechanical system neglecting the intial condions,exact Moot Sys A Fa MED § F904) ~ MN KDHE) HO IMs? fe 4 KI KL) -Lfo #K MO) a Mas Rs) + F826) + RFU) + HAVO) HO)) +R) KOI HK KOA KM) ie. Fe ety) Aho WP HAAG ERD Sobiing he vale of (9) fom Eg, (i) im E.G), we get «a ye fe 1 Hoy OD Fo) e Ms (fs Abend +R) ‘Therefore, he transfer function is no Ms 46,4 ist +K FUE) My + fs + Ky MAES? + fy = fis 1K: +h RP = WO. Mas 4 4s HO +R) FG) We SOM 4 Mahe OAM K AMES ALE HK R DEH KG Example 212. Wie the difereiel equtons governing the behaviour cf the mechan system shove in Figure 2.3), IIb Tp 7 tig a“ Tok To Figure 230, Bap 2.12 (a mesunca spon and () Reet capan.Nemenmesieces erPrasslsisens St Solution: The fras-bods diagram is shown in Figure 2.330), The mechanical nebo is ‘vow i Figo 2.38 (t), The deserting equations can he ite Mased on any ene om fe, be 14 a ha aed ale 1 Ps i Figure 253 Sang 2:0 fae body Hg ad (2) mathe neti The foe-ods diagram is dra tke this Fis the external ferce applied on mass 14, 1 move it by m distance x, frm fet te right So isction of FY) is fom lett right. Al other Fives ating on Mf will oppose this mnion 0 the dections OF ff. yy, Ml fg —%) tare eppesite that of #0). So they act rom right ol fis connecting Mand Ns Therefore “fo &) #16 fom eh (6 ght on Af, Ths wll ease dsplacenent of xs 00 fA other fees at Mie fy. and Ky ssaet ina deton opposite w that of Jy (j,i), Le bom right fen "The mechanical network is can as follows, There ae two masses My and Ls One stad ofeach mas cto be connected so ground. Cine end of FC) et be connected to ground, The second end of ZW ito be comnecics to the sovond end of My, (is between Mand z04nd So one on off, is commecied to ground an the ober end comnectad the socond end of AM K between Mf and ground. So one end of Ky is conteced to round and the ether end ‘connected he cecond ers of One an of Mf ound, Dee te second ens OF My an 14s Ky and sare between Mand sroutd, So one ee of Ke anf conecte 10 lpn andthe cher and Kad ee conned Yo the sand end The mechanical eter is shown in Figure 2.930). The displacements. and x3 or velocities» and 4p ae the ‘ce varahles the second endef Yat is respective The decal cquaions desebing the Isat of the mschanal stow meas fellows a3) newt eB l nit, 2 88 eis (28-42) fats tka ats fates)52_commsysoms [Example 2.14 Writ the ifersnial equtions govsoning the behaviour of the mechanical ‘eanslational system shonin Figure 2343), Ts “ BS o » Figure 24. Exorpt 21} mechani eton se [fon body daa, Solution: The fees sigran ofthe system shown in Figure 2-246), The meai- cal network forthe given mechanical system is shown in Figure 2.35 Fy Figure 236. Gam 2 1: Macha sets the mecha ye a ere 2:3), ‘The aifereialequtions governing the hana of the system are a8 Fs x Ros SR. a ay ti ftenn mis) AE s+ KoNemenmesiecas erPrana) sens 53 o Foe m Sis ekf oan] ovo ce Kf eet hermes] iy we onus tia (2) cryin se + fino al oon Example 245 Fit the taster function 4108s) for he elecrosmestameal sytem chown in Figure 236, lite: Fora singled onaysis, assume tha the cil has a back ent ey ~ Ky dv and he col cumert proces force Fe Rs Jam the mass AC) Solution: Lethe the euret in oop andthe the cure In he Yop having te eo \Weiing the RVL equations around the loops, “ soe fey -aove54 _ comm systems 4 ined oa iheginrbfian-wona Taking the Laplace wansform cn both sides, sure Lint yeaa ‘ wva(e+ Jaca ti nore(eedpunechan (ressnnn= tin ~ o ns ase tyene 2 ttey-109)=0 L 1 sot lr kx. te (era) es a ns nunenane 1s) =EC? #1) B,CPXO) (EH LE? 4 WHE) ECE KE) HE) Bw) a aig BOR AICE $REOSD RCR ECE EE) ce SIARDOS + 1 RCE +R XO) o Given Fook Feb = KD "Niting te eet eqptiongoveing the Sehavcur of he mesa sen ti paw hy (Es Rare Foam Fe Gy= Ms + fe AKIN) = KU) 13K yes) aw Subsiiming the valu of fs) ean Ey. i) in Bq @), we get Mens ukyRee xox) Elay=(RLCH 4h Ry] MEH ETENemenmesiecas ereracs) sens 55 RLCMG! + RLCH © 2RRLCY! 4 LM +b? 4 2K + RA? AIA IRE RR ACE 4 RK ‘| 2 Poy Tarte the ne front 2) & Ein)” RECHs* +(REC/ + LM yo° +QRRLC + Uf + RM + KK, RC)S? ORL RFR sample 2.46 Ohisin the waster fmeton ofthe mecaniel ger shown in Figue 2.37 « 4 7} [ab Figue 257 Eurple296 Mecnaia eyton. Sotuton: The output isthe angubr lsplacomient @of shat on ouput side. Let he the sneular displacement of sett en input side, The fiee-body daaram is shown in Figure 238. ‘The mechanies! networt corresponding to the glen mechaneal tonal sie Is den #6 shown in Figure 2.38(b). One eed of) sto be connected to round. One eof rrgue source {sto be grounded, Ths ctr end of 7 is connec othe other 2nd of a the nde | Letts exe yale be @ ore One end of J rounded, and Ais concord between the tno fee fs of J, ad One ond a/c proud, the ofr eno f 6 jolned 10 the Tse end OJ Let be that woe variebk ae Ko 0) £ \ “ Ay % “é gure 238, arp 26: (9) Hee oty Sgr ane) metas netvon ‘The dineresil equations desribing the hhavlowt of the sssem in Flzwe 2.97 ate as Fallows:56 corm systems a P.cxfca ard hema ta fhexfia er wo, 40 ou 0 fBepemenay 0 (Bea (Gn toems of enuler displacement) A porsfe-me {terms of angulr Sloot) Taking the Laplice transform of Eqs () and (i) we get WAC BCE) —E) Thay dy + Blo) KOC) snd 0=Jos80(0) + ROU) + ROG) KAL0) des! + fit RAI KOE) ie pos es) K Temes [SAE cy a FU Ap RE I Ke ogee? KAD ‘Theefor, the taster fntion is as) Toy ES eA KO, Ee 4D Example 2.17 Wet tongue eqttons ofthe rotator system shown in Figure 2.38, Als ao find the wanser Fonction 26 ojyan da anognn electra cts based on tongue Te) and trgue-yoltge anos 0 Hy a stat Bie Figure 238.Exaroe 2.17 Rolo sen Solution; The fee-body ginaram of the given rettonal system is sbown in Figure 2401), The eoregeting mechanical network issn fn Figure 2 44),ft L [> cra 19; a 5 © » Figure 240, sang 27: (tee baty sagan ant) meanest The diferent! equations govering the behavior of te given rottona system areas Fallows: £9, r= Bee —0) or reese] voir ‘ west Bena-ay 9 nos Banl oy » © KP atmo w “Tat the Lapis transfor of Es and i and electing the ia elton, ne get Te) = 4(0) + HIB ~ 069) Us + RIA) KA) cay ond ww) Substinting the value of (0) tom (is) im Eg. ih, we ge K joe )e Wisi sapa R= ee Tyme +4 (0)-K ~a BAK SOR IRS TE ‘The analogous eles equations base! on Foweecure slogy ate as flows Mel fig-nye « Hfo-nartass wpa Qc@-g) oo Les 4 1 ond pits -ans 558 cer sytem ‘The analogs leer creit basd on fore-curent analy is shown in Figure 2.41) hook e er Cio, & | y te) | Fours 241 argo 217 Anabgos stil dee baed on (0) txgu cet abey ant (o) etevotgeansom ‘The elctcal equations based on foncevokage analogy are as fallow nd Ney tt a line y= asa) 888 Elander ni =o ‘The analpe lees crit eel on Foreesvolige analy Bs shown in Figure 2.410), tne eaaterfonetion 202 Example 248 Wri the torque covations ofthe rotational system shown in Figure 242, Find 70) a4 mm Bi Fue 22 Esaroe 2.18 Rola sen Soteion: ‘The feedy dagen of the rctaonal system is shown in Flgure 24360) The corresponding mechanical network is shown ia Figure 24300, ne.-09 7S Z oe Pe a % gut 249 amp 28 (aot agen (ty emetanen nateMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 59 ‘The differential equations governing the behaviour of the rotational system are as follows: ro= 4h KG, 9) 0 and J, + KO, -8) (i) dr Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get T (3) = Jys8(9)+ K1O,(s) ~ 0)(s)] = (ys? + R) Ol3) ~ KO(s) Gi) and 0 = J4570,(s) + K[O,(s)— 4(5)] ie, (as? + K) 6:(s)= KB(9) Xs) ww) Substituting the value of 6(s) fiom Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii), we get : K-KG\s) T(s)=(J,8° + K) 8(s)-— Cm AIAG Therefore, the transfer function of the system is Ie +K Dye tk SIs +x tI )KS Shs +p FAYE Example 2.19 Write the torque equations of the rotational system shown in Figure 2.44. Find the transfer function 405) Tis) 0.4) yk k, +, Ft Meter FS, wT a) Cc a Figure 2.44 Example 2.19: Rotational system, Solution: ‘The free-body diagram of the given rotational system is shown in Figure 2.45(a). The corresponding mechanical network is shown in Figure 2.45(b).60 contr systems @ o) Figure 245 Example 2.18: (a) free-body diagram and (o) mechanical retwork. ‘The differential equations governing the behaviour of the rotational system are as follows: FOaky Oe KO, 8.)+ Kill 4) (i + KG; —8,,)=0 Gi) 544 KG -4,)=0 ii) ar Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii) and neglecting the initia! conditions, (5) = Jp? (5) Kyl By(8) ~ 89 (8)] + Ky18y (2) — A050) ie. T(8)=[Jy 5? + (Ky + Ky)] Oy (8) —K8)(8) — K,O\(3) (iv) Fa8°O3(3) + K3103(8)~ 8,(s)1=0 ic. [Jgs? + Ky] Oy(s) = Ky, (5) o S809) + Ky14 (8) ~ Oy 8)1 = 0 ie. Ky] G(s) = KO, (5) wi) (3) [from Eqs. (v) and (vi) XG Putting the values of @,(s) and @(s) in Eq. (iv), we get 2 As? +K, As’ +K, \K; 8+ (ky + Ky | 22 FE Ng (sy, | 2 | gis) kK nS + ( nf K } () (2528 Jaw (s) r(s)=Matnematcal Models of Physical Sysioms G4 Ly Jis + Iy(Ky + Ky)s? + Jy Ky? + Ky(Ky + Ky (a8? + Ky) AC) Ky I8? + KK, + Ky Jos? +, as + KK Therefore, the transfer funetion is Ais) (Uys? + Ko)Ky TS) IyDyd 8° + (Kyl dy + Sod iKy + Ja dyKy + Jad Ky) HI gK Ky + IgKy + IK + IK, Ky + Jeg Ky Ky - I,K? - Ig pe +E 2K, +K,K,-K 7K, -K,;K, Aes) _ (a? +) K, T(S) Slay 8° + Kal udp +5325, Ry tJ ad\Ry + Jad Ky FRR, 4K Ky + Sg Ky)? Example 2.20 Write the torque equations of the rotational system shown in Figure 2.46. Draw the analogous electrical networks based on (a) torque-current and (b) torque-voltage analog 0,60 50) i ae QT ‘| Ot) nw mM Ou) 6 " fi Figure 2.48 Example 2.20: Rotational system. Solution: The free-body diagram and the mechanical network corresponding to the given rotational system are shown in Figures 2.47(a) and 2.47(b). f KO) 0, 4 Kim 8048) Sass m0, nm” 8 ©) Figure 2.47 Example 2.20; (a ree-body diagram and (0) mechanical network62_ corm sysoms The differential equations for the retatonal syste area follows: + RG —€2)* BB) de @ nef, -oyiese faa) P85 Ka —0.)00 9 =0 a 22. jx fey en t= 2 5 nia asp FB Meme -aye0 oe K, fim, =< m,)4r=0 a 18s pan +k fm) “The analogous clvrical setweak based on terqueeumentanlony is shown in Figure 2.48 “The enalogous letrical network fused tongues amie is shown in Figure 249 um 248. Exaeyh 220 Arles exe ean ase on aeolag® ateNemenmesiecaserPraca) sens _ 83, [Example 221. Wits the sliferenal equations govsrnng the mechanical rotational stem ‘Siowm in Figure 20 and devernine ihe rnsfer funtion ay) TO) eet, 5 rare qt TIRTTTTI TTT TTTTENTTT TOTTI OOOTIOTOTIIOTTTD Figure 284 Exroe 221 Robo stem Solution: The fee body digram and the mectanes! aeworkcomesponding to th gen rovainal stent are sbown in Figures 2.81 and 2.52 respectively 5 ao vO Si Ga LAS a3ahks- gue 252 Esenle 221, esha me, The diferensl equations forthe stations sytem sed on Newien’s fw of motion (ion sazes hat me algebraic sam oF Tongs actitg on argh Rody fs ep 1D He eodet ofthe moment of inet and angular eceeration ofthe bod ars as follows: \ 14 a), PH, mia fo 2-1 28 6 o #0 jy 092 x fioy— ayer a % 5-0 fo), ® ts 1M remo i4 consis Tig he Lacs nfm of Eas) an) ih tl contin Teh f(A) Bo 4, TE) =p? fan + 9 4C0) =U 8 + 300) Gay 02 JPA Uf.) ~¥B) + KA) BE) le 6 fight Ky Re) U 