Caltrans Bridge Design Practice PDF

Division of Engineering Services
BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE

4 th Edition
2015
State of California
Department of Transportation
BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE FEBRUARY 2015
PREFACE
The first edition of the Bridge Design Practice Manual (BDP) was published in 1960,
and the second and third editions were published in 1963 and 1971, respectively. The
BDP has been published as a live document continuously since the 1990s. The primary
purpose of the BDP is to provide bridge design engineers with application of the
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) design standards and practices that
lead to consistency in the design of bridge and highway structure projects on the
California highway systems.
The fourth edition of the BDP is divided into three volumes and covers the major areas in
bridge and highway structure design. The BDP conforms to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (Customary US units), sixth Edition with the 2014 California
Amendments, except as noted; describes the basic design concepts and assumptions;
provides step-by-step design examples; introduces innovative practice; and serves as a
comprehensive reference manual for Caltrans bridge design engineers. A total of 15
chapters are published in February 2015, with more to follow.
Development of the fourth edition of the BDP was a team effort and product of the
Caltrans Division of Engineering Services Technical Organization. Many people gave
unselfishly of their time and talent; their effort is gratefully acknowledged. Recognition
of those individuals and groups who have made major contributions is as follows:
VOLUME I: FUNDAMENTALS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
Chapter 1, Bridge Design Specifications was written by Lian Duan.

Chapter 2, Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics originally written by Javier Chavez,
was revised and updated for this edition by Bob Travis and Vanessa
Gehringer.
Chapter 3, Loads and Load Combinations originally written by Marc Friedheim,
was revised and updated for this edition by Kammy Bhala.
Chapter 4, Structural Modeling and Analysis was written by Mina Pezeshpour, Lian
Duan, and Paul Chung.
Chapter 5, Concrete Design Theory was written by Jinrong Wang.
Chapter 6, Steel Design Theory was written by Lian Duan.
Chapter 7, Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders was written by Bartt Gunter, Gabriel
Galo, Edward Mercado, and Daryoush Balbas.
Chapter 8, Precast Pretensioned Concrete Girders was written by Say-Gunn Low,
Eric Matsumoto, Bartt Gunter, and Jim Ma.
Chapter 9, Steel Plate Girders was written by Lian Duan, Yusuf Saleh, and Yong-
Pil Kim.
Chapter 10, Concrete Decks originally written by Newton Armstrong, was revised
and updated for this edition by Lian Duan.
Preface i
VOLUME II: SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
Chapter 12, Concrete Bent Caps was written by Don Nguyen-Tan, Krishnakant
Andurlekar, and Ahmed Ibrahim.
Chapter 13, Concrete Columns was written by Ashraf Ahmed.
Chapter 15, Shallow Foundations was written by Amir Malek and Hernan Perez with
supports from Mohammed Islam and Jinxing Zha.
Chapter 16, Deep Foundations was written by Amir Malek, Sam Ataya, Ryan Stiltz,
and Mohey El-Mously with support from Mark Mahan.
VOLUME III: SEISMIC DESIGN
Chapter 21, Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges was written by Christian Unanwa,
Mark Mahan, Surjit Dhillon, Tariq Masroor, and Jay Quiogue.
The fourth edition of the BDP was prepared under the direction of Roberto Lacalle, BDP
Manager; and Lian Duan, BDP Editor. Division of Engineering Services Technical
Committees performed technical reviews; Tom Ruckman, James Choi, and Don Reding
conducted independent quality assurance reviews; and Janet Barnett performed grammar
review.
Dolores M. Valls
Interim State Bridge Engineer
Deputy Division Chief
Structure Policy and Innovation
Division of Engineering Services
Preface ii
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CHAPTER 1
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1-1

1.2 LIMIT STATES .............................................................................................................. 1-2
1.3 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) ...................................................................... 1-2
1.4 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD) .................................................................................. 1-3
1.5 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD) ............................................. 1-4
1.5.1 Probability-Based Design ............................................................................... 1-4
1.5.2 Probabilistic Basis of the LRFD Specifications .............................................. 1-4
1.5.3 Calibration of Load and Resistance Factors.................................................... 1-6
1.5.4 Load and Resistance Factors ........................................................................... 1-8
1.5.5 General Design Requirements......................................................................... 1-9
1.5.6 Serviceability Requirements ......................................................................... 1-10
1.5.7 Constructability Requirements ...................................................................... 1-11
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................... 1-12
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 1-13
Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-i

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Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-ii

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CHAPTER 1
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of bridge design specifications is to ensure bridge safety such
that minimum resistances or capacities, in terms of strength, stiffness, and stability of
each bridge component and the whole bridge structural system exceed the potential
maximum demands or force effects due to various loads during its design life. The first
national standard for highway bridge design and construction in the United States,
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures was
published by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) in 1927,
the predecessor to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). Design theory and practice have evolved significantly due to
increased understanding of structural behavior and loading phenomena gained through
research. Prior to 1970, the sole design philosophy was allowable stress design (ASD).
Beginning in early 1970, a new design philosophy referred to as load factor design
(LFD) was introduced. The latest version entitled Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges (Standard Specifications) is the final 17th Edition (AASHTO, 2002)
and includes both ASD and LFD philosophies. Reliability-based and probability-based
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) philosophy was first adopted in AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (LRFD Specifications) (AASHTO 1994) and
continues in the 7th Edition (AASHTO 2014). The LRFD Specifications had not been
widely used until AASHTO discontinued updating of its Standard Specifications in
2003.
ASD, LFD, and LRFD are distinct design philosophies and methods. ASD does
not recognize that some loads are more variable than others. LFD brings the major
philosophical change of recognizing that some loads are more accurately represented
than others. LRFD is a logical extension of the LFD procedure and provides a
mechanism to more systematically and rationally select the load and resistance factors
with uniform margins of safety.
The LRFD Specifications with California Amendments has been implemented for
the all new bridge designs in the State of California since 2006. The latest version of
the California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 6th
Edition (AASHTO, 2012) was published in 2014 (Caltrans, 2014). This chapter will
briefly describe the general concepts and backgrounds of ASD and LFD but primarily
discuss the LRFD philosophy. A detailed discussion may be found in Kulicki (2014).
Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-1

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1.2 LIMIT STATES

The design specifications are written to establish an acceptable level of safety for
different loading cases. Limit states is a terminology for treating safety issues in
modern specifications. A limit state is a condition beyond which the bridge or
component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed. Limit states may
be expressed by functional requirements such as the limiting deformation, stress or
cracks, or by safety requirements such as the maximum strength. The design
provisions make certain that the probability of exceeding a limit state is acceptably
small by stipulating combinations of nominal loads and load factors, as well as
resistances and resistance factors that are consistent with the design assumptions. The
following four limit states are specified in the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012):
Service Limit State: Deals with restrictions on stress, deformation and crack
width under regular service conditions. These provisions are intended to
ensure the bridge performs acceptably during its design life.
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State: The fatigue limit state deals with restrictions
on stress range under specified truck loading reflecting the number of expected
stress range excursions. The fracture limit state is to establish a set of material
toughness requirements. These provisions are intended to limit crack growth
under repetitive loads to prevent fracture during its design life.
Strength Limit State: Ensures that strength and stability, both local and global,
are provided to resist the statistically-significant load combinations during the
life of a bridge. The overall structural integrity is expected to be maintained.
Extreme Event Limit State: Ensures the structural survival of a bridge during
a major earthquake, collision by a vessel, vehicle or ice flow, or floods. These
provisions deal with circumstances considered to be unique occurrences whose
return period is significantly greater than the design life of a bridge. The
probability of a joint occurrence of these events is extremely low, and,
therefore, they are applied separately. Under these extreme conditions, the
structure is expected to undergo considerable inelastic deformation.
1.3 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

ASD, also known as working stress design (WSD) or service load design, is based
on the concept that the maximum applied stress in a structural component not exceed
a certain allowable stress under normal service or working conditions. The general
ASD design equation can be expressed as:
Q
Rn
i (1.3-1)
FS
where Qi is a load effect; Rn is the nominal resistance and FS is a factor of safety.

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The left side of Equation 1.3-1 represents working stress or service load effects.
The right side of Equation 1.3-1 means allowable stress. The load effect Qi is obtained
by an elastic structural analysis for a specified load, while the allowable stress (Rn/FS)
is the nominal limiting stress such as yielding, instability or fracture divided by a safety
factor. The magnitude of a factor of safety is primarily based on past experience and
engineering judgment. For example, the factors of safety for axial tension and axial
compression in structural steel are 1.82 and 2.12, respectively in the Standard
Specifications (AASHTO, 2002).
The ASD treats each load in a given load combination as equal from the view point
of statistical variability. It does not consider the probability of both a higher than
expected load and a lower than expected strength occurring simultaneously. They are
both taken care of by the factor of safety. Although there are some drawbacks to ASD,
bridges designed based on ASD have served very well with safety inherent in the
system.
1.4 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD)

LFD, also known as ultimate or strength design, mainly recognizes that the live
load such as vehicular loads and wind forces, in particular, is more variable than the
dead load. This concept is achieved by using different multipliers, i.e., load factors on
dead and live loads. The general LFD design equation can be expressed as:
Q i i Rn (1.4-1)
where i is a load factor and is the strength reduction factor.

The nominal resistance is usually based on either loss of stability of a component
or inelastic cross-sectional strength. In some cases, the resistance is reduced by a
strength reduction factor, , which is based on the possibility that a component may
be undersized, the material may be under strength, or the method of calculation may
be less accurate. It should be pointed out, however, that the probability of a joint
occurrence of higher than expected loads and less than the expected resistance is not
considered.
One major disadvantage of LFD is that the load factors and resistance factors were
not calibrated in a manner that takes into account the statistical variability of design
parameters in nature, although the calibration for a simple-span of a 40-foot steel girder
was performed by Vincent (1969).

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1.5 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

1.5.1 Probability-Based Design
Probability-based design is to ensure that probability of failure of a structure is less
than a level acceptable to society. It directly takes into account the statistical mean
resistance, the statistical mean loads, the nominal or notional value of resistance, the
nominal or notional value of the loads and the dispersion of resistance and loads as
measured by either the standard deviation or the coefficient of variation. Direct
probability-based design that computes the probability of failure for a given set of
loads, statistical data and the estimate of the nominal resistance of the component has
been used in numerous engineering disciplines but had not been widely used in bridge
engineering.
1.5.2 Probabilistic Basis of the LRFD Specifications

The probability-based LRFD Specifications center around the load effects Q and
the resistances R modeled as statistically independent random variables (Ravindra and
Galambos, 1978; Ellingwood, et. al., 1982; Kulicki, et. al., 1994). Figure 1.5-1 shows
the relative frequency distributions for Q and R as separate curves. The mean value of
the load effects ( Q ) and the mean value of the resistance ( R ) are also shown. Qn and
Rn are the nominal value of the load effects and the resistance, respectively. and
are the load and the resistance factor, respectively.
Figure 1.5-1 Relative Frequency Distribution of Load Effect Q and Resistance R
As long as the resistance R is greater than the load effects Q, a margin of safety for
a particular limit state exists. However, since Q and R are random variables in reality,
there is a small probability that R may be less than Q. In other words, the probability

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of R < Q as shown as the overlap shadow area in Figure 1.5-1 is related to the relative
positioning of R and Q and their dispersions. For both the load effect and the resistance,
a second value somewhat offset from the mean value, is the nominal value.
Designers calculate these values for the load effect and the resistance. The objective of
the reliability-based or probability-based design philosophy is to separate the
distribution of resistance from the distribution of load effect, such that the area of
overlap, i.e., the area where load effect is greater than resistance, is acceptably small.
In the LRFD Specifications, load factors and resistance factors were developed
together in a way that forces the relationship between the resistance and load effect to
be such that the area of overlap in Figure 1.5-1 is less than or equal to the value that
AASHTO accepts.
Probability of exceedance or achievement of a limit state can be examined by
comparing R and Q as shown in Figure 1.5-2. Potential structural failure is represented
by the left side region. The distance between the exceedance line and the mean value
of the function of R-Q is defined as , where is the standard deviation of the
function of R-Q and is called the reliability index or safety index. The larger
is, the greater the margin of safety.
Figure 1.5-2 Reliability Index
The probability of R < Q depends on the distribution shapes of each of many

variables (material, loads, etc.). Usually, the mean values and the standard deviations
or the coefficients of variation of many variables involved in R and Q can be estimated.
By applying the simple advanced first-order second-moment method (Ravindra and
Galambos, 1978; Kulicki et. al., 1994) and assuming that both the resistance and load
effect are normal random variables, the following reliability index equation can be
obtained:

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R Q
(1.5-1)
2R Q2
where R and Q are the coefficients of variation of the resistance R and the load effect
Q, respectively.
Considering variations of both the load effect and the resistance, the basic design
equations can be expressed as:
R Q i xi (1.5-2)
Introducing as the ratio of the mean value divided by the nominal value called
the "bias" leads to:

