Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
414
Diabetesd2014
Diabetes mellitus is a complex, chronic illness requiring continuous medical
care with multifactorial risk reduction strategies beyond glycemic control.
Ongoing
patient self-management education and support are critical to preventing acute
complications and reducing the risk of long-term complications. Signicant
evidence exists that supports a range of interventions to improve diabetes
outcomes.
The American Diabetes Associations (ADAs) Standards of Care are intended to
provide clinicians, patients, researchers, payers, and other interested
individuals with the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals,
POSITION STATEMENT
to rule out laboratory error (e.g., an 140199 mg/dL [7.811.0 Prediabetes is the term used for
elevated A1C should be repeated when mmol/L]). individuals with IFG and/or IGT, indicating
feasible, and not necessarily in 3 It should be noted that the the relatively high risk for the future
months). Unless there is a clear clinical World Health Organization development of diabetes. IFG and IGT
diagnosis (e.g., a patient in a (WHO) and a number of other should not be viewed as clinical entities
hyperglycemic crisis or classic symptoms diabetes organizations dene in their own right but rather risk factors
of hyperglycemia and a random plasma the cutoff for IFG at 110 mg/dL for diabetes and cardiovascular disease
glucose $200 mg/dL), it is preferable (6.1 mmol/L). (CVD). IFG and IGT are associated with
that the same test be repeated for obesity (especially
conrmation, since there will be a abdominal or visceral obesity),
greater likelihood of concurrence. For dyslipidemia with high triglycerides
example, if the A1C is and/or low HDL cholesterol, and
7.0% and a repeat result is 6.8%, the hypertension.
diagnosis of diabetes is conrmed. If
two different tests (such as A1C and As with the glucose measures, several
FPG) are both above the diagnostic prospective studies that used A1C to
threshold, this also conrms the predict the progression to diabetes
diagnosis. demonstrated a strong, continuous
association between A1C and subsequent
On the other hand, if a patient has diabetes. In a systematic review of 44,203
discordant results on two different individuals from 16 cohort studies with a
tests, then the test result that is above follow-up interval averaging 5.6 years
the diagnostic cut point should be (range 2.812 years), those with an A1C
repeated. The diagnosis is made on the between 5.5 and 6.0% had a substantially
basis of the conrmed test. For example, increased risk of diabetes (5-year
if a patient meets the diabetes criterion incidences from
of the A1C (two results $6.5%) but not 9 to 25%). An A1C range of 6.06.5%
the FPG (,126 mg/dL or 7.0 mmol/L), had a 5-year risk of developing diabetes
or between 2550%, and a relative risk (RR)
vice versa, that person should be
20 times higher compared with an A1C of
considered to have diabetes.
5.0% (15). In a community-based study of
Since there is preanalytic and analytic African American and non-
variability of all the tests, it is possible Hispanic white adults without diabetes,
that an abnormal result (i.e., above the baseline A1C was a stronger predictor of
diagnostic threshold), when repeated, subsequent diabetes and
will produce a value below the cardiovascular events than fasting
diagnostic cut point. This is least likely glucose (16). Other analyses suggest
for A1C, somewhat more likely for FPG, that an A1C of 5.7% is associated with
and most likely for the 2-h PG. Barring a similar diabetes risk to the high-risk
laboratory error, such patients will likely participants in the Diabetes Prevention
have test results near the margins of the Program (DPP) (17).
diagnostic threshold. The health care
Hence, it is reasonable to consider an
professional might opt to follow the
A1C range of 5.76.4% as identifying
patient closely and repeat the test in 3
individuals with prediabetes. As with
6 months.
those with IFG and IGT, individuals with
C. Categories of Increased Risk for an A1C of 5.76.4% should be informed
Diabetes (Prediabetes) of their increased risk for diabetes and
In 1997 and 2003, the Expert CVD and counseled about effective
Committee on Diagnosis and strategies to lower their risks (see
Classication of Diabetes Mellitus Section IV). Similar to glucose
(13,14) recognized a group of measurements, the continuum of risk is
individuals whose glucose levels did not curvilinear, so as A1C rises, the
meet the criteria for diabetes, but were diabetes risk rises disproportionately
too high to be (15). Aggressive interventions and
considered normal. These persons were vigilant follow-up should be pursued
dened as having impaired fasting for those considered at very high risk
glucose (IFG) (FPG levels 100125 (e.g., those with A1Cs .6.0%). Table 3
mg/dL [5.66.9 mmol/L]), or impaired
summarizes the categories of
glucose tolerance (IGT) (2-h PG OGTT
prediabetes.
values of
care.diabetesjournals.org Position Statement
II. TESTING FOR DIABETES IN S1717
ASYMPTOMATIC PATIENTS
Recommendations
c Testing to detect type 2 diabetes and
prediabetes in asymptomatic people should
be considered in adults of any age who are
overweight or obese (BMI $25 kg/m2) and
who have one or more additional risk
factors for diabetes (Table 4). In those
without these risk factors, testing should
begin at age 45 years. B
c If tests are normal, repeat testing at
least at 3-year intervals is reasonable. E
c To test for diabetes or prediabetes, the
A1C, FPG, or 2-h 75-g OGTT are
appropriate. B
c In those identied with prediabetes,
identify and, if appropriate, treat other
CVD risk factors. B
controlled trial (RCT) in Europe, general non- Hispanic whites, the BMI cutoff value was
practice patients between the ages of 40 24 kg/m2 in South Asians, 25 kg/m2 in Chinese,
69 years were screened for diabetes, then and 26 kg/m2 in African Americans (21).
randomized by practice to routine Disparities in screening rates, not explainable
diabetes care or intensive treatment of by insurance status, are highlighted by evidence
multiple risk factors. After 5.3 years of that despite much higher prevalence of type 2
follow-up, CVD risk factors were diabetes, ethnic minorities in an insured
modestly but signicantly improved with population are no more likely than non- Hispanic
intensive treatment. Incidence of rst whites to be screened for diabetes (22). Because
CVD event and mortality rates were not age is a major risk factor for diabetes, in those
signicantly different between groups without these
(18). This study would seem to add
support for early treatment of screen-
detected diabetes, as risk factor control
was excellent even in the routine
treatment arm and both groups had
study, repeat screening every 3 or
5 years was cost-effective (19).
Community Screening
Testing should be carried out
within the health care setting
because of the need for follow-up
and discussion of abnormal
results. Community screening
outside a health care setting is not
recommended because people
with positive tests may not seek,
or have access to, appropriate
follow-up testing and care.
Conversely, there may be failure
to ensure appropriate repeat
testing for individuals who test
negative. Community screening
may also be poorly targeted; i.e.,
it may fail to reach the groups
most at risk and inappropriately
test those at low risk or even
those already diagnosed.
B. Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in
Children
Recommendation
c Testing to detect type 2
diabetes and prediabetes
should be considered in
children and adolescents who
are overweight and who have
two or more additional risk
factors for diabetes (Table 5). E
In the 2011 Standards of Care (44), ADA cFasting 95 mg/dL (5.3 mmol/L) 105 mg/dL (5.8 mmol/L)
for the rst time recommended that all c1h 180 mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L) 190 mg/dL (10.6 mmol/L)
c2h 155 mg/dL (8.6 mmol/L) 165 mg/dL (9.2 mmol/L)
pregnant women not known to have
c 3 h 140 mg/ dL (7 .8 mm ol /L ) 14 5 mg /dL (8 .
prior diabetes undergo a 75-g OGTT at
2428 weeks of gestation based on an 0 mmo l/ L)
International Association of Diabetes NDDG, National Diabetes Data Group. *The American College of Obstetricians and
and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends a lower threshold of 135 mg/dL (7.5 mmol/L) in high-risk
ethnic minorities with higher prevalence of GDM; some experts also recommend 130 mg/dL
consensus meeting (45). Diagnostic cut (7.2 mmol/L).
points for the fasting, 1-h, and 2-h PG hyperglycemia than identied using continuation of the two-step
measurements were dened that older GDM diagnostic criteria and that
conveyed an odds ratio for adverse found modest benets including
outcomes of at least 1.75 compared reduced rates of large-for-gestational-
with women with the mean glucose age (LGA) births (46,47). However, while
levels in the HAPO study, a strategy treatment of lower threshold
anticipated to signicantly increase the hyperglycemia can reduce LGA, it has
prevalence of GDM (from 56% to not been shown to reduce primary
;1520%), primarily because only one cesarean delivery rates. Data are lacking
abnormal value, not two, is sufcient to on how treatment of lower threshold
make the diagnosis. ADA recognized hyperglycemia impacts prognosis of
that the anticipated increase in the future diabetes for the mother and
incidence of GDM diagnosed by these future obesity, diabetes risk, or other
criteria would have signicant impact metabolic consequences for the
on the costs, medical infrastructure offspring. The frequency of follow-up
capacity, and potential for increased and blood glucose monitoring for these
medicalization of pregnancies women has also not yet been
previously categorized as normal, but standardized, but is likely to be less
recommended these diagnostic criteria intensive than for women diagnosed by
changes in the context of worrisome the older criteria.
worldwide increases in obesity and
National Institutes of Health
diabetes rates with the intent of
Consensus Report
optimizing gestational outcomes for
Since this initial IADPSG
women and their babies. It is important recommendation, the National
to note that 8090% of women in both
Institutes of Health (NIH) completed a
of the mild GDM studies (whose glucose consensus development conference
values overlapped with the thresholds
involving a 15-member panel with
recommended herein) could be representatives from obstetrics/
managed with lifestyle therapy alone.
gynecology, maternal-fetal medicine,
The expected benets to these pediatrics, diabetes research,
pregnancies and offspring are inferred
biostatistics, and other related elds
from intervention trials that focused on
(48). Reviewing the same available data,
women with lower levels of
the NIH consensus panel recommended
approach of screening with a 1-h
50-g glucose load test (GLT)
followed by a 3-h
100-g OGTT for those who screen
positive, a strategy commonly
used in the U.S. Key factors
reported in the NIH panels
decision-making process were the
lack of clinical trial interventions
demonstrating the benets of the
one- step strategy and the
potential
negative consequences of
identifying a large new group of
women with GDM. Moreover,
screening with a 50-g GLT does
not require fasting and is
therefore easier to accomplish for
many women. Treatment of
higher threshold maternal
hyperglycemia, as identied by
the two- step approach, reduces
rates of neonatal macrosomia,
LGA, and shoulder dystocia,
without increasing small-for-
gestational- age births (49).
How do two different groups of
experts arrive at different GDM
screening and
diagnosis recommendations?
Because glycemic dysregulation
exists on a
continuum, the decision to pick a
single binary threshold for
diagnosis requires
balancing the harms and benets
associated with greater versus
lesser sensitivity. While data from
the HAPO study demonstrated a
correlation between increased
fasting glucose levels identied
through the one-step
strategy with increased odds for adverse
S2020 Position Diabetes Care Volume 37, Supplement 1, January 2014
Statement
pregnancy outcomes, this large patterns. Adjusting for BMI moderately, lifestyle interventions as delivered
observational study was not designed but not completely, attenuated this
to determine the benet of association (52).
intervention. Moreover, there are no
available cost-effective analyses to IV. PREVENTION/DELAY OF TYPE 2
examine the balance of achieved DIABETES
benets versus the increased costs Recommendations
generated by this strategy. c Patients with IGT A, IFG E, or an A1C
The conicting recommendations from 5.76.4% E should be referred to an
these two consensus panels underscore effective ongoing support program
several key points: targeting weight loss of 7% of body
weight and increasing physical
1. There are insufcient data to activity to at least 150 min/week of
strongly demonstrate the superiority moderate activity such as walking.
of one strategy over the other. c Follow-up counseling appears to be
2. The decision of which strategy to important for success. B
implement must therefore be made c Based on the cost-effectiveness of
based on the relative values placed diabetes prevention, such programs
on currently unmeasured factors should be covered by third-party
(e.g., cost-benet estimation, payers. B
willingness to change practice based c Metformin therapy for prevention
on correlation studies rather than of type 2 diabetes may be
clinical intervention trial results, considered
relative role of cost considerations, in those with IGT A, IFG E, or an
and available infrastructure). A1C 5.76.4% E, especially for those
3. Further research is needed to resolve with BMI .35 kg/m2, aged
these uncertainties. ,60 years, and women with prior
GDM. A
There remains strong consensus that c At least annual monitoring for the
establishing a uniform approach to development of diabetes in those
diagnosing GDM will have extensive with prediabetes is suggested. E
benets for patients, caregivers, and c Screening for and treatment of
policymakers. Longer-term outcome modiable risk factors for CVD is
studies are currently underway. suggested. B
Because some cases of GDM may RCTs have shown that individuals at high
represent preexisting undiagnosed type risk for developing type 2 diabetes (IFG,
2 diabetes, women with a history of IGT, or both) can signicantly decrease
GDM should be screened for diabetes the rate of diabetes onset with
612 weeks postpartum, using particular interventions (2329). These
nonpregnant OGTT criteria. Because of include intensive lifestyle modication
their antepartum treatment for programs that have been shown to be
hyperglycemia, A1C for diagnosis of very effective (;58% reduction after
persistent diabetes at the postpartum 3 years) and pharmacological agents
visit is not recommended (50). Women metformin, a-glucosidase inhibitors,
with a history of GDM have a greatly orlistat, and thiazolidinediones, each of
increased subsequent diabetes risk (51) which has been shown to decrease
and should be followed up with incident diabetes to various degrees.
subsequent screening for the Follow-up of all three large studies of
development of diabetes or lifestyle intervention has shown
prediabetes, as outlined in Section II. sustained reduction in the rate of
Lifestyle interventions or metformin conversion to type 2 diabetes, with
should be offered to women with a 43% reduction at 20 years in the Da
history of GDM who develop Qing study (53), 43% reduction at 7
prediabetes, as discussed in Section IV. years in the Finnish Diabetes
In the prospective Nurses Health Study Prevention Study (DPS) (54), and 34%
II, subsequent diabetes risk after a reduction at 10 years in the U.S.
history of GDM was signicantly lower Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes
in women who followed healthy eating Study (DPPOS) (55). A cost-
effectiveness model suggested that
care.diabetesjournals.org Position Statement
in the DPP are cost-effective (56), and actual S2121
cost data from the DPP and DPPOS conrm
that lifestyle interventions are highly cost-
effective (57). Group delivery of the DPP
intervention in community settings has the
potential to be signicantly less expensive
while still achieving similar weight loss (58).
The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) helps coordinate the National
Diabetes Prevention Program, a resource
designed to bring evidence-based lifestyle
change programs for preventing type 2
diabetes to communities (http://www.cdc.gov/
diabetes/prevention/index.htm).
Given the clinical trial results and the known
risks of progression of prediabetes to
diabetes, persons with an A1C of 5.76.4%,
IGT, or IFG should be counseled on lifestyle
changes with goals similar to those of the
DPP (7% weight loss and moderate physical
activity of at least 150 min/week). Metformin
has a strong evidence base and demonstrated
long-term safety as pharmacological therapy
for diabetes prevention (59). For other drugs,
cost, side effects, and lack of a persistent
effect require consideration (60).
Metformin
Metformin was less effective than lifestyle
modication in the DPP and DPPOS, but may
be cost-saving over a
10-year period (57). It was as effective as
lifestyle modication in participants with a
BMI $35 kg/m2, but not signicantly better
than placebo in those over age 60 years (23).
In the DPP, for women with a history of
GDM, metformin and intensive lifestyle
modication led to an equivalent 50%
reduction in diabetes risk (61). Metformin
therefore might reasonably be recommended
for very-high-risk individuals (e.g., history of
GDM, very obese, and/or those with more
severe
or progressive hyperglycemia).
People with prediabetes often have other
cardiovascular risk factors, such as obesity,
hypertension, and
dyslipidemia, and are at increased risk for
CVD events. While treatment goals are the
same as for other patients
without diabetes, increased vigilance is
warranted to identify and treat these and
other risk factors (e.g., smoking).
V. DIABETES CARE enable the health care team to The management plan should be
A. Initial Evaluation optimally manage the patient with formulated as a collaborative
A complete medical evaluation should diabetes. therapeutic alliance among the patient
be performed to classify the diabetes, and family, the physician, and other
detect the presence of diabetes B. Management members of the health care team. A
complications, review previous People with diabetes should receive variety of strategies and techniques
treatment and risk factor control in medical care from a team that may should be used to provide adequate
patients with established diabetes, include physicians, nurse practitioners, education and development of
assist in formulating a management physicians assistants, nurses, dietitians, problem-solving skills in the numerous
plan, and provide a basis for pharmacists, and mental health aspects of diabetes management.
continuing care. Laboratory tests professionals with expertise in diabetes. Treatment goals and plans should be
appropriate to the evaluation of each In this collaborative and integrated individualized and take patient
patients team approach, the individuals with preferences into account. The
medical condition should be diabetes must also assume an active management plan should recognize
completed. A focus on the components role in their care. diabetes self-management education
of comprehensive care (Table 7) will (DSME) and ongoing diabetes support as
integral components of care. In
developing the plan, consideration
Table 7Components of the comprehensive diabetes evaluation
Medical history
should be given to the patients age,
c Age and characteristics of onset of diabetes (e.g., DKA, asymptomatic laboratory nding) school or work schedule and conditions,
c Eating patterns, physical activity habits, nutritional status, and weight history; growth and physical activity, eating patterns, social
development in children and adolescents situation and cultural factors, presence
c Diabetes education history of diabetes complications, health
c Review of previous treatment regimens and response to therapy (A1C records) priorities, and other medical conditions.
c Current treatment of diabetes, including medications, medication adherence and barriers
thereto, meal plan, physical activity patterns, and readiness for behavior change C. Glycemic Control
c Results of glucose monitoring and patients use of data 1. Assessment of Glycemic Control
c DKA frequency, severity, and cause
Two primary techniques are available
c Hypoglycemic episodes
c Hypoglycemia awareness
for health providers and patients to
c Any severe hypoglycemia: frequency and cause assess the effectiveness of the
c History of diabetes-related complications management plan on glycemic control:
c Microvascular: retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy (sensory, including history of patient self-monitoring of blood glucose
foot lesions; autonomic, including sexual dysfunction and gastroparesis) (SMBG) or interstitial glucose, and A1C.
c Macrovascular: CHD, cerebrovascular disease, and PAD
c Other: psychosocial problems,* dental disease*
a. Glucose Monitoring
Recommendations
Physical examination
c Height, weight, BMI c Patients on multiple-dose insulin
c Blood pressure determination, including orthostatic measurements when indicated (MDI) or insulin pump therapy should
c Fundoscopic examination* do SMBG prior to meals and snacks,
c Thyroid palpation occasionally postprandially, at
c Skin examination (for acanthosis nigricans and insulin injection sites)
bedtime, prior to exercise, when they
c Comprehensive foot examination
suspect low blood glucose, after
c Inspection
c Palpation of dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial pulses
treating low blood glucose until they
c Presence/absence of patellar and Achilles reexes are normoglycemic, and prior to
c Determination of proprioception, vibration, and monolament sensation critical tasks such as driving. B
Laboratory evaluation c When prescribed as part of a broader
c A1C, if results not available within past 23 months educational context, SMBG results
c If not performed/available within past year may be helpful to guide treatment
c Fasting lipid prole, including total, LDL, and HDL cholesterol and triglycerides decisions and/or patient self-
c Liver function tests
management for patients using less
c Test for urine albumin excretion with spot urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio
c Serum creatinine and calculated GFR
frequent insulin injections or
c TSH in type 1 diabetes, dyslipidemia, or women over age 50 years noninsulin therapies. E
Referrals c When prescribing SMBG, ensure that
c Eye care professional for annual dilated eye exam patients receive ongoing instruction
c Family planning for women of reproductive age and regular evaluation of SMBG
c Registered dietitian for MNT technique and SMBG results, as well
c DSME as their ability to use SMBG data to
c Dentist for comprehensive periodontal examination
adjust therapy. E
c Mental health professional, if needed
c When used properly, continuous
*See appropriate referrals for these categories. glucose monitoring (CGM) in
conjunction with intensive insulin complications (63). For patients on randomized trial
regimens is a useful tool to lower nonintensive insulin regimens, such as
A1C in selected adults (aged $25 those with type 2 diabetes on basal
years) with type 1 diabetes. A insulin, when to prescribe SMBG and the
c Although the evidence for A1C testing frequency are unclear because
lowering is less strong in children, there is insufcient evidence for testing
teens, and younger adults, CGM may in this cohort.
be helpful in these groups. Success
Several randomized trials have called
correlates with adherence to ongoing
into question the clinical utility and
use of the device. C
c CGM may be a supplemental tool to cost- effectiveness of routine SMBG in
SMBG in those with hypoglycemia noninsulin-treated patients (6466).
unawareness and/or frequent A recent meta-analysis suggested that
hypoglycemic episodes. E SMBG reduced A1C by 0.25% at
6 months (67), but a Cochrane review
Major clinical trials of insulin-treated concluded that the overall effect of
patients that demonstrated the benets SMBG in such patients is minimal up to
of intensive glycemic control on 6 months after initiation and subsides
diabetes complications have included after 12 months (68). A key
SMBG as part of multifactorial consideration is that SMBG alone does
interventions, suggesting that SMBG is a not lower blood glucose level; to be
component of effective therapy. SMBG useful, the information must be
allows patients to evaluate their integrated into clinical and self-
individual response to therapy and management plans.
assess whether glycemic targets are
SMBG accuracy is instrument and user
being achieved. Results of SMBG can be
dependent (69), so it is important to
useful in preventing hypoglycemia and
evaluate each patients monitoring
adjusting medications (particularly
technique, both initially and at regular
prandial insulin doses), medical
intervals thereafter. Optimal use of
nutrition therapy (MNT), and physical
SMBG requires proper review and
activity. Evidence also supports a
interpretation of the data, both by the
correlation between SMBG frequency
patient and provider. Among patients
and lower A1C (62).
who checked their blood glucose at
SMBG frequency and timing should be least once daily, many reported taking
dictated by the patients specic needs no action when results were high or
and goals. SMBG is especially important low (70). In one study of insulin-nave
for patients treated with insulin to patients with suboptimal initial
monitor for and prevent asymptomatic glycemic control, use of structured
hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia. Most SMBG (a paper tool to collect and
patients with type 1 diabetes or on interpret
intensive insulin regimens (MDI or 7-point SMBG proles over 3 days at
insulin pump therapy) should consider least quarterly) reduced A1C by 0.3%
SMBG prior to meals and snacks, more than an active control group (71).
occasionally postprandially, at bedtime, Patients should be taught how to use
prior to exercise, when they suspect low SMBG data to adjust food intake,
blood glucose, after treating low blood exercise, or pharmacological therapy to
glucose until they are normoglycemic, achieve specic goals. The ongoing need
and prior to critical tasks such as for and frequency of SMBG should be
driving. For many patients, this will reevaluated at each routine visit.
require testing 68 times daily,
although Continuous Glucose Monitoring Real-
individual needs may vary. A database time CGM through the measurement of
study of almost 27,000 children and interstitial glucose (which correlates
adolescents with type 1 diabetes well with plasma glucose) is available.
showed that, after adjustment for These sensors require calibration with
multiple confounders, increased daily SMBG, and the latter are still required
frequency of SMBG was signicantly for making acute treatment decisions.
associated with lower A1C (20.2% per CGM devices have alarms for hypo- and
additional test per day, leveling off at
hyperglycemic excursions. A 26-week
ve tests per day) and with fewer acute
of 322 type 1 diabetic patients showed that
adults aged $25 years using intensive insulin
therapy and CGM experienced a 0.5%
reduction in A1C (from ;7.6 to 7.1%)
compared with usual intensive insulin therapy
with SMBG (72). Sensor use in those ,25
years of age (children, teens, and adults) did
not result in signicant A1C lowering, and there
was no signicant difference in hypoglycemia
in any group. The greatest predictor of A1C
lowering for all age-groups was frequency of
sensor use, which was lower in younger age-
groups. In a smaller RCT of
129 adults and children with baseline A1C
,7.0%, outcomes combining A1C and
hypoglycemia favored the group using CGM,
suggesting that CGM is also benecial for
individuals with type 1 diabetes who have
already achieved excellent control (72).
Overall, meta-analyses suggest that
compared with SMBG, CGM use is
associated with A1C lowering by
;0.26% (73). The technology may be
particularly useful in those with
hypoglycemia unawareness and/or frequent
hypoglycemic episodes,
although studies have not shown signicant
reductions in severe hypoglycemia (73). A
CGM device equipped with an automatic low
glucose suspend feature was recently
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). The ASPIRE trial of 247
patients showed that sensor- augmented
insulin pump therapy with a low glucose
suspend signicantly
reduced nocturnal hypoglycemia,
without increasing A1C levels for those over
16 years of age (74). These devices may offer
the opportunity to reduce severe
hypoglycemia for those with a
history of nocturnal hypoglycemia. CGM forms
the underpinning for the articial pancreas
or the closed-loop system. However, before
CGM is widely adopted, data must be reported
and analyzed using a standard universal
template that is predictable and intuitive (75).
b. A1C
Recommendations
c Perform the A1C test at least two times a
year in patients who are meeting
treatment goals (and who have stable
glycemic control). E
c Perform the A1C test quarterly in
patients whose therapy has changed
or who are not meeting glycemic different recommendations about testing A1C or
Table 8Correlation of A1C with
goals. E average glucose
c Use of POC testing for A1C provides Mean plasma glucose
the opportunity for more timely
treatment changes. E A1 C (%) mg/ dL mm ol/ L
6 126 7.0
A1C reects average glycemia over 7 154 8.6
several months (69) and has strong 8 183 10.2
predictive value for diabetes 9 212 11.8
complications (76,77). Thus, A1C testing 10 240 13.4
should be performed routinely in all 11 269 14.9
patients with diabetes: at initial 12 298 16 .5
assessment and as part of continuing
These estimates are based on ADAG data of
care. Measurement approximately ;2,700 glucose measurements over 3
every 3 months determines whether a months per A1C measurement in 507 adults
patients glycemic targets have been with type 1, type 2, and no diabetes. The
reached and maintained. The frequency correlation between A1C and average
glucose was 0.92 (ref. 78). A calculator for
of A1C testing should be dependent on converting A1C results into eAG, in either
the clinical situation, the treatment mg/dL or mmol/L, is available at http://
regimen used, and the clinicians professional.diabetes.org/ eAG.
judgment. Some patients with stable
glycemia well within target may do well
with testing only twice per year. Chemistry have determined that the
Unstable or highly intensively managed correlation (r 5 0.92) is strong enough
patients (e.g., pregnant type 1 diabetic to justify reporting both the A1C result
women) may require testing more and an estimated average glucose (eAG)
frequently than every 3 months. result when a clinician orders the A1C
test. The table in pre-2009 versions of
A1C Limitations
the Standards of Medical Care in
As mentioned above, the A1C test is
Diabetes describing the correlation
subject to certain limitations.
between A1C and mean glucose was
Conditions that affect erythrocyte
derived from relatively sparse data (one
turnover (hemolysis, blood loss) and
7-point prole over 1 day per A1C
hemoglobin variants must be
reading) in the primarily non-Hispanic
considered, particularly when the A1C
white type 1 diabetic participants in the
result does not correlate with the
DCCT (79). Clinicians should note that
patients clinical situation (69). A1C also
the numbers in the table are now
does not provide a measure of
different because they are based on ;
glycemic variability or hypoglycemia.