1869 Was? + fs fet RO) Tat Substiing the value of €) flan Ea. Ci) In Bg. (i, we wet Up ++ fare 1H) Tse ky aire ww Tey + has Ks) Us 8) ida! Dafa tA nf AUK ELK a fal? ie. 4H. FOR fig + RS08+ Ky ~ fal — i -2fesh |g bi fast ky " fe type] HAE AWaha ASA ilade HK +d + yy Sate K, Therefor, the ane tion is a fat h, Tes RO Va ALA OI TRA Hs) RFT 2.7, SERVOMOTORS “The contol stems which are used to ccetol the position or time deviates of postin, ie eleity and acceleration ar clled sornmechantame, The more nbich ere used in aromatic ‘contol gets are elled servomofors, The servormoors oe ase to convart an electrical ig (Gono solaye) appled to them into an angular dspacemor of the shal, Depend othe {consiuctin. thy ean operate ethers a continuous duty or step duty ‘A varie of servomotor are avsilsble for conrl satom aprons The suitabiliy of a morc fr 9 pamela aposaton depends the characteris of the spe, the Pass of the sytem and is operating conditions Ti gereral @Servomanor shold hive the flows str: fe Linear relastnship Reteen speed an elects contol signal Steady-state abilNemenmesiecas erPraca) sens _ 85 © Wise range ef speed control (2 Lineiy of mechanical charsctenstes tugs the ene spot range fe Low mechanical and electrical inca (at response Servomatos ate brovdhy chasis! as de servoroters and ae servometors depending on the power suppl reuied to nm the mot Evenihough de mors ave cost tan te mots, they fave linear shiveetaitiee and ca it eens to contro. They are gonorali sed for applicators such 2 in machine cools and robs ‘The advamaass of de servomotors are a5 folos: |. Higher output thon fom an ae moter of tho same si Ey ochievement of linear characteristics. Esler speed con from zero speed to fll speed fn oth the ecto, ‘High tone ner ato tha gives them pick response to comol signals 5, The de servomotes bye light weigh. low icra an! low inductance amature ha ean respond sickly ko commands fora change in postion or pest Low elecrea ae mechanical fe constants 7. The de motes are capable of delivering over 3 tines Use rated xque fr a short ine compared to he 20 2.5 ines the ena ergs develop by the Ae motors. {he advantags of as servomators ore love cot higher efciney’ and less minienance since the rashes and comtmugutor are nol ere, The disadvanages of a motors are Ut ‘Shactersics ate quite nonlinear and thess motors are more sift to control expecially or Pestoning appears. The ae moors afe est sed or low power slicers, such as Insnenent servo (eg contol of pon it sy recorder) and computarreated equipaent (es. die drives ape dre, Bint, of The theese Inhucion notes with pulse wi iodulon power alii ‘re cure gaining popubity sy high power covtel applications 271 DC Servometors The de servomoter ee realy east into (a) sing conta motors with somata and trashes and (b) brushless comact less motors with SCRransistor commutator The sliding contact mire my be casified into (a) permanent magne! moles ard (ielestomaunetc Held motors The eaten get moss my (9) ena me mots, o (0) rome rmotces. oF (e) moving ¢oil moors The clecromuetic field mos may be (3) armature-cotolled moors, oF (b) fel contoled moter, oF (6) erie moter, oF (2) elit Fld motors. Permanent magnet de motors: In this 1p of motors, he armature is placed in otor and te fed winding fs replaced by permanent rage! poles ced ta the Sor prodace the oquted magnetic field. Porwarent megnet motors are econemieal for power teins up 10 a ew Mowat,The fllowing ae some of the edvantagss of permanent magnet motors: 1. A simpler and tore reliable mover beaase the Feld power sop is rk reaned 2 Higher operating effifency asthe motor ha no Feld Sess 3, Field hay i les feted by temperate rie 4 higher toruerineria tat, 5. Spool neatly dey proportional to simature voltage #2 given toad ore 65. more linea toguelspend curve 7 Highseoutpst power athe sore dimensions and tempera liao The disadvantages of permanent magnet mtors see he magnets deteriorate with ne an magnetized with large curent trons “These drasBacks ore elimina by High giode rmazneic materials sich ay eetamic magnets and rear ear mats. But dhe cost of these fmatosal very high lceromagoetie Held de motor: Elestomagnetic moors ate economical for higher power 12 kenrally above 1 KW, This pe of etvormotr is simla to = conven de motor contionaly bu has the Ttlowing speci fetes: |. The numberof sles and commutator segments i ange to improve eommuttion 2 Compoles and compensating windings ate provide 1 ena sparking 4. The dames o lergth rato #6 kept low wee ines, 4 Oversieg shall we employed to wisn’ the high frous ses, [addy cues are rues by complete elimination ofthe netic cri and by sing Jen ss ee In this pe oF moter, the wrgue aad sped may be cone by varying te arma current andlor the fe erent General, one of thet 3 aed Io control the reve andthe ftier is held constant. In ammatiecontolled mode of operation. the eld curent is held {constant and te amare curren! i ack We cool the lou. In te il-soelled mae, te armature cuent is malnained sonstnt aa field cute ie vated to contol the oeque. In sere anoles, de rans are required tn hoe rp accelerations fm snd “Therefore, the phytic requirments of sich a mote ars law inria abd igh stating tore ‘ow ineria atalned wih reduced armuaure diameter with a conser incre i ame feng sa thst the dasied power ouput is achived. Thus, except for mince Genoa: in casrutional features a de Servmnoxr is esertilly an odie de motor in cndl systems the ds anotors ae used nny in Wo differen coceol mod: armature contol mode with Raed fick! cirent end eld contol mode wih Fed armiore carer Armature-conttllad de servonoior: An asmatte-sonroled dé seivomon I a Be shunt ‘motcedosgnad io say the requirement of a servomete Ifthe Fld eurent i enstal than society roporionel to amature voage. a trac is dicelly proportional to snaie frost Hence te to and speed ean be conoled by ameaturevollape. Reversible operon is posible by reversing the armatire voli In small motors, the armas voltage is controled by a sarisble etance Bt in lage ‘motes in onder to esis pover iss, armate uae contol hy hss,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems OT Figure 2.53 shows an armature-controlled de motor. §, (constant) NA Lj o Figure 253 Armature-contoled de rotor. In this system, resistance of armature winding (in ohms) inductance of armature winding (in henrys) armature current (in amperes) i; = field current (in amperes) € = applied armature voltage (in volts) es = back emf (in volts) Ty = torque developed by motor (in N-m) = angular displacement of motor shaft (in radians) equivalent moment of inertia of motor and lead referred to motor shaft (in ke-m?) equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shat ( Nem/rad/s) In servo applications, the de motors are generally used in the linear range of the magnetization curve, Therefore, the air gap flux ¢ is proportional to the field curent, i.e omy or o> Ki @8) where K; is a constant. ‘ ‘The torque Ty developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the air gap flux @ and the armature current Ty = Gia ice. Ty © Ky jig or Ty = Ky Kyiyta 29) where XK; is a constant.68 Contos systems In the armature-conirolled de motor, field current is kept constant, so the equation for Ty can be written as Ty = Bria where K; is known as the motor torque constant, ‘The motor back emf is proportional to speed, i. 40 ane 40 or =k, O where Ky is the back emf constant, ‘The differential equation of the armature circuit is 4, Rite, de ‘The torque equation is ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.11)-2.13), E,(3) = Kys0(9) (3) = L630 + Blah) + Fy (0) 1g olga + Ry) = El) ~ Eglo) B@)-E ie. 1,(3)= FOE) (yr Ry) IPOS) + fySO(8) = Ty (3) = Kyla (S) ie. A(s\(Js? + fos)= Kply(s) [EG)—E,(O) _ LEG) ~ Kys6(3)] ie saa te + fo) = Ky EEO gg, (EG) Rests) MO Sol RR) st Ry) [Substituting the values of /,(s) and E,(s) from Eqs. ie. (Uig8 + R)S(I8+ fo) (8) = Kp E(3) ~ Kp K,s6(s) ie. UL,S +R, )IS + fo) + Ky Ky]6(s) = KpEs) ‘Therefore, the transfer function is Kp ALS ROS + fo) + KK] (2.10) any (212) (2.13) (2.14) (215) (2.16) .16) and (2.14)]Nemenmesieces erPracs) sens 68 The block diggram of the de metor can be obisined as fllows, The block diagram representation of the ean FU) -246) “he is shown in Figwe 2.54, whete de cveular Block repeesenting We dierencag aeons cnn as the summing poo The block diagram representation ofthe equation, = Hass hi is shown in Figure 254(b). Hew the signal i taken ff fom a take-off pint au fed tothe Feedback black The Mock dir representation ofthe equation Ee) = Bio) 10) a 4s shown in Figure 234 ©) Figure 254d) bovis tho complete block diagram of the sstem under consideration stained by connectig the block diagrams shaw in Figue 2546, Fipure 2.540) as Figme 2she an, Lo te gE Po i gue 254. ek saya a aercurecobet ae me70 corer systoms ‘The block Gsgiom ofthe syst under consideration can be testy obsined from the plyseal stem of Figure 2.55 by using the mechanical networks derived alealy he volage applied te the armature cist is £6) which i eppesed bythe ack emt 3). ‘The oxi wolage A) ~ Eis) acta on 2 linear cru comprised of resistance ard inductance fa Saris, having the Wansfr function Tis ~ R). The rsuit an armature cient /{). Since the fields fsed, the toxque toutes the load a speed ts) azint the monceat of inertia J and te viscous tion wity oot, The transfer fnetion fe W.e +). The back emt ial Eile) ~ Ky) is ae of fom tho sb apeeé and fad back negatively tothe summing point ‘he angle sia As) is obsned by ineyradng Che by muting by Ui) the sec es Ts results inthe block ciagramn of Figure 2.5, whith i equvaont to tha of Figure 254, gue 235. Bek day of rvatrecostoed de mot: “The snmature circuit inductance, ie usully negligible, Therefor, the trans fntion of fhe armanue-catilled mice simplifies o , a em FO Pad wok The ern (i 5h) oF Eq, (2.17) indicates thatthe bac en of the motor ffetively p+ BER bebe ooctive vious tition & iscous ction of ho stem, Let coelcient Thee, Hy. 217) benes mk Rh Ee) eT aA Equi (2.18) may be writen as aD. 3 ew KyMatnematcal Models of Physical Sysioms 74 Field-controlled de servomotor: A field-controlled de servomotor, is a de shunt motor de- signed to satisfy the requirement of a servomotot. In this motor, the armature is supplied with a constant current or voltage. When armature voltage is constant, the torque is directly propor tional to the field flux. Since the field current is proportional to flux, the torque of the motor is controlled by controlling the field current. The response of a field-controtled motor is how- ever slowed by field inductance. ‘A field controlled de motor is shown in Figure 2.56(a). 