1
R i xi (1.5-3)

Solving for the resistance factor from Equations 1.5-3 and 1.5-1 yields:

i i
(1.5-4)
Q 2R Q2
It is seen that there are three unknowns, i.e., the resistance factor, , the reliability
index, , and the load factor, .
The reliability index is very useful. It can give an indication of the consistency of
safety for a bridge designed using traditional methods. It also can be used to establish
new methods which will have consistent margins of safety. Most importantly, it is a
comparative indicator. One group of bridges having a reliability index which is greater
than a second group of bridges has more inherent safety. A group of existing bridges
designed by either ASD or LFD formed the basis for determining the target, or code-
specified reliability index and the load and resistance factors in the LRFD
Specifications (Kulicki et. al., 1994).
1.5.3 Calibration of Load and Resistance Factors

A target value of the reliability index , usually denoted T, is chosen by a code-
writing body. Equation 1.5-4 still indicates that both the load and resistance factors
must be found. One way to solve this problem is to select the load factors and then
calculate the resistance factors. This process has been used by several code-writing
authorities (AASHTO, 1994; OMTC, 1994; CSA, 1998). The basic steps of calibration
(Nowak, 1993) of the load and resistance factors for the LRFD Specifications were:
Develop a database of sample current bridges
Extract load effects as percentage of total load
Estimate the reliability indices implicit in current designs

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Quantify variability in loads and materials by deciding on coefficients of

variation
Assume load factors
Vary resistance factors until suitable reliability indices result
Approximately 200 representative bridges (Nowak, 1993) were selected from
various regions of the United States by requesting sample bridge plans from various
states. The selection was based on structural-type, material, and geographic location to
represent a full-range of materials and design loads and practices as they vary around
the country.
Statistically-projected live load and the notional values of live load effects were
calculated. Resistance was calculated in terms of the moment and the shear capacity
for each structure according to the prevailing requirements, in this case the AASHTO
Standard Specifications (AASHTO, 1989) for load factor design. Based on the relative
amounts of the loads identified for each of the combinations of span and spacing and
type of construction indicated by the database, a simulated set of 175 bridges was
developed. The simulated group was comprised of non-composite steel girder bridges,
composite steel girder bridges, reinforced concrete T-beam bridges, and prestressed
concrete I-beam bridges.
The reliability indices were calculated for each simulated and each actual bridge
for both the shear and the moment. The range of reliability indices which resulted from
this calibration process is presented in Figure 1.5-3 (Kulicki, et. al., 1994). It can be
seen that a wide-range of values were obtained using the Standard Specifications, but
this was anticipated based on previous calibration work done for the Ontario Highway
Bridge Design Code (Nowak, 1979).
These calculated reliability indices, as well as past calibration of other
specifications, served as a basis for the selection of the target reliability index, T. A
target reliability index of 3.5 was selected for the Ontario Highway Bridge Design
Code (OMTC, 1994) and other reliability-based specifications. A consideration of the
data shown in Figure 1.5-3 indicates that a of 3.5 is representative of past LFD
practice. Hence, this value was selected as a target for the calibration of the LRFD
Specifications.

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0
0 30
30 60
60 90
90 120
120 160
160
Span Length (ft)(ft)
Figure 1.5-3 Reliability Indices Inherent in the 1989 AASHTO Standard
Specifications
1.5.4 Load and Resistance Factors

The recommended values of load factors are simplified to be practical for bridge
design. One factor is specified for weight of both shop-built and field-built
components: = 1.25. For weight of asphalt and utilities, = 1.50, a higher value is
used. For live load, the calibrated value of load factor was 1.60. However, a more
conservative value of = 1.75 is utilized in the LRFD Specifications. A detailed
discussion of load factors and load combinations is in Chapter 3.
The acceptance criterion, in the selection of resistance factors, is how close the
calculated reliability indices are to the target value of the reliability index, T.
Calculations were performed using the load components for each of the 175 simulated
bridges using the range of resistance factors shown in Table 1.5-1 (Nowak, 1993).
Reliability indices were recalculated for each of the 175 simulated cases and each
of the actual bridges from which the simulated bridges were produced. The range of
values obtained using the new load and resistance factors are indicated in Figure 1.5-4
(Kulicki, et. al., 1994). It is seen from Figure 1.5-4 that the new calibrated load and
resistance factors, and new load models and load distribution techniques work together
to produce very narrowly-clustered reliability indices. This was the objective of
developing the new factors. Correspondence to a reliability index of 3.5 can now be
altered by AASHTO when either a higher level of safety or taking more risk is
appropriate. If the target reliability index is to be raised or lowered, the factors need to

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be recalculated accordingly. This ability to adjust the design parameters in a

coordinated manner is one of the benefits of a probability-based reliability design.
Table 1.5-1 Considered Resistance Factors in LRFD Calibration

MATERIAL LIMIT STATE RESISTANCE FACTOR
LOWER UPPER
Non-Composite Steel Moment 0.95 1.00
Shear 0.95 1.00
Composite Steel Moment 0.95 1.00
Shear 0.95 1.00
Reinforced Concrete Moment 0.85 0.90
Shear 0.90 0.90
Prestressed Concrete Moment 0.95 1.00
Shear 0.90 0.95
0 30 60 90 120 160
Span Length (ft)
Figure 1.5-4 Reliability Indices Inherent in LRFD Specifications
1.5.5 General Design Requirements

Public safety is the primary responsibility of the design engineer. All other aspects
of design, including serviceability, maintainability, economics and aesthetics are
secondary to the requirement for safety. The LRFD Specifications specifies that each
component and connection shall satisfy the following equation for each limit state:
Q
i i i Rn Rr (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-1)
where i is a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational

importance and Rr is the factored resistance.

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For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate:
i D R I 0.95 (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-2)
For loads for which a minimum value of i is appropriate:

1
i 1.0 (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-3)
D R I
where D , R and I are factors relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational

importance, respectively. The California Amendments (Caltrans 2014) specifies that
the value of 1.0 shall be used for D, R and I until their applications are further
studied.
1.5.6 Serviceability Requirements

The LRFD Specifications address serviceability from the view points of durability,
restriction of stresses, cracking, corrosion, and deformation - all in conjunction with
contract documents to achieve the desired design life. Bridge designers also need to
be mindful of ease in inspection and maintainability, as addressed in the Manual for
Bridge Evaluation (AASHTO, 2011).
Durability is to be assured through contract documents calling for high quality
materials and requiring that those materials that are subject to deterioration from
moisture content and/or salt attack be protected. Good workmanship is also important
for good durability.
Maintainability is treated in the specifications in a similar manner to durability; a
list of desirable attributes to be considered is provided.
Inspectability is to be assured by providing adequate means for inspectors to view
all parts of the structure which have structural or maintenance significance. Bridge
inspection can be very expensive and is a recurring cost. Therefore, the cost of
providing walkways and other means of access and adequate room for people and
inspection equipment to be moved about on the structure is usually a good investment.
Rider comfort is often rationalized as a basis for deflection control. As a
compromise between the need for establishing comfort levels and the lack of
compelling evidence that deflection was the cause of structural distress, the deflection
criteria, other than those pertaining to relative deflections of ribs of orthotropic decks
and components of some wood decks, were written as voluntary provisions to be
activated by those states that so choose. Deflection limits, stated as span length divided
by some number, were established for most cases, and additional provisions of absolute
relative displacement between planks and panels of wooden decks and ribs of
orthotropic decks were also added. Similarly, optional criteria were established for a
span-to-depth ratio for guidance primarily in starting preliminary designs, but also as

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a mechanism for checking when a given design deviates significantly from past
successful practice.
User comfort on pedestrian bridges is addressed in the LRFD Guide Specifications
for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges (AASHTO, 2009).
1.5.7 Constructability Requirements

The following provisions in the LRFD Specifications are related to
constructability:
Design bridges so that they can be fabricated and built without undue difficulty
and with control over locked in construction force effects,
Document one feasible method of construction in the contract documents,
unless the type of construction is self-evident, and
Indicate clearly the need to provide strengthening and/or temporary bracing or
support during erection, but not requiring the complete design thereof.

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NOTATION
FS = factor of safety
Q = load effects
Q = mean value of the load effect
Qi = a load effect
R = resistance
Rn = nominal resistance
R = mean value of the resistance
Rr = factored resistance
i = a load factor
= load factor
= ratio of the mean value divided by the nominal value, called the bias
= reliability index
T = target reliability index
= resistance factor
D = a factor relating to ductility
R = a factor relating to redundancy
I = a factor relating to operational importance
i = a load modifier, a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operation
importance
= standard deviation
R = coefficient of variation of the resistance R
Q = coefficient of variation of the load effect Q

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REFERENCES
1. AASHO, (1927). Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures,
American Association of State Highway Officials, Washington, D.C.
2. AASHTO, (1989). Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 14th Edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
3. AASHTO, (1994). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 1st Edition, American
5. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Units
(6th Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, D.C.
6. AASHTO, (2011). The Manual for Bridge Evaluation, 2nd Edition, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
7. AASHTO, (2009). AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian
Bridges, 2nd Edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, D.C.
8. AASHTO, (2014). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 7th Edition, American
9. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

6th Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
10. CSA, (1998). Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Canadian Standards Association,
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.
11. Ellingwood, B.E., MacGregor, J.G., Galambos, T.V., and Cornell, C.A. (1982).
Probability-Based Load Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations, Journal of
Structural Division, ASCE, 108(5), 1337-1353.
12. Kulicki, J.M. (2014). Chapter 5: Highway Bridge Design Specifications, Bridge
Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition: Fundamentals, Edited by Chen, W.F. and Duan, L.,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
13. Kulicki, J.M., Mertz, D.R. and Wassef, W.G. (1994). LRFD Design of Highway Bridges,
NHI Course 13061, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C.

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14. Nowak, A.S. (1993). Calibration of LRFD Bridge Design Code, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering Report UMCE 92-25, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
15. Nowak, A.S. and Lind, N.C. (1979). Practical Bridge Code Calibration, ASCE, Journal
of the Structural Division, ASCE, 105(ST12), 2497-2510.
16. OMTC, (1994). Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation
and Communications, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
17. Ravindra, M.K., and Galambos, T.V. (1978). Load and Resistance Factor Design for
Steel, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 104(ST9), 1337-1353.
18. Vincent, G.S. (1969). Tentative Criteria for Load Factor Design of Steel Highway
Bridges, AISI Bulletin 15, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, DC.

CHAPTER 2
BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE
AND AESTHETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 2-1

2.2 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS ......................................................... 2-1
2.2.1 The Bridge Architecture & Aesthetics Design Branch ...................................... 2-1
2.2.2 Context Sensitive Design ................................................................................... 2-2
2.2.3 Route and Corridor Themes ............................................................................... 2-2
2.2.4 Products and Services......................................................................................... 2-3
2.2.5 Recommended Levels of Aesthetic Treatments ................................................. 2-4
2.3 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS DELIVERY MILESTONES........... 2-4
2.3.1 Advanced Planning Study .................................................................................. 2-5
2.3.2 Structures General Plan ...................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.3 Structure Plans, Specifications, and Estimate Development .............................. 2-8
2.4 STRUCTURE TYPES AND COMPONENTS ............................................................... 2-9
2.4.1 Water Crossing Bridges...................................................................................... 2-9
2.4.2 Valley Crossing Bridges................................................................................... 2-10
2.4.3 Overcrossings ................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.4 Undercrossings ................................................................................................. 2-12
2.4.5 Pedestrian Bridges .......................................................................................... 2-13
2.4.6 Viaducts ........................................................................................................... 2-15
2.4.7 Interchanges ..................................................................................................... 2-16
2.4.8 Bridge Columns/Bents ..................................................................................... 2-17
2.4.9 Bridge Abutments and Wingwalls .................................................................. 2-18
2.4.10 Slope Paving .................................................................................................... 2-19
2.4.11 Bridge Barriers ................................................................................................. 2-20
2.4.12 Fences and Railings ........................................................................................ 2-23
2.4.13 Light Fixtures ................................................................................................ 2-25
2.4.14Retaining Walls ............................................................................................... 2-26
Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-i

2.4.15 Sound Wall Pilaster Design ........................................................................... 2-29

2.4.16 Tunnel Portal Design ........................................................................................ 2-30
2.4.17 Rocksheds ...................................................................................................... 2-32
ATTACHMENT 1 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS
DELIVERY FLOWCHART .................................................................... 2-34
ATTACHMENT 2 PRELIMNARY ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETIC
RECOMMENDATION FORM ................................................................ 2-35
ATTACHMENT 3 FINAL ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETIC
RECOMMENDATION FORM ............................................................... 2-36
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 2-37
Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-ii