2,800 readings per A1C in the ADAG
For patients prone to glycemic
trial.
variability, especially type 1 diabetic
patients or type 2 diabetic patients In the ADAG study, there were no
with severe insulin deciency, glycemic signicant differences among racial and
control is best evaluated by the ethnic groups in the regression lines
combination of results from self- between A1C and mean glucose,
monitoring and the A1C. The A1C may although there was a trend toward a
also conrm the accuracy of the difference between the African/African
patients meter (or the patients American and non-Hispanic white
reported SMBG results) and the cohorts. A small study comparing A1C to
adequacy of the SMBG testing schedule. CGM data in type 1 diabetic children
found a highly statistically signicant
A1C and Plasma Glucose correlation between A1C and mean
Table 8 contains the correlation blood glucose, although the correlation
between A1C levels and mean plasma (r 5
glucose levels based on data from the 0.7) was signicantly lower than in the
international A1C-Derived Average ADAG trial (80). Whether there are
Glucose (ADAG) trial using frequent signicant differences in how A1C
SMBG and CGM in 507 adults (83% non- relates to average glucose in children or
Hispanic whites) with type 1, type 2, in African American patients is an area
and no diabetes (78). The ADA and the for further study (33,81). For the time
American Association for Clinical being, the question has not led to
to different interpretations of the Complications Hyperglycemia
clinical meaning of given levels of denes diabetes, and glycemic
A1C in those populations. control is fundamental to
For patients in whom A1C/eAG diabetes management. The
and measured blood glucose DCCT study (76), a prospective
appear discrepant, clinicians RCT of intensive versus
should consider the possibilities standard glycemic control in
of hemoglobinopathy or patients with relatively recently
altered red cell turnover, and the diagnosed type 1 diabetes showed
options of more frequent and/or denitively that improved glycemic
different timing
of SMBG or use of CGM. Other
measures of chronic glycemia such
as fructosamine are available, but
their linkage to average glucose
and their prognostic signicance
are not as clear as for A1C.
2. Glycemic Goals in Adults
Recommendations
c Lowering A1C to below or
around 7% has been shown to
reduce microvascular
complications of diabetes and,
if implemented soon after the
diagnosis of diabetes, is
associated with long-term
reduction in macrovascular
disease.
Therefore, a reasonable A1C
goal for many nonpregnant
adults is ,7%. B
c Providers might reasonably
suggest more stringent A1C
goals (such as
,6.5%) for selected individual
patients, if this can be achieved
without signicant
hypoglycemia or other
adverse effects of treatment.
Appropriate patients might
include
those with short duration of
diabetes, long life expectancy,
and no signicant CVD. C
c Less stringent A1C goals (such
as ,8%) may be appropriate for
patients with a history of severe
hypoglycemia, limited life
expectancy, advanced
microvascular or macrovascular
complications, and extensive
comorbid conditions and in
those with long- standing
diabetes in whom the general
goal is difcult to attain despite
DSME, appropriate glucose
monitoring, and effective doses
of multiple glucose- lowering
agents including insulin. B
Diabetes Control and
Complications
Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes
Interventions and
control is associated with signicantly when setting glycemic targets. three trials were conducted in participants
decreased rates of microvascular However, based on physician judgment with more long-standing diabetes (mean
(retinopathy and nephropathy) and and patient preferences, select patients, duration 811 years) and
neuropathic complications. Follow-up especially those with little comorbidity
of the DCCT cohorts in the Epidemiology and long life expectancy, may benet
of Diabetes Interventions and from adopting more intensive glycemic
Complications (EDIC) study (82,83) targets (e.g., A1C target ,6.5%) as long
demonstrated persistence of these as signicant hypoglycemia does not
microvascular benets in previously become a barrier.
intensively treated subjects, even
though their glycemic control Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes
approximated that of previous standard CVD is a more common cause of death
arm subjects during follow-up. than microvascular complications in
populations with diabetes. However, it
Kumamoto and UK Prospective is less clearly impacted by hyperglycemia
Diabetes Study levels or intensity of glycemic control. In
The Kumamoto (84) and UK Prospective the DCCT, there was a trend toward
Diabetes Study (UKPDS) (85,86) lower risk of CVD events with intensive
conrmed that intensive glycemic control. In the 9-year post-DCCT follow-
control was associated with signicantly up of the EDIC cohort, participants
decreased rates of microvascular and previously randomized to the intensive
neuropathic complications in type 2 arm had a signicant 57% reduction in
diabetic patients. Long-term follow-up the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction
of the UKPDS cohorts showed enduring (MI),
effects of early glycemic control on stroke, or CVD death compared with
most microvascular complications (87). those previously in the standard arm
Three landmark trials (ACCORD, (92). The benet of intensive glycemic
ADVANCE, and VADT, described in control in this type 1 diabetic cohort has
further detail below) were designed to recently been shown to persist for
examine the impact of intensive A1C several decades (93).
control on CVD outcomes and showed In type 2 diabetes, there is evidence that
that lower A1C levels were associated more intensive treatment of glycemia in
with reduced onset or progression of newly diagnosed patients may reduce
microvascular complications (8890). long- term CVD rates. During the UKPDS
Epidemiological analyses of the DCCT trial, there was a 16% reduction in CVD
and UKPDS (76,77) demonstrate a events (combined fatal or nonfatal MI and
curvilinear relationship between sudden death) in the intensive glycemic
A1C and microvascular complications. control arm that did not reach statistical
Such analyses suggest that, on a signicance (P 5 0.052), and there was
population level, the greatest number of no suggestion of benet on other CVD
complications will be averted by taking outcomes (e.g., stroke). However, after
patients from very poor control to fair/ 10 years of follow-up, those originally
good control. These analyses also randomized to intensive glycemic control
suggest that further lowering of A1C had signicant long-term reductions in MI
from 7 to 6% is associated with further (15% with sulfonylurea or insulin as
reduction in the risk of microvascular initial pharmacotherapy, 33% with
complications, though the absolute risk metformin as initial pharmacotherapy)
reductions become much smaller. Given and in all-cause mortality (13% and 27%,
the substantially increased risk of respectively) (87).
hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes trials, The Action to Control Cardiovascular
and now seen in recent type 2 diabetes Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD), Action in
trials, the risks of lower glycemic targets Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax
may outweigh the potential benets on and Diamicron Modied Release
microvascular complications on a Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE), and
population level. The concerning the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial
mortality ndings in the ACCORD trial (VADT) studies suggested no signicant
(91) and the relatively much greater reduction in CVD outcomes with
effort required to achieve near- intensive glycemic control in participants
euglycemia should also be considered who had more advanced type 2
diabetes than UKPDS participants. All
either known CVD or multiple cardiovascular
risk factors. Details of these studies are
reviewed extensively in an ADA position
statement (94).
ACCORD
The ACCORD study participants had either
known CVD or two or more major
cardiovascular risk factors and were
randomized to intensive glycemic control
(goal A1C ,6%) or standard glycemic control
(goal A1C 78%). The glycemic control
comparison was halted early due to an
increased mortality rate in the intensive
compared with the standard arm (1.41 vs.
1.14%/year; hazard ratio [HR] 1.22 [95% CI
1.01
1.46]); with a similar increase in
cardiovascular deaths. Initial analysis of the
ACCORD data (evaluating variables including
weight gain, use of any specic drug or drug
combination, and hypoglycemia) did not
identify a clear explanation for the excess
mortality in the intensive arm (91). A
subsequent analysis showed no increase in
mortality in the intensive arm participants
who achieved A1C levels below 7%, nor in
those who lowered their A1C quickly after
trial enrollment. There was no A1C level at
which intensive versus standard arm
participants had signicantly
lower mortality. The highest risk for mortality
was observed in intensive arm participants
with the highest A1C levels (95). Severe
hypoglycemia was signicantly more likely in
participants randomized to the intensive
glycemic control arm. Unlike the DCCT, where
lower achieved A1C levels were related to
signicantly increased rates of severe
hypoglycemia, in ACCORD every 1%
decline in A1C from baseline to 4 months into
the trial was associated with a signicant
decrease in the rate of severe hypoglycemia in
both arms (95).
ADVANCE
The primary outcome of ADVANCE was a
combination of microvascular events
(nephropathy and retinopathy) and major
adverse cardiovascular events (MI, stroke, and
cardiovascular death). Intensive glycemic
control (A1C ,6.5%, vs. treatment to local
standards) signicantly reduced the primary
end point, primarily due to a signicant
reduction in the microvascular
outcome, specically development of
albuminuria (.300 mg/24 h), with
no signicant reduction in the advanced atherosclerosis, and advanced associated with increased cardiovascular
macrovascular outcome. There was no age/frailty may benet from less risk independent of FPG in some
difference in overall or cardiovascular aggressive targets. Providers should be epidemiological studies. In diabetic
mortality between the two arms (89). vigilant in preventing severe subjects, surrogate measures of vascular
VADT hypoglycemia in patients with advanced pathology, such as endothelial
The primary outcome of the VADT was a disease and should not aggressively dysfunction, are negatively affected by
composite of CVD events. The trial attempt to achieve near-normal A1C postprandial hyperglycemia (101). It is
randomized type 2 diabetic participants levels in patients in whom such targets clear that postprandial hyperglycemia,
who were uncontrolled on insulin or on cannot be safely and reasonably like preprandial hyperglycemia,
maximal dose oral agents (median entry achieved. Severe or frequent contributes to elevated A1C levels, with
A1C 9.4%) to a strategy of intensive hypoglycemia is an absolute indication its relative contribution being greater at
glycemic control (goal A1C ,6.0%) or for the modication of treatment A1C levels that are closer to 7%.
standard glycemic control, with a regimens, including setting higher However, outcome studies have clearly
planned A1C separation of at least glycemic goals. Many factors, including shown
1.5%. The cumulative primary outcome patient preferences, should be taken A1C to be the primary predictor of
was nonsignicantly lower in the into account when developing a complications, and landmark glycemic
intensive arm (88). An ancillary study of patients individualized goals (99) (Fig. control trials such as the DCCT and
the VADT demonstrated that intensive 1). UKPDS relied overwhelmingly on
glycemic control signicantly reduced preprandial SMBG. Additionally, an RCT
the primary CVD outcome in individuals Glycemic Goals in patients with known CVD found no
with less atherosclerosis at baseline but Recommended glycemic goals for many CVD benet of insulin regimens
not in persons with more extensive nonpregnant adults are shown in targeting postprandial glucose compared
baseline atherosclerosis (96). A post hoc Table 9. The recommendations are with those targeting preprandial glucose
analysis showed that mortality in the based on those for A1C values, with (102). A reasonable recommendation
intensive versus standard glycemic blood glucose levels that appear to for postprandial testing and targets is
control arm was related to duration of correlate with achievement of an A1C of that for individuals who have premeal
diabetes at study enrollment. Those ,7%. The issue of pre- versus glucose values within
with diabetes duration less than 15 postprandial SMBG targets is complex target but have A1C values above
years had a mortality benet in the (100). Elevated postchallenge (2-h target, monitoring postprandial plasma
intensive arm, while those with OGTT) glucose values have been glucose (PPG) 12 h after the start of the
duration of 20 years or more had higher meal and treatment aimed at reducing
mortality in the intensive arm (97).
The evidence for a cardiovascular
benet of intensive glycemic control
primarily rests on long-term follow-up
of study cohorts treated early in the
course of type 1 and type 2 diabetes,
and a subset analyses of ACCORD,
ADVANCE, and VADT. A group-level
meta-analysis of the latter three trials
suggests that glucose lowering has a
modest (9%) but statistically signicant
reduction in major CVD outcomes,
primarily nonfatal MI, with no
signicant effect on mortality.
However, heterogeneity of the
mortality effects across studies was
noted. A prespecied subgroup analysis
suggested that major CVD outcome
reduction occurred in patients without
known CVD at baseline (HR 0.84 [95%
CI 0.740.94]) (98). Conversely, the
mortality ndings in
ACCORD and subgroup analyses of the Figure 1Approach to management of hyperglycemia. Depiction of the elements of decision
VADT suggest that the potential risks of making used to determine appropriate efforts to achieve glycemic targets. Characteristics/
intensive glycemic control may predicaments toward the left justify more stringent efforts to lower A1C, whereas those toward
the right are compatible with less stringent efforts. Where possible, such decisions should be
outweigh its benets in some patients. made in conjunction with the patient, reecting his or her preferences, needs, and values. This
Those with long duration of diabetes, scale is not designed to be applied rigidly but to be used as a broad construct to help guide
known history of severe hypoglycemia, clinical decisions. Adapted with permission from Ismail-Beigi et al. (99).
Table 9Summary of glycemic recommendations for many nonpregnant 1. Use MDI injections (34 injections
adults with diabetes per day of basal and prandial insulin)
A1C ,7.0%* or CSII therapy.
Preprandial capillary plasma glucose 70130 mg/dL* (3.97.2 mmol/L) 2. Match prandial insulin to
Peak postprandial capillary plasma glucose ,180 mg/dL* (,10.0 mmol/L) carbohydrate intake, premeal
c *Goals should be individualized based on: blood glucose, and anticipated
c duration of diabetes activity.
c age/life expectancy 3. For most patients (especially
c comorbid conditions
with hypoglycemia), use insulin
c known CVD or advanced microvascular
complications analogs.
c hypoglycemia unawareness 4. For patients with frequent
c individual patient considerations nocturnal hypoglycemia and/or
c More or less stringent glycemic goals hypoglycemia unawareness, use of
may be appropriate for individual patients sensor-augmented low glucose
c Postprandial glucose may be targeted if A1C
suspend threshold pump may be
goals are not met despite reaching
considered.
preprandial glucose goals
Postprandial glucose measurements should be made 12 h after the beginning of the meal,
generally peak levels in patients with diabetes. There are excellent reviews to guide
the initiation and management of
insulin therapy to achieve desired
PPG values to ,180 mg/dL may help (three to four injections per day of components:
lower A1C. basal and prandial insulin) or
Glycemic goals for children are provided continuous subcutaneous insulin
in Section VIII.A.1.a. infusion (CSII). A
c Most people with type 1 diabetes
Glycemic Goals in Pregnant Women should be educated in how to match
The goals for glycemic control for prandial insulin dose to carbohydrate
women with GDM are based on intake, premeal blood glucose, and
recommendations from the Fifth anticipated activity. E
International Workshop-Conference on c Most people with type 1 diabetes
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (103) and should use insulin analogs to reduce
have the following targets for maternal hypoglycemia risk. A
capillary glucose concentrations:
Screening
c Preprandial: #95 mg/dL (5.3 c Consider screening those with type 1
mmol/L), and either: diabetes for other autoimmune
c 1-h postmeal: #140 mg/dL diseases (thyroid, vitamin B12
(7.8 mmol/L) or deciency, celiac) as appropriate. B
c 2-h postmeal: #120 mg/dL
(6.7 mmol/L) The DCCT clearly showed that intensive
insulin therapy (three or more injections
For women with preexisting type 1 or per day of insulin, or CSII (or insulin
type 2 diabetes who become pregnant, pump therapy) was a key part of
the following are recommended as improved glycemia and better
optimal glycemic goals, if they can be outcomes (76,92). The study was carried
achieved without excessive out with short- and intermediate-acting
hypoglycemia (104): human insulins. Despite better
microvascular outcomes, intensive
c Premeal, bedtime, and overnight insulin therapy was associated with a
glucose 6099 mg/dL (3.35.4 high rate of severe hypoglycemia (62
mmol/L) episodes per 100 patient-years of
c Peak postprandial glucose 100129 therapy). Since the DCCT, a number of
mg/dL (5.47.1 mmol/L) rapid-acting and long-acting insulin
c A1C ,6.0% analogs have been developed. These
analogs are associated with less
D. Pharmacological and Overall hypoglycemia with equal A1C lowering
Approaches to Treatment in type 1 diabetes (105,106).
1. Insulin Therapy for Type 1 Diabetes
Recommended therapy for type 1
c Most people with type 1 diabetes diabetes consists of the following
should be treated with MDI injections
glycemic goals (105,107,108). Although most
studies of MDI versus pump
therapy have been small and of short
duration, a systematic review and
meta-analysis concluded that there
were no systematic differences in A1C
or severe hypoglycemia rates in
children and adults between the two
forms of intensive insulin therapy (73).
Recently, a large randomized trial in
type 1 diabetic patients with nocturnal
hypoglycemia reported that sensor-
augmented insulin pump therapy with the
threshold-suspend feature reduced nocturnal
hypoglycemia, without
increasing glycated hemoglobin values
(74). Overall, intensive management
through pump therapy/CGM and active
patient/family participation should be
strongly encouraged (109111). For
selected individuals who have
mastered carbohydrate counting,
education on the impact of protein and fat on
glycemic excursions can be
incorporated into diabetes
management (112).
Screening
Because of the increased frequency of other
autoimmune diseases in type 1
diabetes, screening for thyroid dysfunction,
vitamin B12 deciency, and celiac disease
should be considered based on signs and
symptoms. Periodic screening in asymptomatic
individuals
has been recommended, but the effectiveness
and optimal frequency are unclear.
Figure 2Antihyperglycemic therapy in type 2 diabetes: general recommendations. DPP-4-i, DPP-4 inhibitor; Fxs, bone fractures; GI, gastrointestinal;
GLP-1- RA, GLP-1 receptor agonist; HF, heart failure; SU, sulfonylurea; TZD, thiazolidinedione. For further details, see ref. 113. Adapted with
permission.
glycemic control and/or blood lipids 2 diabetes (204) have warranted caution team to improve clinical outcomes,
when a Mediterranean-style, MUFA- for universal sodium restriction to 1,500 health status, and quality of life in a
rich eating pattern was consumed mg in this population. For individuals cost-effective manner (206).
(144,146,151,169171). Some of these with diabetes and hypertension, setting a DSME and DSMS are essential elements
studies also included caloric restriction, sodium intake goal of ,2,300 mg/day of diabetes care (207209), and the
which may have contributed to should be considered only on an current National Standards for Diabetes
improvements in glycemic control or individual basis. Goal sodium intake Self- Management Education and Support
blood lipids (169,170). The ideal ratio of recommendations should take into (206) are based on evidence for their
n-6 to n-3 fatty acids has not been account palatability, availability, additional benets. Education helps people with
determined; however, PUFA and MUFA cost of specialty low sodium products, diabetes initiate effective self-
are recommended substitutes for and the difculty of achieving both low management and cope with diabetes
saturated or trans fat (167,172). sodium recommendations and a when they are rst diagnosed. Ongoing
A recent systematic review (157) nutritionally adequate diet (205). For
DSME and DSMS also help people with
concluded that supplementation with complete discussion and references of all
diabetes maintain effective self-
n-3 fatty acids did not improve recommendations, see Nutrition Therapy
management throughout a lifetime of
glycemic control but that higher dose Recommendations for the Management
diabetes as they face new challenges and
supplementation decreased of Adults With Diabetes (116).
treatment advances become available.
triglycerides in individuals with type 2 DSME enables patients (including youth)
F. Diabetes Self-Management
diabetes. Six short-duration RCTs to optimize metabolic control, prevent
Education and Support
comparing n-3 supplements to placebo and manage complications, and maximize
Recommendations
published since the systematic review quality of life, in a cost-effective manner
reported minimal or no benecial c People with diabetes should receive
(208,210).
effects (173,174) or mixed/ DSME and diabetes self-management
support (DSMS) according to National Current best practice of DSME is a skills-
inconsistent benecial effects
Standards for Diabetes Self- based approach that focuses on helping
(175177) on CVD risk factors and
Management Education and Support those with diabetes make informed self-
other health issues. Three longer-
when their diabetes is diagnosed and management choices (206,208). DSME
duration studies also reported mixed
as needed thereafter. B has changed from a didactic approach
outcomes (178180). Thus, RCTs do focusing on providing information
c Effective self-management and
not support recommending n-3 to more theoretically based
quality of life are the key outcomes
supplements for primary or secondary empowerment models that focus on
of DSME and DSMS and should be
prevention of CVD. Little evidence has helping those with diabetes make
measured and monitored as part of
been published about the relationship informed self-management decisions
care. C
between dietary intake of saturated (208). Diabetes care has shifted to an
c DSME and DSMS should address
fatty acids and dietary cholesterol and approach that is more patient centered
psychosocial issues, since emotional
glycemic control and CVD risk in people and places the person with diabetes and
well-being is associated with positive
with diabetes. Therefore, people with his or her family at the center of the
diabetes outcomes. C
diabetes should follow the guidelines care model working in collaboration
c DSME and DSMS programs are
for the general population for the with health care professionals. Patient-
appropriate venues for people with
recommended intakes of saturated fat, centered care is respectful of and
prediabetes to receive education and
dietary cholesterol, and trans fat (167). responsive to individual patient
support to develop and maintain
Published data on the effects of plant behaviors that can prevent or delay preferences, needs, and values and
stanols and sterols on CVD risk in the onset of diabetes. C ensures that patient values guide all
individuals with diabetes include four c Because DSME and DSMS can result decision making (211).
RCTs that reported benecial effects for in cost-savings and improved
total, LDL, and non-HDL cholesterol outcomes B, DSME and DSMS should Evidence for the Benets of Diabetes
(181184). be adequately reimbursed by third- Self-Management Education and
There is limited evidence that the use of party payers. E Support
Multiple studies have found that DSME
vitamin, mineral, or herbal supplements
DSME and DSMS are the ongoing is associated with improved diabetes
is necessary in the management of
processes of facilitating the knowledge, knowledge and improved self-care
diabetes (185201).
skill, and ability necessary for diabetes behavior (206,207), improved clinical
Limited studies have been published on self-care. This process incorporates the outcomes such as lower A1C (209,212
sodium reduction in people with needs, goals, and life experiences of the 216), lower self-reported weight (207),
diabetes. A recent Cochrane review person with diabetes. The overall improved quality of life (213,216,217),
found that decreasing sodium intake objectives of DSME and DSMS are to healthy coping (218,219), and lower
reduces blood pressure in those with support informed decision making, self- costs (220,221). Better outcomes were
diabetes (202). However, two other care behaviors, problem solving, and reported for DSME interventions that
studies in type 1 diabetes (203) and active collaboration with the health care were longer and included follow-up
type support (DSMS) (207,222224), that
were culturally (225,226) and age maintaining behaviors that can prevent Reimbursement for Diabetes Self-
appropriate (227,228) and were tailored or delay the onset of diabetes Management Education and Support DSME,
to individual needs and preferences, (206,244,245). when provided by a program that meets
and that addressed psychosocial issues national standards for DSME and is recognized
and incorporated behavioral strategies by ADA or other approval
(207,208,218,219,229231). Both bodies, is reimbursed as part of the
individual and group approaches have Medicare program as overseen by the
been found effective (232,233). There is Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
growing evidence for the role of a Services (CMS). DSME is also covered by
community health workers (234) and most health insurance plans.
peer (235239) and lay leaders (240) in Although DSMS has been shown to be
delivering DSME and DSMS as part of instrumental for improving outcomes, as
the DSME/S team (241). described in Evidence for the
Diabetes education is associated with Benets of Diabetes Self-Management
increased use of primary and preventive Education and Support, and can be
services (220,242,243) and lower use of provided in formats such as phone calls and
acute, inpatient hospital services (220). via telehealth, it currently has
Patients who participate in diabetes limited reimbursement as face-to-face visits
education are more likely to follow best included as follow-up to DSME.
practice treatment recommendations,
particularly among the Medicare G. Physical Activity
population, and have lower Medicare Recommendations
and commercial claim costs (221,242). c As is the case for all children, children with
diabetes or prediabetes should be
The National Standards for Diabetes encouraged to engage in at least
Self-Management Education and 60 min of physical activity each day. B
Support c Adults with diabetes should be advised to
The National Standards for Diabetes perform at least 150 min/week of moderate-
Self-Management Education and intensity aerobic physical activity (5070% of
Support are designed to dene quality maximum heart rate), spread over at least 3
DSME and DSMS and to assist diabetes days/week with no more than 2 consecutive
educators days without exercise. A
in a variety of settings to provide c In the absence of contraindications, adults
evidence-based education and self- with type 2 diabetes should be encouraged to
management support (206). The perform resistance training at least twice per
standards are reviewed and updated
week. A
every 5 years by a task force
representing key organizations involved Exercise is an important part of the diabetes
in the eld of diabetes education and management plan. Regular exercise has been
care. shown to improve blood glucose control,
reduce cardiovascular risk factors, contribute to
Diabetes Self-Management Education
weight loss, and improve well-being.
and Support Providers and People
Furthermore, regular exercise may prevent type
With Prediabetes
2 diabetes in high-risk individuals (2325).
The standards for DSME and DSMS also
Structured exercise interventions of at least 8
apply to the education and support of
weeks
people with prediabetes. Currently,
duration have been shown to lower A1C by an
there are signicant barriers to the
average of 0.66% in people with type 2
provision of education and support to
diabetes, even with no signicant change in
those with prediabetes. However, the
BMI (246). There are
strategies for supporting successful
considerable data for the health
behavior change and the healthy
benets (e.g., increased cardiovascular tness,
behaviors recommended for people with
muscle strength, improved insulin sensitivity,
prediabetes are largely identical to those
etc.) of regular physical activity for those with
for people with diabetes. As barriers to
type 1 diabetes (247). Higher levels of exercise
care are overcome, providers of DSME
intensity are associated with greater
and DSMS, given their training and
experience, are particularly well
equipped to assist people with
prediabetes in developing and
improvements in A1C and in type 2 diabetes (255,256). In
tness (248). Other benets the absence of
include slowing the decline in contraindications, patients with
mobility among type 2
overweight patients with diabetes should be encouraged
diabetes (249). A joint position to do at least two weekly
statement of ADA and the sessions of resistance exercise
American College of Sports (exercise with free weights or
Medicine summarizes the weight machines), with each
evidence for the benets of session consisting of at least
exercise in people with type 2 one set of ve or
diabetes (250).
patients should be considered, doses of statins fail to signicantly lower Table 10 summarizes common
particularly if they have other LDL cholesterol (,30% reduction from treatment goals for A1C, blood
cardiovascular risk factors. the patients baseline), there is no pressure, and LDL cholesterol.