8 i, (eonstant) 7 a wo! oy 4 hin |" yw @ ©) Figure 256 (a) Field controlled dc motor and (b) block diagram of field contolled de motor In this system, field winding resistance (in ohms) field winding inductance (in hentys) field control voltage (in volts) = field current (in amperes) = torque developed by motor (in N-m) = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft (in kg-m?) J = equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft in N-mirad/s) 8 = angular displacement of motor shaft (in radians) In the field-controlled motor, the armature current is fed from a constant current source. Since the motor is operating in the linear region of the magnetization curve, the flux is proportional to the feld current, i.e. ery Sy or 9 where Ky is a constant.72 conti systems The torque developed by the motor Ty Gig Tue Kyipla or Ty = Kr Ky iy ip = Ky where Ky is a constant “The equation for the field circuit is (2.19) ‘The torque equation is (220) ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20), assuming zero initial conditions, we get (Lys 4 Ry ly (9)= Es) Es) ie. 1y(9)= 221) 1 s+R, 2 7 Ky/EG) (8? + fa)O(3) = Ty (8) = KpT (3) = KE # w TO (Lys Ry) [Substituting the value of /4s) from Eq. (2.21)] ‘Therefore, the transfer function is Hye EG) (E58, IS+ |) where K,, ==" = motor gain constant Rf Ly a sreut 1, =L = time constant of field circuit Ry mechanical time constant ‘The block diagram of the field controlled de motor is shown in FigureMatnematcal Models of Prysical Systems 73, Comparison of armature-controlled and field-controlled modes: For simall size motors, field control is advantageous because only a low power servoamplifier is required, while the armature current which is not large can be supplied from an inexpensive current amplifier. For large size motors, it is on the whole cheaper to use armature control scheme. Further, in an armature-controlled motor, back emf contributes additional damping over and above that pro- 2.7.2. AC Servomotors An ac servomotor basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain special design features. A two-phase induction motor consists of two stator windings oriented 90° ‘A two-phase servomotor differs in the following two way’ from a normal induction motor, |. The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance so that its W/R (inductive reactance/resistance) ratio is small which results in linear speed-torque characteristic, as shown by curve b in Figure 2.57. But the conventional induction motors have lerge X/R ratio which results in high efficiency but in highly nonlinear torque speed characteristics as shown by curve a in Figure 2.57. Also because of the positive slope for part of the characteristic, the system using such a motor becomes unstable 2. The excitation voltage applied to two stator windings should have a phase difference of 90°. Torque Large 18 ° Syachronous Rotor speed speed Figure 2.57 Torque-speed characteristics of induction metor. Construction of ae servomotor: An ac servomotor is basically a two-phase induction motor with some special design features. The stator consists of two pole pairs (4-B and C-D) mounted on the inner periphery of the stator such that their axes are at an angle of 90° in space. Each pole pair carries a winding, One winding is called reference winding and the other is called control winding. The exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90°. The supply used to drive the motor is single-phase and so a phase advancing capacitor is connected to one of the phases to produce a phase difference of 90°. The constructional features of an ac se-vomotor are shown in Figure 2.58.TA comer systoms » © Figure 268 Sint constuctoa fabs oa wn ghat sews mtr) sate) tng casa (tr ‘The totr construction is usualy squiel cage or dog-eup type. The aguiteleage oir is ‘made of laminations. The rotor bars are placed inthe ots un shorcleuted at Hah eas by fend rings The diameter of the stort kat ell in onder to vaducs ara and to obtsin good scceeraing characterises. The drag contusion is employed for very low ena applications. In thi pe of comsmition, the mor ill be in the faem of 8 hollow eylinder made of aluminen. The ‘mina ylindr eta shortcut nar cents Clea Beth yes KHON, ‘re sent). Working of a two-phase industion motor: Figure 2.59 shows w schemas diene for tlanced operat of the tworphase faduction motor The stator windings are acid by velages of equal mms magnitude and 90° pha iference. This reults in exciting cores fan shat are phase dsplaced by 99° and fave equal ns waht. So Aer repectve elds will te 90" apa in both trea! space rovling in a magnetic field of corsant magne rong al syiconais speed. The dicen of raion depends upon pluse selaionship of the 090 ‘urrents (lage) AS the field sweeps over the roar, wages are indeed Hn progeny eurieat ia Ue shortckuited ret. The routing magnetic fed iairacis wih tse cuteas Froising tongue cn he roo nthe diestion of field oF rotition ands hero is moving fa the same diction a that of rotating magic SelNemenmesiecas erPraca) sens 75 bof gure 269, ctematedapan of we ees nde nto ‘Working of an ac servomorer: tn servo appcation, the voages spple to the wo stator svincngs ere realy blsresd Figure 2.60, sho a schematic diaz of sn a servomotor ‘gona system component. As shown in Fete 264, ce af the pases ew a the erence Fase ie encital by 4 constant voltage, and he other phe known 96 the contol ps is tne by awllage whichis 90° out of plse with respect 1 the volaze of te reference Face The conto! phos volta i supple ftom # srko ampifier and hit 3 variable ‘agitade and polarity (LOOP phase angle with respect tothe referee phase, The drction fof rctrion of the mtr reverses asthe platy the conol phase signal changes in san “Tho contol signals in contol spew are wunly of low Beguenc. In the range of 0 10 20 He. For peduction of rotating magnetic lek the coool pase volta muni be of the sine Iregueney a the rferone phate volage and in addition the Wo vores must bo in tine sgaadaie Henes, the cont sina is modified by a carisr whose frequenes is the sine 38 at of the efatence voltage and then apped tn cool windg. The ae supply sel used scarier signal for medion prosess. The 50 phase difference between the control-phase ‘and he reterencespiae voltages fund bythe Iver of cacti eterence wig pase a Lo] | [MiG 0) The torquespsed curves of iy ae servomotor pote fr fn reference pase volage and with vara me corte voltage a sown in Figare 261, Al these curves havea negate ope, Note tht the curve for aero contol vollage aces thwush the erg. This meas thal ‘when the conto! phase voltage hecomes 2ea, the mnor develops 4 dcoerzing ergo and $0 he motor sts. The curves show slang tnsue at zero speed, This is @ regurement Fr @78 corms systoms servometor in onde fo provide rapid asscsaton, The tnguspesd eves of ee servomators| ae nontiear excep inte fw spe regio, Ta Figure 251 Serer teacerstes, “Transfer function of an ae servomutor: Let Ty = torue developed by seryomotor 6 ~ angular displacement of roar = da» salar speed 1 =tonque equi by te load J = moment of int of last and the roe Ky = slope of eonlphase voltage vers torque ebaraceites Ky ~ slope of tong speed chasers With referee to Figure 2.61. me ca say that for speeds ner xo ll the Uves ae scralght lines poral tothe ebareerste a eae np Yolage (2, ~ E) ad are opal spiced for equl increments of te inet voltage. Under this assumption, te torque developed bythe ao Ty = ke 6, The loud torque is given by 0 22) ae ez ‘Nt cauilitrium, the motor torque is equ the foad torque, Therefor, “0 aga 24 Be ew “Taking the Laplace torsfom on both sks of Ca, 2.24) and neglecting inital editions, ave getMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 77 Jes) + fsAs) = K\EAs) ~ KysAs) ice. (Us? + f+ Kys) &s) = KEL) ‘The transfer function of the system is therefore as) K K E.G) Js + js+ Kys Is* ae eres] __KiAS+K2) _ Kw Gen) +k, = motor gain constant [+R L f+K, = motor time constant 2.8 SYNCHROS A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an eleciric signal. It is commercially known as selsyn or autosyn. It produces an output voltage depending upon the angular position of the rotor. It works on the principle of an induction motor, 2.8.1 Synchro Transmitter The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. ts construction is similar to that of three-phase alternator. The two major parts ofa synchro transmitter are stator and rotor. The stator (stationary member) is of laminated silicon steel and is slotted on the inner periphery to accommodate a balanced three-phase winding which is usually of concentric coil type (three identical coils are placed in the stator with their axes 120° apart) and is Y connected. The rotor is of dumb-bell construction with a single winding and is wound with a concentric coil, A single-phase ac voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip rings. The constructional features and a schematic diagram of a synchro transmitter are shown in Figures 2.62. and 2.63, respectively Let an ac voltage v(t) = ¥, sin at) (225) be applied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter as shown in Figure 2.63. This voltage causes a flow of magnetizing current in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidally time varying flux directed along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally in the air gap along the stator periphery. Because of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. As the78 conti systems air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking stator eoil is proportional to the cosine of the angle betveen the rotor and stator coil axes and so is the voltage induced in each stator coil. The stator coil voltages are of course in time phase with each other. Thus we see that the synchro transmitter acts like a single-phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the primary and the stator coils form the three secondaries. Sip rings Rovor coil Stator winding Figure 2.62 Corstrucional features of @ synctro tensmiter. _ ——— : AC supply, s Figure 2.63 Schematic iagram of a synchro transmitter Let vst Vian and ¥459 respectively be the voltages in the stator coils Sy, Sp and $3 with respect to the neutral. Then, for the rotor position of the synchro transmitter shown Figure 2.63, where the rotor axis makes an angle @ with the axis of the stator coil So,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 79 Vaan = KV, sin @2t 60s (8+ 120°) KV, sin at cos @ (2.26) KV, sin at cos (8 + 240°) Van Ma I voltages of the stator are as follows: Viste =Yetn ~ Yom = V3 KV, sin (0 + 240°) sin @,1 ‘san — Veaw = V3 KV, sin (9 +120") sin 0 (227) Ysa van = V3 KV, si when @= 0, from the above equations (Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27) it is seen that maximum voltage is induced in the stator coil Ss, while the terminal voltage ¥,3, is zer0. This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying the angular position of the rotor. ‘Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three staior coil 10 coil single-phase voltages. The magnitudes of these voltages are functions of the shaft position. So by measuring and identifying the set of voltages at the stator terminals, it is possible to identify the angular position of the rotor ‘The three termi Me ésino.t 2.82 Synchro Control Transformer The constructional features of a synchro control transformer are similar to that of a synchro transmitter except for the shape of the roter. The rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is practically uniform. This feature of the control transformer minimizes the changes in the rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft. Another distinguishing feature Is that the stator winding of the control transformer has a higher impedance per phase. This feature permits several control transformers to be fed from a single transmitter. The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator windings of a synchro control transformer. Working: The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained at the desired value. Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf on the stator, an emf is produced in the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor so that the position of the load is corrected. 2.8.3 Synchro as an Error Detector ‘The synchro error detector is formed by interconnection of the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer as shown in Figure 2.64, The stator leads of the transmitter are directly connected to the stator leads of the control transformer. The angular position of the transmitter rotor is the reference input and the rotor is excited by a single-phase ac supply. The control transformer rotor is connected to a servomotor and to the shaft of the load, whose position is the desired output. Initially, the transmitter and the control transformer rotor are assumed to be in their electrical zero position, The angular separation of both rotor axes in this, position is 90°, The electrical zero position of a control transformer in a servo system is that80 cor systems sition of rotor for which he output voltage onthe rotor wining is co with he taster fn selected zero posite, Flere 268 Spee ore date ‘When the tamer rotor is excited, the rotor Mes set up an ems ae induced in stator oil, These induced ems are impressod on the str cols of the conto! Warsformr. The urea in the lar eis Se yp Nun in th conto tansformer: Due to te sina fa he ‘magne construction, the ts parm produced In the two syncs whl hee eam al Tosscs are neglected, Let the 110" of the iene wate trough a smEe Tom Ks betel erm postion fn the discioninuicted and let the cont tarsformerrolte i he sume dieetion tush an tnule «resuling ina net ungular seperation of = 60 ~ 0 + a betveet the tno rors. So fe voltage of te rotor terns of the cand ansfemer & ten Ae) KV 005 (90 04+ ch sin a= Ke c0s (O~@) sin ow 28) Egution (2.28 shows thatthe ouput vollage ofthe syaehvo erordetactor ia modulatod Senal with cari frequeney ot "The syacho sts cone! tugeformer pair thus acts a6 an etre detest giving vole siznal a the roerterminels wf the conta) tansener proportional 0 the azul tierence beta the uses and contol teasonter shaft positions 2.9 GEAR TRAINS Goat tate are used in conto atoms 0 aan the mechanical meshing oft meer to the Toad. Usual « servomoier operates ats high peed bata low teque. To drive a Yo with ‘high oe and ln spood sich moto, she onque magefiestion and sped reduction ate fcheved fy sar tsnn Thus in mechansal system, goa tins ost ss mulching doves The \wansirmers in eetial stonNemenmesieces erPrassisysens BL Figure 265 shows a moter diving ood threogh a gear ain which consss of two gears ‘coupled togetter ‘The gent wid tei sealed Whe primary gear canalogous tothe primary ‘winging ofthe kansformet) and the gear with N; eeth is called the sens’ gear, te I phe wa. an TT PPR Gat (iit) ceusicunduy seu BST LNT Jagan 2 tea Figure 286. Geeta em, ‘he angular displacements of shefts 1 and 2 are denoted by 6, and seepectvely. The ‘moment of ine and Nscous fition of mor and gear I are dente by J abl unl hase fof gear 2 ant load by J anf respectively For the ft shat, the erential equton 8. dd 29 Ty SB Shot, em whee Ts the onus developed bythe okra 7) te Toe tong on scar 1 due 1 he "sto the gear tan For the secon! shal ex C8 5 ae to then, ‘re th ad xq tn hed equ on sa? due ote vest he ou in tat» be te nels of gear and ry he the dus of gee 2 Since the lina tance texted aon the sic ofeach gears he a, rh ~ 8s The amber oth on ear Sie bing poponona o ger ids, we cain. Soa Qn Ns Here He ess ofthe lls ofthe eer uaa ansumed o bein. tn an ea ase cf nos per ane the work done Hy gear I eet st of gat 2 Tee, 1-18, et en82 Contos systems Differentiating twice, we have the following relation for speed and acceleration. (233) reduces the speed and magnifies the torque. Ni, Thus, if “<1, the gear t Ny, e Eliminating 7, and 7; from the torque equation using Eq, (2.32) and then Eq, (2.30), we get 6, de =a +H (234) Eliminating 6; using Eq. (2.32), Eq. ( Taine a ‘(ies ‘Thus, the equivalent moment of inertia and viscous friction of gear train referred to shaft 1 are my tg =F +(%) Jai Sieg = fit (2) th In terms of equivalent moment of inertia and frietion, the equation for Ty, i.e. Eq. (2.29) may be written as a #4 do, ( M A fi lr, =1, hepatitis whore | Mb N the equivalent moment of inertia and viscous friction of gear train referred to load shaft are ee oon fd sa inary espns noms of No santo a ‘The torque equation referred to the load shaft may then be expressed asMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 83. SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Most control systems contain which elements? Most control systems contain mechanical as well as electrical components. From a mathematical view point, the descriptions of which systems are analogous? From a mathematical view point, the descriptions of mechanical and electrical systems are analogous. Given an electrical device, there is always an analogous mechanical counterpart mathematically and vice versa, ‘What are the two types of mechanical systems? The two types of mechanical systems arc (a) mechanical translational systems and (b) mechanical rotational systems. What do you mean by a mechanical translational system? ‘A mechanical translational system is one in which the motion takes place along a straight line. What do you mean by a mechanical rotational system? ‘A mechanical rotational system is one in which the motion takes place about a fixed axis. Using which lavy, the equations of motion of mechanical systems are formulated? Using Newton's law of motion, the equations governing the motion of mechanical systems are often formulated directly or indirectly. late Newton's law of motion for mechanical translational systems. Newton’s law of motion for mechanical translational systems states that the algebraic sum of the forces acting on a rigid body in a given direction is equal to the product of the mass of the body and its acceleration in the same direction. State Newton’s law of motion for mechanical rotational systems. Newton's law of motion for mechanical rorational systems states that the algebraic sum of moments or torques about # fixed axis is equal to the product of the inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis Using which ideal elements the mechanical translational systems are modelled? ‘The mechanical translational systems are modelled by using three ideal elements: mass, spring and damper. Using which ideal elements the mechanical rotational systems are modelled? ‘The mechanical rotational systems are modelled by using three ideal elements: inertia, torsional spring and friction, |. Define mass. Mass is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of translational motion. Which type of energy does a spring store? A spring is considered to be an clement that stores potential energy.84 Contr Systems 23. When does friction exist? Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two physical elements, frictional forces exist What are the three types of friction? Which one is more predominant? The three types of friction commonly used in practical systems are—viscous friction, static friction, and coulomb friction. in most physical systems, the viscous friction predominates. What do you mean by coulomb friction? The force of sliding friction between dry surfaces is called coulomb friction, This force is substantially constant What do you mean by viseous friction? ‘The force of friction between moving surfaces separated by viscous fluid or the force between a solid body and @ fluid medium is called viscous friction. This force is approxi- ‘mately linearly proportional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range. ion fri What do you mean by ‘The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called stiction. Which friction is represented by a dash pot? Viscous friction is always represented by a dash pot. Define inertia, Inertia J is considered to be the property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of rotational motion. |. What does torsional spring constant A represent?” ‘The torsional spring constant K represents the compliance of a rod or a shaft when it is subjected to an applied torque. |. What do you mean by a fiee-body diagram? A free-body diagram is a diagram showing each mass separately, with all forees acting on the mass marked on it . What do you mean by a mechanical network? AL A mechan al network is a diagram indicating the interconnection of sources and components of the mechanical system in which one end of the force or torque sources and the mass or inertia elements is connected to ground. Write the force balance equations for an (a) ideal mass, (b) ideal spring and (c) ideal dash pot. ‘The force balance equations for the elements of mechanical translational system are as follows: Mass (M) -» F = MLS o = Fom® rr a Spring (4) > # = Ke oe rex [oa ax Damper > P= 5 oFMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 85 24, A 28. 26. 2. 28, 29, 30. 31. 32. Write the torque balance equations for an (a) ideal inei dash pot. . (b) ideal spring and (c) ideal The torque’balance equations for the elemients of the mechanical rotalional systems are as follows: Inertia (J) > T= a ot Torsional spring (K) > T= KO or 0 Damper (9) 9 T= f5> or Name the energy storage elements in electrical systems, ‘The capacitor and the inductor are the energy storage elements in electrical systems. ‘Name the energy dissipative elements in electrical systems, ‘The resistor is the energy dissipative element in electrical systems. What is the systematic way of analyzing mechanical systems The systematic way of analyzing a mechanical system is to draw a free-body diagram or ‘a mechanical network and then write the differential equations describing them, What do you mean by analogous systems? Systems whose differential equations are of identical form are called analogous systems. What are the two types of analogy between mechanical translational and electrical systems? ‘The two types of analogy between mechanical translational and electrical systems are (@) foree-voltage analogy and (b) foree-current analogy. What are the two types of analogy between mechanical rotational and electrical systems? The two types of analogy between mechanical rotational and electrical systems are (@) torque-voltage analogy and (b) torque-current analogy. Name the analogous electrical elements in force-voltage analogy for the elements of ‘mechanical translational system? In force-voltage analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical translational and electrical systems are Force (F)-Voltage (e), Mass (M)-Inductance (1), Friction (/)-Resistance (2), Spring constant (K)-Reciprocal of capacitance (1/C), Displacement (x}-Charge (q), Velocity (v)-Current (i). Name the analogous electrical elements in force-current analogy for the elements of mechanical translational. system? In force-current analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical translational and electrical systems are Force (F)-Current (i), Mass (M)-Capacitance (C), Friction (A> Reciprocal of resistance (1/R), Spring constant (K)-Reciprocal of inductance (I/L), Displacement (x)-Flux linkage (¢), Velocity (v)-Voltage (e).Contr Systems 33. 