CHAPTER 2
BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE
AND AESTHETICS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Well executed architectural design and aesthetic treatment solutions are vital to
developing a legacy of safe, functional, and beautiful Caltrans structures. The Bridge
Architecture and Aesthetics Design Branch works in a coordinated effort with the
Division of Engineering Services Project Engineers, and District design personnel, to
insure quality, safe, and beautiful structures on the states highway system. The
coordination and integration of complimentary design disciplines (e.g., bridge
architecture and bridge engineering), are the keys for successful structure design and
delivery. Utilizing an orderly design effort, the Division of Engineering Services
Project Engineers, Bridge Architecture & Aesthetics Design Branch, and District staff,
reduce the chance of late scope changes for aesthetics during the structures design
phase. Late changes are undesirable and may cause delays in project delivery, increase
costs, and can result in projects with poor visual appearance. This chapter presents
current Caltrans bridge architecture and aesthetics design guidelines and practice. For
general bridge aesthetics, references are made to AASHTO (2010), Billington (1983
and 2003), Gottemoeller (2004 and 2014), and Leonhardt (1983 and 2014).
2.2 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS

2.2.1 The Bridge Architecture & Aesthetics Design Branch
The Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics (BA&A) Design Branch is an

accomplished team of architects, graphic artists, and model makers at the forefront of
bridge architectural and aesthetics design. The architects primary goals are visual, and
the primary value of the architect in structures design is to create beautiful and pleasing
structures. The BA&A Design Branch typically reviews and provides aesthetics
recommendations for the following types of projects: bridges over bodies of water,
valleys and canyons; highway overcrossings and undercrossings; highway
interchanges, pedestrian overcrossings; highway viaducts; tunnels and tunnel portals;
retaining walls; and rocksheds. While the term bridge has a specific meaning as
structures built over bodies of water and canyons, the use of the terms bridge and
structure are used interchangeably within the body of this chapter.
Every structure receives multiple architectural and aesthetic design reviews and
recommendations during the design phase. The BA&A Design Branch also provides
Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-1

research and development of material specifications, estimates for application, and

feasibility of aesthetic recommendations for structures.
2.2.2 Context Sensitive Design
The BA&A Design Branch utilizes a context sensitive design approach to structure
design aesthetics. Context sensitive design acknowledges a concern for local
architectural identity, and investment. The aesthetic design objective is to build a visual
legacy of structures that recognizes the diverse and varied character of communities
along the highway system. The BA&A Design Branch strives to create structure
aesthetics, distinctive in their forms, as well as designs, that relate to a continuity of
existing architectural traditions and aspirations.
The approach to context sensitive structure aesthetics is a an iterative process, with

numerous aspects of aesthetic design reviewed many times over, as a cross-check, to
build upon on a new framework for color, scale, style, direction, proportion, shape,
form, balance, etc. These aspects of design are synthesized into parts of the structure,
by what lies at the organic core of contextual design: harmony. Correspondingly, the
key element drawing everything into a harmonious whole is the structures site
location. The site represents the foundation of local traditions, the built backdrop, the
historical past, and present community aspirations for the future. In view of these core
values affecting the site, the organic aspects of design (e.g., color, scale style, direction,
proportion, shape, form, balance, setting, etc.), are then analyzed for the aesthetics of
various structure components in the course of the design process.
Context sensitive design begins with a circle drawn around the project site that
surveys and observes the established complexity of parts, and intricate patterning
within the fabric of the surrounding community. The BA&A Design Branch then
designs complimentary forms and shapes for structures that fit back into the local
architectural fabric of the community. This process inspires a historical attitude in a
structures aesthetic design, that emanates from the beauty of new highway structures
themselves; creating a Dj vu affect. The new expression in design becomes, at the
same time, a celebration of the aspirations of the people most concerned for the project
and the site; and their real concerns for identity, continuity, and a sense of occasion.
This design approach reinforces and satisfies those aspirations, when applied to new
bridge structures.
2.2.3 Route and Corridor Themes
Route and corridor themes are established by developing a complimentary

appearance between varying bridge types and components along the route. The BA&A
Design Branch has the responsibility for integrating, designing, and recommending
visual solutions for bridges and other structures. The Branch uses its expertise in
structure component design, architectural perspective drawing, and physical model
making to lead the discussion and develop recommendations regarding opportunities
and limitations that may affect a structures design and appearance. The BA&A Design

Branch is also instrumental in the development of aesthetic guidelines, and details for
planned structures that would be acceptable to both the Department and the
community.
The BA&A Design Branch solicits and receives aesthetic input from the Districts,
public groups, and from local officials, as a necessary part for gaining acceptance and
cooperation of major highway projects affecting the highway corridor. The Branchs
proactive design approach addresses future visual impacts by providing anticipated
aesthetic strategies to address and/or mitigate those impacts. The Department is then
able to achieve an overall strategic plan for visual continuity between geographically
related highway structures, and correspondingly, aesthetically pleasing highway
corridors.
Route and corridor themes are established by what is made visible to the traveling
motorist. Overcrossing structures usually represent the aesthetic theme for state
highway routes. Undercrossings and viaducts may vary from a particular route theme
since these structures are usually not within the highway drivers focused viewing area.
Other variations to the overall route theme are applied when local needs are considered
during the aesthetics design phase. Water and valley-crossings, and structures on scenic
routes are usually considered special designs, and may also vary from the aesthetic
route theme.
2.2.4 Products and Services
Graphically prepared materials are used primarily as tools for exhibiting a projects
design features, and expenditures to the Caltrans Project Development Team, Project
Managers, funding agencies, the public, and other interested parties and stakeholders.
Typically, prepared materials include: drawings, illustrations, and physical models.
Drawings: Sketches, preliminary drawings, and finished contract drawings.
Illustrations: 3D Drawings - Three dimensional computer drawings that can be

rendered into a photo-realistic representation of the proposed project.
Photographic Simulations Retouched and manipulated photos of the

existing project site with an insert of the proposed structure. The
purpose of this illustration type is to give a visual indication of the
proposed project, within its setting.
Models: Physical models are produced by the BA&A Design Branch as

requested. There are two types of models: the detailed presentation
model and the study model. The detailed presentation models show the
project as proposed. Requests for these types of models are becoming
rare due to modern 3D CADD drawing and illustration technology. 3D
CADD drawings and illustrations satisfy the need for demonstrating
various detailed aspects of proposed projects in their environment.

Study models are the second type of models produced by the Branch.
This model type is developed using 3D CADD printing technology.
These models are limited in size, and therefore, are mainly produced to
focus on various components of structure design (e.g., column detail
studies, railing studies, superstructure studies, etc.) during the
structures design phase.
Services: Project Presentations to Caltrans, public meetings, outside agencies,

and stakeholders.
Construction support is provided as required.
2.2.5 Recommended Levels of Aesthetic Treatments
The BA&A Design Branch designates a level of architectural and aesthetic

treatment for all structure design projects. This information is transmitted to the
structure project engineer at the beginning of the design process:
Level Designation
Level 1 = Standard Aesthetics Standard treatments applied to one or more parts of

the structure.
Level 2 = Moderate Aesthetics Elevated aesthetic considerations. Custom design
and graphics, or a level of standardized aesthetics applied to multiple
components on the structure.
Level 3 = Complex Architectural Forms and Aesthetics - Highly elevated
architectural forms and shapes: a custom-designed structure along with
corresponding components and aesthetics.
Level 4 = Complex Environmental & Community Sensitive Project These
complex projects may be located within corridors of environmentally
sensitive areas, projects that are politically sensitive, or projects having
substantial community involvement or external agency reviews.
2.3 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS DELIVERY

MILESTONES
The BA&A Design Branch coordinates the aesthetic and architectural
recommendations with the project delivery schedule for each project. The Branch may
be involved with project support form project initiation through construction
completion. See Attachment 1 for the BA&A Delivery Flowchart.

2.3.1 Advanced Planning Study
2.3.1.1 General
The Advanced Planning Study (APS) phase is a planning activity that may occur
several years in advance of initiating structure design. The basic objective of the APS is
to develop a feasible structure type with an appropriate cost for a future structure
project. This activity includes identifying potential applicable structure design/cost
alternatives, and reaching consensus with internal/external stakeholders on those
alternatives addressed.
The BA&A Design Branch supports the APS effort through early identification of
aesthetic requirements that may affect the appearance and cost of structures. Projects
that may have substantial requirements for architectural treatment, thus increasing
costs, are those projects located within corridors of environmentally and politically
sensitive areas (e.g., large retaining wall projects, or any project having substantial
community involvement).
Where there is less environmental and public sensitivity, the BA&A Design Branch
continues using a disciplined approach for making the best possible aesthetic
recommendations. All structures on State routes receive aesthetic recommendations
that reflect the latest artistic, technological, and safety innovations in structure design.
The aesthetic recommendation may be in the form of a brief comment, or it may result
in a thorough investigation into several alternatives with preliminary design and
drawing support.
2.3.1.2 Preliminary Architectural/Aesthetic Recommendation Form
The BA&A Design Branch responds to the Division of Engineering Services

(DES) Project Engineers request for aesthetic design concepts in the form of sketches
and the Preliminary Architectural/Aesthetic Recommendation Form (PAAR), see
Attachment 2. The PAAR is a checklist indicating the projects aesthetic requirements,
including the level of aesthetic complexity; existing route conditions and themes; and
the conceptual design recommendation for project aesthetics. A PAAR form for each
aesthetic alternative is attached to the APS for consideration by the Project Engineer.
The BA&A Design Branch may coordinate its review efforts with Districts
aesthetics representatives during the APS phase; however, this interaction depends
largely on the complexity and sensitivity of the proposed project. Usually, the time
allocated for determining aesthetic criteria during the planning phase is short; therefore,
design interaction is typically between the BA&A Design Branch and the DES Project
Engineer.

2.3.2 Structures General Plan
2.3.2.1 Bridge Site Data Submittal
The Bridge Site Data Submittal package (BSDS) is a checklist of pertinent layouts,
environmental criteria, aesthetics considerations, site information, and other constraints
needed for the design of structures. District delivery of this package to DES essentially
initiates the start of structure design. The BA&A Design Branch starts preliminary
aesthetics design concepts and recommendations, upon receiving the BSDS from the
DES Project Engineer.
2.3.2.2 Preliminary Design and Details
The draft General Plan work includes the preparation of preliminary structure
plans, estimates, foundation recommendations, and aesthetic recommendations. The
Type Selection Meeting is also a part of this activity.
The BA&A Design Branch responds to the DES Project Engineers request for
aesthetic recommendations at this stage of design in the form of sketches and the
PAAR form. The Branch reviews and updates previous PAAR forms submitted for
projects during the APS phase, if an APS was done. A new PAAR form and sketches
for each alternative-design/cost scenario are produced and attached to the Structure
Type Selection Memo for consideration in the Type Selection Meeting.
The BA&A Design Branch typically interacts with the structures project engineer
in one of two ways in order to develop appropriate aesthetic recommendations for a
project. The design engineer usually provides the first orientation to the proposed
project by developing one, or several structural alternatives, and introducing them to
the BA&A Design Branch for review and comment. The second form of interaction
may be a request for the Branch to work jointly with an engineering team comprised of
both DES and District design personnel, to develop several architectural/aesthetic
recommendations. The format can be fluid, depending on the complexity and
magnitude of the project.
2.3.2.3 District Review Coordination
The BA&A Design Branch typically initiates communication and coordinates its
design efforts with District landscape architects during the draft General Plan
development phase. The District provides BA&A with reviews and comments of the
BA&As design recommendations; which may include the Districts emphasis for
aesthetics development on the project. These reviews are usually in the form of written
text, pictures, references to physical examples, thumbnail sketches, verbal descriptions,
etc. In some instances, the District may not have a preconceived notion about the
projects aesthetics prior to the BA&A Design Branchs initial contact. In this case, the
District typically relies on the BA&A Design Branch to develop design criteria,
aesthetic emphasis, and solutions for joint DES and District consideration, and
inclusion into the PAAR.