Alternative Lipoprotein Goals strong evidence that combination
Most trials of statins and CVD outcome therapy should be used to achieve 3. Antiplatelet Agents
tested specic doses of statins against additional LDL cholesterol lowering. Recommendations
placebo or other statins, rather than Niacin, fenobrate, ezetimibe, and bile c Consider aspirin therapy (75162 mg/
aiming for specic LDL cholesterol goals acid sequestrants all offer additional day) as a primary prevention strategy
(372). Placebo-controlled trials LDL cholesterol lowering to statins in those with type 1 or type 2 diabetes
generally achieved LDL cholesterol alone. However, there is insufcient at increased cardiovascular risk (10-
reductions of evidence that such combination therapy year risk .10%). This includes most
3040% from baseline. Hence, LDL for LDL cholesterol lowering provides a men aged .50 years or women aged
cholesterol lowering of this magnitude signicant increment in CVD risk .60 years who have at least one
is an acceptable outcome for patients reduction over statin therapy alone. additional major risk factor (family
who cannot reach LDL cholesterol goals history of CVD, hypertension, smoking,
due to severe baseline elevations in LDL Treatment of Other Lipoprotein dyslipidemia, or albuminuria). C
cholesterol and/or intolerance of Fractions or Targets c Aspirin should not be recommended
maximal, or any, statin doses. Hypertriglyceridemia should be for CVD prevention for adults with
Additionally for those with baseline LDL addressed with dietary and lifestyle diabetes at low CVD risk (10-year CVD
cholesterol minimally above 100 mg/dL, changes. Severe hypertriglyceridemia risk ,5%, such as in men aged ,50
prescribing statin therapy to lower LDL (.1,000 mg/dL) may warrant years and women aged ,60 years
cholesterol about 3040% from baseline immediate pharmacological therapy with no major additional CVD risk
is probably more effective than (bric acid derivative, niacin, or sh factors), since the potential adverse
prescribing just enough to get LDL oil) to reduce the risk of acute effects from bleeding likely offset the
cholesterol slightly below 100 mg/dL. pancreatitis. If severe potential benets. C
Clinical trials in high-risk patients, such hypertriglyceridemia is absent, then c In patients in these age-groups
as those with acute coronary syndromes therapy targeting HDL cholesterol or with multiple other risk factors (e.g.,
or previous cardiovascular events (373 triglycerides lacks the strong evidence 10-year risk 510%), clinical judgment
375), have demonstrated that more base of statin therapy. If the HDL is required. E
aggressive therapy with high doses of cholesterol is ,40 mg/dL and the LDL c Use aspirin therapy (75162 mg/day)
statins to achieve an LDL cholesterol of cholesterol between 100 and 129 as a secondary prevention strategy in
,70 mg/dL led to a signicant mg/dL, a brate or niacin might be used, those with diabetes with a history of
reduction in further events. A reduction especially if a patient is intolerant to CVD. A
in LDL cholesterol to ,70 mg/dL is an statins. Niacin is the most effective drug c For patients with CVD and documented
option in very-high-risk diabetic for raising HDL cholesterol. It can aspirin allergy, clopidogrel (75 mg/day)
patients with overt CVD (371). Some signicantly increase blood glucose at should be used. B
experts recommend a greater focus on high doses, but at modest doses (750 c Dual antiplatelet therapy is
non-HDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B 2,000 mg/day), signicant reasonable for up to a year after an
(apoB), or lipoprotein particle improvements in LDL cholesterol, HDL acute coronary syndrome. B
measurements to assess residual CVD cholesterol, and triglyceride levels are
risk in statin-treated patients who are accompanied by only modest changes in Aspirin has been shown to be effective
likely to have small LDL particles, such as glucose that are generally amenable to in reducing cardiovascular morbidity
people with diabetes (376), but it is adjustment of diabetes therapy and mortality in high-risk patients with
unclear whether clinical management (370,379,380).
would change with these
measurements.
In individual patients, the high variable
response seen with LDL cholesterol doses (378). When maximally tolerated
lowering with statins is poorly
understood (377). Reduction of CVD
events with statins correlates very
closely with LDL cholesterol lowering
(347). If initial attempts to prescribe a
statin leads to side effects, clinicians
should attempt to nd a dose or
alternative statin that is tolerable.
There is evidence for signicant LDL
cholesterol lowering from even
extremely low, less than daily, statin
care.diabetesjournals.org Position Statement
Table 10Summary of recommendations for S4141
glycemic, blood pressure, and lipid control
for most adults with diabetes
A1C ,7.0%*
Blood
pressure
,140/80
mmHg**
Lipids
LDL cholesterol ,100 mg/dL (,2.6
mmol/L)
Statin therapy
for those with
history of MI
or age over
40 plus other
risk factors
*More or less stringent glycemic goals may be
appropriate for individual patients. Goals should be
individualized based on duration of diabetes, age/life
expectancy, comorbid conditions, known CVD or
advanced microvascular complications,
hypoglycemia unawareness, and individual patient
considerations. **Based on patient characteristics
and response to therapy, lower SBP targets may be
appropriate. In individuals with overt CVD, a lower
LDL cholesterol goal of ,70 mg/dL (1.8 mmol/L),
using a high dose of a statin, is an option.
previous MI or stroke (secondary number of episodes of bleeding do not have equal effects on long-term health
prevention). Its net benet in primary induced, although these (384).
prevention among patients with no complications
In 2010, a position statement of the ADA, the
previous cardiovascular events is more
American Heart Association (AHA), and the
controversial, both for patients with and
American College of Cardiology Foundation
without a history of diabetes (381,382).
(ACCF) recommends that low-dose (75162
Two RCTs of aspirin specically in
mg/day) aspirin for primary prevention is
patients with diabetes failed to show a
reasonable for adults with diabetes and no
signicant reduction in CVD end points,
raising further questions about the previous history of vascular disease who are at
efcacy of aspirin for primary increased CVD risk
prevention in people with diabetes (10-year risk of CVD events over 10%) and who
(190,383). are not at increased risk for bleeding. This
generally includes most men over age 50 years
The Antithrombotic Trialists (ATT) and women over age 60 years who also have
collaborators published an individual one or more of the following major risk factors:
patient-level meta-analysis of the six 1) smoking,
large trials of aspirin for primary 2) hypertension, 3) dyslipidemia, 4) family history
prevention in the general population. of premature CVD, and 5) albuminuria (385).
These trials collectively enrolled over
95,000 participants, including almost However, aspirin is no longer recommended for
4,000 with diabetes. Overall, they found those at low CVD risk (women under age 60
that aspirin reduced the risk of vascular years and men under age 50 years with no
events by 12% (RR 0.88 [95% CI 0.82 major CVD risk factors; 10-year CVD risk under
0.94]). The largest reduction was for 5%) as the low benet is likely to be
nonfatal MI with little effect on CHD outweighed by the risks of signicant bleeding.
death (RR 0.95 [95% CI 0.781.15]) or Clinical judgment should be used for those at
total stroke. There was some evidence intermediate risk (younger patients with one or
of a difference in aspirin effect by sex: more risk factors or older patients with no risk
aspirin signicantly reduced CVD factors; those with 10-year CVD risk of
events in men, but not in women. 510%) until further research is available. Aspirin
Conversely, use in patients under the age of
aspirin had no effect on stroke in men 21 years is contraindicated due to the
but associated risk of Reye syndrome.
signicantly reduced stroke in women. Average daily dosages used in most clinical
Notably, sex differences in aspirins trials involving patients with
effects have not been observed in diabetes ranged from 50 to 650 mg but were
studies of secondary prevention (381). mostly in the range of 100 to 325 mg/day.
In the six trials examined by the ATT There is little evidence to
collaborators, the effects of aspirin on support any specic dose, but using the lowest
major vascular events were similar for possible dosage may help reduce side effects
patients with or without diabetes: RR (386). In the U.S., the most common low dose
0.88 (95% CI 0.67 tablet is 81 mg.
1.15) and 0.87 (0.790.96), Although platelets from patients with diabetes
respectively. The condence interval have altered function, it is unclear what, if any,
was wider for those with diabetes impact that nding has on the required dose of
because of their smaller number.
aspirin for cardioprotective effects in the
Based on the currently available patient with diabetes. Many alternate pathways
evidence, aspirin appears to have a for platelet activation exist that are
modest effect on ischemic vascular independent of thromboxane A2 and thus not
events with the absolute decrease in sensitive to the effects of aspirin (387).
events depending on the underlying Therefore, while aspirin resistance appears
CVD risk. The main adverse effects higher in the
appear to be an increased risk of diabetic patients when measured by a
gastrointestinal bleeding. The excess
risk may be as high as 15 per 1,000 per
year in real-world settings. In adults
with CVD risk greater than 1% per year,
the number of CVD events prevented
will be similar to or greater than the
variety of ex vivo and in vitro albuminuria at 1 year (389).
methods (platelet aggrenometry, The routine and thorough assessment
measurement of thromboxane of tobacco use is key to prevent
B2), these observations alone are smoking or encourage
insufcient to empirically cessation. Numerous
recommend higher doses of large randomized clinical trials
aspirin be used in the diabetic have demonstrated the
patient at this time. efcacy and cost-
A P2Y12 receptor antagonist in effectiveness of brief
combination with aspirin should counseling
be used for at least 1 year in in smoking cessation, including
patients following an acute the use of quitlines, in
coronary syndrome. Evidence reducing tobacco use.
supports use of either ticagrelor
or
clopidogrel if no percutaneous
coronary intervention (PCI) was
performed, and the use of
clopidogrel, ticagrelor, or
prasugrel if PCI was performed
(388).
4. Smoking Cessation
Recommendations
c Advise all patients not to
smoke or use tobacco
products. A
c Include smoking cessation
counseling and other forms of
treatment as a routine
component of diabetes care. B
C. Retinopathy
General Recommendations
c Optimize glycemic control to reduce the
risk or slow the progression of retinopathy.
A
c Optimize blood pressure control to
reduce the risk or slow the progression of
retinopathy. A
Screening
c Adults with type 1 diabetes should have
an initial dilated and
comprehensive eye examination by
an ophthalmologist or optometrist within
5 years after the onset of diabetes. B
c Patients with type 2 diabetes should have
an initial dilated and
comprehensive eye examination by an
ophthalmologist or optometrist shortly
after the diagnosis of diabetes. B
c If there is no evidence of retinopathy
for one or more eye exams, then exams
every 2 years may be
considered. If diabetic retinopathy is
present, subsequent examinations
for type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients
Table 13Management of CKD in diabetes although tight targets (systolic ,120
GFR Re co mme nd ed
mmHg) do not impart additional benet
(442). Several case series and a
All patients Yearly measurement of creatinine, urinary albumin excretion, potassium
controlled prospective study suggest
4560 Referral to a nephrologist if possibility for nondiabetic kidney disease exists that pregnancy in type 1 diabetic
(duration of type 1 diabetes ,10 years, heavy proteinuria, abnormal
patients may aggravate retinopathy
ndings on renal ultrasound, resistant hypertension, rapid fall in GFR, or
active urinary sediment on ultrasound) (443,444). Laser photocoagulation
Consider need for dose adjustment of medications surgery can minimize this risk (444).
Monitor eGFR every 6 months One of the main motivations for
Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, hemoglobin, calcium, phosphorus,
parathyroid hormone at least yearly
screening for diabetic retinopathy is the
Assure vitamin D sufciency long-established efcacy of laser
Consider bone density testing photocoagulation surgery in preventing
Referral for dietary counseling visual loss. Two large trials, the Diabetic
3044 Monitor eGFR every 3 months Retinopathy Study (DRS) in patients
Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid with PDR and the Early Treatment
hormone, hemoglobin, albumin, weight every 36 months Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) in
Consider need for dose adjustment of medications patients with macular edema, provide
, 30 Re fer r al to a nep hr ol ogi st the strongest support for the
Adapted from http://www.kidney.org/professionals/KDOQI/guideline_diabetes. therapeutic benets of
photocoagulation surgery. The DRS
(445) showed that panretinal
should be repeated annually by an loss in patients with high-risk PDR, photocoagulation surgery reduced the
ophthalmologist or optometrist. If clinically signicant macular edema, risk of severe vision loss from PDR from
retinopathy is progressing or sight and in some cases severe NPDR. A 15.9% in untreated eyes to 6.4% in
threatening, then examinations will c Anti-vascular endothelial growth treated eyes, with greatest risk-benet
be required more frequently. B factor (VEGF) therapy is indicated for ratio in those with baseline disease
c High-quality fundus photographs can diabetic macular edema. A (disc neovascularization or vitreous
detect most clinically signicant c The presence of retinopathy is not a hemorrhage).
diabetic retinopathy. Interpretation contraindication to aspirin therapy The ETDRS (446) established the benet
of the images should be performed for cardioprotection, as this therapy of focal laser photocoagulation surgery
by a trained eye care provider. While does not increase the risk of retinal in eyes with macular edema,
retinal photography may serve as a hemorrhage. A particularly those with clinically
screening tool for retinopathy, it is signicant macular edema, with
not a substitute for a comprehensive Diabetic retinopathy is a highly specic reduction of doubling of the visual
eye exam, which should be vascular complication of both type 1 and angle (e.g., 20/50 to 20/100) from 20%
performed at least initially and at type 2 diabetes, with prevalence in untreated eyes to 8%
intervals thereafter as recommended strongly related to the duration of in treated eyes. The ETDRS also
by an eye care professional. E diabetes. Diabetic retinopathy is the veried the benets of panretinal
c Women with preexisting diabetes most frequent cause of new cases of photocoagulation for high-risk PDR and
who are planning pregnancy or who blindness among adults aged 2074 in older-onset patients with severe
have become pregnant should have a years. Glaucoma, cataracts, and other NPDR or less-than-high-risk PDR.
comprehensive eye examination disorders of the eye occur earlier and
and be counseled on the risk of more frequently in people with Laser photocoagulation surgery in both
development and/or progression diabetes. trials was benecial in reducing the risk
of diabetic retinopathy. Eye of further visual loss, but generally not
In addition to duration of diabetes, benecial in reversing already
examination should occur in the rst
factors that increase the risk of, or are diminished acuity. Recombinant
trimester with close follow-up
throughout pregnancy and for 1 year associated with, retinopathy include monoclonal neutralizing antibody to
postpartum. B chronic hyperglycemia (439), VEGF improves vision and reduces the
nephropathy (440), and hypertension need for laser photocoagulation in
Treatment (441). Intensive diabetes management patients with macular edema (447).
c Promptly refer patients with any level with the goal of achieving near- Other emerging therapies for
of macular edema, severe NPDR, or normoglycemia has been shown in large retinopathy include sustained
any PDR to an ophthalmologist who is prospective randomized studies to intravitreal delivery of uocinolone
knowledgeable and experienced in prevent and/or delay the onset and (448) and the possibility of prevention
the management and treatment of progression of diabetic retinopathy with fenobrate (449,450).
diabetic retinopathy. A (76,85,86,442). Lowering blood
Laser photocoagulation therapy is The preventive effects of therapy and
c pressure has been shown to decrease
indicated to reduce the risk of vision the fact that patients with PDR or
the progression of retinopathy (323),
macular edema may be asymptomatic
provide strong support for a screening diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and at Effective symptomatic treatments are
program to detect diabetic least annually thereafter, using available for the neuropathic pain of
retinopathy. Because retinopathy is simple clinical tests. B DPN such as neuropathic pain (455)
estimated to take at least 5 years to c Electrophysiological testing or and for limited symptoms of
develop after the onset of referral to a neurologist is rarely autonomic neuropathy.
hyperglycemia, patients with type 1 needed, except in situations Diagnosis of Neuropathy
diabetes should have an initial dilated where the clinical features are
and comprehensive eye examination Distal Symmetric Polyneuropathy. Patients
atypical. E with diabetes should be screened
within 5 years after the diabetes (451). c Screening for signs and symptoms of
Patients with type 2 diabetes, who annually for DPN symptoms using
CAN should be instituted at diagnosis simple clinical tests. Symptoms vary
may have had years of undiagnosed
of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after according to the class of sensory bers
diabetes and who have a signicant
the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes. involved. The most common symptoms
risk of prevalent diabetic retinopathy
Special testing is rarely needed and are induced by the involvement of small
at time of diagnosis should have an
may not affect management or bers and include pain, dysesthesias
initial dilated and comprehensive eye
outcomes. E (unpleasant abnormal sensations of
examination. Examinations should be
c Medications for the relief of specic burning and tingling associated with
performed by an ophthalmologist or
optometrist who is knowledgeable symptoms related to painful DPN and peripheral nerve lesions), and
and experienced in diagnosing autonomic neuropathy are numbness. Clinical tests include
diabetic retinopathy. Subsequent recommended because they may assessment of vibration threshold
examinations for type 1 and type 2 reduce pain B and improve quality of using a 128-Hz tuning fork, pinprick
diabetic patients are generally life. E sensation and light touch perception
repeated annually. Exams every 2 years using a 10-g monolament, and ankle
may be cost-effective after one or The diabetic neuropathies are reexes. Assessment should follow the
more normal eye exams, and in a heterogeneous with diverse clinical typical DPN pattern, starting distally
population with well-controlled type 2 manifestations. They may be focal or (the dorsal aspect of the hallux) on both
diabetes there was essentially no risk diffuse. The most prevalent sides and move proximally until
of development of signicant neuropathies are chronic sensorimotor threshold is detected. Several clinical
retinopathy with a 3-year interval DPN and autonomic neuropathy. instruments that combine more than
after a normal examination (452). Although DPN is a diagnosis of one test have .87% sensitivity in
Examinations will be required more exclusion, complex investigations or detecting DPN (83,456,457).
frequently if retinopathy is referral for neurology consultation to In patients with severe or atypical
progressing. exclude other conditions is rarely neuropathy, causes other than diabetes
Retinal photography, with remote needed. should always be considered, such as
reading by experts, has great potential neurotoxic medications, heavy metal
The early recognition and appropriate
in areas where qualied eye care poisoning, alcohol abuse, vitamin B12
management of neuropathy in the
professionals are not available. It may patient with diabetes is important for a deciency (especially in those taking
also enhance efciency and reduce costs number of reasons: metformin for prolonged periods)
when the expertise of ophthalmologists (458), renal disease, chronic
can be used for more complex 1. Nondiabetic neuropathies may be inammatory demyelinating
examinations and for therapy (453). In- present in patients with diabetes and neuropathy, inherited neuropathies,
person exams are still necessary when may be treatable. and vasculitis (459).
the photos are unacceptable and for 2. A number of treatment options exist Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy. The
follow-up of abnormalities detected. for symptomatic diabetic symptoms and signs of autonomic
Photos are not a substitute for a neuropathy. dysfunction should be elicited carefully
comprehensive eye exam, which should 3. Up to 50% of DPN may be during the history and physical
be performed at least initially and at asymptomatic and patients are at examination. Major clinical
intervals thereafter as recommended by risk for insensate injury to their feet. manifestations of diabetic autonomic
an eye care professional. Results of eye 4. Autonomic neuropathy and neuropathy include resting tachycardia,
examinations should be documented particularly CAN is an independent exercise intolerance, orthostatic
and transmitted to the referring health risk factor for cardiovascular hypotension, constipation,
care professional. mortality (261,454). gastroparesis, erectile dysfunction,
D. Neuropathy sudomotor dysfunction, impaired
Specic treatment for the underlying neurovascular function, and,
Recommendations
nerve damage is currently not potentially, autonomic failure in
c All patients should be screened for available, other than improved response to hypoglycemia.
distal symmetric polyneuropathy glycemic control, which may modestly
(DPN) starting at diagnosis of type 2 slow progression in type 2 diabetes Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy.
diabetes and 5 years after the (90) but not reverse neuronal loss. CAN is the most studied and clinically
important form of diabetic autonomic
neuropathy because of its association patients with type 1 diabetes for many require the use of both pharmacological
with mortality risk independent of years (461464). While the evidence is and nonpharmacological measures
other cardiovascular risk factors not as strong for type 2 diabetes as for (e.g., avoiding medications that
(261,397). In early stages CAN may be type 1 diabetes, some studies have aggravate hypotension, using
completely asymptomatic and detected demonstrated a modest slowing of compressive garments over the legs and
by changes in heart rate variability and progression (90,465) without reversal of abdomen).
abnormal cardiovascular reex tests neuronal loss. Several observational Gastroparesis Symptoms. Gastroparesis
(R-R response to deep breathing, studies further suggest that neuropathic symptoms may improve with dietary
standing and Valsalva maneuver). symptoms improve not only with changes and prokinetic agents such as
Advanced disease may be indicated by optimization of control but also with erythromycin. Recently, the European
resting tachycardia (.100 bpm) and the avoidance of extreme blood glucose Medicines Agency (www.ema.europa.
orthostasis (a fall in SBP .20 mmHg or uctuations. eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/
DBP of at least 10 mmHg upon standing
Distal Symmetric Polyneuropathy. DPN Press_release/2013/07/WC500146614.
without an appropriate heart rate
symptoms, and especially neuropathic pdf) decided that risks of extrapyramidal
response). The standard cardiovascular
pain, can be severe, have sudden onset, symptoms with metoclopramide
reex testing, especially the deep-
and are associated with lower quality of outweigh benets. In Europe,
breathing test, is noninvasive, easy to
life, limited mobility, depression, and metoclopramide use is now restricted
perform, reliable, and reproducible and
social dysfunction (466). There is limited to a maximum use of 5 days and is no
has prognostic value. Although some
clinical evidence regarding the most longer indicated for the long-term
societies have developed guidelines for
effective treatments for individual treatment of gastroparesis. Although
screening for CAN, the benets of
patient needs given the wide range of the FDA decision is pending, it is
sophisticated testing beyond risk suggested that metoclopramide be
available medications (467,468). Two
stratication are not clear (460).
drugs have been approved for relief of reserved to only the most severe cases
Gastrointestinal Neuropathies. DPN pain in the U.S.dpregabalin and that are unresponsive to other
Gastrointestinal neuropathies (e.g., duloxetinedbut neither of these therapies. Side effects should be closely
esophageal enteropathy, gastroparesis, affords complete relief, even when used monitored.
constipation, diarrhea, fecal in combination. Venlafaxine, Erectile Dysfunction.Treatments for
incontinence) may involve any section amitriptyline, gabapentin, valproate, erectile dysfunction may include
of the gastrointestinal tract. opioids (morphine sulfate, tramadol, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors,
Gastroparesis should be suspected in and oxycodone controlled-release) may intracorporeal or intraurethral
individuals with erratic glucose control also be effective and could be prostaglandins, vacuum devices, or
or with upper gastrointestinal symptoms considered for treatment of painful penile prostheses. Interventions for
without other identied cause. DPN. Head-to-head treatment other manifestations of autonomic
Evaluation of solid-phase gastric comparisons and studies that include neuropathy are described in the ADA
emptying using double-isotope quality-of-life outcomes are rare, so statement on neuropathy (468). As with
scintigraphy may be done if symptoms treatment decisions must often follow a DPN treatments, these interventions do
are suggestive, but test results often trial-and-error approach. Given the not change the underlying pathology
correlate poorly with symptoms. range of partially effective treatment and natural history of the disease
Constipation is the most common options, a tailored and step-wise process, but may have a positive impact
lower-gastrointestinal symptom but can pharmacological strategy with careful on the quality of life of the patient.
alternate with episodes of diarrhea. attention to relative symptom
Genitourinary Tract Disturbances. improvement, medication adherence,
E. Foot Care
Diabetic autonomic neuropathy is also and medication side effects is
Recommendations
associated with genitourinary tract recommended to achieve pain reduction
and improve quality of life (455). c For all patients with diabetes,
disturbances. In men, diabetic
perform an annual comprehensive
autonomic neuropathy may cause Autonomic Neuropathy. An intensive foot examination to identify risk
erectile dysfunction and/or retrograde multifactorial cardiovascular risk factors predictive of ulcers and
ejaculation. Evaluation of bladder intervention targeting glucose, blood amputations. The foot examination
dysfunction should be performed for pressure, lipids, smoking, and other should include inspection,
individuals with diabetes who have lifestyle factors has been shown to assessment of foot pulses, and
recurrent urinary tract infections, reduce the progression and testing for loss of protective
pyelonephritis, incontinence, or a development of CAN among patients sensation (LOPS) (10-g monolament
palpable bladder. with type 2 diabetes (469). plus testing any one of the following:
Treatment Orthostatic Hypotension.Treatment of vibration using
Glycemic Control.Tight and stable orthostatic hypotension is challenging. 128-Hz tuning fork, pinprick
glycemic control, implemented as early The therapeutic goal is to minimize sensation, ankle reexes, or vibration
as possible has been shown to postural symptoms rather than to perception threshold). B
effectively prevent the development of restore normotension. Most patients c Provide general foot self-care
DPN and autonomic neuropathy in education to all patients with
diabetes. B
c A multidisciplinary approach is examination to identify high-risk (e.g., smoking, hypertension,
recommended for individuals with conditions at least annually. Clinicians hyperlipidemia, or duration of diabetes
foot ulcers and high-risk feet, should ask about history of previous .10 years). Refer patients with
especially those with a history of foot ulceration or amputation, signicant symptoms or a positive ABI
prior ulcer or amputation. B neuropathic or peripheral vascular for further vascular assessment and
c Refer patients who smoke, have LOPS symptoms, impaired vision, tobacco consider exercise, medications, and
and structural abnormalities, or have use, and foot care practices. A general surgical options (471).
history of prior lower-extremity inspection of skin integrity and
complications to foot care specialists musculoskeletal deformities should be Patient Education
for ongoing preventive care and done in a well-lit room. Vascular Patients with diabetes and high-risk
lifelong surveillance. C assessment would include inspection foot conditions should be educated
c Initial screening for peripheral and assessment of pedal pulses. regarding their risk factors and
arterial disease (PAD) should appropriate management. Patients at
include a history for claudication and The neurological exam recommended is
risk should understand the implications
an assessment of the pedal pulses. designed to identify LOPS rather than
of LOPS, the importance of foot
Consider obtaining an ankle-brachial early neuropathy. The clinical
monitoring on a daily basis, the proper
index (ABI), as many patients with examination to identify LOPS is simple
care of the foot, including nail and skin
PAD are asymptomatic. C and requires no expensive equipment.
care, and the selection of appropriate
Refer patients with signicant Five simple clinical tests (use of a 10-g
c footwear. Patients with LOPS should be
claudication or a positive ABI for monolament, vibration testing using a
educated on ways to substitute other
further vascular assessment and 128-Hz tuning fork, tests of pinprick
sensory modalities (hand palpation,
consider exercise, medications, and sensation, ankle reex assessment, and
visual inspection) for surveillance of
surgical options. C testing vibration perception threshold
early foot problems. Patients
with a biothesiometer), each with
understanding of these issues and their
Amputation and foot ulceration, evidence from well-conducted
physical ability to conduct proper foot
consequences of diabetic neuropathy prospective clinical cohort studies, are
surveillance and care should be
and/or PAD, are common and are major considered useful in the diagnosis of
assessed. Patients with visual
causes of morbidity and disability in LOPS in the diabetic foot. The task force
difculties, physical constraints
people with diabetes. Loss of 10-g agreed that any of the ve tests listed
preventing movement, or cognitive
monolament perception and reduced could be used by clinicians to identify
problems that impair their ability to
vibration perception predict foot LOPS, although ideally two of these
assess the condition of the foot and to
ulcers (468). Early recognition and should be regularly performed during
institute appropriate responses will
management of risk factors can prevent the screening examdnormally the 10-g
need other people, such as family
or delay adverse outcomes. monolament and one other test. One
members, to assist in their care.
or more abnormal tests would suggest
The risk of ulcers or amputations is LOPS, while at least two normal tests
increased in people who have the Treatment
(and no abnormal test) would rule out People with neuropathy or evidence of
following risk factors: LOPS. The last test listed, vibration increased plantar pressure (e.g.,
assessment using a biothesiometer or erythema, warmth, callus, or measured
c Previous amputation similar instrument, is widely used in the
c Past foot ulcer history pressure) may be adequately managed
U.S.; however, identication of the with well-tted walking shoes or
c Peripheral neuropathy patient with LOPS can easily be carried
c Foot deformity athletic shoes that cushion the feet and
out without this or other expensive redistribute pressure. Callus can be
c Peripheral vascular disease equipment.
c Visual impairment debrided with a scalpel by a foot care
c Diabetic nephropathy (especially Screening
specialist or other health professional
patients on dialysis) Initial screening for PAD should with experience and training in foot
c Poor glycemic control include a history for claudication and an care. People with bony deformities
c Cigarette smoking assessment of the pedal pulses. A (e.g., hammertoes, prominent
diagnostic ABI should be performed in metatarsal
In 2008, ADA published screening any patient with symptoms of PAD. Due heads, bunions) may need extra-wide
recommendations (470). Clinicians are to the high estimated prevalence of PAD or -deep shoes. People with extreme
encouraged to review this report for in patients with diabetes and the fact bony deformities (e.g., Charcot foot)
further details and practical descriptions that many patients with PAD are who cannot be accommodated with
of how to perform components of the asymptomatic, an ADA consensus commercial therapeutic footwear may
comprehensive foot examination. statement on PAD (471) suggested need custom-molded shoes.
that a screening ABI be performed in Most diabetic foot infections are
Examination patients over 50 years of age and be polymicrobial, with aerobic gram-
All adults with diabetes should considered in patients under 50 years positive cocci (GPC), and especially
undergo a comprehensive foot of age who have other PAD risk factors staphylococci, the most common
causative organisms.