36. 37. Name the analogous electrical elements in torque-voltage analogy for the elements of ‘mechanical rotational system? In torque-voltage analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical rotational and electrical systems are Torque (7)-Votage (e), Inertia (J)-Inductance (L), Friction (f)-Resistance (R), Spring constant (K)-Reciprocal of capacitance (1/C), Angular displacement (@}Charge (q), Angular velocity (@)-Current (). Name the analogous electrical elements in torque-current analogy for the elements of mechanical rotational systems? In torque-current analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical rotational and electrical systems are Torque (7)-Current (i), Inertia (/)-Capacitance (C), Friction (/)-Reciprocal of resistance (1/R), Spring constant (K)-Reeiprocal of inductance (1/L), Angular displacement (@)-Flux linkage (¢), Angular velocity (@)-Voltage (e). . What do you mean by analogy? What is the advantage of finding analogy between systems? Analogy means similarity. Using analogy, it is convenient to study a non-electrical system in terms of its electrical analog as electrical systems are more easily amenable to experimental study, The advantage of finding analogy between two systems is an unfamiliar sysiem can be analyzed easily in terms of the familiar system, Define the term ‘Impulse response of a system’. ‘The impulse response of a system is defined as the output when the input is a unit impulse function 5(0). Once the impulse response of a linear system is known, the output of the system o(0), with any input r(¢) can be found by using the transfer function. Give the two definitions of the transfer function. ‘The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the Laplace transform of the impulse response of the system, with all the initial conditions set to zero. The transfer finetion of a linear time-invariant system is also defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input with all initial conditions neglected, . Can a transfer function be defined for nonlinear systems? No. A transfer function can not be defined for nonlinear systems, |. For which systems can a transfer function be defined? ‘The transfer function can be defined only for linear time-invariant systems. What do you mean by a sirictly proper transfer function? A strietly proper transfer function is one in which the order of the denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial. |. What do you mean by a proper transfer funetion? . A proper transfer function is one in which the order of the numerator polynomial is equal to that of the denominator polynomialMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 87 2. 43. What do you mean by an improper transfer function? ‘An improper transfer funetion is one in which the order of the denominator polynomial is lees than that of the numerator polynomial. What do you mea by characteristic equation? Why that name? . The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. This equation characterizes the behaviour of the system, Hence the name characteristic equation. ‘The stability of a linear time-invariant system is governed by what? ‘The stability of a linear time-invariant system is governed completely by the roots of its characteristic equation, " ‘The transfer function obtained by replacing s with je» in the original transfer function is, called the sinusoidal transfer function What do you mean by a sinusoidal transf What do you mean by multivariable system? A multi-input-multi-output system is called a multivariable system. Does the transfer function of a system depend on the input? No. The tansier function of a system does not depend on the input. How is the transfer funet n to be derived when a number of systems are cascaded? When loading is considered, the overall transfer function should be derived by basic analysis without regard to individual transfer functions. When there is no loading, the overall transfer function is equal to the product of the individual transfer functions of the systems comnected in cascade Why are differential equations converted into algebraic equations’? ‘The solution of higher-order differential equations is quite tedious process, 50 differential equations are converted into algebraic equations by using Laplace transforms. What do you mean by loading in electrical systems? Loading in electrical systems means drawing the current from them. What are servomotors? ‘A. The motors used in control systems or in servomechanisms are called servomotors. They are used ( convert electrical signal ino angular motion, . What are the characteristics of servomotors? ‘The characteristics of servomoiors are as follows: Linear relationship between the speed and the electric control signal Steady-state stability Wide range of speed control Low mechanical and electrical inertia Fast response88 cormsystems 3. Compare ae and de sonometors [A The ac end de servmoors are compere a fll 1 Low power oma 1. Relay hi power aap tan an ae sevoneler tHe wees 2, Chartres 2 Cramer ee tn 4 Show reson et her vale” 3. Fas response 0 few electra and 4 Stile for ow power spats 44 Sueale fr gh power penn S34 Wht ae te advantages of permanent magnet de servemoiers? ‘A. The alvanayes of pemanert magnet de servomotors ae as fllows 1A simpler and mere reisle motor because the eld power suppy is no eau Higher efiieney dew the absense of field loses Feld less affecied ty termperatce se, Less heating, making it possible to totally enclose the moor No possiiliy of over speeding de o loss of Rel A mre lines torque versus speed cue. Higher power output a the same dimensions and temperature linitatons, 58. wha [Ay The special features of electomagnetic fel de servenotors ae a flows 1. The number of sts and cormutxor seganents i le to improve commun, 2 Compoles and compensating windings ave provided to eiminate sparking 3. The diomevr w lengt rato is Kept low 1 reduce Inet 4 a the Specat Features of eleeemanetie eld deserves? Oversize shafts are employed to withstand the high tous ses [eddy eorens ate reid hy complete lammion ofthe magnetic ei Ry ang low-loss see S50, Wha for de motors sxe aned In contr! systems? A In servo aplieatons, de motors ae used ta produce mpi celeron fam sand tl So the physiol requirements of such motors ere fw ine and high sting torque 57, Wht are th nv contre odes in which EE de motes ARE Ae In cont ys? [AL The toc ses in hie be de mors ae us in conto syste are a) amature omit mode with Fixed ‘8 current ae (b) Feld contal mode with Axed semane ‘88 For which motos Feld contol i prelerted an for wick mons arate conte is prefered? [A For small size motors fel conta i advanasous andor large siee motors armature comma preferedMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 89 59, ef 68. > How does an ac servomotor differ from a normal two-phase induction motor? ‘An ac seryomotor is basically 2 two-phase induction motor but it differs from that in two ways. 1. The ac servomotor has low value of 17R to achieve linear torque-speed characteristics, But normal induction motors have large values of /R for higher efficiency. 2. ‘The ac servomotor has low inertia rotor. The inertia of the rotor is reduced by reducing the diameter or by drag-cup construction. What is a synchro? A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal. It works on the principle of a rotating transformer (induction motor). What are the commercial names of a synchro? The commercial names of a synchro are: selsyn, autosyn and telesyn What for is it used? ‘A synchro pair is a system formed by interconnection of the devices—synchro transmitter and synchro control transformer. A synchro pair may be used either to transmit an angular ‘motion from one place to another or to produce an etror voltage proportional to the difference between two angular motions. What are the differences between a synchro transmiter and a synchro control transformer? ‘The differences between a synchro transmiiter and a synehto control transformer are as follows: 1. The rotor of a synchro transmitter is of dumb-bell shape, but the rotor of a synchro ‘control transfomer is cylindrical. 2. ‘The rotor winding of a synchro transmitter is excited by an ac voltage. In a synchro control transformer, the induced emf in the rotor is used as an output signal (error signal. What is electrical zero position of a synchro transmitter? The electrical zero position of a synchro transmitter is a position of its rotor at which one of the coil-to-coil voltage is zero, Any angular motion of the rotor is measured with respect to the electrical zero position of the rotor. What is electrical zero position of a synchro control transformer? ‘The electrical zero position of a synchro control transformer in a servo system is that position of its rotor for which the output voltage on the rotor winding is zero, with the transmitter in its electrical zero position What is aligned position of a synchro pair? ‘The aligned position of a synchro pair is one in which both the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer are in their electrical zero positions. The angular separation of both rotor axes in aligned position is 90°, The error signal is zero in the aligned position90 Contr Systems 67. A > 69. 