The District may be involved in discussions of context sensitive design issues,

environmental impact statements, visual impact assessments, public
hearings/meetings/workshops, or in writing various project planning documents
pertinent to the project corridor. The objective is to have these activities concluded
prior to the Type Selection Meeting. All pertinent material that may impact the
preliminary aesthetic design is shared with the BA&A Design Branch for consideration
and inclusion into the structure aesthetics recommendations package for Type
Selection.
2.3.2.4 Structure Type Selection
The structure type selection process is a fundamental step in the design of

structures. At the Type Selection Meeting, the structures project engineer presents the
proposed structure and briefly discusses issues pertinent to the selection of the
preferred structure type; particularly requirements for foundations, hydraulics,
construction (including falsework), seismic design, retrofit strategy, aesthetics, traffic
handling, safety, and other information needed to support the selected structure type.
The BA&A Design Branch prepares an aesthetics recommendation package for the
project engineer prior to the Type Selection Meeting. The aesthetic recommendations
require coordination with the District, DES project engineers, and BA&A staff. The
BA&A Design Branch prepares project sketches and details for the DES Project
Engineer.
The goal of the Type Selection Meeting is to approve the structure type. This
approval is based on satisfactorily addressing all issues raised in prior design reviews,
and in the course of the meeting itself. In many instances the aesthetics package will
have a direct bearing on major components of the preferred structure type. If the
aesthetics package is regarded as incomplete, it may preclude the definitive
determination for components of the structure and estimated costs. As with all other
issues pertinent to the design, major aesthetic issues are resolved prior to the Type
Selection Meeting to the satisfaction of all stakeholders concerned. Failure to
accomplish this task could jeopardize the project schedule.
2.3.2.5 Final Architectural Aesthetics Recommendation
Aesthetic features may change as a result of discussions at the Type Selection

Meeting. If this occurs, the BA&A Design Branch will assist the DES Project Engineer
in revising the aesthetics design details prior to General Plan distribution.
The BA&A Design Branch prepares final aesthetics recommendations in the form
of drawings, and the Final Architectural Aesthetic Recommendation Form (FAAR, see
Attachment 3). The FAAR indicates the projects aesthetic requirements as a result of
the structures type selection process.

2.3.2.6 General Plan Distribution
The approved General Plan, which includes the final aesthetics design
recommendation, is distributed by the DES Project Engineer to all DES functional units
involved in the design of the project, and also to the District for their review and
comment.
2.3.3 Structure Plans, Specifications, and Estimate Development
The Plans, Specifications, and Estimate (PS&E) phase includes the development of
structures aesthetics plans, specifications, and estimates. Comments received during the
General Plan distribution period are incorporated into the aesthetics design during this
phase.
The BA&A develops and prepares complete details and plan sheets for structures
aesthetics in concert with the DES project design team of bridge designers,
specification engineers, and structure estimators. The aesthetic details are coordinated
for conformance with standard design practices for: safety, engineering, specifications,
constructability, budget, and aesthetic requirements.
2.3.3.1 Plans and Quantities
The BA&A Branch design plans and details for structure aesthetics are quantified
for all items of aesthetics work and are included as part of the Plans and Quantities
(P&Q) distribution package.
2.3.3.2 Draft Specifications and Estimate Support
The BA&A Design Branch aids in developing draft specifications and estimates for
structures aesthetics in concert with the DES design team.
2.3.3.3 Draft Plans, Specifications, and Estimate
The Draft PS&E, which includes all aesthetic design recommendations, is

distributed by the DES Project Engineer to all DES functional units involved in the
design of the project, and also to the District for their review and comment.
The BA&A Design Branch reviews the Draft PS&E package for aesthetics design
intent and conformance with structures details, specifications, and estimates practices.
The Branch coordinates this review with the District aesthetics representatives and
addresses District aesthetic review comments prior to the Final Structures PS&E.
2.3.3.4 Final Structure Plans, Specifications and Estimate
The Final PS&E consists of complete sets of project plans, specifications, and
estimates to advertise and construct a project. As part of preparing the Final Structures

PS&E Expedite Package, BA&A addresses all aesthetics comments on the Draft
Structures PS&E for incorporation into the Final Structures PS&E.
2.4 STRUCTURE TYPES AND COMPONENTS

The following photographs and photographic simulations illustrate various
architectural and aesthetic treatments used on a variety of structures types and
components.
2.4.1 Water Crossing Bridges

Figure 2.4.1-1 Smith River Bridge Rendering District 1 Route 199

Figure 2.4.1-2 Antlers Bridge Rendering District 2 Route 5

2.4.2 Valley Crossing Bridges
Figure 2.4.2-1 Archie Stevenot Bridge District 10 Route 49
Figure 2.4.2-2 Devils Slide Bridge District 4 Route 1

2.4.3 Overcrossings
Figure 2.4.3-1 Donner Park Overcrossing District 3 Route 80
Figure 2.4.3-2 Linden Avenue Overcrossing Rendering

District 5 Route 101

2.4.3-3 Casitas Pass Overcrossing (Proposed) District 5 Route 101
2.4.4 Undercrossings
Figure 2.4.4-1 Cacique Street Undercrossing Rendering District 5 Route 101

Figure 2.4.4-2 Puente Avenue Undercrossing (Proposed) District 7 Route10
2.4.5 Pedestrian Bridges
Figure 2.4.5-1 Bedford Avenue Pedestrian Overcrossing District 3 Route 50

Figure 2.4.5-2 Bess Avenue Pedestrian Overcrossing Rendering

District 7 Route 10
Figure 2.4.5-3 White Rock Road Pedestrian Overcrossing District 3 Route 50

2.4.6 Viaducts
Figure 2.4.6-1 Doyle Drive High Viaduct Rendering District 4 Route 101
Figure 2.4.6-2 HOV Viaduct #2 District 7 Route 110

2.4.7 Interchanges
Figure 2.4.7-1 5/14 Interchange District 7
Figure 2.4.7-2 280/680 Interchange District 4

2.4.8 Bridge Columns/Bents

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)
Figure 2.4.8-1 (a) Schuyler Heim Bridge Rendering Dist 7 Route 47

(b) Bess Ave POC Rendering Dist 7 Route 10
(c) White Rock POC Dist 3 Route 50
(d) Devils Slide Dist 4 Route 1
(e) Antlers Bridge Rendering Dist 2 Route 5
(f) Bedford POC Dist 3 Route 50

2.4.9 Bridge Abutments and Wingwalls
Figure 2.4.9-1 Carmenita Avenue Overcrossing Rendering District 7 Route 5
Figure 2.4.9-2 Rosencrans Avenue Overcrossing Rendering District 7 Route 5
Figure 2.4.9-3 Route 101/41 Separation Rendering District 5

2.4.10 Slope Paving

Figure 2.4.10-1 Placerville Project - District 3 Route 50
Figure 2.4.10-2 Carmenita Avenue Overcrossing Rendering

- District 7 Route 5
Figure 2.4.10-3 San Jose Airport Slope Paving District 4 Route 87

2.4.11 Bridge Barriers
Figure 2.4.11-1 Devils Slide District 4 Route 1
Figure 2.4.11-2 Ten Mile River Bridge District 1 Route 1
Figure 2.4.11-3 Emerald Bay District 3 Route 89

Figure 2.4.11-4 Pitkins Curve District 5 Route 1
Figure 2.4.11-5 Pitkins Curve District 5 Route 1

Figure 2.4-11-6 Placerville Project District 3 Route 50

Figure 2.4.11-7 Placerville Project District 3 Route 50
Figure 2.4.11-8 Bear River Bridge District 3 Route 49

2.4.12 Fences and Railings
Figure 2.4.12-1 Placerville Project District 3 Route 50
Figure 2.4.12-2 Cold Spring Canyon Bridge District 5 Route 154

Figure 2.4.12-3 La Conchita Rendering District 7 Route 101
Figure 2.4.12-4 10th Street Bridge District 3 Route 20

2.4.13 Light Fixtures
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2.4-13-1 (a) Doyle Drive Rendering - District 4 Route 101

(b) Mace Boulevard Overcrossing District 3 Route 80
(c) Bedford POC District 3 Route 50

2.4.14 Retaining Walls
Figure 2.4.14-1 District 4 Route 37
Figure 2.4.14-2 Buena Park Rendering - District 12 Route 5
Figure 2.4.14-3 Mission Avenue UC District 8 Route 61

Figure 2.4.14-4 Route 605/405/22 Project Rendering District 12
Figure 2.4.14-5 San Juan Capistrano District 12 Route 5

Route 10 Mountain Motif Rendering District 8
Fractured Rib Split Face
Split Slate Heavy Sandblast
Combined Textures
Figure 2.14-6 Concrete Retaining Wall Surface Treatment Examples

2.4.15 Sound Wall Pilaster Design
Figure 2.4.15-1 Mobility Project Rendering District 7 Route 5
Figure 2.4.15-2 Orange County Pilaster District 12 Route 22
Figure 2.4.15-3 District 7 Rendering District 7 Route 710

2.4.16 Tunnel Portal Design
Figure 2.4.16-1 Devils Slide North Tunnel Portals District 4 Route 1
Figure 2.4.16-2 Devils Slide South Tunnel Portals District 4 Route 1

Figure 2.4.16-3 Devils Slide Rendering District 4 Route 1
Figure 2.4.16-4 Devils Slide Rendering District 4 Route 1
Figure 2.4.16-5 Doyle Drive Rendering District 4 Route 101

2.4.17 Rocksheds
Figure 2.4.17-1 Pitkins Curve Rockshed Rendering District 5 Route 1
Figure 2.4.17-2 Pitkins Curve Rockshed District 5 Route 1

(a)
(b)
( c) (d)
Figure 2.4.17-3 Pitkins Curve (Proposed Alternatives) District 5 Route 1

ATTACHMENT 1: BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS

DELIVERY FLOWCHART

ATTACHMENT 2: PRELIMNARY ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETIC

RECOMMENDATION FORM

ATTACHMENT 3: FINAL ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETIC

RECOMMENDATION FORM

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. (2010). Bridge Aesthetics Sourcebook. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. Billington, D. P. 1983. The Tower and The Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering.
Basic Books, Inc., New York, NY.
3. Billington, D. P. (2003). The Art of Structural Design, a Swiss Legacy. Princeton

University Art Museum, Princeton, NJ.
4. Gottemoeller, F. (2004). Bridgescape, The Art of Designing Bridges. 2nd Ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
5. Gottemoeller, F. (2014). Chapter 3: Bridge Aesthetics: Achieving Structural Art in Bridge

Design, Bridge Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition: Fundamentals, Ed. Chen, W.F. and
Duan, L., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
6. Leonhardt, F. (1983). BridgesAesthetics and Design, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
7. Leonhardt, F. (2014). Chapter 2: Aesthetics: Basics, Bridge Engineering Handbook, 2nd

Edition: Fundamentals, Ed. Chen, W.F. and Duan, L., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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CHAPTER 3
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3-1

3.1.1 Load Path................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 LOAD DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................ 3-3
3.2.1 Permanent Loads ..................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2 Transient Loads ....................................................................................... 3-3
3.3 PERMANENT LOAD APPLICATION WITH EXAMPLES .................................... 3-3
3.3.1 Dead Load of Components, DC ................................................................ 3-5
3.3.2 Dead Load of Wearing Surfaces and Utilities, DW ..................................... 3-5
3.3.3 Downdrag, DD ........................................................................................ 3-5
3.3.4 Horizontal Earth Pressure, EH .................................................................. 3-6
3.3.5 Vertical Pressure from Dead Load of Earth Fill, EV ................................... 3-7
3.3.6 Earth Surcharge, ES ................................................................................. 3-7
3.3.7 Force Effect Due to Creep, CR ................................................................. 3-7
3.3.8 Force Effect Due to Shrinkage, SH ........................................................... 3-7
3.3.9 Forces from Post-Tensioning, PS .............................................................. 3-8
3.3.10 Miscellaneous Locked-in Force Effects Resulting from the Construction
Process, EL ............................................................................................. 3-9
3.4 TRANSIENT LOAD APPLICATION WITH EXAMPLES ...................................... 3-9
3.4.1 Vehicular Live Load, LL .......................................................................... 3-9
3.4.2 Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance, IM ................................................ 3-15
3.4.3 Vehicular Braking Force, BR .................................................................. 3-15
3.4.4 Vehicular Centrifugal Force, CE ............................................................. 3-16
3.4.5 Live Load Surcharge, LS ........................................................................ 3-17
3.4.6 Pedestrian Live Load, PL ....................................................................... 3-18
3.4.7 Uniform Temperature, TU ...................................................................... 3-18
Chapter 3 Loads and Load Combinations 3-i

3.4.8 Temperature Gradient, TG...................................................................... 3-20

3.4.9 Settlement, SE ....................................................................................... 3-20
3.4.10 Water Load and Stream Pressure, WA ..................................................... 3-20
3.4.11 Wind Load on Structure, WS .................................................................. 3-22
3.4.12 Wind on Live Load, WL ......................................................................... 3-24
3.4.13 Friction, FR........................................................................................... 3-25
3.4.14 Ice Load, IC .......................................................................................... 3-26
3.4.15 Vehicular Collision Force, CT ................................................................ 3-26
3.4.16 Vessel Collision Force, CV..................................................................... 3-27
3.4.17 Earthquake, EQ ..................................................................................... 3-27
3.5 LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR BEAM-SLAB BRIDGES ........................................ 3-27
3.5.1 Permanent Loads ................................................................................... 3-27
3.5.2 Live Loads on Superstructure ................................................................. 3-28
3.5.3 Live Loads on Substructure .................................................................... 3-36
3.5.4 Skew Modification of Shear Force in Superstructures .............................. 3-40
3.6 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATION ............................................................ 3-43
NOTATION..................................................................................................................... 3-45
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 3-48
Chapter 3 Loads and Load Combinations 3-ii