Wounds without evidence of soft tissue in men and women (478). The fracture, although fracture risk was
or bone infection do not require prevalence in general populations with higher in diabetic participants
antibiotic therapy. type 2 diabetes may be up to 23% (479) compared with participants without
Empiric antibiotic therapy can be and in obese participants enrolled in the diabetes for a given T score and age or
narrowly targeted at GPC in many Look AHEAD trial exceeded 80% (480). for a given FRAX score risk (489). It is
acutely infected patients, but those at Treatment of sleep apnea signicantly appropriate to assess fracture history
risk for infection with antibiotic- improves quality of life and blood and risk factors in older patients with
resistant organisms or with chronic, pressure control. The evidence for a diabetes and recommend BMD testing if
previously treated, or severe infections treatment effect on glycemic control is appropriate for the patients age and
require broader spectrum regimens and mixed (481). sex. Prevention strategies are the same
should be referred to specialized care as for the general population. For type 2
Fatty Liver Disease diabetic patients with fracture risk
centers (472). Foot ulcers and wound
Unexplained elevations of hepatic factors, avoiding use of
care may require care by a podiatrist,
transaminase concentrations are thiazolidinediones is warranted.
orthopedic or vascular surgeon, or
signicantly associated with higher BMI,
rehabilitation specialist experienced in Cognitive Impairment
waist circumference, triglycerides, and
the management of individuals with Diabetes is associated with signicantly
fasting insulin, and with lower HDL
diabetes. Guidelines for treatment of increased risk and rate of cognitive
cholesterol. In a prospective analysis,
diabetic foot ulcers have recently been decline and increased risk of dementia
diabetes was signicantly associated
updated (472). (490,491). In a 15-year prospective
with incident nonalcoholic chronic liver
disease and with hepatocellular study of community-dwelling people
VII. ASSESSMENT OF COMMON
carcinoma (482). Interventions that over the age of 60 years, the presence
COMORBID CONDITIONS
improve metabolic abnormalities in of diabetes at baseline signicantly
Recommendation patients with diabetes (weight loss, increased the age- and sex-adjusted
glycemic control, treatment with incidence of all-cause dementia,
c Consider assessing for and addressing
specic drugs for hyperglycemia or Alzheimer disease, and vascular
common comorbid conditions that
dyslipidemia) are also benecial for dementia compared with rates in those
may complicate the management of
fatty liver disease (483). with normal glucose tolerance (492).
diabetes. B
In a substudy of the ACCORD study,
Cancer there were no differences in cognitive
Improved disease prevention and
Diabetes (possibly only type 2 diabetes) outcomes between intensive and
treatment efcacy means that patients
is associated with increased risk of standard glycemic control, although
with diabetes are living longer, often
cancers of the liver, pancreas, there was signicantly less of a
with multiple comorbidities requiring
endometrium, colon/rectum, breast, decrement in total brain volume by MRI
complicated medical regimens (473). In
and bladder (484). The association may in participants in the intensive arm
addition to the commonly appreciated
comorbidities of obesity, hypertension, result from shared risk factors between (493). The effects of hyperglycemia and
and dyslipidemia, diabetes type 2 diabetes and cancer (obesity, age, insulin on the brain are areas of intense
management is often complicated by physical inactivity) but may also be due research interest.
concurrent conditions such as heart to hyperinsulinemia or hyperglycemia Low Testosterone in Men
failure, depression and anxiety, arthritis, (485,486). Patients with diabetes Mean levels of testosterone are lower
and other diseases or conditions at rates should be encouraged to undergo in men with diabetes compared with
higher than those of age-matched recommended age- and sex-appropriate age- matched men without diabetes,
people without diabetes. These cancer screenings and to reduce their but
concurrent conditions present clinical modiable cancer risk factors (obesity, obesity is a major confounder (494).
challenges related to polypharmacy, smoking, physical inactivity). Treatment in asymptomatic men is
prevalent symptoms, and complexity of Fractures controversial. The evidence for effects
care (474477). Age-matched hip fracture risk is of testosterone replacement on
signicantly increased in both type 1 outcomes is mixed, and recent
Depression guidelines suggest that screening and
As discussed in Section V.H, depression, (summary RR 6.3) and type 2 diabetes
(summary RR 1.7) in both sexes (487). treatment of men without symptoms
anxiety, and other mental health are not recommended (495).
symptoms are highly prevalent in Type 1 diabetes is associated with
people with diabetes and are associated osteoporosis, but in type 2 diabetes Periodontal Disease
with worse outcomes. an increased risk of hip fracture is Periodontal disease is more severe, but
seen despite higher bone mineral not necessarily more prevalent, in
Obstructive Sleep Apnea density (BMD) (488). In three large patients with diabetes than in those
Age-adjusted rates of obstructive sleep observational studies of older adults, without (496). Current evidence
apnea, a risk factor for CVD, are femoral neck BMD T score and the suggests that periodontal disease
signicantly higher (4- to 10-fold) with WHO Fracture Risk Algorithm (FRAX) adversely affects diabetes outcomes,
obesity, especially with central obesity, score were associated with hip and although evidence for treatment
nonspine benets is currently lacking (477).
S5050 Position Diabetes Care Volume 37, Supplement 1, January 2014
Statement
Hearing Impairment and family. The balance between adult lower A1C should be balanced against
Hearing impairment, both high supervision and self-care should be the risks of hypoglycemia and the
frequency and low/mid frequency, is dened at the rst interaction and re- developmental burdens of intensive
more common in people with diabetes, evaluated at each clinic visit. This regimens in children and youth. Age-
perhaps due to neuropathy and/or relationship will evolve as the child specic glycemic and A1C goals are
vascular disease. In NHANES analysis, reaches physical, psychological, and presented in Table 14.
hearing impairment was about twice as emotional maturity.
great in people with diabetes compared b. Screening and Management of
with those without, after adjusting for a. Glycemic Control Complications
age and other risk factors for hearing Recommendation
i. Nephropathy
impairment (497). c Consider age when setting glycemic
Recommendations
goals in children and adolescents with
Screening
type 1 diabetes. E
VIII. DIABETES CARE IN SPECIFIC c Annual screening for albumin levels,
POPULATIONS with a random spot urine sample for
Current standards for diabetes
A. Children and Adolescents management reect the need to lower albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR),
1. Type 1 Diabetes glucose as safely possible. This should should be considered for the child at
Three-quarters of all cases of type 1 be done with step-wise goals. Special the start of puberty or at age $10
diabetes are diagnosed in individuals consideration should be given to the years, whichever is earlier, once the
,18 years of age. The provider must unique risks of hypoglycemia in young youth has had diabetes for 5 years. B
consider the unique aspects of care children. For young children (,7 years Treatment
and management of children and old), glycemic goals may need to be
adolescents with type 1 diabetes, such c Treatment with an ACE inhibitor,
modied since most at that age have a
as changes in insulin sensitivity related titrated to normalization of albumin
form of hypoglycemic unawareness,
to sexual maturity and physical growth, excretion, should be considered
including immaturity of and a relative
ability to provide self-care, supervision when elevated ACR is subsequently
inability to recognize and respond to
in child care and school, and unique conrmed on two additional
hypoglycemic symptoms. This places
neurological vulnerability to specimens from different days. This
them at greater risk for severe
hypoglycemia and DKA. Attention to should be obtained over a 6-month
hypoglycemia. While it was previously
family dynamics, developmental stages, interval following efforts to improve
thought that young children were at risk
and physiological differences related to glycemic control and normalize blood
for cognitive impairment after episodes
sexual maturity are all essential in pressure for age. E
of severe hypoglycemia, current data
developing and implementing an have not conrmed this (295,499,500).
optimal diabetes regimen. Due to the Recent research demonstrates the
Furthermore, new therapeutic
paucity of clinical research in children, importance of good glycemic and blood
modalities, such as rapid and long-
the recommendations for children and pressue control, especially as diabetes
acting insulin analogs, technological
adolescents are less likely to be based duration increases (506).
advances (e.g., low glucose suspend),
on clinical trial evidence. However, and education may mitigate the ii. Hypertension
expert opinion and a review of available incidence
and relevant experimental data are Recommendations
of severe hypoglycemia (501). In
summarized in the ADA statement on Screening
adolescents, the DCCT demonstrated
care of children and adolescents with that near-normalization of blood c Blood pressure should be measured at
type 1 diabetes (498). glucose levels was more difcult to each routine visit. Children found to
The care of a child or adolescent with achieve compared with adults. have high-normal blood pressure or
type 1 diabetes should be provided by a Nevertheless, the increased frequency hypertension should have blood
multidisciplinary team of specialists of basal-bolus regimens and insulin pressure conrmed on a separate day.
trained in pediatric diabetes pumps in youth from infancy through B
management. At the very least, adolescence has been associated with Treatment
education of the child and family should more children reaching ADA blood
c Initial treatment of high-normal
be provided by health care providers glucose targets (502504) in those
blood pressure (SBP or DBP
trained and experienced in childhood families in which both parents and the
consistently above the 90th
diabetes and sensitive to the challenges child with diabetes participate jointly to
percentile for age, sex, and height)
posed by diabetes in this age-group. It is perform the required diabetes-related
includes dietary intervention and
essential that DSME, MNT, and tasks. Furthermore, studies
exercise, aimed at weight control
psychosocial support be provided at documenting neurocognitive imaging
and increased physical activity, if
diagnosis and regularly thereafter by differences of hyperglycemia in children
appropriate. If target blood pressure
individuals experienced with the provide another compelling motivation
is not reached with 36 months
educational, nutritional, behavioral, and for achieving glycemic targets (505).
of lifestyle intervention,
emotional needs of the growing child In selecting glycemic goals, the long- pharmacological treatment should
term health benets of achieving a be considered. E
Table 14Plasma blood glucose and A1C goals for type 1 diabetes by age-group
Plasma blood glucose goal range
(mg/dL)
Values by age (years) Before meals Bedtime/overnight A1C Rationale
Toddlers and preschoolers (06) 100180 110200 ,8.5% c Vulnerability to hypoglycemia
c Insulin sensitivity
c Unpredictability in dietary intake and physical activity
c A lower goal (,8.0%) is reasonable if it can be achieved
without excessive hypoglycemia
School age (612) 90180 100180 ,8% c Vulnerability of hypoglycemia
c A lower goal (,7.5%) is reasonable if it can be achieved
without excessive hypoglycemia
Adolescents and young adults (1319) 90130 90150 ,7.5% c A lower goal (,7.0%) is reasonable if it can be achieved
without excessive hypoglycemia
Key concepts in setting glycemic goals:
c Goals should be individualized and lower goals may be reasonable based on benet-risk assessment.
c Blood glucose goals should be modied in children with frequent hypoglycemia or hypoglycemia unawareness.
c Postprandial blood glucose values should be measured when there is a discrepancy between preprandial blood glucose values and A1C levels
and to help assess glycemia in those on basal-bolus regimens.
Table 15Framework for considering treatment goals for glycemia, blood pressure, and dyslipidemia in older adults
with diabetes
Fasting or Bedtime Blood
Patient characteristics/ Reasonable preprandial glucose pressure
hea lth sta tus Rat io nal e A 1C g oal g lu co se (m g/d L) (m g/d L) (m mH g ) Li
pi ds
Healthy (few coexisting Longer remaining life ,7.5% 90130 90150 ,140/80 Statin unless
chronic illnesses, intact expectancy contraindicated or not
cognitive and functional tolerated
status)
Complex/intermediate Intermediate remaining ,8.0% 90150 100180 ,140/80 Statin unless
(multiple coexisting life expectancy, high contraindicated or not
chronic illnesses* or 21 treatment burden, tolerated
instrumental ADL hypoglycemia
impairments or mild-to- vulnerability, fall risk
moderate cognitive
impairment)
Very complex/poor health Limited remaining life ,8.5% 100180 110200 ,150/90 Consider likelihood of
(long-term care or end- expectancy makes benet with statin
stage chronic illnesses** benet uncertain (secondary prevention
or moderate-to-severe more so than primary)
cognitive impairment or
21 ADL dependencies)
This represents a consensus framework for considering treatment goals for glycemia, blood pressure, and dyslipidemia in older adults with
diabetes. The patient characteristic categories are general concepts. Not every patient will clearly fall into a particular category. Consideration of
patient/ caregiver preferences is an important aspect of treatment individualization. Additionally, a patients health status and preferences may
change over time. ADL, activities of daily living. A lower goal may be set for an individual if achievable without recurrent or severe
hypoglycemia or undue treatment burden. *Coexisting chronic illnesses are conditions serious enough to require medications or lifestyle
management and may include arthritis, cancer, CHF, depression, emphysema, falls, hypertension, incontinence, stage 3 or worse CKD, MI, and
stroke. By multiple, we mean at least three, but many patients may have ve or more (132). **The presence of a single end-stage chronic illness
such as stage 3-4 CHF or oxygen- dependent lung disease, CKD requiring dialysis, or uncontrolled metastatic cancer may cause signicant
symptoms or impairment of functional status and signicantly reduce life expectancy. A1C of 8.5% equates to an eAG of ;200 mg/dL. Looser
glycemic targets than this may expose patients to acute risks from glycosuria, dehydration, hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome, and poor
wound healing.
Although hyperglycemia control may be glycemic goals. A c Annual monitoring for
important in older individuals with complications of diabetes is
diabetes, greater reductions in morbidity recommended,
and mortality may result from control of beginning 5 years after the
other cardiovascular risk factors rather diagnosis of CFRD. E
than from tight glycemic control alone.
There is strong evidence from clinical CFRD is the most common
trials of the value of treating comorbidity in persons with cystic
hypertension in the elderly (542,543). brosis, occurring in about 20% of
There is less evidence for lipid- lowering adolescents and 40
and aspirin therapy, although the benets 50% of adults. Diabetes in this
of these interventions for primary and population is associated with worse
secondary prevention are likely to apply nutritional status, more severe
to older adults whose life expectancies inammatory lung disease, and
equal or exceed the time frames seen in greater mortality from respiratory
clinical trials. failure.
Special care is required in prescribing Insulin insufciency related to partial
and monitoring pharmacological brotic destruction of the islet mass is
therapy in older adults. Costs may be a the primary defect in CFRD.
signicant factor, especially since Genetically determined function of the
older adults tend to be on many remaining
medications. Metformin may be b-cells and insulin resistance
contraindicated because of renal associated with infection and
insufciency or signicant heart failure. inammation may also play a role.
Thiazolidinediones, if used at all, should Encouraging data suggest that
be used very cautiously in those with, improved screening (544,545) and
or at risk for, CHF, and have also been aggressive insulin therapy have
associated with fractures. Sulfonylureas, narrowed the gap in mortality
other insulin secretagogues, and insulin between cystic brosis patients with
can cause hypoglycemia. Insulin use and without diabetes, and have
requires that patients or caregivers have eliminated the sex difference in
good visual and motor skills and mortality (546). Recent trials
cognitive ability. DPP-4 inhibitors have comparing insulin with oral repaglinide
few side effects, but their costs may be showed no signicant difference
a barrier to some older patients; the between the
latter is also the case for GLP-1 groups. Insulin remains the most
agonists. widely used therapy for CFRD (547).
Denition of Glucose
Abnormalities in the Hospital
Setting
Hyperglycemia in the hospital has been
dened as any blood glucose .140 mg/
dL (7.8 mmol/L). Levels that are
signicantly and persistently
above this may require treatment
in hospitalized patients. A1C
values .6.5% suggest, in
undiagnosed patients, that
diabetes
preceded hospitalization (558).
Hypoglycemia has been dened
as any blood glucose ,70 mg/dL
(3.9 mmol/L). This is the standard
denition in
outpatients and correlates
with the initial threshold for
the release of
counter-regulatory hormones.
Severe hypoglycemia in
hospitalized patients
has been dened by many as ,
40 mg/ dL (2.2 mmol/L), although
this is lower than the ;50 mg/dL
(2.8 mmol/L) level at which
cognitive impairment begins in
Critically Ill Patients comorbidities, as well as in those in feedings and with high dose
Based on the weight of the available patient-care settings where frequent glucocorticoid therapy (560).
evidence, for the majority of critically ill glucose monitoring or close nursing
patients in the ICU setting, insulin There are no data on the safety and
supervision is not feasible. efcacy of oral agents and injectable
infusion should be used to control
hyperglycemia, with a starting threshold Clinical judgment, combined with noninsulin therapies such as GLP-1
of no higher than 180 mg/dL (10.0 ongoing assessment of the patients analogs and pramlintide in the hospital.
mmol/L). Once intravenous insulin is clinical status, including changes in the They appear to have a limited role in
started, the glucose level should be trajectory of glucose measures, the hyperglycemia management in
maintained between 140 and 180 severity of illness, nutritional status, or conjunction with acute illness.
mg/dL (7.8 and 10.0 mmol/L). Greater concomitant medications that might Continuation of these agents may be
benet maybe realized at the lower end affect glucose levels (e.g., steroids, appropriate in selected stable patients
of this range. Although strong evidence octreotide) must be incorporated into who are expected to consume meals at
is lacking, lower glucose targets may be the day-to-day decisions regarding regular intervals. They may be initiated
appropriate in selected patients. One insulin dosing (560). or resumed in anticipation of discharge
small study suggested that ICU patients once the patient is clinically stable.
treated to targets of 120140 had less
2. Antihyperglycemic Agents in Specic caution is required with
negative nitrogen balance than those
Hospitalized Patients metformin, due to the possibility that a
In most clinical situations in the hospital, contraindication may develop during
treated to higher targets (561).
insulin therapy is the preferred method the hospitalization, such as renal
However, targets ,110 mg/dL
of glycemic control (560). In the ICU, insufciency, unstable hemodynamic
(6.1 mmol/L) are not recommended.
intravenous infusion is the preferred status, or need for an imaging study that
Insulin infusion protocols with
route of insulin administration. When requires a radiocontrast dye.
demonstrated safety and efcacy,
the patient is transitioned off
resulting in low rates of hypoglycemia, 3. Preventing Hypoglycemia
intravenous insulin to subcutaneous
are highly recommended (560). Patients with or without diabetes may
therapy, precautions should be taken to
prevent hyperglycemia escape experience hypoglycemia in the hospital
Noncritically Ill Patients
(564,565). Outside of critical care units, setting in association with altered
With no prospective RCT data to inform
scheduled subcutaneous insulin that nutritional state, heart failure, renal or
specic glycemic targets in non
delivers basal, nutritional, and liver disease, malignancy, infection, or
critically ill patients, recommendations
correctional (supplemental) sepsis. Additional triggering events
are based on clinical experience and
components is recommended. Typical leading to iatrogenic hypoglycemia
judgment (562). For the majority of
dosing schemes are based on body include sudden reduction of
noncritically ill patients treated with
weight, with some evidence that corticosteroid dose, altered ability of
insulin, premeal glucose targets should
patients with renal insufciency should the patient to report symptoms,
generally be ,140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L)
be treated with lower doses (566). reduced oral intake, emesis, new NPO
with random blood glucose ,180
status, inappropriate timing of short- or
mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L), as long as these The sole use of sliding scale insulin is rapid-acting insulin in relation to meals,
targets can be safely achieved. To avoid strongly discouraged in hospitalized reduced infusion rate of intravenous
hypoglycemia, consideration should be patients. A more physiological insulin dextrose, and unexpected interruption
given to reassessing the insulin regimen regimen including basal, prandial, and of enteral feedings or parenteral
if blood glucose levels fall below correctional insulin is recommended. nutrition.
100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L). Modifying the The insulin regimen must also
regimen is required when blood glucose incorporate prandial carbohydrate Despite the preventable nature of
values are ,70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), intake (567). For type 1 diabetic many inpatient episodes of
unless the event is easily explained by patients, dosing insulin solely based on hypoglycemia, institutions are more
other factors (such as a missed meal). premeal glucose would likely deliver likely to have nursing protocols for
There is some evidence that systematic suboptimal insulin doses and may hypoglycemia treatment than for its
attention to hyperglycemia in the potentially lead to DKA. It increases prevention. Tracking such episodes
emergency room leads to better both hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and analyzing their causes are
glycemic control in the hospital for risks and has been shown in a important quality improvement
those subsequently admitted (563). randomized trial to be associated with activities (295).
Patients with a prior history of adverse outcomes in general surgery 4. Diabetes Care Providers in the
successful tight glycemic control in the patients with type 2 diabetes (568). The Hospital
outpatient setting who are clinically reader is referred to publications and Inpatient diabetes management may be
stable may be maintained with a reviews that describe currently effectively championed and/or provided
glucose range below the available insulin preparations and by primary care physicians,
aforementioned cut points. Conversely, protocols and provide guidance in use endocrinologists, intensivists, or
higher glucose ranges may be of insulin therapy in specic clinical hospitalists. Involvement of
acceptable in terminally ill patients or settings including parenteral nutrition appropriately trained specialists or
in patients with severe (569), enteral tube
specialty teams may reduce length of calories to meet metabolic demands, misinterpretation. Most
stay, improve glycemic control, and and create a discharge plan for follow-
improve outcomes (560). Standardized up care (551,573). The ADA does not
orders for scheduled and correction- endorse any single meal plan or
dose insulin should be implemented, specied percentages of
and sole reliance on a sliding scale macronutrients, and the term ADA
regimen strongly discouraged. As diet should no longer be used. Current
hospitals move to comply with nutrition
meaningful use regulations for recommendations advise
electronic health records, as mandated individualization based on treatment
by the Health Information Technology goals, physiological parameters, and
Act, efforts should be made to assure medication use. Consistent
that all components of structured carbohydrate meal plans are preferred
insulin order sets are incorporated into by many hospitals since they facilitate
electronic insulin order sets (570,571). matching the prandial insulin dose to the
A team approach is needed to establish amount of carbohydrate consumed
hospital pathways. To achieve glycemic (574). Because of the complexity of
targets associated with improved nutrition issues in the hospital, a
hospital outcomes, hospitals will need registered dietitian, knowledgeable and
multidisciplinary support to develop skilled in MNT, should serve as an
insulin management protocols that inpatient team member. The dietitian is
effectively and safely enable responsible for integrating information
achievement of glycemic targets (572). about the patients clinical condition,
eating, and lifestyle habits and for
5. Self-Management in the Hospital establishing treatment goals in order to
Diabetes self-management in the determine a realistic plan for nutrition
hospital may be appropriate for therapy (116).
competent youth and adult patients who 7. Bedside Blood Glucose Monitoring
have a stable level of consciousness and Bedside POC blood glucose monitoring
reasonably stable daily insulin is used to guide insulin dosing. In the
requirements, successfully conduct self- patient receiving nutrition, the timing
management of diabetes at home, have of glucose monitoring should match
physical skills needed to successfully carbohydrate exposure. In the patient
self-administer insulin and perform not receiving nutrition, glucose
SMBG, have adequate oral intake, are monitoring is performed every 46 h
procient in carbohydrate counting, use (575,576). More frequent blood glucose
multiple daily insulin injections or testing ranging from every 30 min to
insulin pump therapy, and understand every 2 h is required for patients on
sick-day management. The patient and intravenous insulin infusions.
physician, in consultation with nursing
staff, must agree that patient self- Safety standards should be established
management is appropriate while for blood glucose monitoring
hospitalized. prohibiting sharing of nger-stick
lancing devices, lancets, needles, and
Patients who use CSII pump therapy in meters to reduce the risk of
the outpatient setting can be candidates transmission of blood-borne diseases.
for diabetes self-management in the Shared lancing devices carry essentially
hospital, provided that they have the the same risk as sharing syringes and
mental and physical capacity to do so needles (577).