70. What are the applications of synchros? Synehros are used in servomechanisms (position control systems) as error detectors and to convert angular displacements to proportional electrical signals. They are also used in control systems to transmit angular motions from one place to another. . What for gear trains are used in control systems? Gear trains are used in control systems to obtain mechanical matching of motor to load. They are used to alter the speed to torque ratio of the rotational power transmitted from motor to load. This is necessary to meet the torque requirement of the load. What is gear ratio? ‘The gear ratio of a gear train is the ratio of torque, speed, angular displacement, velocity and acceleration between any two gear wheels in that gear train, The gear ratio between gear wheels a and 6 in a gear train is given by N, Ty % % Moth & % @ A servomotor is connected through a gear ratio of 12 t0 a load having moment of inertia JJand viscous friction coefficient f What are the equivalent parameters referred to motor shaft side. Let V; = aumber of teeth in gear wheel connected to motor shaft = number of teeth in Given Ny/N2~ 12 Moment of inertia of load referred to motor shaft sar wheel connected to load shaft HN IN, = 144 J Coefficient of friction of load referred to motor shaft = f(N\/Ns ? = 144 f How do you compare gear trains and transformers? A. In mechanical systems, gear trains act as matching devices like transformers in electrical systems. REVIEW QUESTIONS Derive an expression for the transfer function of a single-loop control system. Derive an expression for the uansfer function of an armature controlled de servometor. Derive an expression for the transfer function of a field controlled de servomotor, plain the construction and working of an ac servomotor. Derive an expression for the transfer function of an ac servomotor. Explain the construction and working of a synchro. Write short notes on gear trains. Derive an expression for the motor torque.Matnematcal Models of Physical Sysioms 94 ean |. Most control systems contain as well as components. From a mathematical view point, the descriptions of mechanical and electrical elements are 3. The motion of mechanical elements can be described as or or In mechanical systems, motion takes place along.a straight line. In mechanical systems, motion takes place about a fixed axis, ‘The variables that are used to describe the translational motion are is considered as a property of an element that stores kinetic energy of translational motion. 8 In general is an element that stores potential energy. 9, The force of sliding fiiction between dry surfaces is called friction force. 10, The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called The element for viscous friction is often represented by he force of friction between moving surfaces separated by a Mid or the force between a solid body and a fluid medium is called force. 1B. is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of rotational motion. 14, Systems whose differential equations are identical are called systems. 18, The classical way of modelling linear systems is to use to represent input- ‘output relations between variables. The transfer function is defined only for systems. It is not defined for systems. The transfer function is defined only when the are neglected 18. The transfer function is independent of the to the system. 19, The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined as the Laplace transform of the of the system. 20. The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the to the with the assumption that all are zero. 21, The transfer function is said to be __if the order of the denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial. 22, The transfer function is said to be if the onder of the numerator polynomial is equal to that of the denominator polynomial.92 Contos systems 23, The transfer function is said to be if the order of the numerator polynomial is greater than that of the denominator polynomial 24, The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the of the to zero, 28, ‘The transfer function obtained by replacing s with je in the original transfer function is called the 26, In servo applications are required to produce rapid acceleration from stand still. 27. In control systems, the de motors are used in two different control modes (2) and (b) 28. In servo applications, the de motors are generally used in the range of the ‘magnetization curve. 29, For small size motors is advantageous and for large size motors is preferred. 30, Gear trains are used in control systems to attain mechanical matching of to 31. In mechanical sysiems, gear trains act as matching devices like in electrical systems. 32, The motors used in automatic control systems or in servomechanisms are called 33, Servomotors are used to convert into 34, The characteristics of servomotors are nonlinear, whereas the characteristics of servomotors are linear servomotor is suitable for low power applications and servomo- tor is suitable for high power applications. 36. servomotor has fast response and servomotor has slow response. 37. The ac servomotor has value of X/R, whereas a normal induction motor has a value of WR. 38 A is an electro magnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal, 39. A synchro is commonly known as or 40. A synchro pair consists of @ and a 41. The rotor of synchro transmitter is of shape, but the shape of synchra control 4. transformer is Any angular motion of the rotor of a transmitter is measured with respect to the of the rotor.Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 93. Answers to Fill in the Blanks 1. mechanical, electrical 2, analogous 3. translational, rotational, combinations of both 4. translational 5. rotational 6. displacement, velocity, acceleration 7. mass 8 spring. 9.coulomb 10. stiction 11, dash pot 12. viscous friction 13. inertia 14. analogous 15.transfer function 16. linear time-invariant, nonlinear 17. initial conditions 18, input 19. impulse respons 20. Laplace transform of the output, Laplace transform of the input, inival conditions 24, stictly proper 22. proper 23. improper 24. denominator polynomial, transfer function 25, sinusoidal transfer function 26, de motors 27. (a) armature control mode with fixed field current, (b) field control mode with fixed armature current 28, linear 29. field control, armature control 30. motor, load 31. transformers 32. servomotors. 33. electrical signal, angular motion 34. se, de 38, ac, de 36. de, ac 37. low, large 38. synchro 39. selsyn, autosyn 40. Synchro transmitter, synchro control transformer 41, Dumb-bell, cylindrical 42, Electrical zero position. cums sand 1. The motion of mechanical elements can be deseribed as (a) purely rotational (b) purely translational (©) roiational or translational or combination of both (0) none of these 2. Translational motion is the motion (@) along a straight line (b) about a fixed axis (©) along a random path (d) none of these 3. Rotational motion is the motion (@) along a straight line (b) about a fixed axis (©) along a random path (d) none of these 4. An element that stores the kinetic energy of translational motion is called (a) mass (b) spring, (©) damper (d) none of these 5S. An element witich stores potential energy is (2) mass (b) spring, (© damper (d) none of these 6. The force of sliding fiiction between dry surfaces is called (@) coulomb friction force (b) viscous friction force (©) stiction (d) none of these 7, ‘The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called (@) coulomb fiietion force (b) viscous friction force (0) stiction (d) none of these94 contr systems 8 The friction force acts in a direction (@) opposite to that of motion (b) perpendicular to that of motion (©) along that of motion (d) none of these 9. The viseous fiiction force is approximately linearly proportional to (@) displacement (b) velocity (©) acceleration (d) none of these 10, An element that stores kinetic energy of rotational motion is called (@) inertia (b) torsional spring (©) damper (d) mass The transfer function is defined only for (@) linear time-varying systems (b) linear time-invariant systems (©) linear and nonlinear systems (d) all of these 12, ‘The transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform of the response for a (@) step input (b) impulse input (© ramp input (d) parabolic input 13. The transfer funetion is dependent of the (a) parameters of the system (b) initial conditions of the system (©) input to the system (d) output of the system 14, For strictly proper transfer function, the order of the numerator (@) equal to that of the denominator (b) greater than that of the denominator (©) smaller than that of the denominator (@) not related to that of the denominator 18, For proper transfer function, the order of the numerator is (@) equal fo that of the denominator (b) greater than that of the denominator (©) smaller than that of the denominator (0) not related to that of the denominator 16, For an improper transfer function, the order of the numerator is (a) equal to that of the denominator (®) greater than that of the denominator (©) smaller than that of the denominator (6) not related to that of the denominator Answers to Objective Type Questions Le 2a 3b 4a Sb Ba Ze Ra Xb Wea Ib Ib Bea Ihe 18a 16.6Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 95 teen 2.1 10 2.12; (a) Write the differential equations governing the behaviour of the mechanical systems shown below. (b) Draw the analogous electrical circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies. (©) Write the corresponding differential equations, Fen, ben ben bo a i} M | —TORT—> Ain) M, AD j « & hy Figure P24 Figure P22 Kor rod a, Figure F2.4 tw Figure P25 Figure P2696 Contos systems AMAA ANAL 4 Fs Me. Figure P2.11 ts, Figure P2.10 bev few Figure P2412Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 97 21. (@) @ 2.3. (a) 24. (a) 28. (a) 2.6. (a) 27. (a) 2.8. (a) 29. (a) 2.10. (a) 2.11. (a) 2412. (a) Answers to Problems F()=KO2—y. M+ Sy + KO ~ Ya) = FO MS + A + KO ~ 22) + Ai $2)= 0 Myip + faz 51) + Kn —W) + Sabo = FU) Mg = Ka(4 ~ Ya) M Ya + Kava) +S Jat Kiya =0 FO)= Mi + Ky =) + him + fii. Moy + Ks — 4) + Kyl 5) + KpXy + fol =0 Msi Kyl —)=0 F()= MaXa + fk + Kat + Ki0a — 4) + fille ~ 4 MAX + AG — 4) + Ky — 4) =0 FO)= Mi + fils — 42) fk = 0. Maka + fia — Ay) + Ke FUD= Mii + fil + C4 — 2), Maka + fokr + fake + Kae + Rin — 4) F()= My + fly + Kya, + B30) — 4) + KH), Maka + faky ~ is) + Kot ~ 41) = 0. Ka(as — 4) + fuk — 42) =0 T=K,\(0, ~ 8), 110, + K,(O,— 8) + (,0, + (0: ~ 0) =0. Ixy + frO, + f(y ~ Bs) + Ky + Ky (0, ~ 8) + K3(0: ~ S30, + fs + Ky(O, ~ 8) + KyO= FO) + Mg = fii ~ 22) + Kyl, — 2), Mis + fis) + KQ — 4) + fab FWd= Myk+ fit [A H+ Ke), Mai + hi +/G-D4+ K-94 RyBlock Diagram and Signal Flow Graphs 3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS A control system may consist of a number of components. To show the functions performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use @ diagram called the block diagram: A Hock diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the inter relationships that exist among the various components. It can be used together with the transfer functions to describe the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system. Differing from a purely abstract ‘mathematical representation, a block diagram has the advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system. In general, block diagrams can be used to model linear as well as nonlinear systems. In a block diagram, all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. ‘The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal 10 the block that produces the output, The transfer functions of the components are tustially entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals. The signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows. Thus, the block diagram of a system explicitly shows a unilateral property Figure 3.1 shows an element of the block diagram. The arrow head pointing towards the block indicates the input, and the arrow head leading away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are referred to as signals. ‘Transfer ne) co itp) inction |S ofp as) Figure 31 Element of a biock diagram, The dimensions of the output signals from the block are the dimensions of the input signal to the block multiplied by the dimensions of the transfer function in the block.ibe Dapams ane S70 Fw Orpns 98 The advantages ofthe block dasram representation of a ystm lief theft tht its ey to fon the vera bio sagen a te ene ste ty merely connecting he locks of the ‘components aeconting 4 the rigl lw and that te possi o evaluate the eonnbuon of each component 1 the overall petfoanance ofthe spe In general the Turctional operation oF the system can be visualized mare really by examining the block diagram than by examining the physical system asl block diagram omtainsintormaton reeting dynamic heaton, but does por sude any nfemstion the physical constuction of the system. Consequently many dsinilar and waroatd stems com be represented by the sane bleck diagram. Jia Mook diagram, the main sous of ene snot expily shown and he block diagram fa totem is rot unig, A ner of diferent Black diagrams an be cen fora system, ‘dopending on the point of vow of eras ‘The ps of minus si a ech arow head indicates whether the sizml is be added stusered is Inportant tat the quanies being added or sbiractad have the same ‘imensions and the sane nis, “Te block dixgram elemenis ese feqaenty In contol systens andthe weaned algebra are shown in Figure 32, One of the imporant components ef a contol system fs the sensing device thai acts as 2 junction point for signal comparisors. The plysical components involved are: the potentiometer, synchro, resolve. diffswential amplifier, tmuliplise and otber signal processing tansducets. In geacial. sensing devices perform Simple mathematical operations such = aldtion.sebiicion, mulipieton (nonlinear) and some times combination of thes, © eo=n0)-0) lee ” or ni Rbvanmnpenio- yo s=noao Ky tS ne Rinengy-c9 RO) Qarm Bam) cal ew a © ® bed (Aiton nel abracio pines il rats operon até (seat cant eure az100 conrot systems The block diagram representations of these operations are illustrated in Figure 3.2, a circle with a cross is the symbo! that indicates a summing operation. The addition and subtraction operat ire 3.2(@), Figure (b) and Figure (c) are linear, so that the input and output variables of these block diagram elements can be time-domain variables or Laplace transform variables. =) — M0 EG) = Rs) ~ 1s) ‘The multiplication operation is nonlinear, so that the input-output relation has meaning, only in the real (time) domain Branch point: A branch point or a take-off point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points. 3.1.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System Figure 3.3 shows an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system. The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point where it is compared with the reference input. When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signel. The role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input. This conversion is accomplished by the feedback element whose transfer function is H(s). The output of the block C(s) in this ease is obtained by multiplying the transfer funetion G(s) by the input to the block £is). The feedback signal that is fed back to the summing. point for comparison with the input is B(s) = C(svH{(s). Summing Take-off point point | ay ow) oy wy | a | a Tra Fe | 16) @ © Figure 3.3. Block diagram of a closed-loop contol system, ‘The following terminology is defined with reference to the diagram of Figure 3.3: (0, R(s) = reference input (command) e(), C(s) = output (controlled variable) (2), Bis) = feedback signal (1), E(s) = error signal G(s) = forward path transfer funetion H(s) = feedback path transfer funetioneck laa ae Si Feasts 104 (62) Hie) = 19) = lo tanserFontion oe apenlogp transfer function cis) Te) = Seay = Sosedoop rarer fncton or system tester funtion ‘The closedhtoop tamsfer function Ts) can be expressed asa Funcion of Gi) and From Figure 13, ea and ea ‘The eer signal is 245) = Rs) ~ Bs) G3) Substitng Eqs. (3.3) and (32) in Faq, 31), ve get 1 ~ ena ~ HEL = GIR) ~ GBS) GIRL) ~ HO} or Ql + Glee] = Gist) ay cu) Gu) Rul FG@HG) In general, a contol system may contain more than ene feedback lop, and evaluation of tmansier fetien fom the block diagram by means of the algebraic wethod desribed above may be tedious. The transfer fincion of any linea system can be obtained directly from is bck diagram by use of the signal flow graph gain formal. 34.2 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Mulivariable Systems ‘When muipe inputs are present i near system, each input can be treated independently of the oes. The earplets output ofthe system can then be obtained bs superposton Le. cups curesponding ‘0 each input alene are adSed topether. Consider a two-irput linear system shown Figure 3.4) The response tothe reference input can te obtained by assuming Us) = 0. The comsponding block diagram shown in Figure 3.4(8) gives Ge) ouput due to Re) acting alone GG) TFGnG,He) Simian, te resporse to the input Us) is obtained by assuring, Rs) = 0, The block 1 and |Gs)Gv9)|>> Ito tis case, the loses transfer futon C4s)/U4s) becomes almost zero, andthe effect of the disturbance 1s suppressec. Ini is an advantage of the closeéioop system ‘On the ether hind, te closed-loop master funtion CSV) appeocehes /H(s) a8 the atin 6 (9)00) A inczeren. Tis meats that IG (OKA) >> 3, then the clasedoop, transfer fonction C4s)R) becomes independest of G(s} ard Cx) and becomes inerscy proportional to Hs) 50 that varictions of) ard Gt) do not affect the coae-boptrnsfer firetion CVU). This is asotreradsantge ofthe elosad-loop system. Itcanezsily be soon ‘that any elon systam with amity feedback Mie) = 1. tends to eqlize the input and uu ‘Two block diggram representations of a multivariable system with p inpuls and ¢ foupuss are shown in Figure 35. In Figure 3.53), the individual input and output signals are designated wheres inthe block diagram of Figure 3.5(b, the multiplicity of inputs and [G(R +0), on_soox Diane and Srl Row Gracns 100 ‘outputs is denoted by veetor. In practi of simplicity. the ease of Figure 3.5() preferable because Ro. ew, RO) CoM Morarable eee, ‘ses wl = >an oO) po, a ® Four 48. Beck dag reovesenttin of a mlksebe stn, In fe case of malipleinputmuliple-ousput stem shown in Figure 3.50, the Mh opt CAs) is given by the pencple of superposition Gb0i- Soper eréet2.-m om where (3) is hej inpat and Gs) iste wanser Futon betwee: the th oupet and inp wilh al oer inputs reduced bare im metix form, Eq. (38) tam be expremed as Ge) [Guly G0) G,t0)]/ Reo cx) ) Gal) = 6,00] RG) 6480} [eucs) Gert) Gy] RO ‘This cam be expressed in compressed matix notation as Qo) = Glare) 09 inte, Rs) ~ vector of inputs (in Laplace transom (>) Gt) = Matin warsfer function (g * 7) (qs) ~ vector outputs (In Laplave Cassin) (9) Ue corespending block diagrars can be drawn as in Figure 3.10), were tek anows represent mul-inpus and oupie. Figue 3.6 slows the Mock clagam of « mubivarable feedback cortol system. When 9 ‘eodpack loop is present arin igure 3, eae feodhack signal i obtained by processing I general all he oufpus. Thus forth feedback signal, we ean writ neo i960 a1104 cones sys “The fh enor signal is then Elo) Abs) — BL) ary Generalizing, inmates for, we em wre js) Aka BIS) oD 29) mi = ae Fa in owe 8. Birk dogo mutable eda conta am ‘The tame: functin relationships ofthe system are expresed in veetormmatin fer as 6) = GOR) Fs) = Re) ~ ME) Bey = Co MU, woete CU is the 4 1 ouput yecor BG), RG). and BG) are all p> 1 vectors; and Gs) ard His) oe 4 Xp and py taser fomcion nics wespetively Simliying C(o) = GU}EU) = GRE ~ BE] = Gao) ~ GBs) casa) ~ Gsyns}CW) 4 6) = 11 + Gee) GER) Provided that 11 Glyts) bs nonsingular. The closed-loop tans i defined at Te) = 11 + GEHEI'G) €) = TRG) 6.3) 34.3. Procedure for Drawing # Block Diagram control system can be represented diagrammatically by a Mosk disarm, To draw a block. gram for a system, fest write the ferential equations that describe the dynamic ‘bchavieur ofeach component. Then take the laplce transform of these differential quar Hons, assuming zsto inal eoadiens wo obui the algebrale equations. These equations Will have variables and const. From che working knowledge ofthe system, the int and ‘utpat variables ae identified and the block dagram foreach equatom ean be drwa. Each cuation gives one seeton of Hock diagram, the output of one setion willbe the input for another section. The various sections ate interconnected to obtain the overall blocs ciagram of te system.sock claps ar Sat Pow Sars 105 ‘Asan example, consider the RC eeit shown in Figus3.7(). The equations forthe cieut see #5 follows ean 1 Lfva aus The Lape fe fs. 2.16 nd (2.5) wih inl ond tye BDeR) as senedets am 0 gQysin=sio || na < Lin Lew ® | OE HE gue 37 oct dram ofan ei nt Equation (216) epresents summing operation andthe corresponding diagram is shown in Figure 3.70). Equation (3.17) represents the biok as shown in Figure 3.7(). Assembling these tuo clement, ie (s) and Es) we obtained the overall block diagram forthe system as shown in Figure 371), 3.44 Block Diagram Reduction 114s important ote that blocks can be cannctel in series, the utp of ene Hock i not ete by the next following block. If here ae ey lowing effec betweer the components, itis necessary to combine these components inte a single Hock. Any numberof cascaee blocks representing nonloading components ean be replaced by a single block, the transfer function of whichis simply the product ofthe individual wansfer functions. ‘A complicated block diagram invelving many feedback loops can be simplified by # step-by-step rearangemen, using theres of block ciagyamalgeba, Some ofthese importa rules are giver in Table 3.1. They are obined ty wing dhe sare equations in x diferen vay.106 _cowoisyore ‘Simplifeation of the beck digram by rearangetens and substitutions considerably reduces ‘he labour needed for subsequent mathematical analysis. Itshoul’ be noted, however, that 3 the bok diagram is simplied, tbe wansfer functors in new blocks become more complex because new poles and zeros are generated. In simpifing a block diagram, the following points should be remembered 1. The product of the transfer functions in the feed forward direction must remain the 2, The product of the transfer functions around the loop must remain the same, Tile 31. impatitres or Not dean recon Le 86g HOG is 2 x x x6, FG 88S, £6 AOL g, ROS 1, cameney vce cases Sf osq -+ 2 Combine bbls in pred [<} 3 No sume pts et APE Ggies ayers pees a L (Contoc Diag Sat