CHAPTER 3
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Properly identifying bridge loading is fundamental to the design of each
component. Bridge design is iterative in the sense that member sizes are a function of
loads and loads are a function of member sizes. It is, therefore, necessary to begin by
proportioning members based on prior experience and then adjusting for actual loads
and bridge geometry.
This chapter summarizes the loads to be applied to bridges specified in the

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th Edition (AASHTO, 2012) and the
California Amendments to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (CA)
(Caltrans, 2014). It is important to realize that not every load listed will apply to every
bridge. For example, a bridge located in Southern California may not need to consider
ice loads. A pedestrian overcrossing structure may not have to be designed for
vehicular live load.
3.1.1 Load Path
The Engineer must provide a clear load path. The following illustrates the pathway
of truck loading into the various elements of a box girder bridge.
Figure 3.1-1 Truck Load Path from Deck Slab to Girders
The weight of the truck is distributed to each axle of the truck. One half of the axle
load then goes to each wheel or wheel tandem. This load will be carried by the deck
slab which spans between girders, see Figure 3.1-1.
Chapter 3 Loads and Load Combinations 3-1

Once the load has been transferred to the girders, the direction of the load path
changes from transverse to longitudinal. The girders carry the load by spanning
between bents and abutments (Figure 3.1-2).
Figure 3.1-2 Truck Load Path from Girders to Bents
12' 12' 12' 12'
Figure 3.1-3 Truck Load on Bent Cap
When the girder load reaches the bent caps or abutments, it once again changes
direction from longitudinal to transverse. The bent cap beam transfers the load to the
columns. Load distribution in the substructure is covered in Section 3.5.3. The columns
are primarily axial load carrying members and carry the load to the footing and finally
to the piles. The piles transfer the load to the soil where it is carried by the soil matrix.
Load distribution can be described in a more refined manner, however, the basic
load path from the truck to the ground is as described above. Each load in Table CA
3.4.1-1 has a unique load path. Some are concentrated loads, others are uniform line
loads, while still others, such as wind load, are pressure forces on a surface.

3.2 LOAD DEFINITIONS

3.2.1 Permanent Loads
Permanent loads are defined as loads and forces that are either constant or varying
over a long time interval upon completion of construction. They include dead load of
structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC), dead load of wearing
surfaces and utilities (DW), downdrag forces (DD), horizontal earth pressure loads
(EH), vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill (EV), earth surcharge load (ES),
force effects due to creep (CR), force effects due to shrinkage (SH), secondary forces
from post-tensioning (PS), and miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting from
the construction process (EL).
3.2.2 Transient Loads
Transient loads are defined as loads and forces that are varying over a short time
interval. A transient load is any load that will not remain on the bridge indefinitely.
This includes vehicular live loads (LL) and their secondary effects including dynamic
load allowance (IM), braking force (BR), centrifugal force (CE), and live load
surcharge (LS). Additionally, there are pedestrian live loads (PL), force effects due to
uniform temperature (TU), and temperature gradient (TG), force effects due to
settlement (SE), water loads and stream pressure (WA), wind loads on structure (WS),
wind on live load (WL), friction forces (FR), ice loads (IC), vehicular collision forces
(CT), vessel collision forces (CV), and earthquake loads (EQ).
3.3 PERMANENT LOAD APPLICATION WITH EXAMPLES

The following structure, shown in Figures 3.3-1 to 3.3-3, is used as an example
throughout this chapter, unless otherwise indicated, for use in determining individual
loads.
Figure 3.3-1 Elevation View of Example Bridge

Figure 3.3-2 Typical Section View of Example Bridge
Railroad
Railroad
Figure 3.3-3 Plan View of Example Bridge

3.3.1 Dead Load of Components, DC
The dead load of the structure is a gravity load and is based on structural member
geometry and material unit weight. It is generally calculated by modeling the structural
section properties in a computer program such as CTBRIDGE. Additional loads such
as intermediate diaphragms, hinge diaphragms, and barriers must be applied
separately.
Be aware of possibly double counting DC loads. For example, when the weight
of the bent cap is included in the longitudinal frame analysis, this weight shall not be
included again in a transverse analysis of the bent.
Normal weight concrete is assigned a density of 150 pcf which includes the weight
of bar reinforcing steel and lost formwork in cast-in-place (CIP) box girder
superstructures. Adjustments need not be made for the presence of prestressing
tendons, soffit access openings, vents and other small openings for utilities.
For this example bridge, the weight of a Type 732 barrier and Type 7 chain link
fence is modeled as a line load in a longitudinal frame analysis as follows:
Type 732 barrier:

A = 2.73 ft2
wc = 0.15 kcf (AASHTO C5.4.2.4)
wbarrier = Awc = 2.73 (0.15) = 0.41 kip/ft
Type 7 chain link fence:

wchain = 16 lb/ft (this weight is essentially negligible)
Total weight of two barriers w = (0.41 + 0.02)(2) = 0.86 kip/ft
3.3.2 Dead Load of Wearing Surfaces and Utilities, DW
Future wearing surfaces are generally asphalt concrete. New bridges require
designing for a thickness of 3 in., which results in a load of 35 psf as specified in MTD
15-17 (Caltrans, 1988). Therefore, the weight of the wearing surface to be considered
is:
Uniform weight: 35 psf

Width of bridge with AC: 58.83-2(1.42) = 55.99 ft
Line Load: w = 55.99(0.035) = 1.96 kip/ft
The bridge has a utility opening in one of the interior bays. It will be assumed that
the weight of this utility is 0.100 kip/ft.
3.3.3 Downdrag, DD
Downdrag, or negative skin friction, can add to the permanent load on the piles.
Therefore, if piles are located in an area where a significant amount of fill is to be

placed over a compressible soil layer (such as at an abutment), this additional load on
the piles needs to be considered.
The geotechnical engineer is responsible for determining the additional load due
to DD and incorporating that load with all other loads provided in the CA, Section 10
(Caltrans, 2014).
3.3.4 Horizontal Earth Pressure, EH

Horizontal earth pressure is a load that affects the design of the abutment including
the footing, piles and wing walls. Application follows standard soil mechanics
principles.
As an example, the horizontal earth pressure resultant force acting on Abutment 1

of the example bridge is calculated below. This calculation is necessary to determine
the total moment demand at the bottom of the abutment stem wall.
Assume: ka = 0.3, s = 120 pcf and abutment height, H = 30 ft.
Note: Refer to the

p geotechnical report for actual
soil properties for a given
bridge.
Figure 3.3-4 Abutment 1 with EH Load
Pressure, p = ka s z (AASHTO 3.11.5.1-1)

where:
z = depth below ground surface
1 1
load = ka s z 2
Resultant line= =(0.3)(0.12)(30) 2 16.2 kip ft
2 2
58.83
Abutment length = = 62.6 ft
cos 20o
Total Force = 16.2 (62.6) = 1,014 kips
This force acts at a distance = H/3 from the top of footing.
30
Moment about base of stem wall = 1,014 = 10,140 kip-ft
3

3.3.5 Vertical Pressure from Dead Load of Earth Fill, EV
Similar to horizontal earth pressure, vertical earth pressure can be calculated using
basic principles. For the 30 ft tall abutment, the weight of earth on the heel at the
Abutment 1 footing is obtained as:
Assume distance from heel to back of stem wall = 10.5 ft

58.83
= =
EV 10.5 o
(30)(0.12) 2,366 kips
cos 20
3.3.6 Earth Surcharge, ES
This force effect is the result of a concentrated load or uniform load placed near
the top of a retaining wall. For Abutment 1, the approach slab is considered an ES load.
p =ks qs (AASHTO 3.11.6.1-1)

ks = 0.3; qs = (0.15)(1.0) = 0.150 ksf; (approach slab thickness = 1 ft)
p = 0.30.150 = 0.045 ksf (ES Load)
Figure 3.3-5 Abutment 1 with ES Load
3.3.7 Force Effect Due to Creep, CR
Creep is a time dependent phenomenon of concrete structures due to sustained

compression load. Generally creep has little effect on the strength of structures, but it
will cause prestress losses and leads to increased deflections for service loads (affecting
camber calculations). Refer to Chapters 7 and 8 for more information.
3.3.8 Force Effect Due to Shrinkage, SH
Shrinkage of concrete structures occurs as they cure. Shrinkage, like creep, creates
a loss in prestress force as the structure shortens beyond the initial elastic shortening
due to the axial compressive stress of the prestressing. Refer to Chapters 6 to 9 for
more information.

3.3.9 Forces from Post-Tensioning, PS
Post tensioning introduces axial compression into the superstructure. The primary
post-tensioning forces counteract dead load forces.
Secondary PS forces introduce load into the members of a statically indeterminate

structure as the structure shortens elastically toward the point of no movement. These
forces can be calculated using the longitudinal frame analysis program, CTBRIDGE.
Table 3.3-1 shows the Span 1 and Bent 2 output due to these forces.
Table 3.3-1 PS Secondary Force Effects

PS Secondary Effects After Long Term Losses in Span 1 (All Frames)
Location (ft) AX (kips) VY (kips) VZ (kips) TX (kip-ft) MY (kip-ft) MZ (kip-ft)
1.5 -7.6 70.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 103.1
12.60 -6.7 69.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 819.4
25.20 -5.7 67.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 1,519.0
37.80 -5.2 67.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 2,246.6
50.40 -4.8 67.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3,007.0
63.00 -4.3 66.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 3,638.7
75.60 -4.1 66.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 4,461.8
88.20 -3.9 66.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 5,157.2
100.80 2.8 66.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 6,364.6
113.40 1.9 21.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 6,842.7
123.00 10.0 -9.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6,895.4
PS Secondary Effects After Long Term Losses in Bent 2, Column 1 (All Frames)
0.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 0.0
11.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 20.4
22.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 40.8
33.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 61.2
44.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 81.7
PS Secondary Effects After Long Term Losses in Bent 2, Column 2 (All Frames)
0.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 0.0
11.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 20.4
22.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 40.8
33.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 61.2
44.00 31.7 1.9 0.0 -0.0 0.0 81.7
Note: Location is shown from the left end of the span to the right. AX = axial force, VY = vertical
shear, VZ = transverse shear, TX = torsion, MY = transverse bending, MZ = longitudinal bending

3.3.10 Miscellaneous Locked-in Force Effects Resulting from the Construction

Process, EL
There are instances when a bridge design requires force to be locked into the
structure in order to be built. These forces are considered permanent loads and must
be included in the analysis. Such an example might be found in a segmental bridge
where the cantilever segments are jacked apart before the final closure pour is cast at
the midspan. For the example bridge shown above, EL forces do not need to be
considered.
3.4 TRANSIENT LOAD APPLICATION WITH EXAMPLES

For most ordinary bridges there are a few transient loads that should always be
considered. Vehicular live loads (LL) and their secondary effects including braking
force (BR), centrifugal force (CE), and dynamic load allowance (IM) are the most
important to consider. These secondary effects shall always be combined with the
gravity effects of live loads in an additive sense.
Uniform Temperature (TU) can be quite significant, especially for bridges with
long frames and/or short columns. Wind load on structure (WS) and wind on live load
(WL) are significant on structures with tall single column bents over 30 feet.
Earthquake load (EQ) is specified by Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) and
generally controls the majority of column designs in California. Refer to Volume III
of this practice manual for seismic design.
3.4.1 Vehicular Live Load, LL
Vehicular live load consists of two types of vehicle groups. These are: design
vehicular live load HL-93 and permit vehicles P loads. For both types of loads,
axles that do not contribute to extreme force effects are neglected.
3.4.1.1 HL-93 Design Load
The AASHTO HL-93 (Highway Loading adopted in 1993) load includes

variations and combinations of truck, tandem, and lane loading. The design truck is a
3-axle truck with variable rear axle spacing and a total weight of 72 kips (Figure 3.4-
1). The design lane load is 640 plf (Figure 3.4-2). The design tandem is a two-axle
vehicle, 25 kips per axle, spaced 4 ft apart (Figure 3.4-2).
When loading the superstructure with HL-93 loads, only one vehicle per lane is
allowed on the bridge at a time, except for Cases 3 and 4 (Figure 3.4-2). Trucks shall
be placed transversely in as many lanes as practical. Multiple presence factors shall be
used to account for the improbability of multiple fully loaded lanes side by side.