(560). A hospital policy and procedures
delineating inpatient guidelines for CSII Accuracy of blood glucose
therapy are advisable, and availability measurements using POC meters has
of hospital personnel with expertise in limitations that must be considered.
CSII therapy is essential. It is important Although the FDA allows a 1/2 20%
that nursing personnel document basal error for blood glucose meters,
rates and bolus doses taken on a daily questions about the appropriateness of
basis. these criteria have been raised (388).
Glucose measures differ signicantly
6. MNT in the Hospital between plasma and whole blood,
The goals of MNT are to optimize terms that are often used
glycemic control, provide adequate interchangeably and can lead to
commercially available capillary living or to home, the optimal
blood glucose meters introduce program will need to consider
a correction factor of ;1.12 to the type and severity of
report a plasma- adjusted diabetes, the effects of the
value (578). patients illness on blood
Signicant discrepancies between glucose levels, and the
capillary, venous, and arterial capacities and desires of the
plasma samples have been patient. Smooth transition to
observed in patients with low or outpatient care should be
high hemoglobin concentrations, ensured. The Agency for
hypoperfusion, and the presence Healthcare Research and Quality
of interfering substances
particularly maltose, as contained
in immunoglobulins (579).
Analytical variability has been
described with
several meters (580). Increasingly
newer generation POC blood
glucose meters correct for
variation in
hematocrit and for interfering
substances. Any glucose result that
does not correlate with the
patients status should be
conrmed through
conventional laboratory sampling of
plasma glucose. The FDA has become
increasingly concerned about the use of
POC blood glucose meters in the
hospital and is presently
reviewing matters related to
their use.
8. Discharge Planning and DSME
Transition from the acute care
setting is a high-risk time for all
patients, not
just those with diabetes or new
hyperglycemia. Although
there is an extensive literature
concerning safe
transition within and from the
hospital, little of it is specic to
diabetes (581).
Diabetes discharge planning is not a
separate entity, but is an
important part of an overall
discharge plan. As such,
discharge planning begins at
admission to the hospital and is
updated as projected patient
needs change.
Inpatients may be discharged to
varied settings, including home
(with or without visiting nurse
services), assisted living,
rehabilitation, or skilled nursing
facilities. The latter two sites are
generally staffed by health
professionals, so diabetes
discharge planning will be limited
to communication of medication
and diet orders. For the patient
who is discharged to assisted
S6060 Position Diabetes Care Volume 37, Supplement 1, January 2014
Statement
recommends that, at a minimum, part of discharge planning for DSME should start upon admission or as
discharge plans include the all soon as feasible, especially in those new to
following: patients. insulin therapy or in whom the diabetes
regimen has been substantially altered
c Medication reconciliation: the during the hospitalization.
patients medications must be cross-
checked to ensure that no chronic It is recommended that the following
medications were stopped and to areas of knowledge be reviewed and
ensure the safety of new addressed prior to hospital discharge:
prescriptions.
c Identication of the health care
c Prescriptions for new or changed
provider who will provide diabetes
medication should be lled and
care after discharge
reviewed with the patient and
c Level of understanding related to the
family at or before discharge
diagnosis of diabetes, SMBG, and
c Structured discharge
explanation of home blood glucose goals
communication: Information on
c Denition, recognition, treatment, and
medication changes, pending tests
prevention of hyperglycemia and
and studies, and follow-up needs
hypoglycemia
must be accurately and promptly
c Information on consistent eating
communicated to outpatient
patterns
physicians.
c When and how to take blood
c Discharge summaries should be
glucoselowering medications
transmitted to the primary
including insulin administration (if
physician as soon as possible after
going home on insulin)
discharge.
c Sick-day management
c Appointment keeping behavior is
c Proper use and disposal of needles
enhanced when the inpatient team
and syringes
schedules outpatient medical
follow-up prior to discharge.
It is important that patients be provided
Ideally the inpatient care providers
with appropriate durable medical
or case managers/discharge
equipment, medication, supplies and
planners will schedule follow-up
prescriptions at the time of discharge in
visit(s) with
order to avoid a potentially dangerous
the appropriate professionals,
hiatus in care. These supplies/
including primary care
prescriptions should include the
provider, endocrinologist, and
following:
diabetes educator (582).
c Insulin (vials or pens) if needed
Teaching diabetes self-management to c Syringes or pen needles (if needed)
patients in hospitals is a challenging c Oral medications (if needed)
task. Patients are ill, under increased c Blood glucose meter and strips
stress related to their hospitalization c Lancets and lancing device
and diagnosis, and in an environment c Urine ketone strips (type 1)
not conducive to learning. Ideally, c Glucagon emergency kit (insulin
people with diabetes should be taught treated)
at a time and place conducive to c Medical alert application/charm
learning: as an outpatient in a
recognized program of diabetes More expanded diabetes education can
education. For the hospitalized patient, be arranged in the community. An
diabetes survival skills education is outpatient follow-up visit with the
generally a feasible approach to provide primary care provider, endocrinologist, or
sufcient information and training to diabetes educator within 1 month of
enable safe care at home. Patients discharge is advised for all patients
hospitalized because of a crisis related having hyperglycemia in the hospital.
to diabetes management or poor care at Clear communication with outpatient
home require education to prevent providers either directly or via hospital
subsequent episodes of hospitalization. discharge summaries facilitates safe
Assessing the need for a home health transitions to outpatient care. Providing
referral or referral to an outpatient information regarding the cause or the
diabetes education program should be
care.diabetesjournals.org Position Statement
plan for determining the cause of S6161
hyperglycemia, related complications
and comorbidities, and recommended
treatments can assist outpatient
providers as they assume ongoing care.
B. Diabetes and Employment
Any person with diabetes, whether insulin
treated or noninsulin treated, should be
eligible for any employment for which he or
she is otherwise
qualied. Employment decisions should never
be based on generalizations or stereotypes
regarding the effects of
diabetes. When questions arise about the
medical tness of a person with diabetes for
a particular job, a health care professional
with expertise in treating diabetes should
perform an individualized assessment. See the
ADA position statement on diabetes and
employment (583).
130. Nield L, Moore HJ, Hooper L, et al. Dietary 141. McIntyre HD, Knight BA, Harvey DM, Noud
advice for treatment of type 2 diabetes MN, Hagger VL, Gilshenan KS. Dose
mellitus in adults. Cochrane Database Syst
adjustment for normal eating (DAFNE)d an
audit of outcomes in Australia. Med J Aust
2010;192:637640
142. Wolever TM, Hamad S, Chiasson JL, et al.
Day-to-day consistency in amount and source of
carbohydrate intake associated with improved
blood glucose control in type 1 diabetes. J Am
Coll Nutr 1999;18:
242247
143. Rabasa-Lhoret R, Garon J, Langelier H, Poisson
D, Chiasson JL. Effects of meal carbohydrate
content on insulin requirements in type 1
diabetic patients treated intensively with the
basal-bolus (ultralente-regular) insulin regimen.
Diabetes Care 1999;22:667673
144. Esposito K, Maiorino MI, Ciotola M, et al.
Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on the need
for antihyperglycemic drug therapy in patients
with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: a
randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2009;151:306
314
145. Pi-Sunyer X, Blackburn G, Brancati FL, et al.; Look
AHEAD Research Group. Reduction in weight and
cardiovascular disease risk factors in individuals
with type
2 diabetes: one-year results of the Look
AHEAD trial. Diabetes Care 2007;30:1374
1383
146. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvado J, et al.;
PREDIMED Study Investigators. Primary
prevention of cardiovascular disease
with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med
2013;368:12791290
147. Metz JA, Stern JS, Kris-Etherton P, et al. A
randomized trial of improved weight loss with a
prepared meal plan in overweight and obese
patients: impact on cardiovascular risk reduction.
Arch Intern Med 2000;160:21502158
148. West DS, DiLillo V, Bursac Z, Gore SA, Greene PG.
Motivational interviewing improves weight loss in
women with type
2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007;30:1081
1087
149. Larsen RN, Mann NJ, Maclean E, Shaw JE.
The effect of high-protein, low- carbohydrate
diets in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a 12
month randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia
2011;54:
731740
150. Li Z, Hong K, Saltsman P, et al. Long-term efcacy
of soy-based meal replacements vs an
individualized diet plan in obese type II DM
patients: relative effects on weight loss,
metabolic parameters, and
C-reactive protein. Eur J Clin Nutr 2005;
59:411418
151. Brehm BJ, Lattin BL, Summer SS, et al.
One-year comparison of a high-
monounsaturated fat diet with a high-
carbohydrate diet in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
Care 2009;32:215220
152. Davis NJ, Tomuta N, Schechter C, et al.
Comparative study of the effects of a
1-year dietary intervention of a
low-carbohydrate diet versus a low-fat 163. Stern L, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, et al. conventional weight loss diets in severely obese
diet on weight and glycemic control in The effects of low-carbohydrate adults: one-year follow-up of a randomized trial.
type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care versus Ann Intern Med 2004;
2009;32:11471152 140:778785
153. Guldbrand H, Dizdar B, Bunjaku B, et al. In 164. Thomas D, Elliott EJ. Low glycaemic index, or low
type 2 diabetes, randomisation to advice glycaemic load, diets for diabetes mellitus.
to follow a low-carbohydrate diet Cochrane Database Syst Rev
transiently improves glycaemic control 2009;(1):CD006296
compared with advice to follow a low-fat
165. He M, van Dam RM, Rimm E, Hu FB, Qi L.
diet producing a similar weight loss.
Whole-grain, cereal ber, bran, and germ intake
Diabetologia 2012;55:21182127
and the risks of all-cause and cardiovascular
154. Krebs JD, Elley CR, Parry-Strong A, et al. disease-specic mortality among women with type
The Diabetes Excess Weight Loss (DEWL) 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation 2010;121:2162
Trial: a randomised controlled trial of 2168
high-protein versus high-carbohydrate
166. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes:
diets over 2 years in type 2 diabetes.
Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids,
Diabetologia 2012;55:905914
Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington,
155. Wing RR, Bolin P, Brancati FL, et al.; Look D.C., National Academies Press, 2002
AHEAD Research Group. Cardiovascular
167. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
effects of intensive lifestyle intervention U.S. Department of Agriculture: Dietary Guideline
in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med for Americans, 2010. [article online], 2013.
2013;369: Available from www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/.
145154 Accessed 1 October 2013
156. Li TY, Brennan AM, Wedick NM, 168. Ros E. Dietary cis-monounsaturated fatty acids and
Mantzoros C, Rifai N, Hu FB. Regular metabolic control in type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin
consumption of nuts is associated with a Nutr 2003;78(Suppl.):
lower risk of cardiovascular disease in 617S625S
women with type 2 diabetes. J Nutr 2009;
139:13331338 169. Elhayany A, Lustman A, Abel R, Attal- Singer J,
Vinker S. A low carbohydrate Mediterranean diet
157. Wheeler ML, Dunbar SA, Jaacks LM, et al. improves cardiovascular risk factors and diabetes
Macronutrients, food groups, and eating control among overweight patients with type 2
patterns in the management of diabetes: diabetes mellitus: a 1-year prospective
a systematic review of the literature, randomized intervention study. Diabetes Obes
2010. Diabetes Care 2012;35:434445 Metab 2010;12:
158. Delahanty LM, Nathan DM, Lachin JM, 204209
et al.; Diabetes Control and Complications 170. Shai I, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, et al.; Dietary
Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes. Intervention Randomized Controlled Trial
Association of diet with glycated (DIRECT) Group. Weight loss with a low-
hemoglobin during intensive treatment of carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N
type 1 diabetes in the Diabetes Control Engl J Med 2008;359:229241
and Complications Trial. Am J Clin Nutr
171. Brunerova L, Smejkalova V, Potockova J, Andel M.
2009;89:518524
A comparison of the inuence of a high-fat diet
159. Vitolins MZ, Anderson AM, Delahanty L, enriched in monounsaturated fatty acids and
et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. conventional diet on weight loss and metabolic
Action for Health in Diabetes (Look parameters in obese non- diabetic and type 2
AHEAD) trial: baseline evaluation of diabetic patients. Diabet Med 2007;24:533540
selected nutrients and food group intake.
172. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, et al.
J Am Diet Assoc
Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular
2009;109:13671375
disease: a science advisory from the American
160. Oza-Frank R, Cheng YJ, Narayan KM, Gregg Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the
EW. Trends in nutrient intake among Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and
adults with diabetes in the United States: Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing;
19882004. J Am Diet Assoc 2009;109: and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention.
11731178 Circulation 2009;119:902
907
161. Azadbakht L, Fard NR, Karimi M, et al.
Effects of the Dietary Approaches to Stop 173. Crochemore IC, Souza AF, de Souza AC, Rosado EL.
Hypertension (DASH) eating plan on v-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation
cardiovascular risks among type 2 diabetic does not inuence body composition, insulin
patients: a randomized crossover clinical resistance, and lipemia in women with type 2
trial. Diabetes Care 2011;34:5557 diabetes
162. Turner-McGrievy GM, Barnard ND, Cohen
J, Jenkins DJ, Gloede L, Green AA. Changes
in nutrient intake and dietary quality
among participants with type 2 diabetes
following a low-fat vegan diet or a
conventional diabetes diet for 22 weeks.
J Am Diet Assoc 2008;108:16361645
and obesity. Nutr Clin Pract 2012;27: TA, Gylling H. Effects of plant
553560 stanol esters on serum
cholesterol concentrations,
174. Bot M, Pouwer F, Assies J, Jansen
relative markers of cholesterol
EH, Beekman AT, de Jonge P.
metabolism and endothelial
Supplementation with
function in type 1 diabetes.
eicosapentaenoic omega-3 fatty
Atherosclerosis 2008;199:432
acid does not inuence serum
439
brain-derived neurotrophic factor
in diabetes mellitus patients with 183. Lau VW, Journoud M, Jones PJ.
major depression: Plant sterols are efcacious in
a randomized controlled pilot study. lowering plasma LDL and non-
Neuropsychobiology 2011;63:219223 HDL cholesterol in
hypercholesterolemic type 2
175. Mas E, Woodman RJ, Burke V, et
diabetic and
al. The omega-3 fatty acids EPA
and DHA decrease plasma F(2)-
isoprostanes: results from two
placebo-controlled interventions.
Free Radic Res 2010;44:
983990
176. Wong CY, Yiu KH, Li SW, et al.
Fish-oil supplement has neutral
effects on vascular and
metabolic function but improves
renal function in patients with
type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet
Med
2010;27:5460
177. Malekshahi Moghadam A,
Saedisomeolia A, Djalali M,
Djazayery A, Pooya S, Sojoudi F.
Efcacy of omega-3 fatty acid
supplementation on serum levels
of tumour necrosis factor-alpha, C-
reactive protein and interleukin-2
in type 2 diabetes mellitus
patients. Singapore Med J
2012;53:615619
178. Holman RR, Paul S, Farmer A,
Tucker L, Stratton IM, Neil HA;
Atorvastatin in Factorial with
Omega-3 EE90 Risk Reduction
in Diabetes Study Group.
Atorvastatin in Factorial with
Omega-3
EE90 Risk Reduction in Diabetes
(AFORRD): a randomised
controlled trial. Diabetologia
2009;52:5059
179. Kromhout D, Geleijnse JM, de
Goede J, et al. n-3 Fatty acids,
ventricular arrhythmia-related
events, and fatal myocardial
infarction in postmyocardial
infarction patients with
diabetes. Diabetes Care
2011;34:25152520
180. Bosch J, Gerstein HC, Dagenais
GR, et al.; ORIGIN Trial
Investigators. n-3 Fatty acids and
cardiovascular outcomes in
patients with dysglycemia. N Engl J
Med 2012;367:
309318
181. Hallikainen M, Kurl S, Laakso M,
Miettinen TA, Gylling H. Plant
stanol esters lower LDL cholesterol
level in statin-treated
subjects with type 1 diabetes by
interfering the absorption and
synthesis of cholesterol.
Atherosclerosis 2011;217:
473478
182. Hallikainen M, Lyyra-Laitinen T,
Laitinen T, Moilanen L, Miettinen
nondiabetic persons. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; Geerdink RA, magnesium supplementation in insulin-
81:13511358 Struyvenberg A. Oral requiring type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet
184. Lee YM, Haastert B, Scherbaum W, Hauner Med 1998;15:503507
H. A phytosterol-enriched spread 195. Jorde R, Figenschau Y. Supplementation
improves the lipid prole of subjects with with cholecalciferol does not improve
type 2 diabetes mellitusda randomized glycaemic control in diabetic subjects with
controlled trial under free-living normal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels.
conditions. Eur J Nutr 2003;42:111117 Eur J Nutr 2009;48:349354
185. Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Manson JE, 196. Patel P, Poretsky L, Liao E. Lack of effect of
Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC. Vitamin subtherapeutic vitamin D treatment on
E consumption and the risk of coronary glycemic and lipid parameters in type 2
disease in women. N Engl J Med diabetes: a pilot prospective randomized
1993;328: trial. J Diabetes 2010;2:3640
14441449
197. Parekh D, Sarathi V, Shivane VK, Bandgar
186. Yochum LA, Folsom AR, Kushi LH. Intake of TR, Menon PS, Shah NS. Pilot study to
antioxidant vitamins and risk of death evaluate the effect of short-term
from stroke in postmenopausal women. improvement in vitamin D status on
Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:476483 glucose tolerance in patients with type 2
187. Hasanain B, Mooradian AD. Antioxidant diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract 2010;16:
vitamins and their inuence in diabetes 600608
mellitus. Curr Diab Rep 2002;2:448456 198. Nikooyeh B, Neyestani TR, Farvid M, et al.
188. Lonn E, Yusuf S, Hoogwerf B, et al.; HOPE Daily consumption of vitamin D- or vitamin
Study; MICRO-HOPE Study. Effects of D 1 calcium-fortied yogurt drink improved
vitamin E on cardiovascular and glycemic control in patients with type 2
microvascular outcomes in high-risk diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. Am J
patients with diabetes: results of the Clin Nutr 2011;93:764771
HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. 199. Soric MM, Renner ET, Smith SR. Effect of
Diabetes Care 2002;25:19191927 daily vitamin D supplementation on HbA1c
189. Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, in patients with uncontrolled type
Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar E. 2 diabetes mellitus: a pilot study. J
Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E Diabetes 2012;4:104105
supplementation may increase all-cause 200. Leach MJ, Kumar S. Cinnamon for diabetes
mortality. Ann Intern Med 2005;142: mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
3746 2012;(9):CD007170
190. Belch J, MacCuish A, Campbell I, et al.; 201. Yeh GY, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ, Phillips
Prevention of Progression of Arterial RS. Systematic review of herbs and dietary
Disease and Diabetes Study Group; supplements for glycemic control in
Diabetes Registry Group; Royal College of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:1277
Physicians Edinburgh. The Prevention of 1294
Progression of Arterial Disease and 202. Bray GA, Vollmer WM, Sacks FM, Obarzanek
Diabetes (POPADAD) trial: factorial E, Svetkey LP, Appel LJ; DASH Collaborative
randomised placebo controlled trial of Research Group. A further subgroup
aspirin and antioxidants in patients analysis of the effects of the DASH diet and
with diabetes and asymptomatic three dietary sodium levels on blood
peripheral arterial disease. BMJ 2008;337: pressure: results of the DASH- Sodium Trial.
a1840 Am J Cardiol 2004;94:222
191. Kataja-Tuomola MK, Kontto JP, 227
Mannisto S, Albanes D, Virtamo JR. 203. Thomas MC, Moran J, Forsblom C, et al.;
Effect of alpha- tocopherol and beta- FinnDiane Study Group. The association
carotene supplementation on between dietary sodium intake, ESRD, and
macrovascular complications and total all-cause mortality in patients with type 1
mortality from diabetes: results of the diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011;34:861
ATBC Study. Ann Med 2010;42:178186 866
192. Balk EM, Tatsioni A, Lichtenstein AH, Lau J, 204. Ekinci EI, Clarke S, Thomas MC, et al.
Pittas AG. Effect of chromium Dietary salt intake and mortality in
supplementation on glucose metabolism patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
and lipids: a systematic review of Care 2011;34:703709
randomized controlled trials. Diabetes
Care 2007;30:21542163 205. Maillot M, Drewnowski A. A conict
between nutritionally adequate diets and
193. Rodrguez-Mora n M, Guerrero-Romero meeting the 2010 dietary guidelines for
F. sodium. Am J Prev Med 2012;42:174179
Oral magnesium supplementation
improves insulin sensitivity and metabolic 206. Haas L, Maryniuk M, Beck J, et al.; 2012
control in type 2 diabetic subjects: Standards Revision Task Force. National
a randomized double-blind controlled standards for diabetes self-management
trial. Diabetes Care 2003;26:11471152 education and support. Diabetes Care
2014;37(Suppl. 1):S144S153
194. de Valk HW, Verkaaik R, van Rijn HJ,
207. Norris SL, Engelgau MM, Narayan KM.
Effectiveness of self-management
training in type 2 diabetes:
a systematic review of randomized
controlled trials. Diabetes Care 2001;24:
561587
208. Marrero DG, Ard J, Delamater AM, et al.
Twenty-rst century behavioral medicine: a
context for empowering clinicians and patients
with diabetes: a consensus report. Diabetes Care
2013;36:463470
209. Norris SL, Lau J, Smith SJ, Schmid CH, Engelgau
MM. Self-management education for adults with
type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of the effect on
glycemic control. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1159
1171
210. Martin D, Lange K, Sima A, et al.; SWEET group.
Recommendations for age- appropriate
education of children and adolescents with
diabetes and their parents in the European
Union. Pediatr Diabetes 2012;13(Suppl. 16):20
28
211. Committee on Quality of Health Care in America.
Institute of Medicine. Crossing the Quality
Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st
Century. Washington, National Academy Press,
2001
212. Barker JM, Goehrig SH, Barriga K, et al.; DAISY
study. Clinical characteristics of children
diagnosed with type 1 diabetes through
intensive screening and
follow-up. Diabetes Care 2004;27:1399
1404
213. Heinrich E, Nicolaas C, de Vries NK. Self-
management interventions for type 2 diabetes:
a systematic review. Eur Diabetes Nurs
2010;7:7176
214. Frosch DL, Uy V, Ochoa S, Mangione CM.
Evaluation of a behavior support intervention
for patients with poorly controlled diabetes.
Arch Intern Med
2011;171:20112017
215. McGowan P. The efcacy of diabetes patient
education and self-management education in
type 2 diabetes. Can J Diabetes 2011;35:4653
216. Cooke D, Bond R, Lawton J, et al.; U.K.
NIHR DAFNE Study Group. Structured type 1
diabetes education delivered within routine
care: impact on glycemic control and diabetes-
specic quality of life. Diabetes Care
2013;36:270272
217. Cochran J, Conn VS. Meta-analysis of quality of
life outcomes following diabetes self-management
training. Diabetes Educ
2008;34:815823
218. Thorpe CT, Fahey LE, Johnson H, Deshpande M,
Thorpe JM, Fisher EB. Facilitating healthy coping
in patients with diabetes: a systematic review.
Diabetes Educ 2013;39:3352
219. Fisher L, Hessler D, Glasgow RE, et al.
REDEEM: a pragmatic trial to reduce diabetes
distress. Diabetes Care 2013;36:
25512558
220. Robbins JM, Thatcher GE, Webb DA, with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane 246. Boule NG, Haddad E, Kenny GP, Wells
Valdmanis VG. Nutritionist visits, diabetes Database Syst Rev 2009;(1):CD005268 GA, Sigal RJ. Effects of exercise on
classes, and hospitalization rates and glycemic control and body mass in type 2
charges: the Urban Diabetes Study. 234. Shah M, Kaselitz E, Heisler M. The role of
community health workers in diabetes: diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of
Diabetes Care 2008;31:655660 controlled clinical trials. JAMA
update on current literature. Curr Diab
221. Duncan I, Ahmed T, Li QE, et al. Assessing Rep 2013;13:163171 2001;286:12181227
the value of the diabetes educator. 247. Colberg SR, Riddell MC. Physical Activity:
235. Heisler M, Vijan S, Makki F, Piette JD.
Diabetes Educ 2011;37:638657 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism,
Diabetes control with reciprocal peer
222. Piatt GA, Anderson RM, Brooks MM, et al. support versus nurse care management: Clinicial Management Strategies, and
3-year follow-up of clinical and behavioral a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2010; Weight Control. Alexandria, VA, American
improvements following a multifaceted 153:507515 Diabetes Association, 2013
diabetes care intervention: results of a 248. Boule NG, Kenny GP, Haddad E, Wells GA,
236. Heisler M. Different models to mobilize
randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Sigal RJ. Meta-analysis of the effect of
peer support to improve diabetes self-
Educ 2010;36:301309 structured exercise training on
management and clinical outcomes:
223. Tang TS, Funnell MM, Brown MB, evidence, logistics, evaluation cardiorespiratory tness in type 2
Kurlander JE. Self-management support in considerations and needs for future diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2003;46:
real-world settings: an empowerment- research [retraction of: Heisler M. In: Fam 10711081
based intervention. Patient Educ Couns Pract 2012;29:497]. Fam Pract 2010;27 249. Rejeski WJ, Ip EH, Bertoni AG, et al.;
2010;79:178184 (Suppl. 1):i23i32 Look AHEAD Research Group. Lifestyle
224. Renders CM, Valk GD, Grifn S, Wagner 237. Long JA, Jahnle EC, Richardson DM, change and mobility in obese adults with
EH, Eijk JT, Assendelft WJ. Interventions to Loewenstein G, Volpp KG. Peer mentoring type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med
improve the management of diabetes and nancial incentives to improve 2012;366:1209
mellitus in primary care, outpatient and glucose control in African American 1217
community settings. Cochrane Database veterans: a randomized trial. Ann Intern 250. Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Fernhall B, et al.;
Syst Rev 2001;(1):CD001481 Med 2012;156:416424 American College of Sports Medicine;
225. Glazier RH, Bajcar J, Kennie NR, Willson K. 238. Dale JR, Williams SM, Bowyer V. What American Diabetes Association. Exercise
A systematic review of interventions to is the effect of peer support on diabetes and type 2 diabetes. The American
improve diabetes care in socially outcomes in adults? A systematic College of Sports Medicine and the
disadvantaged populations. Diabetes Care review. Diabet Med 2012;29:1361 American Diabetes Association: joint
2006;29:16751688 1377 position statement. Diabetes Care
2010;33:2692
226. Hawthorne K, Robles Y, Cannings-John R, 239. Moskowitz D, Thom DH, Hessler D, Ghorob 2696
Edwards AG. Culturally appropriate health A, Bodenheimer T. Peer coaching to
education for type 2 diabetes mellitus in improve diabetes self-management: 251. U.S. Department of Health and Human
ethnic minority groups. Cochrane which patients benet most?J Gen Intern Services. Physical Activity Guidelines for
Database Syst Rev 2008;(3):CD006424 Med 2013;28:938942 Americans [article online], 2008. Available
from http://www.health.gov/
227. Sarkisian CA, Brown AF, Norris KC, Wintz 240. Foster G, Taylor SJ, Eldridge SE, Ramsay J, paguidelines/guidelines/default.aspx
RL, Mangione CM. A systematic review of Grifths CJ. Self-management education
diabetes self-care interventions for older, programmes by lay leaders for people 252. Cauza E, Hanusch-Enserer U, Strasser B,
African American, or Latino adults. with chronic conditions. Cochrane et al. The relative benets of endurance
Diabetes Educ 2003;29:467479 Database Syst Rev 2007;(4):CD005108 and strength training on the metabolic
factors and muscle function of people
228. Chodosh J, Morton SC, Mojica W, et al. 241. Siminerio L, Ruppert KM, Gabbay RA. Who with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Phys
Meta-analysis: chronic disease self- can provide diabetes self-management Med Rehabil 2005;86:15271533
management programs for older adults. support in primary care? Findings from a
Ann Intern Med 2005;143:427438 randomized controlled trial. Diabetes 253. Dunstan DW, Daly RM, Owen N, et al.