Pw Sachs 107 xg x 4g @ @ ¥ 7s v6 5. ac tr A xg Te 7. Binal afoabak kos a 4. eran suing pas _heyaneyes, “Le “Ls 4 Spit 2 suring pot 10. Mode tk pit hen ta sig pit (Contd)316,40) @ SiSor 3.2 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS. ‘A signal low graph may be regarded & simplified versan of buck diagram, The wut ‘appleaion of signal lo graph isin system éigrammaing, Signa ow graphs were developed by SJ. Mason, Unlike te black aagam rediction process, they do not require any reduction process to obtain he transer function of @ complicated sem, because ofthe valabiiy of 4 flow azeph gun formala which eles te inpt ang cutput system variables, Mason's gan formula is especialy useful in reducing larg and comglex system diagrams in one step, wihost reining step-by-step redutons, A sigral Now graph and a block diagram contain essen the same informaton and one i in no sense superior to the other. Besides the difernce in pysielapperanoes ofthe sina low sraph andthe Mock diagram. the sina low graph may be regarded os constrained by mor ig mathematical rules than the boek diagrams 1 sienal flew graph i. praphical representation ofthe relatorship Beweon the variables ‘ofa set of liner algebraic equations writen in he fora of catze and effet elon. It consis ffs netnerk in uhich node roprenantng each of the rsters variables we connected by directed Inanches. The directed branches have associated brinch grins. A eign) ean bo tarsmited through w branch only in the dretion ofthe arow. Vive terme weed inthe formulation of signal flow groh are given Below.ccc oiens ans Sinairov Gawts 109 1. Node: A node (orjuetion poi) represents» s)tem vache which i sual tthe sm ofall the incoming signals atthe node. Oaoing sials frm the node do ot afeet he vale of the nace variable, 2. Branch: A branch is ine segment ofthe signal flow gap joining wo nodes along ‘which a signal waels fom one rode to the othe inthe direction indicated bythe branch arrow and in the process gets multiolied by he gain or transrttance of the branch. 3, Input node or Source: An input rode is a node with only oigoirg tranches. It does not have any incoming bruce, 4. Output made oF Sink: An output aoée isa node with only incoming branches. It does ‘ot have any outgoing branches. Any node can be converted ilo an output nede by ‘meeting 21 adcioral branch wit unit transmittance 10 i. 5, Mized nede: A med node is « node that has both incoming nd outgoing branches {6 Path: A pat isthe traversal of connected branches inte dirston ofthe branch aerows such that no node & vaversed more than once 7. Korward path: A forward pat is path that stars at an input node and ends at an ‘ouput node, and along which no node Is wavered more tian once. 1. Loop: loop is path which orginstes abd teminies a he ste node and along whieh no we 3 Lversal sore ta one 9, Naatuuching lope: Nonioucg loops ave logps which do not posses any common node, 10, Path yaie: The product ofthe bnsich gins emounered in uavesing a pal elle the path in 1. Forward path gain: Tse product of the ranch gains encouncred in wavering, @ forward fath i cllod dhe forward path gsi. 12. Leap gain: The product of the branch gains encountered in taversing the loop is called the loop gin 13, Self lop: A sal op isa oop consisting 0 ingle bach, 321. Construction of Signal Flow Graphs ‘The sigma ow graph of system Is conseuced Rom is describing equattns. n general given ‘a set of algebraic equntions, the constuction ofthe signal Aow graoh fs tasially a mater of following throu the ecuse ane relations relating wach varcle in temo of ie end ‘ties, cute tae prove, Kt we woaider eyttn deoibed by te fllerng wo of ‘equations oma: Ke ats + at He > an, + aut where is the input vasable end x i the ouput variable110 coast ‘The signal flow graph for this sytem is constr.cted as shown in Figure 3.8 Fist. the nod se leated as shown in Figure 3.(a). The fst ecuation states that x is equal tothe sum of five signals and its signal Row raph is town in Figure 3.8(,. Silay, the sana ow grep fir the remining tree equations are constructed ak shown in Figure 38(0, Figures 3.8(4) and 38(e) respectively giving the complete signal ow graph of Figure 3.8(0. © o © 6 Fgur 8. Sn tow gap, ‘The overall gin from inp to oxtpit may he ahtsned hy applying Mason's ex formula The relationship berseen an input variable and sn output variable of a sienal Tow graph is giver by the net gui betwesn te inpal and ouput nodes and i krown a: the overall gin ‘ofthe system. Mason's gain formala forthe determination ofthe overall sym gain given ty rebiiee 18) Where M, = path gin ofthe Ath forward pats ‘Ax = value of for that part ofthe raph not touching the Hh forward path T= Coverall gain of the ntobook lava and Sal Pow raghs 111 determinant af the signal flow eraph 1 ~(sum of the lop gains of al individual loops) + (sum ofthe gain products o” al! pcsible combinations of two montoucting loops) ~ (um of the gain products of al ossitle combinations of tree nantouching loops) B= 1 Fay + Ee = El + aus) where Mp isthe gain product of possible ecmbinaon of r eontouchirg lors Lets isa the use of Masor’s gain formala by finding the overall ea of te sian flow graph shown in Figure 3.8(. The following conclusions are dravn by inspection ofthis, signal flow graph. The des are shown in Figure 39. ie x ns & & wo £ = = = + % 2 * % ew & # a i i u a at a i i hk (me ® 4 % 3 VY 4 s § go he cg ee ® q NA’ Fgwe 38. (Card)112 cones sys o : o : © o Figure 39° Use of Mien pn fori 1. There are wo forward paths shown in Figure 49(0) and (bith path ein: Forward path xrays My = ars ayy aug aes Forward path xyayayts aig as ass ‘There ate sx individual ‘oops shown in Fire 3.96), (2) ( (R) and th) with Lop poms bran bho om ty ag ay 5 Io sg 3. There ar thre posible combinations of two nonouching lps shown in Figure 39(), ) ard) wath loop gain products: Loops xpos ad ety Leops xe and os au Loopy apsystess ad py gga 6 ua 4. There ae no combinations of three nonovcting lps, four noteuehing loeps, et “Therefore, os a cusockOtrane an Sir Fow Grpne 119 Hence fom Fa (3.19) for 4 “= H (ase | on Fas egan | my | on ay ay ag | 93 25 a2) + (ae ae da + tos dag * 039 sae a) 5. The fst forward path is touching all the Joos. Therefore, &, = 1. The second forward path is not wouchirg. one loop (with gain ay) shown in Figare 3.90) ‘Therefore, Ay = 1 = ay Using the Mason's gain formula, dhe overall rok Milas Mat x Taya ~~ Ottis ~~ Ser nays 4 yyy tant axed, 3.22 Basie Properties of Signal Flow Graph 1. Signa flow gr applies only to insur stems 2. The equation: for which a signal Nw graph is drawn must be algebra equations in the form of sawe-andatact. 3. Nodes ate used to represent variables. Nomally the nodes ae arranged from let wiht from the input 19 the output flowing a suocesion of ease nd fet relations through the sytem. 44. Signals sravel along branches only in the diteetion described by the arrows of the branches 5, The brarch directing trom node 1 5 epreseas the dependence of upon x but not the reves 6. A signal x waveling long a branch between xy and 3 i mabiplied by the gain of the Iman gy 30 tht signal oy is delivered at, 2, For a given system a signal flow graph isnot umigue. Many éiterent signal Dow graphs can be dawn for 1 given system by wrtng the system equations citeremty 323 Signal Flow Graph Algebre ‘Based on the properies of the signal low graph, we ean outline the folowing manipulation rules and alaera 1 The vel ofthe variable represented by a node is quel tothe sum ofall the signals centring the node. For the sia flow graph of Figure 3.10, the value of yf equal to the sum ofthe signals transmitted though all the incoming branches: ie P= awa t ps Faure asus114 comoisytone Fgwe 10, Node as» sunnng pit ant tansy port, 2. The value ofthe variable presented ay a node is ransmied trcugh all branches leaving the node Is th signal ow graph of Figure 3.10, we have Yor th nn a \: Figs 11 Sal fow gph wi pal pos ese ty one un a sige bach pag 3. Parle branches nthe sme cirecton connecting two nodes can be replaced y a single branch wih gain equal he sum ofthe gains of the parle branches. An example oF thie eave lustre in Fgate 3.11 gue 312 Sal tow gas win cscs urtrectoral ances epbes ya ge beechck agrsans Saratov asin 11S 44. A seties connection of unidieciral branches as shown in Figure 312 canbe replaced bya sirgle brane’ with gain equal tothe product of the branch gains L oe L mo ah : Tis Wi os oom me mn Figure312 Sigal ew raph ofthe Sel tp otek cote ‘yeu piney ae tanh 5. A single feedtack loop can be replaced by a single branch with gain as shown in Figwe 3.13 324 Construction of Signal Flow Graph for Control Systems ‘A contol systam can be represen diagrammatically by a signal low graph. The contol stom 6 usualy decerbed in time-domain by diffaremal equations. Those diferomat ations aye Fest eaevened i slgahrnc equations ag the Laplace tnsfoen, and these ‘equations are written in caus-andeffect form. The constants andthe variables of the equation axe ientfied. From the working know edge ofthe system, the vaiabls are identified as ingut utp ard intenmedite variables. For cack variable, node i assigned inte signal low greph an the eonsarts are the gain or tansminance af the Wvanches conneting the nodes. signal flow graoh is drawn foreach equation ard all thos signa ew grap ate Hntereornected to bain the over signal Now gaph of Ue system The block diagram end the signal lbw greph of @ system provide ssetlly the same Information, and ene isin no wa’ superir tothe ater ht thee is no standard procedure for resasng the blk diagram to obi the tant fonction a Yh sem. Ale he loc agra reduction proces tedious and tine consuming asi is not systematic. nd i is iiult to chose the mle to be apolied for simplification. It mainly depends on one’s knowledge end exporence. On the other hand, ther i a standard formula ealec Masons ann formula using ‘which the transfer fanetion ofa sytem can be obtined in one tp fam the signal Now of system. So, block diagram ist Be converte tno signal low gap “The faliotng roeedare can be fol 0 camer a block degram into asa To graph 1. Inthe given lock diagram, assume nodes at input ouput, et every summing pein, at ‘very inch pot and in derwcen cecade blocks. 2 Draw the nodes seprately a big thick dots ee nurer the dots inthe onder 1.23, 5. From the blk diagram, fi the gan between the nodes in she main forward path znd ‘connect ll the coesponding nodes by decid stright lire segments and mar the gain [etweer the nades on the sepricr,M6 comeisyasns 44. Draw the fod forward pas betwees various nodes and mark the gan between noes ‘the died bral. 5. Draw the feedback rats between various nodes and mark the gain of fedbeck pahs along with the sign Ampeg tel ip aed 2 ht renin erat eo iro maz 2. Ie san be wed to epee nen as wel ae 2, an bead rere oly ier tens one sta 4 Nodes: famulais wale to ind the ovet- 3. Mao's gin fouls is avaible tc fad the all wait lish 3 he Se. ral ise Ture

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