Figure 3.4-1 HL-93 Design Truck

The following 4 cases represent, in general, the requirements for HL-93 loads as shown
in Figure 3.4-2. Cases 1 and 2 are for positive moments and Cases 3 and 4 are for negative
moments and bent reactions only.
50 kip
4
640 plf
Case 1: tandem + lane
72 kip
640 plf
Case 2: design truck + lane
50
64.8 kip 64.8 kip
576 plf
14 ft
Case 3: two design trucks + lane
50 kip 26-40 50 kip

4 4
640 plf
Case 4: two tandem trucks + lane
Figure 3.4-2 Four Load Cases for HL-93

Tables 3.4-1 to 3.4-4 list maximum positive moments in Span 2 obtained by the
CTBRIDGE program by applying HL-93 loads to the example bridge.
Looking at the Span 2 maximum positive moment only, Cases 1 and 2 apply. Case
1 moment is 6,761 + 4,510 = 11,271 kip-ft while Case 2 moment is 8,696 + 4,510 =
13,206 kip-ft. Case 2 controls (truck + lane). The example bridge has 4.092 live load
lanes for maximum positive moment design. Live load distribution will be discussed
in detail in Section 3.5. Dynamic load allowance (IM) is included in these tables. IM
will be covered in Section 3.4.2.
Table 3.4-1 HL-93 Design Truck Forces in Span 2 with IM = 1.33

Positive Moment and Associate Shear Negative Moment and Associate Shear
Location
(ft) # MZ+ AssocVY # # MZ- Assoc VY #
Lanes (kip-ft) (kips) Lanes Lanes (kip-ft) (kips) Lanes
3.00 4.092 1,394.54 -41.07 5.671 4.231 -5,950.39 321.25 5.671
16.80 4.092 1,675.23 187.00 5.671 4.231 -3,537.61 47.32 5.671
33.60 4.092 4,546.13 135.41 5.671 4.231 -2,944.20 47.32 5.671
50.40 4.092 6,836.51 77.46 5.671 4.092 -2,276.08 46.92 5.671
67.20 4.092 8,272.60 14.47 5.671 4.092 -1,707.10 46.92 5.671
84.00 4.092 8,696.09 -194.92 5.671 4.092 -1,138.12 46.78 5.671
100.80 4.092 8,215.33 -259.64 5.671 4.092 -1,523.62 -41.62 5.671
117.60 4.092 6,730.25 -322.23 5.671 4.092 -2,028.19 -41.62 5.671
134.40 4.092 4,419.12 -379.54 5.671 4.092 -2,535.09 -42.00 5.671
151.20 4.092 1,570.81 -430.11 5.671 4.260 -3,189.65 -252.06 5.671
165.00 4.092 1,584.83 46.37 5.671 4.260 -6,238.79 -329.02 5.671
Table 3.4-2 HL-93 Tandem Forces in Span 2 with IM = 1.33

Location
(ft) # MZ+ Assoc VY # # MZ- Assoc VY #
3.00 4.092 995.30 -29.31 5.671 4.231 -4,199.54 229.49 5.671
16.80 4.092 1,812.59 156.97 5.671 4.231 -2,515.07 33.64 5.671
33.60 4.092 3,802.35 121.81 5.671 4.231 -2,093.18 33.64 5.671
50.40 4.092 5,408.62 81.97 5.671 4.092 -1,618.18 33.36 5.671
67.20 4.092 6,435.94 38.32 5.671 4.092 -1,213.66 33.36 5.671
84.00 4.092 6,760.62 -184.42 5.671 4.092 -809.14 33.26 5.671
100.80 4.092 6,394.19 -229.54 5.671 4.092 -1,087.36 -29.70 5.671
117.60 4.092 5,333.83 -272.87 5.671 4.092 -1,447.47 -29.70 5.671
134.40 4.092 3,715.51 -312.24 5.671 4.092 -1,809.23 -29.98 5.671
151.20 4.092 1,744.93 -346.66 5.671 4.260 -2,265.75 -178.53 5.671
165.00 4.092 1,126.76 32.97 5.671 4.260 -4,400.94 -229.07 5.671

Table 3.4-3 HL-93 Lane Forces in Span 2 with IM = 1.0

Location # MZ+ Assoc # # MZ- Assoc VY #
(ft) Lanes (kip-ft) VY Lanes Lanes (kip-ft) (kips) Lanes
(kips)
3.00 4.092 741.54 -12.38 5.671 4.231 -6,369.34 308.97 5.671
16.80 4.092 852.85 37.25 5.671 4.231 -3,687.00 209.28 5.671
33.60 4.092 1,720.76 103.01 5.671 4.231 -1,874.86 82.58 5.671
50.40 4.092 3,069.57 120.20 5.671 4.092 -1,280.05 4.59 5.671
67.20 4.092 4,159.10 59.39 5.671 4.092 -1,226.01 4.44 5.671
84.00 4.092 4,509.60 -5.00 5.671 4.092 -1,172.13 4.28 5.671
100.80 4.092 4,123.37 -62.34 5.671 4.092 -1,120.20 4.28 5.671
117.60 4.092 2,998.13 -123.10 5.671 4.092 -1,068.46 4.08 5.671
134.40 4.092 1,709.11 -95.18 5.671 4.092 -1,591.42 -84.70 5.671
151.20 4.092 942.33 -29.62 5.671 4.260 -3,513.85 -211.24 5.671
165.00 4.092 894.24 17.29 5.671 4.260 -6,220.63 -308.23 5.671
Table 3.4-4 HL-93 Design Vehicle Enveloped Forces in Span 2 with IM = 1.33
Location # MZ+ Assoc # # MZ- Assoc #
(ft) Lanes (kip-ft) VY Lanes Lanes (kip-ft) VY Lanes
(kips) (kips)
3.00 4.092 2,136.08 -53.45 5.671 4.231 -14,708.31 613.18 5.671
16.80 4.092 2,665.43 194.22 5.671 4.231 -9,177.36 454.12 5.671
33.60 4.092 6,266.89 238.42 5.671 4.231 -5,787.08 145.45 5.671
50.40 4.092 9,906.08 197.65 5.671 4.092 -3,556.13 51.52 5.671
67.20 4.092 12,431.70 73.85 5.671 4.092 -2,933.11 51.37 5.671
84.00 4.092 13,205.69 -199.92 5.671 4.092 -2,310.25 51.06 5.671
100.80 4.092 12,338.69 -321.97 5.671 4.092 -2,643.82 -37.33 5.671
117.60 4.092 9,728.38 -445.33 5.671 4.092 -3,096.65 -37.53 5.671
134.40 4.092 6,128.23 -474.72 5.671 4.092 -4,126.50 -126.71 5.671
151.20 4.092 2,687.26 -376.27 5.671 4.260 -8,884.28 -457.04 5.671
165.00 4.092 2,479.07 63.66 5.671 4.260 -14,643.57 -755.57 5.671
3.4.1.2 Permit Load
The California P-15 permit (CA 3.6.1.8) vehicle is used in conjunction with the
Strength II limit state. For superstructure design, if refined methods are used, either 1
or 2 permit trucks shall be placed on the bridge at a time, whichever controls. If
simplified distribution is used (AASHTO 4.6.2.2), girder distribution factors shall be
the same as the design vehicle distribution factors.

Table 3.4-5 shows the maximum positive moments in Span 2 obtained by the
CTBRIDGE program.
4-6
Figure 3.4-3 P-15 Truck
Table 3.4-5 Permit Moments in Span 2 with IM = 1.25

Location
(ft) # MZ+ Assoc VY # # MZ- Assoc VY #
3.00 4.092 4301.45 -126.88 5.671 4.231 -24408.50 1094.85 5.671
16.80 4.092 3037.35 -126.88 5.671 4.231 -13982.51 920.77 5.671
33.60 4.092 8953.10 595.24 5.671 4.231 -9737.33 156.42 5.671
50.40 4.092 18103.38 500.79 5.671 4.092 -7528.62 155.11 5.671
67.20 4.092 24145.10 155.37 5.671 4.092 -5647.79 155.11 5.671
84.00 4.092 26029.03 -34.87 5.671 4.092 -3766.96 154.62 5.671
100.80 4.092 23859.67 -498.73 5.671 4.092 -4712.93 -128.55 5.671
117.60 4.092 17812.72 -498.73 5.671 4.092 -6271.59 -128.55 5.671
134.40 4.092 8607.76 -798.23 5.671 4.092 -7837.45 -129.75 5.671
151.20 4.092 3707.44 153.29 5.671 4.260 -13797.91 -947.21 5.671
165.00 4.092 5233.96 153.29 5.671 4.260 -24485.67 -1462.71 5.671
Notice that the maximum P-15 moment of 26,029 kip-ft exceeds the HL-93
moment of 13,206 kip-ft. Although load factors have not yet been applied, Strength II
will govern over Strength I in the majority of bridge superstructure design elements.
When determining the force effects on a section due to live load, the maximum
moment and its associated shear, or the maximum shear and its associated moment
should be considered. Combining maximum moments with maximum shears
simultaneously for a section is too conservative.
3.4.1.3 Fatigue Load
There are two fatigue load limit states used to insure the structure withstands cyclic
loading. A single HL-93 design truck with rear axle spacing of 30 ft shall be run across
the bridge by itself for the first case. The second case is a P-9 truck by itself. Dynamic
load allowance shall be 15% for these cases.

3.4.1.4 Multiple Presence Factors (m)
To account for the improbability of fully loaded trucks crossing the structure side-
by-side, MPFs are applied as follows:
Table 3.4-6 Multiple Presence Factors
Number of Loaded Lanes Multiple Presence Factors, m
1 1.2
2 1.0
3 0.85
>3 0.65
3.4.2 Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance, IM
To capture the bouncing effect and the resonant excitations due to moving
trucks, the static truck live loads or their effects shall be increased by the percentage
of the vehicular dynamic load allowance, IM as specified by CA 3.6.2.
For example, the maximum HL-93 static moment at the midspan of Span 2 due to
the design truck is 6,538 kip-ft. The static moment due to the lane load is 4,510 kip-
ft. The dynamic load allowance for the HL-93 load case is 33%. Therefore, LL + IM
= 1.33(6,538) + 4,510 = 13,206 kip-ft. Note that IM does not apply to the lane load.
The Permit static moment at the midspan of Span 2 is 20,823 kip-ft. Dynamic load
allowance for Permit is 25%. Therefore, LL+IM = 1.25(20,823) = 26,029 kip-ft.
3.4.3 Vehicular Braking Force, BR
This force accounts for traction (acceleration) and braking. It is a lateral force
acting in the longitudinal direction and primarily affects the design of columns and
bearings.
For the example bridge, BR is the greater of the following (AASHTO 3.6.4):
1) 25% of the axle weight of the Design Truck or Design Tandem

2) 5% of (Design Truck + Lane Load) or 5% of (Design Tandem + Lane Load)
There are 4 cases to consider. Calculating BR force for one lane of traffic results
in the following:
Case 1) 25% of Design Truck: 0.25(72) = 18.0 kips

Case 2) 25% of Design Tandem: 0.25(50) = 12.5 kips
Case 3) 5% of truck + lane: 0.05(72 + (412)(0.64)) = 16.8 kips
Case 4) 5% of tandem + lane: 0.05(50 + (412)(0.64)) = 15.7 kips

It is seen that Case 1 controls at 18.0 kips. For column design, this one lane result
must be multiplied by as many lanes as practical considering the multiple presence
factor, m. The maximum number of lanes that can fit on this structure is determined
by using 12.0 ft traffic lanes:
58.83 2(1.42)
Number of lanes: = 4.66 lanes
12
Dropping the fractional portion, 4 lanes will fit.
The controlling BR force is therefore the maximum of:
1) One lane only: (18.0)(1.2)(1) = 21.6 kips

2) Two lanes: (18.0)(1.0)(2) = 36.0 kips
3) Three lanes: (18.0)(0.85)(3) = 45.9 kips
4) Four lanes: (18.0)(0.65)(4) = 46.8 kips
Four lanes control at 46.8 kips. This force is a horizontal force to be applied at
deck level in the longitudinal direction resulting in shear and bending moments in the
columns. In order to determine these column forces, a longitudinal frame model can
be used, as in CTBRIDGE. Apply a user load and input the load factors to a
superstructure member in the longitudinal direction.
When a percentage of the truck weight is used to determine BR, only that portion
of the truck that fits on the bridge shall be utilized. For example, if the bridge total
length is 25 ft, then only the two 32 kip axles that fit shall be used for BR calculations.
3.4.4 Vehicular Centrifugal Force, CE
Horizontally curved bridges are subject to CE forces. These forces primarily affect
substructure design. The sharper the curve, the higher these forces will be. These forces
act in a direction that is perpendicular to the alignment and toward the outside of the
curve. Centrifugal forces apply to both HL-93 live load (truck and tandem only) and
Permit live load. Dynamic load allowance does not apply to these calculations.
R = 400 ft
Figure 3.4-4 Centrifugal Force Example

v2
C= f (AASHTO 3.6.3-1)
gR
Example
Assume: v = 70 mph (Highway Design Speed)

f = 4/3 (Strength I Load combination)
Reaction of one lane of HL-93 truck at Bent 2 = 71.6 kips