Educ 2013;39:705713 High-intensity resistance training
229. Peyrot M, Rubin RR. Behavioral and improves glycemic control in older
psychosocial interventions in diabetes: 242. Duncan I, Birkmeyer C, Coughlin S, Li patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
a conceptual review. Diabetes Care 2007; QE, Sherr D, Boren S. Assessing the
Care 2002;25:17291736
30:24332440 value of diabetes education. Diabetes
Educ 2009; 254. Castaneda C, Layne JE, Munoz-Orians L, et
230. Anderson DR, Christison-Legay J, Proctor- 35:752760 al. A randomized controlled trial of
Gray E. Self-management goal setting in a resistance exercise training to improve
community health center: the impact of 243. Johnson TM, Murray MR, Huang Y. glycemic control in older adults with type
goal attainment on diabetes outcomes. Associations between self-management 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2335
Diabetes Spectrum 2010;23:97105 education and comprehensive diabetes
2341
clinical care. Diabetes Spectrum 2010;23:
231. Naik AD, Palmer N, Petersen NJ, et al. 4146 255. Sigal RJ, Kenny GP, Wasserman DH,
Comparative effectiveness of goal setting Castaneda-Sceppa C. Physical activity/
in diabetes mellitus group clinics: 244. Kramer MK, McWilliams JR, Chen HY,
exercise and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
randomized clinical trial. Arch Intern Med Siminerio LM. A community-based
Care 2004;27:25182539
2011;171:453459 diabetes prevention program: evaluation
of the group lifestyle balance program 256. Church TS, Blair SN, Cocreham S, et al.
232. Deakin T, McShane CE, Cade JE, Williams delivered by diabetes educators. Diabetes Effects of aerobic and resistance training
RD. Group based training for self- Educ 2011;37:659668 on hemoglobin A1c levels in patients with
management strategies in people with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled
type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane 245. Piatt GA, Seidel MC, Powell RO, Zgibor JC.
trial. JAMA 2010;304:22532262
Database Syst Rev 2005;(2):CD003417 Comparative effectiveness of lifestyle
intervention efforts in the community: 257. Bax JJ, Young LH, Frye RL, Bonow RO,
233. Duke SA, Colagiuri S, Colagiuri R. results of the Rethinking Eating and Steinberg HO, Barrett EJ; American
Individual patient education for people ACTivity (REACT) study. Diabetes Care Diabetes Association. Screening for
2013;36:202209 coronary artery disease in patients with
diabetes. Diabetes Care
2007;30:2729
2736
S7070 Position Diabetes Care Volume 37, Supplement 1, January 2014
Statement
258. Berger M, Berchtold P, Cu ppers HJ, et 269. Scherrer JF, Gareld LD, Chrusciel T, et al. 282. McGuire BE, Morrison TG, Hermanns N,
al. Increased risk of myocardial infarction in et al. Short-form measures of diabetes-
Metabolic and hormonal effects of depressed patients with type 2 diabetes. related emotional distress: the Problem
muscular exercise in juvenile type Diabetes Care 2011;34:17291734 Areas in Diabetes Scale (PAID)-5 and
diabetics. Diabetologia 1977;13:355365 PAID-1. Diabetologia 2010;53:6669
270. Sullivan MD, OConnor P, Feeney P, et al.
259. Aiello LP, Wong J, Cavallerano J, Bursell SE, Depression predicts all-cause mortality: 283. Rubin RR, Peyrot M. Psychological issues
Aiello LM. Retinopathy. In Handbook of epidemiological evaluation from the and treatments for people with diabetes. J
Exercise in Diabetes. 2nd ed.Ruderman N, ACCORD HRQL substudy. Diabetes Care Clin Psychol 2001;57:457478
Devlin JT, Kriska A, Eds. Alexandria, VA, 2012;35:17081715
American Diabetes Association, 2002, p. 284. Young-Hyman DL, Davis CL. Disordered
401413 271. Chen PC, Chan YT, Chen HF, Ko MC, Li CY. eating behavior in individuals with
Population-based cohort analyses of the diabetes: importance of context,
260. Lemaster JW, Reiber GE, Smith DG, bidirectional relationship between type 2 evaluation, and classication. Diabetes
Heagerty PJ, Wallace C. Daily weight- diabetes and depression. Diabetes Care Care 2010;33:683689
bearing activity does not increase the risk 2013;36:376382
of diabetic foot ulcers. Med Sci Sports 285. Beverly EA, Hultgren BA, Brooks KM,
Exerc 2003;35:10931099 272. Pan A, Keum N, Okereke OI, et al. Ritholz MD, Abrahamson MJ, Weinger K.
Bidirectional association between Understanding physicians challenges
260a. Smith AG, Russell J, Feldman EL, et al. depression and metabolic syndrome: when treating type 2 diabetic patients
Lifestyle intervention for pre-diabetic a systematic review and meta-analysis of social and emotional difculties:
neuropathy. Diabetes Care 2006;29; epidemiological studies. Diabetes Care a qualitative study. Diabetes Care 2011;
12941299 2012;35:11711180 34:10861088
261. Pop-Busui R, Evans GW, Gerstein HC, 273. Nicolucci A, Kovacs Burns K, Holt RI, et al.; 286. Ciechanowski P. Diapression: an
et al.; Action to Control Cardiovascular DAWN2 Study Group. Diabetes Attitudes, integrated model for understanding the
Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of Wishes and Needs second study experience of individuals with co-occuring
cardiac autonomic dysfunction on (DAWN2 ): cross-national benchmarking diabetes and depression. Clin Diabetes
mortality risk in the Action to Control of diabetes-related psychosocial 2011;29:4350
Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes outcomes for people with diabetes.
(ACCORD) trial. Diabetes Care 2010;33: 287. Katon WJ, Lin EH, Von Korff M, et al.
Diabet Med 2013;30:767777
15781584 Collaborative care for patients with
274. Fisher L, Hessler DM, Polonsky WH, depression and chronic illnesses. N Engl J
262. Mogensen CE. Nephropathy. In Handbook Mullan J. When is diabetes distress Med 2010;363:26112620
of Exercise in Diabetes. 2nd ed.Ruderman clinically meaningful? Establishing cut
N, Devlin JT, Kriska A, Eds. Alexandria, VA, 288. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM,
points for the Diabetes Distress Scale.
American Diabetes Association, 2002, p. Fisher JN. Hyperglycemic crises in adult
Diabetes Care 2012;35:259264
433449 patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care
275. Fisher L, Skaff MM, Mullan JT, et al. Clinical 2009;32:13351343
263. Anderson RJ, Grigsby AB, Freedland KE, depression versus distress among patients
et al. Anxiety and poor glycemic control: 289. Cryer PE. Hypoglycaemia: the limiting
with type 2 diabetes: not just a question
a meta-analytic review of the literature. factor in the glycaemic management of
of semantics. Diabetes Care 2007;30:542
Int J Psychiatry Med 2002;32:235247 type I and type II diabetes. Diabetologia
548
2002;45:937948
264. Delahanty LM, Grant RW, Wittenberg E, 276. Fisher L, Glasgow RE, Strycker LA. The
et al. Association of diabetes-related 290. Whitmer RA, Karter AJ, Yaffe K,
relationship between diabetes distress
emotional distress with diabetes Quesenberry CP Jr, Selby JV.
and clinical depression with glycemic
treatment in primary care patients with Hypoglycemic episodes and risk of
control among patients with type 2
type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med 2007;24:48 dementia in older patients with type 2
diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1034
54 diabetes mellitus. JAMA
1036
2009;301:15651572
265. Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE, 277. Aikens JE. Prospective associations
Lustman PJ. The prevalence of comorbid 291. Punthakee Z, Miller ME, Launer LJ, et al.;
between emotional distress and poor
depression in adults with diabetes: ACCORD Group of Investigators; ACCORD-
outcomes in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2001;24: MIND Investigators. Poor cognitive
Care 2012;35:24722478
10691078 function and risk of severe hypoglycemia
278. Gary TL, Safford MM, Gerzoff RB, et al. in type 2 diabetes: post hoc epidemiologic
266. Kovacs Burns K, Nicolucci A, Holt RI, et al.; Perception of neighborhood problems, analysis of the ACCORD trial. Diabetes
DAWN2 Study Group. Diabetes Attitudes, health behaviors, and diabetes outcomes Care 2012;35:787793
Wishes and Needs second study among adults with diabetes in managed
(DAWN2 ): cross-national benchmarking 292. Jacobson AM, Musen G, Ryan CM, et al.;
care: the Translating Research Into Action
indicators for family members living with Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/
for Diabetes (TRIAD) study. Diabetes Care
people with diabetes. Diabet Med 2013; Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions
2008;31:273278
30:778788 and Complications Study Research Group.
279. Katon W, Fan MY, Unu tzer J, Taylor J, Long-term effect of diabetes and its
267. Harkness E, Macdonald W, Valderas J, Pincus H, Schoenbaum M. Depression and treatment on cognitive function. N Engl J
Coventry P, Gask L, Bower P. Identifying diabetes: a potentially lethal combination. Med 2007;356:18421852
psychosocial interventions that improve J Gen Intern Med 2008;23:15711575
both physical and mental health in 293. Zoungas S, Patel A, Chalmers J, et al.;
280. Zhang X, Norris SL, Gregg EW, Cheng YJ, ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Severe
patients with diabetes: a systematic
Beckles G, Kahn HS. Depressive symptoms hypoglycemia and risks of vascular events
review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care
and mortality among persons with and and death. N Engl J Med 2010;363:1410
2010;33:926930
without diabetes. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 1418
268. Bot M, Pouwer F, Zuidersma M, van 161:652660
294. McCoy RG, Van Houten HK, Ziegenfuss JY,
Melle JP, de Jonge P. Association of
281. Fisher L, Glasgow RE, Mullan JT, Skaff MM, Shah ND, Wermers RA, Smith SA.
coexisting diabetes and depression with
Polonsky WH. Development of a brief Increased mortality of patients with
mortality after myocardial infarction.
diabetes distress screening instrument. diabetes reporting severe hypoglycemia.
Diabetes Care
Ann Fam Med 2008;6:246252 Diabetes Care 2012;35:18971901
2012;35:503509
295. Seaquist ER, Anderson J, Childs B, et al. 2011;146:659]. Arch Surg 2010;145:726 surgically induced weight loss for the
Hypoglycemia and diabetes: a report of a 731 management of type 2 diabetes:
workgroup of the American Diabetes 308. Keating CL, Dixon JB, Moodie ML, a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes
Association and The Endocrine Society. Peeters Care 2009;32:580584
Diabetes Care 2013;36:13841395 A, Playfair J, OBrien PE. Cost-efcacy 309. Maciejewski ML, Livingston EH, Smith VA, et al.
296. Cryer PE. Diverse causes of of Survival among high-risk patients after bariatric
hypoglycemia- associated autonomic surgery. JAMA 2011;305:
failure in diabetes. N Engl J Med 24192426
2004;350:22722279
310. Himpens J, Cadie` re GB, Bazi M, Vouche M, Cadie`
297. Ikramuddin S, Korner J, Lee WJ, et al. re B, Dapri G. Long-term outcomes of laparoscopic
Roux- en-Y gastric bypass vs intensive adjustable gastric
medical management for the control of banding. Arch Surg 2011;146:802807
type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and
311. Smith SA, Poland GA. Use of inuenza and
hyperlipidemia: the Diabetes Surgery
pneumococcal vaccines in people with diabetes.
Study randomized clinical trial. JAMA
Diabetes Care 2000;23:95108
2013;309:22402249
312. Colquhoun AJ, Nicholson KG, Botha JL, Raymond
298. Schauer PR, Kashyap SR, Wolski K, et al.
NT. Effectiveness of inuenza vaccine in reducing
Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical hospital admissions in people with diabetes.
therapy in obese patients with diabetes. Epidemiol Infect
N Engl J Med 2012;366:15671576 1997;119:335341
299. Mingrone G, Panunzi S, De Gaetano A, 313. Bridges CB, Fukuda K, Uyeki TM, Cox NJ, Singleton
et al. Bariatric surgery versus JA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
conventional medical therapy for type 2 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.
diabetes. Prevention and control of inuenza.
N Engl J Med 2012;366:15771585 Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on
300. Dorman RB, Serrot FJ, Miller CJ, et al. Case- Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm
matched outcomes in bariatric surgery for Rep
treatment of type 2 diabetes in the 2002;51(RR-3):131
morbidly obese patient. Ann Surg 2012; 314. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of
255:287293 hepatitis B vaccination for adults with diabetes
301. Buchwald H, Estok R, Fahrbach K, et al. mellitus: recommendations of the Advisory
Weight and type 2 diabetes after bariatric Committe on Immunization Practices (ACIP).
surgery: systematic review and meta- MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep
analysis. Am J Med 2009;122:248256.e5 2011;60:17091711
302. Dixon JB, OBrien PE, Playfair J, et al. 315. Buse JB, Ginsberg HN, Bakris GL, et al.; American
Adjustable gastric banding and Heart Association; American Diabetes Association.
conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in
a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; people with diabetes mellitus: a scientic
299:316323 statement from the American Heart Association
and the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes
303. Cohen RV, Pinheiro JC, Schiavon CA, Salles Care 2007;30:162172
JE, Wajchenberg BL, Cummings DE. Effects
of gastric bypass surgery in patients with 316. Gaede P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving HH, Pedersen
type 2 diabetes and only mild obesity. O. Effect of a multifactorial intervention on
Diabetes Care 2012;35:14201428 mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med
2008;358:580591
304. Buchwald H, Estok R, Fahrbach K, Banel D,
Sledge I. Trends in mortality in bariatric 317. Ali MK, Bullard KM, Saaddine JB, Cowie CC,
surgery: a systematic review and meta- Imperatore G, Gregg EW. Achievement of goals in
analysis. Surgery 2007;142:621632; U.S. diabetes care, 19992010. N Engl J Med
discussion 632635 2013;368:16131624
305. Sjo stro m L, Narbro K, Sjo stro m CD, 318. Bobrie G, Gene` s N, Vaur L, et al. Is isolated
et al.; Swedish Obese Subjects Study. home hypertension as opposed to isolated
Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality ofce hypertension a sign of greater
in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med cardiovascular risk?Arch Intern Med
2007;357: 2001;161:22052211
741752 319. Sega R, Facchetti R, Bombelli M, et al.
306. Hoerger TJ, Zhang P, Segel JE, Kahn HS, Prognostic value of ambulatory and home blood
pressures compared with ofce blood pressure in
Barker LE, Couper S. Cost-effectiveness of
the general population: follow-up results from the
bariatric surgery for severely obese adults
Pressioni Arteriose Monitorate e Loro Associazioni
with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010;33:
(PAMELA) study. Circulation 2005;111:
19331939
17771783
307. Makary MA, Clark JM, Shore AD, et al.
320. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al.; National
Medication utilization and annual health
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
care costs in patients with type 2 diabetes
mellitus before and after bariatric surgery
[published correction appears in Arch
Surg
Joint National Committee on disease. JAMA 2010;304:
Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and 6168
Treatment of High Blood Pressure; 329. Sleight P, Redon J, Verdecchia P,
National High Blood Pressure Education et al.; ONTARGET investigators.
Program Coordinating Committee. The Prognostic value of blood
Seventh Report of the Joint National pressure in patients with high
Committee on Prevention, Detection, vascular risk in the Ongoing
Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Telmisartan Alone and in
Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003; combination with Ramipril
289:25602572
321. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N,
Peto R, Collins R; Prospective
Studies Collaboration. Age-specic
relevance of usual blood pressure
to vascular mortality: a meta-
analysis of individual data for one
million adults in 61 prospective
studies. Lancet 2002;360:
19031913
322. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD,
Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk
factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular
mortality for men screened in the
Multiple Risk Factor Intervention
Trial. Diabetes Care 1993;16:
434444
323. UK Prospective Diabetes Study
Group.
Tight blood pressure control and
risk of macrovascular and
microvascular complications in
type 2 diabetes: UKPDS
38. BMJ 1998;317:703713
324. Hansson L, Zanchetti A,
Carruthers SG, et al.; HOT Study
Group. Effects of intensive blood-
pressure lowering and low-dose
aspirin in patients with
hypertension: principal results of
the Hypertension Optimal
Treatment (HOT) randomised trial.
Lancet 1998;351:1755
1762
325. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil
HA, et al.
Association of systolic blood
pressure with macrovascular and
microvascular complications of
type 2 diabetes (UKPDS
36): prospective observational study. BMJ
2000;321:412419
326. Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington
RP, et al.; ACCORD Study Group.
Effects of intensive blood-pressure
control in type 2 diabetes mellitus.
N Engl J Med 2010;362:
15751585
327. Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers
J, et al.; ADVANCE Collaborative
Group. Effects
of a xed combination of perindopril and
indapamide on macrovascular
and microvascular outcomes in
patients with type 2 diabetes
mellitus (the ADVANCE trial): a
randomised controlled trial.
Lancet 2007;370:829840
328. Cooper-DeHoff RM, Gong Y,
Handberg EM, et al. Tight blood
pressure control and
cardiovascular outcomes among
hypertensive patients with
diabetes and coronary artery
Global Endpoint Trial study. J Hypertens inhibitors: the CHARM-Added trial. Lancet 20:614620
2009;27:13601369 2003;362:767771
330. McBrien K, Rabi DM, Campbell N, et al. 340. Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, et
Intensive and standard blood pressure al.; CHARM Investigators and
targets in patients with type 2 diabetes Committees. Effects of candesartan on
mellitus: systematic review and meta- mortality and morbidity in patients with
analysis. Arch Intern Med 2012;172:1296 chronic heart failure: the CHARM-Overall
1303 programme. Lancet 2003;362:759766
331. Bangalore S, Kumar S, Lobach I, Messerli 341. Granger CB, McMurray JJ, Yusuf S, et al.;
FH. Blood pressure targets in subjects with CHARM Investigators and Committees.
type 2 diabetes mellitus/impaired fasting Effects of candesartan in patients with
glucose: observations from traditional and chronic heart failure and reduced left-
bayesian random-effects meta-analyses of ventricular systolic function intolerant to
randomized trials. Circulation 2011;123: angiotensin-converting-enzyme
27992810 inhibitors: the CHARM-Alternative trial.
332. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al.; Lancet 2003;362:772776
DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research 342. Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlo f B, et al.;
Group. Effects on blood pressure of LIFE Study Group. Cardiovascular
reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary morbidity and mortality in patients with
Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For
diet. N Engl J Med 2001;344:310 Endpoint reduction in hypertension study
333. Tatti P, Pahor M, Byington RP, et al. (LIFE):
Outcome results of the Fosinopril Versus a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet
Amlodipine Cardiovascular Events 2002;359:10041010
Randomized Trial (FACET) in patients with 343. Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB, et al.;
hypertension and NIDDM. Diabetes Care Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial.
1998;21:597603 Collaborative Study Group. Cardiovascular
334. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Hiatt WR, outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic
Biggerstaff SL, Gifford N, Schrier RW. The Nephropathy Trial of patients with type 2
effect of nisoldipine as compared with diabetes and overt nephropathy. Ann
enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in Intern Med 2003;138:542549
patients with non-insulin-dependent 344. McManus RJ, Mant J, Bray EP, et al.
diabetes and hypertension. N Engl J Med Telemonitoring and self-management in
1998;338:645652 the control of hypertension (TASMINH2):
335. Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Mehler PS, Hiatt a randomised controlled trial. Lancet
WR. Appropriate blood pressure control in 2010;376:163172
hypertensive and normotensive type 2 345. Hermida RC, Ayala DE, Mojo n A,
diabetes mellitus: a summary of the ABCD Ferna ndez JR. Inuence of time of day
trial. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2007;3:428 of blood pressure-lowering treatment on
438 cardiovascular risk in hypertensive
336. ALLHAT Ofcers and Coordinators for the patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes
ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Care 2011;34:12701276
Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive 346. Sibai BM. Treatment of hypertension in
patients randomized to angiotensin- pregnant women. N Engl J Med 1996;335:
converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium 257265
channel blocker vs diuretic: the
Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering 347. Baigent C, Keech A, Kearney PM, et al.;
Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT)
(ALLHAT). JAMA 2002;288:29812997 Collaborators. Efcacy and safety of
cholesterol-lowering treatment:
337. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Siscovick DS, et al. prospective meta-analysis of data from
Health outcomes associated with 90,056 participants in 14 randomised
antihypertensive therapies used as rst- trials of statins. Lancet 2005;366:1267
line agents. A systematic review and meta- 1278
analysis. JAMA 1997;277:739745
348. Mihaylova B, Emberson J, Blackwell L, et
338. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation al.; Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT)
Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on Collaborators. The effects of lowering
cardiovascular and microvascular LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in
outcomes in people with diabetes people at low risk of vascular disease:
mellitus: results of the HOPE study and meta-analysis of individual data from 27
MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000;355: randomised trials. Lancet 2012;
253259 380:581590
339. McMurray JJ, Ostergren J, Swedberg K, 349. Pyo ra la K, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J,
et al.; CHARM Investigators and Faergeman O, Olsson AG, Thorgeirsson
Committees. Effects of candesartan in G. Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin
patients with chronic heart failure and improves prognosis of diabetic patients
reduced left-ventricular systolic function with coronary heart disease. A subgroup
taking angiotensin-converting-enzyme analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin
Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care 1997;
350. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, Sleigh P, Peto R;
Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group.
MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-
lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with
diabetes: a randomised placebo- controlled trial.
Lancet 2003;361:2005
2016
351. Goldberg RB, Mellies MJ, Sacks FM, et al.; The
Care Investigators. Cardiovascular events and
their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and
glucose- intolerant myocardial infarction
survivors with average cholesterol levels:
subgroup analyses in the Cholesterol And
Recurrent Events (CARE) trial. Circulation
1998;98:
25132519
352. Shepherd J, Barter P, Carmena R, et al.
Effect of lowering LDL cholesterol substantially
below currently recommended levels in patients
with coronary heart disease and diabetes: the
Treating to New Targets (TNT) study. Diabetes
Care 2006;29:12201226
353. Sever PS, Poulter NR, Dahlo f B, et al.
Reduction in cardiovascular events with
atorvastatin in 2,532 patients with type 2
diabetes: Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes
TrialdLipid-Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA). Diabetes
Care 2005;28:
11511157
354. Knopp RH, dEmden M, Smilde JG, Pocock SJ.
Efcacy and safety of atorvastatin in the
prevention of cardiovascular end points in
subjects with type 2 diabetes: the Atorvastatin
Study for Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease
Endpoints in non- insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (ASPEN). Diabetes Care 2006;29:1478
1485
355. Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, et
al.; CARDS investigators. Primary prevention of
cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2
diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin
Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised
placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364:
685696
356. Kearney PM, Blackwell L, Collins R, et al.;
Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT)
Collaborators. Efcacy of cholesterol- lowering
therapy in 18,686 people with diabetes in 14
randomised trials of statins: a meta-analysis.
Lancet 2008;371:
117125
357. Taylor F, Huffman MD, Macedo AF, et al.
Statins for the primary prevention of
cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database
Syst Rev 2013;(1):CD004816
358. Carter AA, Gomes T, Camacho X, Juurlink DN,
Shah BR, Mamdani MM. Risk of incident diabetes
among patients treated with statins: population
based study. BMJ
2013;346:f2610
359. Rajpathak SN, Kumbhani DJ, Crandall J, Barzilai N,
Alderman M, Ridker PM. Statin therapy and risk
of developing type 2
diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care National Cholesterol Education Program participant data from randomised trials.
2009;32:19241929 Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Lancet 2009;373:18491860
360. Sattar N, Preiss D, Murray HM, et al. Circulation 2004;110:227239
382. Perk J, De Backer G, Gohlke H, et al.;
Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a 372. Hayward RA, Hofer TP, Vijan S. Narrative European Association for Cardiovascular
collaborative meta-analysis of randomised review: lack of evidence for Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR); ESC
statin trials. Lancet 2010;375:735742 recommended low-density lipoprotein Committee for Practice Guidelines
361. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al.; treatment (CPG). European guidelines on
JUPITER Study Group. Rosuvastatin to targets: a solvable problem. Ann Intern cardiovascular disease prevention in
prevent vascular events in men and Med 2006;145:520530 clinical practice (version 2012). The Fifth
women with elevated C-reactive protein. 373. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et Joint Task Force of the European Society
N Engl J Med 2008;359:21952207 al.; Pravastatin or Atorvastatin of Cardiology and Other Societies on
Evaluation and Infection Therapy- Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in
362. Ridker PM, Pradhan A, MacFadyen JG, Clinical Practice (constituted by
Libby P, Glynn RJ. Cardiovascular benets Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22
Investigators. Intensive versus moderate representatives of nine societies and by
and diabetes risks of statin therapy in invited experts). Eur Heart J 2012;33:
primary prevention: an analysis from the lipid lowering with statins after acute
coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2004; 16351701
JUPITER trial. Lancet 2012;380:565571
350:14951504 383. Ogawa H, Nakayama M, Morimoto T, et
363. Singh IM, Shishehbor MH, Ansell BJ.
374. de Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Wiviott SD, et al. al.; Japanese Primary Prevention of
High- density lipoprotein as a therapeutic
Early intensive vs a delayed conservative Atherosclerosis With Aspirin for Diabetes
target: a systematic review. JAMA 2007;
simvastatin strategy in patients with acute (JPAD) Trial Investigators. Low-dose
298:786798
coronary syndromes: phase Z of the A to Z aspirin for primary prevention of
364. Canner PL, Berge KG, Wenger NK, et al. trial. JAMA 2004;292:13071316 atherosclerotic events in patients with
Fifteen year mortality in Coronary Drug type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled
Project patients: long-term benet with 375. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, trial. JAMA 2008;300:21342141
niacin. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986;8:1245 et al.; REVERSAL Investigators. Effect of
intensive compared with moderate lipid- 384. Pignone M, Earnshaw S, Tice JA, Pletcher
1255
lowering therapy on progression of MJ. Aspirin, statins, or both drugs for the
365. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, et al.; coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized primary prevention of coronary heart
Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein controlled trial. JAMA 2004;291:1071 disease events in men: a cost-utility
Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study 1080 analysis. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:326
Group. Gembrozil for the secondary 336
prevention of coronary heart disease in 376. Brunzell JD, Davidson M, Furberg CD, et
al.; American Diabetes Association; 385. Pignone M, Alberts MJ, Colwell JA, et al.;
men with low levels of high-density
American College of Cardiology American Diabetes Association; American
lipoprotein cholesterol. N Engl J Med
Foundation. Lipoprotein management in Heart Association; American College of
1999;341:410418
patients with cardiometabolic risk: Cardiology Foundation. Aspirin for
366. Frick MH, Elo O, Haapa K, et al. Helsinki consensus statement from the American primary prevention of cardiovascular
Heart Study: primary-prevention trial with Diabetes Association and the American events in people with diabetes: a position
gembrozil in middle-aged men with College of Cardiology Foundation. statement of the American Diabetes
dyslipidemia. Safety of treatment, Diabetes Care 2008;31:811822 Association, a scientic statement of the
changes in risk factors, and incidence of American Heart Association, and an
377. Chasman DI, Posada D, Subrahmanyan L,
coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med expert consensus document of the
Cook NR, Stanton VP Jr, Ridker PM.
1987;317:12371245 American College of Cardiology
Pharmacogenetic study of statin therapy
367. Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, et al.; FIELD Foundation. Diabetes Care
and cholesterol reduction. JAMA 2004;
study investigators. Effects of long-term 2010;33:13951402
291:28212827
fenobrate therapy on cardiovascular 386. Campbell CL, Smyth S, Montalescot
378. Meek C, Wierzbicki AS, Jewkes C, et al.
events in 9795 people with type 2 G, Steinhubl SR. Aspirin dose for the
Daily and intermittent rosuvastatin 5 mg
diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): prevention of cardiovascular disease:
therapy in statin intolerant patients: an
randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; a systematic review. JAMA 2007;297:
observational study. Curr Med Res Opin
366:18491861 20182024
2012;28:371378
368. Jones PH, Davidson MH. Reporting rate of 387. Dav` G, Patrono C. Platelet activation and
379. Elam MB, Hunninghake DB, Davis KB, et al.
rhabdomyolysis with fenobrate 1 statin atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med 2007;357:
Effect of niacin on lipid and lipoprotein
versus gembrozil 1 any statin. Am J 24822494
levels and glycemic control in patients
Cardiol 2005;95:120122
with diabetes and peripheral arterial 388. Vandvik PO, Lincoff AM, Gore JM, et al.
369. Ginsberg HN, Elam MB, Lovato LC, et al.; disease. The ADMIT study: a randomized Primary and secondary prevention of
ACCORD Study Group. Effects of trial. JAMA 2000;284:12631270 cardiovascular disease: Antithrombotic
combination lipid therapy in type 2 Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis,
380. Grundy SM, Vega GL, McGovern ME, et al.;
diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010;362: 9th ed: American College of Chest
Diabetes Multicenter Research Group.
15631574 Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical
Efcacy, safety, and tolerability of once-
370. Boden WE, Probsteld JL, Anderson T, daily niacin for the treatment of Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012;141:
et al.; AIM-HIGH Investigators. Niacin in dyslipidemia associated with type 2 e637Se668S
patients with low HDL cholesterol levels diabetes: results of the assessment of 389. Voulgari C, Katsilambros N, Tentolouris N.
receiving intensive statin therapy. N Engl J diabetes control and evaluation of the Smoking cessation predicts amelioration
Med 2011;365:22552267 efcacy of niaspan trial. Arch Intern Med of microalbuminuria in newly diagnosed
371. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, et al.; 2002;162:15681576 type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 1-year
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 381. Baigent C, Blackwell L, Collins R, et al.; prospective study. Metabolism 2011;60:
American College of Cardiology Antithrombotic Trialists (ATT) 14561464
Foundation; American Heart Association. Collaboration. Aspirin in the primary and 390. Ranney L, Melvin C, Lux L, McClain E,
Implications of recent clinical trials for the secondary prevention of vascular disease: Lohr KN. Systematic review: smoking
collaborative meta-analysis of individual cessation intervention strategies for
adults and adults in special
populations. Ann Intern Med
2006;145:845856
391. Clair C, Rigotti NA, Porneala B, et al. cardiovascular events in asymptomatic of incipient and overt diabetic
Association of smoking cessation and patients with type 2 diabetes: the PREDICT nephropathy in patients with non-insulin
weight change with cardiovascular study. Eur Heart J 2008;29:22442251 dependent diabetes mellitus: prospective,
disease among adults with and without observational study. BMJ 1997;314:783
diabetes. JAMA 2013;309:10141021 402. Choi EK, Chun EJ, Choi SI, et al.
Assessment of subclinical coronary 788
392. Braunwald E, Domanski MJ, Fowler SE, atherosclerosis in asymptomatic patients 412. Ravid M, Lang R, Rachmani R, Lishner M.
et al.; PEACE Trial Investigators. with type 2 diabetes mellitus with single Long-term renoprotective effect of
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme photon emission computed tomography angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition
inhibition in stable coronary artery and coronary computed tomography in non-insulin-dependent diabetes
disease. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2058 angiography. Am J Cardiol 2009;104:890 mellitus. A 7-year follow-up study. Arch
2068 896 Intern Med 1996;156:286289
393. Yusuf S, Teo K, Anderson C, et al.; 403. Eurich DT, Weir DL, Majumdar SR, et al. 413. The Diabetes Control and Complications
Telmisartan Randomised AssessmeNt Comparative safety and effectiveness of (DCCT) Research Group. Effect of
Study in ACE iNtolerant subjects with metformin in patients with diabetes intensive therapy on the development
cardiovascular Disease (TRANSCEND) mellitus and heart failure: systematic and progression of diabetic nephropathy
Investigators. Effects of the angiotensin- review of observational studies involving in the Diabetes Control and
receptor blocker telmisartan on 34,000 patients. Circ Heart Fail 2013;6: Complications Trial. Kidney Int
cardiovascular events in high-risk patients 395402 1995;47:17031720
intolerant to angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors: a randomised 404. Krolewski AS, Niewczas MA, Skupien J, et 414. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, Rohde
controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:1174 al. Early progressive renal decline RD; the Collaborative Study Group. The
1183 precedes the onset of microalbuminuria effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme
and its progression to macroalbuminuria. inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl
394. Boden WE, ORourke RA, Teo KK, et al.; Diabetes Care 2014;37:226234 J Med 1993;329:14561462
COURAGE Trial Research Group. Optimal
medical therapy with or without PCI for 405. Garg JP, Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria: 415. Laffel LM, McGill JB, Gans DJ; North
marker of vascular dysfunction, risk factor American Microalbuminuria Study Group.
stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med measurement improves cial effect of angiotensin-
for cardiovascular disease. Vasc Med
2007;356:15031516 prediction of
2002;7:3543
395. Frye RL, August P, Brooks MM, et al.; BARI
406. Klausen K, Borch-Johnsen K, Feldt-
2D Study Group. A randomized trial of Rasmussen B, et al. Very low levels of
therapies for type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria are associated with
coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med increased risk of coronary heart disease
2009;360: and death independently of renal
25032515
function, hypertension, and diabetes.
396. Wackers FJ, Chyun DA, Young LH, et al.; Circulation 2004;110:3235
Detection of Ischemia in Asymptomatic 407. de Boer IH, Rue TC, Cleary PA, et al.;
Diabetics (DIAD) Investigators. Resolution Diabetes Control and Complications
of asymptomatic myocardial ischemia in Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes
patients with type 2 diabetes in the Interventions and Complications Study
Detection of Ischemia in Asymptomatic Research Group. Long-term renal
Diabetics (DIAD) study. Diabetes Care outcomes of patients with type 1
2007;30:28922898
diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria:
397. Young LH, Wackers FJ, Chyun DA, et al.; an analysis of the Diabetes Control and
DIAD Investigators. Cardiac outcomes Complications Trial/Epidemiology of
after screening for asymptomatic Diabetes Interventions and
coronary artery disease in patients with Complications cohort. Arch Intern Med
type 2 diabetes: the DIAD study: 2011;171:412420
a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2009;
408. Molitch ME, Steffes M, Sun W, et al.;
301:15471555
Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and
398. Wackers FJ, Young LH, Inzucchi SE, et al.; Complications Study Group. Development
Detection of Ischemia in Asymptomatic and progression of renal insufciency with
Diabetics Investigators. Detection of silent and without albuminuria in adults with type
myocardial ischemia in asymptomatic 1 diabetes in the Diabetes Control and
diabetic subjects: the DIAD study. Complications Trial and the Epidemiology of
Diabetes Care 2004;27:19541961 Diabetes Interventions and Complications
399. Scognamiglio R, Negut C, Ramondo A, Study. Diabetes Care 2010;33:15361543
Tiengo A, Avogaro A. Detection of 409. de Boer IH, Sun W, Cleary PA, et al.; DCCT/
coronary artery disease in asymptomatic EDIC Research Group. Intensive diabetes
patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. therapy and glomerular ltration rate in
J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:6571 type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2011;365:
400. Hadamitzky M, Hein F, Meyer T, et al. 23662376
Prognostic value of coronary computed 410. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical
tomographic angiography in diabetic practice guidline for diabetes and CKD:
patients without known coronary artery 2012 update. Am J Kidney Dis 2012;
disease. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1358 60:850886
1363
411. Gall MA, Hougaard P, Borch-Johnsen K,
401. Elkeles RS, Godsland IF, Feher MD, et al.; Parving HH. Risk factors for development
PREDICT Study Group. Coronary calcium
The bene
converting enzyme inhibition with captopril
on diabetic nephropathy in normotensive
IDDM patients with microalbuminuria. Am J
Med 1995;99:
497504
416. Remuzzi G, Macia M, Ruggenenti P.
Prevention and treatment of diabetic renal
disease in type 2 diabetes: the BENEDICT study. J
Am Soc Nephrol 2006;
17(Suppl. 2):S90S97
417. Haller H, Ito S, Izzo JL Jr, et al.; ROADMAP Trial
Investigators. Olmesartan for the delay or
prevention of microalbuminuria in type 2
diabetes. N Engl J Med 2011;364:
907917
418. Bilous R, Chaturvedi N, Sjlie AK, et al. Effect of
candesartan on microalbuminuria and albumin
excretion rate in diabetes: three randomized
trials. Ann Intern Med 2009;151:1120, W3-4
419. Mauer M, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al.
Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan
in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med
2009;361:4051
420. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al.;
Collaborative Study Group. Renoprotective effect
of the angiotensin- receptor antagonist irbesartan
in patients with nephropathy due to type 2
diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:851860
421. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D,
et al.; RENAAL Study Investigators. Effects of
losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in
patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N
Engl J Med 2001;345:
861869
422. Parving HH, Lehnert H, Bro chner- Mortensen J,
Gomis R, Andersen S, Arner P; Irbesartan in
Patients with Type 2
Diabetes and Microalbuminuria Study
Group. The effect of irbesartan on the
development of diabetic nephropathy in the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Am J
patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J and the National Institute of Diabetes Kidney Dis 2003;42:617622
Med 2001;345:870878 and
434. Levey AS, Coresh J, Balk E, et al.; National Kidney
423. Pepine CJ, Handberg EM, Cooper-DeHoff Foundation. National Kidney Foundation practice
RM, et al.; INVEST Investigators. A guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation,
calcium antagonist vs a non-calcium classication, and stratication. Ann Intern Med
antagonist hypertension treatment 2003;
strategy for patients with coronary artery 139:137147
disease. The International Verapamil-
Trandolapril Study (INVEST): a 435. Kramer H, Molitch ME. Screening for kidney
randomized controlled trial. JAMA disease in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care
2003;290:28052816 2005;28:18131816
424. Mogensen CE, Neldam S, Tikkanen I, et al. 436. Kramer HJ, Nguyen QD, Curhan G, Hsu CY.
Randomised controlled trial of dual Renal insufciency in the absence of albuminuria
blockade of renin-angiotensin system in and retinopathy among adults with type 2 diabetes
patients with hypertension, mellitus. JAMA
microalbuminuria, and non-insulin 2003;289:32733277
dependent diabetes: the candesartan and 437. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N,
lisinopril microalbuminuria (CALM) study. Roth D; Modication of Diet in Renal Disease
BMJ 2000;321:14401444 Study Group. A more accurate method to estimate
425. Schjoedt KJ, Jacobsen P, Rossing K, glomerular ltration rate from serum creatinine:
Boomsma F, Parving HH. Dual blockade of a new prediction equation. Ann Intern
the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Med 1999;130:461470
in diabetic nephropathy: the role of 438. Levinsky NG. Specialist evaluation in chronic kidney
aldosterone. Horm Metab Res 2005;37 disease: too little, too late. Ann Intern Med
(Suppl. 1):48 2002;137:542543
426. Schjoedt KJ, Rossing K, Juhl TR, et al. 439. Klein R. Hyperglycemia and microvascular and
Benecial impact of spironolactone in macrovascular disease in diabetes. Diabetes Care
diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2005;68: 1995;18:258268
28292836
440. Estacio RO, McFarling E, Biggerstaff S, Jeffers BW,
427. Parving HH, Persson F, Lewis JB, Lewis EJ, Johnson D, Schrier RW. Overt albuminuria predicts
Hollenberg NK; AVOID Study diabetic retinopathy in Hispanics with NIDDM. Am
Investigators. Aliskiren combined with J Kidney Dis
losartan in type 2 diabetes and 1998;31:947953
nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2008;358:
24332446 441. Leske MC, Wu SY, Hennis A, et al.; Barbados Eye
Study Group. Hyperglycemia, blood pressure, and
428. Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al.; the
ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, 9-year incidence of diabetic retinopathy:
ramipril, or both in patients at high risk the Barbados Eye Studies. Ophthalmology
for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2005;112:799805
2008;358:15471559
442. Chew EY, Ambrosius WT, Davis MD, et al.; ACCORD
429. Pijls LT, de Vries H, Donker AJ, van Eijk JT. Study Group; ACCORD Eye
The effect of protein restriction on Study Group. Effects of medical
albuminuria in patients with type 2 therapies on retinopathy progression in
diabetes mellitus: a randomized trial. type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2010;363:
Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999;14:1445 233244
1453
443. Fong DS, Aiello LP, Ferris FL 3rd, Klein R.
430. Pedrini MT, Levey AS, Lau J, Chalmers TC, Diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 2004;
Wang PH. The effect of dietary protein 27:25402553
restriction on the progression of diabetic
and nondiabetic renal diseases: a meta- 444. Diabetes Control and Complications
analysis. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:627 Trial Research Group. Effect of
632 pregnancy on microvascular
complications in the diabetes control and
431. Hansen HP, Tauber-Lassen E, Jensen BR, complications trial. Diabetes Care 2000;
Parving HH. Effect of dietary protein 23:10841091
restriction on prognosis in patients with
diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2002;62: 445. The Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group.
220228 Preliminary report on effects of photocoagulation
therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 1976;81:383396
432. Kasiske BL, Lakatua JD, Ma JZ, Louis TA.
A meta-analysis of the effects of dietary 446. ETDRS. Photocoagulation for diabetic macular
protein restriction on the rate of decline edema. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy
in renal function. Am J Kidney Dis Study report number 1. Early Treatment Diabetic
1998;31: Retinopathy Study research group. Arch
954961 Ophthalmol 1985;
103:17961806
433. Eknoyan G, Hostetter T, Bakris GL, et al.
Proteinuria and other markers of chronic
kidney disease: a position statement of
447. Nguyen QD, Brown DM, Marcus Neurology 2011;77:603].
DM, et al.; RISE and RIDE Research Neurology 2011;
Group. Ranibizumab for diabetic 76:17581765
macular edema: results from 2 456. Pop-Busui R, Lu J, Brooks MM, et al.
phase III randomized trials: RISE
Impact of glycemic control
and RIDE. Ophthalmology
strategies on the progression of
2012;119:
diabetic peripheral neuropathy
789801
in the Bypass Angioplasty
448. Pearson PA, Comstock TL, Ip M, et al. Revascularization Investigation 2
Fluocinolone acetonide Diabetes (BARI 2D) cohort.
intravitreal implant for Diabetes Care 2013;36:
diabetic macular edema: a 3- 32083215
year multicenter,
randomized,
controlled clinical trial. Ophthalmology
2011;118:15801587
449. Chew EY, Ambrosius WT. Update of the
ACCORD Eye Study. N Engl J Med 2011;
364:188189
450. Keech AC, Mitchell P, Summanen PA,
et al.; FIELD study investigators.
Effect of fenobrate on the need
for laser treatment for diabetic
retinopathy (FIELD study): a
randomised controlled trial.
Lancet 2007;370:16871697
451. Hooper P, Boucher MC, Cruess A, et al.
Canadian Ophthalmological
Society evidence-based
clinical practice
guidelines for the management of
diabetic retinopathy. Can J
Ophthalmol 2012;47 (Suppl.):S1
S30, S31S54
452. Agardh E, Tababat-Khani P. Adopting
3-year screening intervals for
sight- threatening retinal vascular
lesions in type
2 diabetic subjects without
retinopathy. Diabetes Care
2011;34:13181319
453. Ahmed J, Ward TP, Bursell SE,
Aiello LM, Cavallerano JD, Vigersky
RA. The sensitivity and specicity
of nonmydriatic digital
stereoscopic retinal imaging in
detecting diabetic retinopathy.
Diabetes Care 2006;29:22052209
454. Spallone V, Ziegler D, Freeman R,
et al.; Toronto Consensus Panel
on Diabetic Neuropathy.
Cardiovascular autonomic
neuropathy in diabetes: clinical
impact, assessment, diagnosis,
and management. Diabetes
Metab Res Rev 2011;27:639
653
455. Bril V, England J, Franklin GM, et
al.; American Academy of
Neurology; American Association
of Neuromuscular and
Electrodiagnostic Medicine;
American Academy of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation.
Evidence-based guideline:
treatment of painful diabetic
neuropathy: report of the
American Academy of Neurology,
the American Association of
Neuromuscular and
Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and
the American Academy of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation
[published correction appears in
457. Herman WH, Pop-Busui R, Braffett BH, cross-sectional survey. Diabetes Metab 478. Li C, Ford ES, Zhao G, Croft JB, Balluz LS,
et al.; DCCT/EDIC Research Group. Use of Syndr Obes 2013;6:7992 Mokdad AH. Prevalence of self-reported
the Michigan Neuropathy Screening clinically diagnosed sleep apnea according
Instrument as a measure of distal 467. Snedecor SJ, Sudharshan L, Cappelleri JC,
to obesity status in men and women:
symmetrical peripheral neuropathy in Sadosky A, Mehta S, Botteman M.
National Health and Nutrition
type 1 diabetes: results from the Diabetes Systematic review and meta-analysis of
Examination Survey, 20052006. Prev
Control and Complications Trial/ pharmacological therapies for painful
Med 2010;51:1823
Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Pain
Pract. 28 March 2013 [Epub ahead of 479. West SD, Nicoll DJ, Stradling JR.
and Complications. Diabet Med 2012;29:
937944 print] Prevalence of obstructive sleep apnoea in
men with type 2 diabetes. Thorax
458. Wile DJ, Toth C. Association of metformin, 468. Boulton AJ, Vinik AI, Arezzo JC, et al.; 2006;61:
elevated homocysteine, and American Diabetes Association. Diabetic 945950
methylmalonic acid levels and clinically neuropathies: a statement by the
American Diabetes Association. Diabetes 480. Foster GD, Sanders MH, Millman R, et al.;
worsened diabetic peripheral neuropathy.
Care 2005;28:956962 Sleep AHEAD Research Group. Obstructive
Diabetes Care 2010;33:156161
sleep apnea among obese patients with
459. Freeman R. Not all neuropathy in diabetes 469. Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GV, type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:
is of diabetic etiology: differential Parving HH, Pedersen O. Multifactorial 10171019
diagnosis of diabetic neuropathy. Curr intervention and cardiovascular disease in
patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J 481. Shaw JE, Punjabi NM, Wilding JP, Alberti
Diab Rep 2009;9:423431
Med 2003;348:383393 KG, Zimmet PZ; International Diabetes
460. Spallone V, Bellavere F, Scionti L, et al.; Federation Taskforce on Epidemiology
Diabetic Neuropathy Study Group of the 470. Boulton AJ, Armstrong DG, Albert SF, et and Prevention. Sleep-disordered
Italian Society of Diabetology. al.; American Diabetes Association; breathing and type 2 diabetes: a report
Recommendations for the use of American Association of Clinical from the International Diabetes
cardiovascular tests in diagnosing diabetic Endocrinologists. Comprehensive foot Federation Taskforce on Epidemiology
autonomic neuropathy. Nutr Metab examination and risk assessment: a report and Prevention. Diabetes Res Clin Pract
Cardiovasc Dis 2011;21:6978 of the task force of the foot care interest 2008;81:212
group of the American Diabetes
461. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Association, with endorsement by the 482. El-Serag HB, Tran T, Everhart JE. Diabetes
(DCCT) Research Group. Effect of American Association of Clinical increases the risk of chronic liver disease
intensive diabetes treatment on nerve Endocrinologists. Diabetes Care and hepatocellular carcinoma.
conduction in the Diabetes Control and Gastroenterology 2004;126:460468
2008;31:16791685
Complications Trial. Ann Neurol
471. American Diabetes Association. 483. American Gastroenterological
1995;38:869880
Peripheral arterial disease in people with Association. American
462. CDC Study Group. The effect of intensive Gastroenterological Association medical
diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3333
diabetes therapy on measures of position statement: nonalcoholic fatty
3341
autonomic nervous system function in liver disease. Gastroenterology 2002;123:
the Diabetes Control and Complications 472. Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Cornia PB, et al.; 17021704
Trial (DCCT). Diabetologia 1998;41:416 Infectious Diseases Society of America.
2012 Infectious Diseases Society of 484. Suh S, Kim KW. Diabetes and cancer: is
423
America clinical practice guideline for the diabetes causally related to cancer?
463. Albers JW, Herman WH, Pop-Busui R, Diabetes Metab J 2011;35:193198
diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot
et al.; Diabetes Control and Complications
infections. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54:e132 485. International Diabetes Federation. Oral
Trial /Epidemiology of Diabetes
e173 Health for People with Diabetes. Brussels,
Interventions and Complications Research
473. Selvin E, Coresh J, Brancati FL. The burden International Diabetes Federation, 2009
Group. Effect of prior intensive insulin
treatment during the Diabetes Control and treatment of diabetes in elderly 486. Giovannucci E, Harlan DM, Archer MC, et
and Complications Trial (DCCT) on individuals in the U.S. Diabetes Care 2006; al. Diabetes and cancer: a consensus
peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes 29:24152419 report. Diabetes Care 2010;33:16741685
during the Epidemiology of Diabetes 474. Grant RW, Ashburner JM, Hong CS, Chang 487. Janghorbani M, Van Dam RM, Willett
Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Y, Barry MJ, Atlas SJ. Dening patient WC, Hu FB. Systematic review of type 1
Study. Diabetes Care 2010;33:10901096 complexity from the primary care and type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of
464. Pop-Busui R, Low PA, Waberski BH, et al.; physicians perspective: a cohort study fracture. Am J Epidemiol 2007;166:495
DCCT/EDIC Research Group. Effects of [published correction appears in Ann 505
prior intensive insulin therapy on cardiac Intern Med 2012;157:152]. Ann Intern 488. Vestergaard P. Discrepancies in bone
autonomic nervous system function in Med 2011;155:797804 mineral density and fracture risk in
type 1 diabetes mellitus: the Diabetes 475. Tinetti ME, Fried TR, Boyd CM. Designing patients with type 1 and type 2
Control and Complications Trial/ health care for the most common chronic diabetesda meta-analysis. Osteoporos
Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions conditiondmultimorbidity. JAMA 2012; Int 2007;18:427444
and Complications study (DCCT/EDIC). 307:24932494
Circulation 2009;119:28862893 489. Schwartz AV, Vittinghoff E, Bauer DC, et
476. Sudore RL, Karter AJ, Huang ES, et al. al.; Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF)
465. Callaghan BC, Little AA, Feldman EL, Symptom burden of adults with type 2 Research Group; Osteoporotic Fractures
Hughes RA. Enhanced glucose control for diabetes across the disease course: in Men (MrOS) Research Group; Health,
preventing and treating diabetic Diabetes & Aging Study. J Gen Intern Med Aging, and Body Composition (Health
neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;27:16741681 ABC) Research Group. Association of
2012;(6):CD007543 BMD and FRAX score with risk of fracture
477. Borgnakke WS, Ylo stalo PV, Taylor GW,
466. Sadosky A, Schaefer C, Mann R, et al. in older adults with type 2 diabetes.
Genco RJ. Effect of periodontal disease
Burden of illness associated with painful JAMA 2011;305:21842192
on diabetes: systematic review of
diabetic peripheral neuropathy among epidemiologic observational evidence. 490. Cukierman T, Gerstein HC, Williamson JD.
adults seeking treatment in the US: results J Periodontol 2013;84(Suppl.):S135 Cognitive decline and dementia in
from a retrospective chart review and S152 diabetesdsystematic overview of
prospective observational studies. diabetes. 503. Nimri R, Weintrob N, Benzaquen H, Ofan R,
Diabetologia 2005;48:24602469 J Pediatr 2013;162:730735 Fayman G, Phillip M. Insulin pump therapy in
491. Biessels GJ, Staekenborg S, Brunner E, youth with type 1 diabetes:
Brayne C, Scheltens P. Risk of dementia in a retrospective paired study. Pediatrics
diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. 2006;117:21262131
Lancet Neurol 2006;5:6474 504. Doyle EA, Weinzimer SA, Steffen AT, Ahern JA,
492. Ohara T, Doi Y, Ninomiya T, et al. Glucose Vincent M, Tamborlane WV. A randomized,
tolerance status and risk of dementia in prospective trial comparing the efcacy of
the community: the Hisayama study. continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion with
Neurology 2011;77:11261134 multiple daily injections using insulin glargine.