Reaction of one lane of HL-93 tandem at Bent 2 = 50.0 kips
R = 400 ft
Convert v to feet per second:

miles 1 hr 5280ft.
v = 70 = 102.7 ft/sec
hr 3600sec 1 mile
4 102.7 2
C= = 1.092
3 (32.2)(400)
Total shear for 4 lanes over Bent 2 simultaneously:
Shear = 1.092(71.6)(4)(0.65) = 203.3 kips
3.4.5 Live Load Surcharge, LS
This load shall be applied when trucks can come within one half of the wall height
at the top of the wall on the side of the wall where earth is being retained.
< H/2
Figure 3.4-5 Applicability of Live Load Surcharge

When the condition of Figure 3.4-5 is met, then the following constant horizontal
earth pressure shall be applied to the wall:
p =ks heq (AASHTO 3.11.6.4-1)
An equivalent height of soil is used to approximate the effect of live load acting
on the fill. Refer to AASHTO Table 3.11.6.4-1. For the example bridge, the live load
surcharge for Abutment 1 is calculated as follows:
Abutment Height = 30 ft
heq = 2.0 ft
p =0.3(0.12)(2.0)=0.072 ksf
Loading is similar to ES as shown in Figure 3.3-5.
3.4.6 Pedestrian Live Load, PL
Pedestrian live loads (PL) are assumed to be a uniform load accounting for the
presence of large crowds, parades, and regular use of the bridge by pedestrians.
Pedestrian live load can act alone or in combination with vehicular loads if the bridge
is designed for mixed use.
This load is investigated when pedestrians have access to the bridge. Either the
bridge will be designed as a pedestrian overcrossing or will have a sidewalk where
both vehicles and pedestrians utilize the same structure.
The PL load is 75 psf vertical pressure on sidewalks wider than 2 ft. For pedestrian
overcrossings (POCs) the vertical pressure is 90 psf.
The example bridge does not have a sidewalk and would therefore not need to be
designed for pedestrian live load.
3.4.7 Uniform Temperature, TU
Superstructures will either expand or contract due to changes in temperature. This

movement will introduce additional forces in statically indeterminate structures and
results in displacements at the bridge joints and bearings that need to be taken into
account. These effects can be rather large in some instances.
The design thermal range for which a structure must be designed is shown in
AASHTO Table 3.12.2.1-1.

AASHTO Table 3.12.2.1-1 Procedure A Temperature Ranges

Climate Steel or Aluminum Concrete Wood
Moderate 0 to 120F 10 to 80F 10 to 75F
Cold -30 to 120F 0 to 80F 0 to 75F
For the example bridge, column movements due to a uniform temperature change
are calculated below. This can be accomplished using a frame analysis program such
as CSiBridge or CTBRIDGE. A hand method is shown below. To start, calculate the
point of no movement. The following relative stiffness method can be used to
accomplish this.
Table 3.4-7 Center of Stiffness Calculation

Abut 1 Bent 2 Bent 3 Abut 4 SUM
P@1 (kip/in.) 0 206 169 0 375
D (ft) 0 126 294 412 -
PD/100 0 260 497 0 757
Force to deflect the top of column by 1 in. (P@1 in.) can be determined from:
3EI col
P= (for pinned columns)
L3
where
r 4
= 1 in.; E = 3,834 ksi; Icol = ; L = 44 ft at Bent 2, 47 ft at Bent 3;
4
r = 3.0 ft
PD

100 757
The point of no movement = = (100) = (100) 201.8ft
P 375
The factor of 100 is used to keep the numbers small and can be factored out if
preferred. This point of no movement is the location from Abutment 1 where no
movement is expected due to uniform temperature change.
Next determine the rise or fall in temperature change. From AASHTO Table
3.12.2.1-1, assuming a moderate climate, the temperature range is 10 to 80F. Design
thermal movement is determined by the following formula:
T =L(TMaxDesignTMinDesign)/2
Using a temperature change of +/-40F, we can now determine a movement factor

using concrete properties.
Movement Factor = T
= coefficient of thermal expansion for a given material

in.
Movement Factor = (0.000006/F)(40F) (1200 ) = 0.29 in / 100 ft
100 ft
The movement at each bent is then calculated (movement at abutments is
determined in a similar fashion):
(201.8 126)
= = 0.220 in.
Bent 2 (0.29)
100
(294 201.8)
= = 0.267 in.
Bent 3 (0.29)
100
The factored load is calculated using TU = 0.5. For joint displacements the larger
factor TU = 1.2 is used. Refer to Chapter 14 for expansion joint calculations.
3.4.8 Temperature Gradient, TG
Bridge decks are exposed to the sunlight thereby causing them to heat up much
faster than the bottom of the structure. This thermal gradient can induce additional
stresses in the statically indeterminate structure. For simply-supported or well-
balanced framed bridge types with span lengths less than 200 ft this effect can be safely
ignored. If, however, your superstructure is built using very thick concrete members,
or for structures where mass concrete is used, thermal gradients should be investigated
especially in an environment where air temperature fluctuations are extreme.
3.4.9 Settlement, SE
Differential settlement of supports causes force effects in statically indeterminate

structures. A predefined maximum settlement of 1 in. or 2 in. at Service-I Limit State
is generally assumed for foundation design. At this level of settlement, ordinary bridges
will not be significantly affected if the actual differential settlement is not expected to
exceed inch. If, however, this criterion makes the foundation cost unacceptable,
larger settlements may be allowed. In that case, settlement analysis will be required.
For example, if an actual settlement of one inch for the example bridge is assumed,
one would have to consider loads generated by SE and check the superstructure under
Strength load combinations. To perform this analysis, assume Bent 2 doesnt settle.
Then allow Bent 3 to settle one inch. Force effects that result from this scenario become
SE loads.
3.4.10 Water Load and Stream Pressure, WA
The example bridge can be modified by assuming Bent 2 is a pier in a stream as

shown in Figure 3.4-6. See the figure below for the pier configuration.

Figure 3.4-6 Stream Flow Example
Assume the angle between stream flow and the pier is 10 degrees and the stream
flow velocity is 6.0 fps. The pressure on the pier in the direction of the longitudinal
axis of the pier is calculated by:
C DV 2
p= (AASHTO 3.7.3.1-1)
1000
0.7 6 2
p= = 0.0252 ksf
1000
10o
Figure 3.4-7 Longitudinal to Pier Forces Figure 3.4-8 Transverse to Pier Forces
due to Stream Flow due to Stream Flow

This pressure is applied to the piers projected area, assuming the distance from
the river bottom to the high water elevation is 12 ft.
Total pier force = 0.0252 (56) sin (10)(12) = 2.94 kips
Then, pressure on the pier in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the pier is
calculated using the following:
C LV 2
p= (AASHTO 3.7.3.2-1)
1000
0.7 6 2
p= = 0.0252 ksf
1000
Total pressure on the pier in the lateral direction is therefore:
Total pier force = 0.0252(56)(12) = 16.93 kips
3.4.11 Wind Load on Structure, WS
Wind load is based on a base wind velocity that is increased for bridges taller than
30 ft from ground to top of barrier. Wind load primarily affects the substructure design.
Using the example bridge, calculate wind load on the structure as shown below.
First calculate the design wind velocity:

V Z
VDZ = 2.5V0 30 l n (AASHTO 3.8.1.1-1)
VB Z0
Assume the bridge is in open country with an average height from ground to top
of barrier equal to 50.25 ft.
100 50.25
VDZ =
2.5 8.2 l n 0.23 =110.4 mph
100
Next, a design wind pressure, PD is calculated.
2
V
PD = PB DZ (AASHTO 3.8.1.2.1-1)
VB
For the superstructure with wind acting normal to the structure (skew = 0 degree),
2
110.4
= =
PD 0.05 0.061 ksf
100
For the columns
2
110.4
= =
PD 0.04 0.049 ksf
100

0.061 ksf
0.049 ksf
0.049 ksf
Figure 3.4-9 WS Application
Table 3.4-8 Wind Load at Various Angles of Attack

Superstructure
Skew PD lat PD long
0 0.061 0.000
15 0.054 0.007
30 0.050 0.015
45 0.040 0.020
60 0.021 0.023
In order to use these pressures, it is convenient to turn these into line loads for
application to a frame analysis model.
Load on the spans = (6.75 + 2.67) 0.061

= 0.575 klf > 0.30 klf (min)
Load on columns = 6.0 0.049 = 0.294 klf
WS load application within a statically indeterminate frame model is shown in

Figure 3.4-10.
For the superstructure use table 3.8.1.2.2-1 to calculate the pressure from various
angles skewed from the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Results are shown
above in Table 3.4-8. The Trusses, Columns, and Arches heading in the AASHTO
table refers to superstructure elements. The table refers to spandrel columns in a
superstructure not pier/substructure columns. Transverse and longitudinal pressures
should be applied simultaneously.
For application to the substructure, the transverse and longitudinal superstructure

wind forces are resolved into components aligned relative to the pier axes.

Load perpendicular to the plane of the pier:
FL = FL,super cos(20) + FT,super sin(20)
At 0 degrees:
FL = (0)cos(20) + 0.061(6.75 + 2.67) sin(20) = 0.196 klf
At 60 degrees:
FL = 0.023(6.75 + 2.67) cos (20) + 0.021(6.75 +2 .67) sin(20)

= 0.204 klf + 0.068 klf = 0.272 klf
And, load in the plane of the pier (parallel to the columns):
FT = FL,super sin(20) + FT,super cos(20)
At 0 degrees:
FT = (0) sin(20) + 0.061(9.42)cos(20) = 0.540 klf
At 60 degrees:
FT = 0.023(9.42) sin(20) + 0.021(9.42) cos(20)

= 0.074 klf + 0.186 klf = 0.260 klf
The wind pressure applied directly to the substructure is resolved into components
perpendicular to the end and front elevations of the substructure. The pressure
perpendicular to the end elevation of the pier is applied simultaneously with the wind
load from the superstructure.
3.4.12 Wind on Live Load, WL
This load is applied directly to vehicles traveling on the bridge during periods of a
moderately high wind of 55 mph. This load is to be 0.1 klf applied transverse to the
bridge deck. WL load application is shown in Figure 3.4-11.

Figure 3.4-10 Wind on Structure
Figure 3.4-11 Wind on Live Load
3.4.13 Friction, FR
Friction loading can be any loading that is transmitted to an element through a

frictional interface. There are no FR forces for the example bridge.

3.4.14 Ice Load, IC
The presence of ice floes in rivers and streams can result in extreme event forces
on the pier. These forces are a function of the ice crushing strength, thickness of ice
floe, and width of pier. For equations and commentary on ice load, see AASHTO 3.9.
Snow load/accumulation on a bridge need not be considered in general.
3.4.15 Vehicular Collision Force, CT
Vehicle collision refers to collisions that occur with the barrier rail or at
unprotected columns (AASHTO 3.6.5).
Referring to AASHTO Section 13, the design loads for CT forces on barrier rails
are as shown in AASHTO Table A13.2-1. Test Level Four (TL-4) will apply most of
the time.
These forces are applied to our Type 732 barrier rail from our example bridge as
follows:
FT
10 ft
10 ft
Figure 3.4-12 CT Force on Barrier
FT = 54 kips
FL = 18 kips
Load from this collision force spreads out over a width calculated based on
detailing of the barrier bar reinforcement and yield line theory. Caltrans policy is to
assume this distance to be 10 ft at the base of the barrier for Standard Plan barriers that
are solid. Given that the barrier height is 2-8, we can calculate the moment per foot
as follows:
54 2.67
=
M CT = 14.4 kip-ft/ft
10
Applying a 20% factor of safety (CA A13.4.2) results in:
1.2 14.4 = 17.28 kip-ft/ft

Standard plan barriershave already been designed for these CT forces. However,
these forces must be carried into the overhang and deck. Caltrans deck design charts
in MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008) were developed to include these CT forces in the
overhang. For a bridge with a long overhang or an unusual typical section
configuration, for which the deck design charts do not apply, calculations for CT force
should be performed.
Post-type (see-through) barriers require special analysis for various failure modes
and are not covered here.
3.4.16 Vessel Collision Force, CV
Generally, California bridges over navigable waterways are protected by a fender

system. In these instances, the fender system is then subject to the requirements of
AASHTO 3.14 and/or the AASHTO Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel
Collision Design of Highway Bridges (AASHTO, 2010). Due to the infrequent
occurrence of these bridges, an example of CV force calculations will not be made
here.
3.4.17 Earthquake, EQ
In California, a high percentage of bridges are close enough to a major fault to be

controlled by EQ forces. EQ loads are a function of structural mass, structural period,
and the Acceleration Response Spectrum (ARS). The ARS curve is determined from
a Caltrans online mapping tool or supplied by the Office of Geotechnical Services.
These requirements will be covered in detail in Volume III of this practice manual. It
is recommended that EQ forces be considered early in the design process in order to
properly size members.
3.5 LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR BEAM-SLAB BRIDGES

Load distribution for permanent loads follows standard structure mechanics

methods. There are, however, a few occasions where assumptions are made to simplify
the design process, rather than follow an exact load distribution pathway.
3.5.1.1 Barriers
Barrier loads are generally distributed equally to all girders in the superstructure
section (Figure 3.5-1). The weight of the barrier is light enough that a more detailed
method of distribution is not warranted.
For the example bridge, DC load for barriers is 0.86 klf for two barriers. The barrier
load to each girder is simply 0.86/5 = 0.172 klf (Figure 3.5-1).