Diabetes Care 2004;27:15541558
493. Launer LJ, Miller ME, Williamson JD, et al.;
ACCORD MIND investigators. Effects of 505. Perantie DC, Wu J, Koller JM, et al.
intensive glucose lowering on brain Regional brain volume differences associated with
structure and function in people with type hyperglycemia and severe hypoglycemia in youth
2 diabetes (ACCORD MIND): a randomised with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007;30:2331
open-label substudy. Lancet Neurol 2011; 2337
10:969977
506. Daniels M, DuBose SN, Maahs DM, et al.; T1D
494. Dhindsa S, Miller MG, McWhirter CL, et al. Exchange Clinic Network. Factors associated with
Testosterone concentrations in diabetic microalbuminuria in 7,549 children and adolescents
and nondiabetic obese men. Diabetes with type 1 diabetes in the T1D Exchange clinic
Care 2010;33:11861192 registry. Diabetes Care 2013;36:2639
495. Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al.; 2645
Task Force, Endocrine Society. 507. Ho rtenhuber T, Rami-Mehar B, Satler M, et al.
Testosterone therapy in men with Endothelial progenitor cells are related to
androgen deciency syndromes: an glycemic control in children with type 1 diabetes
Endocrine Society clinical practice over time. Diabetes Care 2013;36:16471653
guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;
95:25362559 508. Haller MJ, Samyn M, Nichols WW, et al.
Radial artery tonometry demonstrates arterial
496. Khader YS, Dauod AS, El-Qaderi SS, stiffness in children with type 1 diabetes.
Alkafajei A, Batayha WQ. Periodontal Diabetes Care 2004;27:2911
status of diabetics compared with 2917
nondiabetics: a meta-analysis. J Diabetes
Complications 2006;20:5968 509. Orchard TJ, Forrest KY, Kuller LH, Becker DJ;
Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications
497. Bainbridge KE, Hoffman HJ, Cowie CC. Study. Lipid and blood pressure treatment goals
Diabetes and hearing impairment in the for type 1 diabetes: 10-year incidence data from
United States: audiometric evidence from the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes
the National Health and Nutrition Complications Study. Diabetes Care 2001;
Examination Survey, 1999 to 2004. Ann 24:10531059
Intern Med 2008;149:110
510. Kavey RE, Allada V, Daniels SR, et al.
498. Silverstein J, Klingensmith G, Copeland KC, Cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk pediatric
et al.; American Diabetes Association. patients: a scientic statement from the American
Care of children and adolescents with Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and
type Prevention Science; the Councils on Cardiovascular
1 diabetes: a statement of the American Disease in the Young, Epidemiology and
Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2005; Prevention, Nutrition, Physical Activity and
28:186212 Metabolism, High Blood Pressure Research,
499. Wysocki T, Harris MA, Mauras N, et al. Cardiovascular Nursing, and the Kidney in Heart
Absence of adverse effects of severe Disease; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group
hypoglycemia on cognitive function in on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research:
school-aged children with diabetes over endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics.
18 months. Diabetes Care 2003;26:1100 Circulation 2006;
1105 114:27102738
500. Blasetti A, Chiuri RM, Tocco AM, et al. 511. McCrindle BW, Urbina EM, Dennison BA, et al.
The effect of recurrent severe Drug therapy of high-risk lipid abnormalities in
hypoglycemia on cognitive performance children and adolescents: a scientic statement
in children with type 1 diabetes: a meta- from the American Heart Association
analysis. J Child Neurol 2011;26:1383 Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in
1391 Youth Committee, Council of
501. Cooper MN, OConnell SM, Davis EA, Jones Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, with
TW. A population-based study of risk
factors for severe hypoglycaemia in a
contemporary cohort of childhood-onset
type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 2013;56:
21642170
502. Zuijdwijk CS, Cuerden M, Mahmud FH.
Social determinants of health on
glycemic control in pediatric type 1
the Council on Cardiovascular Pediatric Gastroenterology,
Nursing. Circulation Hepatology, and Nutrition.
2007;115:19481967 European Society for Pediatric
512. Salo P, Viikari J, Ha ma la inen M, et al. Gastroenterology, Hepatology,
and Nutrition guidelines for the
Serum cholesterol ester fatty acids in
diagnosis of coeliac disease. J
7- and 13-month-old children in a
Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr
prospective randomized trial of a
2012;54:136160
low- saturated fat, low-cholesterol
diet: the STRIP baby project. 522. Kurppa K, Ashorn M, Iltanen S, et al.
Special Turku coronary Risk factor Celiac disease without villous atrophy
Intervention Project for children. in children: a prospective study. J Pediatr
Acta Paediatr 1999;88:505512 2010;157:373380.e1
513. The Dietary Intervention Study in
Children (DISC); Writing Group for
the DISC Collaborative Research
Group. Efcacy and safety of
lowering dietary intake of fat and
cholesterol in children with
elevated low-density lipoprotein
cholesterol. JAMA
1995;273:14291435
514. Maahs DM, Dabelea D, DAgostino
RB Jr, et al.; SEARCH for Diabetes in
Youth Study. Glucose control
predicts 2-year change in lipid
prole in youth with type 1
diabetes. J Pediatr 2013;162:101
107.e1
515. McCrindle BW, Ose L, Marais AD.
Efcacy and safety of
atorvastatin in children and
adolescents with familial
hypercholesterolemia or
severe hyperlipidemia: a
multicenter, randomized,
placebo-controlled trial.
J Pediatr 2003;143:7480
516. de Jongh S, Lilien MR, opt Roodt J,
Stroes ES, Bakker HD, Kastelein JJ.
Early statin therapy restores
endothelial function in children
with familial hypercholesterolemia.
J Am Coll Cardiol
2002;40:21172121
517. Wiegman A, Hutten BA, de
Groot E, et al. Efcacy and
safety of statin therapy in
children with familial
hypercholesterolemia: a
randomized
controlled trial. JAMA 2004;292:331337
518. Cho YH, Craig ME, Hing S, et al.
Microvascular complications
assessment in adolescents with 2-
to 5-yr duration of type 1 diabetes
from 1990 to 2006. Pediatr
Diabetes 2011;12:682689
519. Holmes GK. Screening for coeliac
disease in type 1 diabetes. Arch
Dis Child 2002;87:
495498
520. Rewers M, Liu E, Simmons J,
Redondo MJ, Hoffenberg EJ. Celiac
disease associated with type 1
diabetes mellitus. Endocrinol
Metab Clin North Am
2004;33:197214
521. Husby S, Koletzko S, Korponay-Szabo IR,
et al.; ESPGHAN Working Group on
Coeliac Disease Diagnosis;
ESPGHAN Gastroenterology
Committee; European Society for
523. Abid N, McGlone O, Cardwell C, McCallion psychological course of diabetes from Holme B, Thomas W. Cystic brosis-related
W, Carson D. Clinical and metabolic effects adolescence to young adulthood:
of gluten free diet in children with type 1 a longitudinal cohort study. Diabetes Care
diabetes and coeliac disease. Pediatr 2001;24:15361540
Diabetes 2011;12:322325
534. Laing SP, Jones ME, Swerdlow AJ, Burden
524. Rolda n MB, Alonso M, Barrio R. Thyroid AC, Gatling W. Psychosocial and
autoimmunity in children and adolescents socioeconomic risk factors for premature
with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes death in young people with type 1
Nutr Metab 1999;12:2731 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1618
525. Triolo TM, Armstrong TK, McFann K, et al. 1623
Additional autoimmune disease found in 535. Eppens MC, Craig ME, Cusumano J, et al.
33% of patients at type 1 diabetes onset. Prevalence of diabetes complications in
Diabetes Care 2011;34:12111213 adolescents with type 2 compared with
526. Kordonouri O, Deiss D, Danne T, Dorow A, type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006;29:
Bassir C, Gru ters-Kieslich A. Predictivity 13001306
of thyroid autoantibodies for the
536. Hattersley A, Bruining J, Shield J, Njolstad
development of thyroid disorders in
P, Donaghue KC. The diagnosis and
children and adolescents with type 1
management of monogenic diabetes in
diabetes. Diabet Med 2002;19:518521
children and adolescents. Pediatr
527. Mohn A, Di Michele S, Di Luzio R, Tumini Diabetes 2009;10(Suppl. 12):3342
S, Chiarelli F. The effect of subclinical
537. Kitzmiller JL, Wallerstein R, Correa A,
hypothyroidism on metabolic control in
children and adolescents with type 1 Kwan S. Preconception care for women
diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2002;19: with diabetes and prevention of major
7073 congenital malformations. Birth Defects
Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2010;88:791803
528. Chase HP, Garg SK, Cockerham RS, Wilcox
WD, Walravens PA. Thyroid hormone 538. Charron-Prochownik D, Sereika SM,
replacement and growth of children with Becker D, et al. Long-term effects of the
subclinical hypothyroidism and diabetes. booster-enhanced READY-Girls
Diabet Med 1990;7:299303 preconception counseling program on
intentions and behaviors for family
529. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes planning in teens with diabetes. Diabetes
care in the school and day care setting. Care 2013;36:38703874
Diabetes Care 2014;37(Suppl. 1):S91S96
539. Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast
530. Arnett JJ. Emerging adulthood. A theory of PG, et al. Major congenital malformations
development from the late teens through after rst-trimester exposure to ACE
the twenties. Am Psychol 2000;55:469 inhibitors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2443
480 2451
531. Weissberg-Benchell J, Wolpert H, 540. American Diabetes Association.
Anderson BJ. Transitioning from pediatric
Preconception care of women with
to adult care: a new approach to the post-
diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27(Suppl.
adolescent young person with type 1
1):S76S78
diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007;30:2441
2446 541. Kirkman MS, Briscoe VJ, Clark N, et al.
Diabetes in older adults. Diabetes Care
532. Peters A, Laffel L, the American Diabetes
2012;35:26502664
Association Transitions Working Group.
Diabetes care for emerging adults: 542. Curb JD, Pressel SL, Cutler JA, et al.;
recommendations for transition from Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly
pediatric to adult diabetes care systems: Program Cooperative Research Group.
a position statement of the American Effect of diuretic-based antihypertensive
Diabetes Association, with representation treatment on cardiovascular disease risk
by the American College of Osteopathic in older diabetic patients with isolated
Family Physicians, the American Academy systolic hypertension. JAMA 1996;276:
of Pediatrics, the American Association of 18861892
Clinical Endocrinologists, the American
543. Beckett NS, Peters R, Fletcher AE, et al.;
Osteopathic Association, the Centers for
HYVET Study Group. Treatment of
Disease Control and Prevention, Children
with Diabetes, The Endocrine Society, the hypertension in patients 80 years of age
International Society for Pediatric and or older. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1887
Adolescent Diabetes, Juvenile Diabetes 1898
Research Foundation International, the 544. Kern AS, Prestridge AL. Improving
National Diabetes Education Program, and screening for cystic brosis-related
the Pediatric Endocrine Society (formerly diabetes at a pediatric cystic brosis
Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine program. Pediatrics 2013;132:e512e518
Society). Diabetes Care 2011;34:2477
545. Waugh N, Royle P, Craigie I, et al.
2485
Screening for cystic brosis-related
533. Bryden KS, Peveler RC, Stein A, Neil A, diabetes: a systematic review. Health
Mayou RA, Dunger DB. Clinical and Technol Assess 2012;16:iiiiv, 1179
546. Moran A, Dunitz J, Nathan B, Saeed A,
diabetes: current trends in prevalence,
incidence, and mortality. Diabetes Care
2009;32:16261631
547. Onady GM, Stol A. Insulin and oral agents for
managing cystic brosis-related diabetes.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2013;(7):CD004730
548. Moran A, Brunzell C, Cohen RC, et al.; CFRD
Guidelines Committee. Clinical care guidelines
for cystic brosis-related diabetes: a position
statement of the American Diabetes Association
and a clinical practice guideline of the Cystic
Fibrosis Foundation, endorsed by the Pediatric
Endocrine Society. Diabetes Care
2010;33:26972708
549. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al.
Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients.
N Engl J Med 2001;345:1359
1367
550. Malmberg K, Norhammar A, Wedel H, Ryde n L.
Glycometabolic state at admission: important
risk marker of mortality in conventionally treated
patients with diabetes mellitus and acute
myocardial infarction: long-term results from the
Diabetes and Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Acute
Myocardial Infarction (DIGAMI) study. Circulation
1999;99:
26262632
551. Clement S, Braithwaite SS, Magee MF, et al.;
American Diabetes Association Diabetes in
Hospitals Writing Committee. Management of
diabetes and hyperglycemia in hospitals
[published correction appears in Diabetes Care
2004;
27:856 and 2044;27:155]. Diabetes Care
2004;27:553591
552. Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ. Benets and
risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults:
a meta-analysis. JAMA
2008;300:933944
553. Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, et al.; German
Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet). Intensive
insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in
severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2008;358:125139
554. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, et al.; NICE- SUGAR
Study Investigators. Intensive versus
conventional glucose control in critically ill
patients. N Engl J Med 2009;
360:12831297
555. Krinsley JS, Grover A. Severe hypoglycemia in
critically ill patients: risk factors and outcomes.
Crit Care Med
2007;35:22622267
556. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al.
Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl
J Med 2006;354:449461
557. Griesdale DE, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM, et al.
Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among
critically ill patients:
a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR
study data. CMAJ 2009;180:821827
558. Saudek CD, Herman WH, Sacks DB, Bergenstal
RM, Edelman D, Davidson MB.
A new look at screening and diagnosing hospitalized patients. Diabetes Care 2010; (1): CD000313
diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 33:739741
2008;93:24472453
570. Schnipper JL, Liang CL, Ndumele CD,
559. Cryer PE, Davis SN, Shamoon H. Pendergrass ML. Effects of a
Hypoglycemia in diabetes. Diabetes Care computerized order set on the inpatient
2003;26:19021912 management of hyperglycemia: a cluster-
560. Moghissi ES, Korytkowski MT, DiNardo M, randomized controlled trial. Endocr Pract
et al.; American Association of Clinical 2010;16:
Endocrinologists; American Diabetes 209218
Association. American Association of 571. Wexler DJ, Shrader P, Burns SM, Cagliero
Clinical Endocrinologists and American E. Effectiveness of a computerized insulin
Diabetes Association consensus order template in general medical
statement on inpatient glycemic control. inpatients with type 2 diabetes: a cluster
Diabetes Care 2009;32:11191131 randomized trial. Diabetes Care 2010;33:
561. Hsu CW, Sun SF, Lin SL, Huang HH, Wong 21812183
KF. Moderate glucose control results in 572. Furnary AP, Braithwaite SS. Effects of
less negative nitrogen balances in medical outcome on in-hospital transition from
intensive care unit patients: intravenous insulin infusion to
a randomized, controlled study. Crit Care subcutaneous therapy. Am J Cardiol 2006;
2012;16:R56 98:557564
562. Umpierrez GE, Hellman R, Korytkowski 573. Schafer RG, Bohannon B, Franz MJ, et al.;
MT, et al.; Endocrine Society. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes
Management of hyperglycemia in nutrition recommendations for health
hospitalized patients in non-critical care care institutions. Diabetes Care 2004;27
setting: an Endocrine Society clinical (Suppl. 1):S55S57
practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
574. Curll M, Dinardo M, Noschese M,
2012;97:1638
Korytkowski MT. Menu selection,
563. Bernard JB, Munoz C, Harper J, Muriello glycaemic control and satisfaction with
M, Rico E, Baldwin D. Treatment of standard and patient-controlled
inpatient hyperglycemia beginning in the consistent carbohydrate meal plans in
emergency department: a randomized hospitalised patients with diabetes. Qual
trial using insulins aspart and detemir Saf Health Care 2010;19:355359
compared with usual care. J Hosp Med
575. Korytkowski MT, Salata RJ, Koerbel GL,
2011;6:279284
et al. Insulin therapy and glycemic control
564. Czosnowski QA, Swanson JM, Lobo BL, in hospitalized patients with diabetes
Broyles JE, Deaton PR, Finch CK. during enteral nutrition therapy:
Evaluation of glycemic control following a randomized controlled clinical trial.
discontinuation of an intensive insulin Diabetes Care 2009;32:594596
protocol. J Hosp Med 2009;4:2834
576. Umpierrez GE. Basal versus sliding-scale
565. Shomali MI, Herr DL, Hill PC, Pehlivanova regular insulin in hospitalized patients
M, Sharretts JM, Magee MF. Conversion with hyperglycemia during enteral
from intravenous insulin to subcutaneous nutrition therapy. Diabetes Care
insulin after cardiovascular surgery: 2009;32:751753
transition to target study. Diabetes
577. Klonoff DC, Perz JF. Assisted monitoring of
Technol Ther 2011;13:121126
blood glucose: special safety needs for a
566. Baldwin D, Zander J, Munoz C, et al. A new paradigm in testing glucose. J
randomized trial of two weight-based Diabetes Sci Tech 2010;4:10271031
doses of insulin glargine and glulisine in
578. DOrazio P, Burnett RW, Fogh-Andersen N,
hospitalized subjects with type 2 diabetes
et al.; International Federation of Clinical
and renal insufciency. Diabetes Care
Chemistry Scientic Division Working
2012;35:19701974
Group on Selective Electrodes and Point
567. Draznin B, Gilden J, Golden SH, et al.; of Care Testing. Approved IFCC
PRIDE investigators. Pathways to quality recommendation on reporting results for
inpatient management of hyperglycemia blood glucose (abbreviated). Clin Chem
and diabetes: a call to action. Diabetes 2005;51:15731576
Care 2013;36:18071814
579. Dungan K, Chapman J, Braithwaite SS,
568. Umpierrez GE, Smiley D, Jacobs S, et al. Buse J. Glucose measurement:
Randomized study of basal-bolus insulin confounding issues in setting targets for
therapy in the inpatient management of inpatient management. Diabetes Care
patients with type 2 diabetes undergoing 2007;30:403409
general surgery (RABBIT 2 surgery).
580. Boyd JC, Bruns DE. Quality specications
Diabetes Care 2011;34:256261 for glucose meters: assessment by
569. Pasquel FJ, Spiegelman R, McCauley M, simulation modeling of errors in insulin
et al. Hyperglycemia during total dose. Clin Chem 2001;47:209214
parenteral nutrition: an important marker 581. Shepperd S, McClaran J, Phillips CO, et al.
of poor outcome and mortality in Discharge planning from hospital to
home. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;
582. Agency for Healthcare Research and intensication: patient
and Quality. Adverse Events after views compared with current
hospital discharge [Internet], treatment guidelines. Diabetes
2010. Available from Educ 2011;
http://psnet.ahrq.gov/primer.aspx 37:7884
? primerID511 595. Schillinger D, Piette J, Grumbach K, et al.
583. American Diabetes Association. Closing the loop: physician
Diabetes and employment. communication with diabetic
Diabetes Care 2014;37 (Suppl. patients who have low health
1):S112S117 literacy. Arch Intern Med
584. American Diabetes Association. 2003;163:8390
Diabetes and driving. Diabetes
Care 2014;37 (Suppl. 1):S97
S103
585. American Diabetes Association.
Diabetes management in
correctional institutions. Diabetes
Care 2014;37(Suppl. 1):S104S111
586. Hoerger TJ, Segel JE, Gregg EW,
Saaddine JB. Is glycemic control
improving in U.S. adults?Diabetes
Care 2008;31:8186
587. Wang J, Geiss LS, Cheng YJ, et al.
Long- term and recent progress in
blood pressure levels among U.S.
adults with diagnosed diabetes,
19882008. Diabetes Care
2011;34:15791581
588. Kerr EA, Heisler M, Krein SL, et al.
Beyond comorbidity counts: how
do comorbidity type and severity
inuence diabetes patients
treatment priorities and self-
management? J Gen Intern Med
2007;22:
16351640
589. Fernandez A, Schillinger D, Warton EM,
et al. Language barriers, physician-
patient language concordance, and
glycemic control among insured
Latinos with diabetes: the
Diabetes Study of Northern
California (DISTANCE). J Gen
Intern Med
2011;26:170176
590. Stellefson M, Dipnarine K, Stopka
C. The chronic care model and
diabetes management in US
primary care settings: a systematic
review. Prev Chronic Dis
2013;10:E26
591. Coleman K, Austin BT, Brach C, Wagner EH.
Evidence on the chronic care
model in the new millennium.
Health Aff (Millwood)
2009;28:7585
592. Parchman ML, Zeber JE, Romero RR, Pugh
JA. Risk of coronary artery disease in type
2 diabetes and the delivery of
care consistent with the chronic
care model in primary care
settings: a STARNet study. Med
Care 2007;45:11291134
593. Davidson MB. How our current
medical care system fails people
with diabetes: lack of timely,
appropriate clinical decisions.
Diabetes Care 2009;32:370372
594. Grant RW, Pabon-Nau L, Ross KM,
Youatt EJ, Pandiscio JC, Park ER.
Diabetes oral medication initiation
S8080 Position Diabetes Care Volume 37, Supplement 1, January 2014
Statement
596. Rosal MC, Ockene IS, Restrepo A, et al. telemonitoring in veterans with type 2 612. Feifer C, Nemeth L, Nietert PJ, et al.
Randomized trial of a literacy-sensitive, diabetes: the DiaTel randomized Different paths to high-quality care:
culturally tailored diabetes self- controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2010;33: three archetypes of top-performing
management intervention for low-income 478484 practice sites. Ann Fam Med 2007;5:233
Latinos: Latinos en Control. Diabetes Care 241
2011;34:838844 605. Berikai P, Meyer PM, Kazlauskaite R,
Savoy B, Kozik K, Fogelfeld L. Gain in 613. Reed M, Huang J, Graetz I, et al.
597. Osborn CY, Cavanaugh K, Wallston KA, patients knowledge of diabetes Outpatient electronic health records and
et al. Health literacy explains racial management targets is associated with the clinical care and outcomes of patients
disparities in diabetes medication better glycemic control. Diabetes Care with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med
adherence. J Health Commun 2011;16 2007;30:1587 2012;157:482489
(Suppl. 3):268278 1589 614. Cebul RD, Love TE, Jain AK, Hebert CJ.
598. Rothman R, Malone R, Bryant B, Horlen C, 606. Funnell MM, Brown TL, Childs BP, et al. Electronic health records and quality of
DeWalt D, Pignone M. The relationship National Standards for Diabetes Self- diabetes care. N Engl J Med 2011;365:
between literacy and glycemic control in a Management Education. Diabetes Care 825833
diabetes disease-management program. 2007;30:16301637
Diabetes Educ 2004;30:263273 615. Battersby M, Von Korff M, Schaefer J, et al.
607. Klein S, Sheard NF, Pi-Sunyer X, et al. Twelve evidence-based principles for
599. OConnor PJ, Sperl-Hillen JM, Rush WA, et Weight management through lifestyle implementing self-management support
al. Impact of electronic health record modication for the prevention and in primary care. Jt Comm J Qual Patient
clinical decision support on diabetes care: management of type 2 diabetes: rationale Saf
a randomized trial. Ann Fam Med 2011;9: and strategies: a statement of the 2010;36:561570
1221 American Diabetes Association, the North 616. Grant RW, Wald JS, Schnipper JL, et al.
600. Garg AX, Adhikari NK, McDonald H, et al. American Association for the Study of Practice-linked online personal health
Effects of computerized clinical decision Obesity, and the American Society for records for type 2 diabetes mellitus:
support systems on practitioner Clinical Nutrition. Diabetes Care 2004;27: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern
performance and patient outcomes: 20672073 Med 2008;168:17761782
a systematic review. JAMA
608. Norris SL, Zhang X, Avenell A, et al. Efcacy 617. Pullen-Smith B, Carter-Edwards L,
2005;293:1223
of pharmacotherapy for weight loss in Leathers KH. Community health
1238
adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: ambassadors: a model for engaging
601. Smith SA, Shah ND, Bryant SC, et al.; a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 2004; community leaders to promote better
Evidens Research Group. Chronic care 164:13951404 health in North Carolina. J Public
model and shared care in diabetes: Health Manag Pract 2008;14(Suppl.):
609. Tricco AC, Ivers NM, Grimshaw JM, et al.
randomized trial of an electronic decision S73S81
Effectiveness of quality improvement
support system. Mayo Clin Proc
strategies on the management of 618. Bojadzievski T, Gabbay RA. Patient-
2008;83:747757
diabetes: a systematic review and meta- centered medical home and diabetes.
602. Jaffe MG, Lee GA, Young JD, Sidney S, Go analysis. Lancet 2012;379:22522261 Diabetes Care 2011;34:10471053
AS. Improved blood pressure control
610. OConnor PJ, Bodkin NL, Fradkin J, et al. 619. Rosenthal MB, Cutler DM, Feder J.
associated with a large-scale hypertension
Diabetes performance measures: current The ACO rulesdstriking the balance
program. JAMA 2013;310:699705
status and future directions. Diabetes between participation and
603. Davidson MB, Ansari A, Karlan VJ. Effect Care 2011;34:16511659 transformative potential. N Engl J Med
of a nurse-directed diabetes disease 2011;365:e6
management program on urgent care/ 611. Peikes D, Chen A, Schore J, Brown R.
emergency room visits and Effects of care coordination on 620. Washington AE, Lipstein SH. The Patient-
hospitalizations in a minority population. hospitalization, quality of care, and health Centered Outcomes Research
Diabetes Care 2007;30:224227 care expenditures among Medicare Institutedpromoting better information,
beneciaries: 15 randomized trials. JAMA decisions, and health. N Engl J Med 2011;
604. Stone RA, Rao RH, Sevick MA, et al. 2009;301:603618 365:e31
Active care management supported by
home