0.172 kip/ft
0.172 kip/ft
0.172 kip/ft
0.172 kip/ft
0.172 kip/ft
Figure 3.5-1 Barrier Distribution
3.5.1.2 Soundwalls
Since a soundwall has a much higher load per lineal length than a barrier, a more
refined analysis should be performed to obtain more accurate distribution. The
following procedure can be found in MTD 22-2 (Caltrans, 2004) for non-seismic
design.
Soundwall distribution is simplified by applying 100% of the soundwall shear

demand on the exterior girder. Secondly, apply 1/n to the first interior girder; where n
= number of girders. For moment, apply 60% to the exterior girder and 1/n to the first
interior girder. It is assumed that other girders in the bridge are unaffected by the
presence of the soundwall.
For the example bridge, assume a soundwall 10 ft tall using 8-inch blocks on the
north side of the bridge. The approximate weight per foot assuming solid grouting is
88 psf 10 ft = 880 plf. Applying this load in a 2-D frame program such as
CTBRIDGE, the results are shown in Table 3.5-1.
3.5.2 Live Loads on Superstructure
3.5.2.1 Cantilever Overhang Loads
Live load distribution on the overhang is determined using an equivalent strip

width method. The overhang is designed for Strength I and Extreme Event II only
(AASHTO A13.4)
Consider the case of maximum overhang moment due to the HL-93 design truck
(Strength I). Since the overhang is designed on a lineal length basis it is, therefore,
necessary to determine how much of the overhang is effective at resisting this load.
Wheel loads can be placed up to 1 ft from the face of the barrier. The 32-kip axle
weight of the HL-93 truck is divided by two to get a 16-kip point load, 1 ft from the
barrier. See Figure 3.5-2.

Table 3.5-1 Soundwall Forces

Apply to First Interior
Whole Bridge Apply to Exterior Girder
Girder
Location
VY (kips) MZ (kip-ft) VY (kips) MZ (kip-ft) VY (kips) MZ (kip-ft)
Span 1
1.50 38.3 58.5 38.3 35.1 7.66 11.7
12.60 28.5 429.8 28.5 258.0 5.7 86.0
25.20 17.5 719.8 17.5 432.0 3.5 144.0
37.80 6.4 870.0 6.4 522.0 1.28 174.0
50.40 -4.7 880.4 -4.7 528.0 -0.94 176.0
63.00 -15.8 751.1 -15.8 451.0 -3.16 150.0
75.60 -26.9 482.1 -26.9 289.0 -5.38 96.4
88.20 -38.0 73.3 -38 44.0 -7.6 14.7
100.80 -49.0 -475.1 -49 -285.0 -9.8 -95.0
113.40 -60.1 -1,162.9 -60.1 -698.0 -12.0 -233.0
123.00 -68.6 -1,780.8 -68.6 -1,068.0 -13.7 -356.2
Span 2
3.00 70.9 -1,734.7 70.9 -1,041.0 14.2 -347.0
16.80 58.7 -839.8 58.7 -504.0 11.7 -168.0
33.60 44.0 23.4 44.0 14.0 8.8 4.7
50.40 29.2 638.4 29.2 383.0 5.84 128.0
67.20 14.4 1,005.3 14.4 603.0 2.88 201.0
84.00 -0.3 1,123.9 -0.3 674.0 -0.06 225.0
100.80 -15.1 994.3 -15.1 597.0 -3.02 199.0
117.60 -29.9 616.4 -29.9 370.0 -5.98 123.0
134.40 -44.6 -9.5 -44.6 -5.7 -8.92 -1.9
151.20 -59.4 -883.3 -59.4 -530.0 -11.9 -177.0
165.00 -71.5 -1,786.9 -71.5 -1,072.0 -14.3 -357.0
Span 3
3.00 64.1 -1,551.0 64.1 -931.0 12.8 -310.0
11.80 56.3 -1,021.0 56.3 -613.0 11.3 -204.0
23.60 46.0 -418.0 46.0 -251.0 9.20 -83.6
35.40 35.6 63.2 35.6 37.9 7.12 12.6
47.20 25.2 422.0 25.2 253.0 5.04 84.4
59.00 14.8 658.0 14.8 395.0 2.96 132.0
70.80 4.4 771.0 4.4 463.0 0.88 154.0
82.60 -6.0 762.0 -6.0 457.0 -1.20 152.0
94.40 -16.3 631.0 -16.3 378.0 -3.26 126.0
106.20 -26.7 377.0 -26.7 226.0 -5.34 75.3
116.50 -35.8 54.7 -35.8 32.8 -7.16 10.9

X
5'-0''
Figure 3.5-2 Overhang Wheel Load
The moment arm for this load is:

X = 5.0 1.42 1.0 = 2.58 ft
The strip width is therefore:

Strips = 45.0 + 10X = 45 + 10(2.58) = 70.8 in. (AASHTO Table 4.6.2.1.3-1)
Overhang moment for design is therefore:

(16)(2.58)
=
M LL = 7.0 kip-ft/ft
70.8 / 12
Include dynamic load allowance:

MLL = 7.0(1.33) = 9.31 kip ft/ft
Include the Strength I load factor of 1.75:

MLL = 9.31 (1.75) = 16.3 kip ft/ft
3.5.2.2 CIP Box Girder
Live load distribution to each girder in a box girder bridge is accomplished using
empirical formulas to determine how many live load lanes each girder must be
designed to carry. Empirical formulas are used because a bridge is generally modeled
in 2D. Refined methods can be used in lieu of empirical methods whereby a 3D model
is used to develop individual girder live load distribution.
These expressions were developed by exponential curve-fitting of force effects

from a large bridge database and comparing to results from more refined analyses.
Because flexural behavior differs from shear behavior, and force effects in exterior
girders differ from those in interior girders, different formulae are provided for each.

Due to the torsional rigidity and load sharing capability of a box girder, the box is often
considered as a single girder. The formula for interior girders then applies to all girders.
1. Live Load Distribution for Interior Girder Moment
Span 1
S 12 ft, L = 126 ft, Nc = 4

(falls within the range of applicability of AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1)
One lane loaded case:

1
0.45
1.75 + S 1 1.75 + 12 1 1
0.35 0.35 0.45
gM =
N =
=
0.501
3.6 L c 3.6 126 4
Fatigue limit state:
0.501
=
gM = 0.418
1.2
Two or more lanes loaded case:

13 S 1
0.3
13 12 1
0.25 0.3 0.25
=g M = = 0.880
N c 5.8 L 4 5.8 126
The distribution factors for all spans are listed in Table 3.5-2.
Table 3.5-2 Girder Live Load Distribution for Moment

Span Fatigue Limit State* All other Limit States
1 0.418 0.880
2 0.378 0.818
3 0.428 0.894
*m of 1.2 has been divided out for the Fatigue Limit State
For a whole bridge design method (such as is used in CTBRIDGE), multiply

by the number of girders. For span 1, (gM)total = 4.400.
2. Live Load Distribution for Interior Girder Shear
Span 1
Depth of member, d = 81 in.

(falls within the range of applicability of AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1)
S d 12.0= 81
0.6 0.1 0.6 0.1
=g S = 0.859
9.5 12.0 L 9.5 12 126.0

Fatigue limit state:

0.859
gS = = 0.716
1.2
= S d 12.0=
81 1.167
0.9 0.1 0.9 0.1
=gS
7.3 12.0 L 7.3 12 126.0
The distribution factors for all spans are listed in Table 3.5-3.
Table 3.5-3 Girder Live Load Distribution for Shear
Span Fatigue Limit State* All other Limit States
1 0.716 1.167
2 0.695 1.134
3 0.720 1.175
*m of 1.2 has been divided out for the Fatigue Limit State
The total for the whole bridge for span 1 would be: (gS)total = 5.835
3.5.2.3 Precast I, Bulb-Tee, or Steel Plate Girder
In general, the live load distribution at the exterior girder is not the same as that
for the interior girder. However, in no instance should the exterior girder be designed
for fewer live load lanes than the interior girder, in case of future widening.
A precast I-girder bridge is shown in Figure 3.5-3. Calculations for live load
distribution factors for interior and exterior girders follow.
Given:
S = 9.67 ft; L = 110 ft; ts = 8 in.;
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter (in.4); Nb = 6
Calculation of the longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg:

Kg = n (I + Ae2g) (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-1)
EB 4696
=n = = 1.225
ED 3834
I = 733,320 in.4; A = 1,085 in.2 beam only
eg = vertical distance from c.g. beam to c.g. deck = 39.62 in.
Kg = 1.225(733,320 + 1,085 39.622) = 2,984,704 in.4

110'-0'' 110'-0''
H-Piles
Integral
22'-0'' Abutment
55'-4 '' Total Width

52'-0 ''
1'-8 1/4 ''
1'-10' 5 spaces at 9' -8''
8 '' Reinforced Concrete Deck

9 ''
Figure 3.5-3 Precast Bulb-Tee Bridge to be Used for Distribution Calculations
1. Live Load Distribution for Interior Girder Moment

0.1
S S Kg
0.4 0.3
=
g M 0.06 + 3
14 L 12.0 Lts
0.1
9.67 9.67 2,984, 704
0.4 0.3
=
0.06 + 3
=
0.542
14 110 (12 )(110 )( 8 )
0.1
Kg
Note: The term 3
could have been taken as 1.09 for preliminary
12.0 Lts
design (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-2), but was not used here.
0.542
Fatigue limit state:=
gM = 0.452
1.2


0.1
Kg
0.6 0.2
S S
=
g M 0.075 + L 3
9.5 12.0 Lts
0.6 0.2 0.1
9.67 9.67 2,984,704
=
0.075 + 3
=
0.796
9.5 110 (12)(110)(8)
2. Live Load Distribution for Exterior Girder Moment
Use the lever rule. The lever rule assumes the deck is a simply supported
member between girders. Live loads shall be placed to maximize the reaction
of one lane of live load (Figure 3.5-4).
2' 6' 3.5'

LL
A B
9.67'
Exterior Girder
Interior Girder
Figure 3.5-4 Lever Rule Example for Exterior Girder Distribution Factor
M B =
0
LL
(3.5 + 9.5) =RA 9.67
2
RA = 0.672 lanes
Therefore, for exterior girder moment, gM = 0.672 lanes. Use for the
Fatigue Limit State. For other limit states, gM = 1.2 (0.672) = 0.806 lanes.

g M = e ( g M )interior
de
=e 0.77 +
9.1

d e = 1.83ft
1.83
e = 0.77 +
= 0.971
9.1
= = 0.773 lanes
g M 0.971(0.796)
It is seen that the one lane loaded case controls for all limit states.
3. Live Load Distribution for Interior Girder Shear

S 9.67
g S =0.36 + =0.36 + =0.747
25.0 25.0
0.747
Fatigue limit state:=
gM = 0.623
1.2
S 9.67 9.67
2 2
S
g S =0.2 + =0.2 + =0.929
12.0 35 12.0 35
4. Live Load Distribution for Exterior Girder Shear
This case requires the lever rule once again. The result is exactly the same
for moment as for shear. Therefore (gS)exterior = 0.672 for the Fatigue Limit
State and (gS)exterior = 0.806 for all other limit states.
( g s )exterior = e( g s )interior
de 1.83
e = 0.6 +
= 0.6 + = 0.783
10 10
= =
g S 0.783 ( 0.929 ) 0.727
However, because the exterior girder cannot be designed for fewer live
load lanes than the interior girders, use (gS)exterior = 0.929 for all other limit
states.
The complete list of distribution factors for this bridge is shown in Tables
3.5-4 and 3.5-5.

Table 3.5-4 Girder Live Load Distribution for Moment

Girder Fatigue Limit State All other Limit States
Interior 0.452 0.796
Exterior 0.672 0.806
Table 3.5-5 Girder Live Load Distribution for Shear

Girder Fatigue Limit State All other Limit States
Interior 0.623 0.929
Exterior 0.672 0.929
3.5.3 Live Loads on Substructure
Substructure elements include the bent cap beam, columns, footings, and piles. To
calculate the force effects on these elements a transverse analysis shall be performed.
In order to properly load the bent with live load, results from the longitudinal frame
analysis are used. In this section, live load forces affecting column design are
discussed.
For column design there are 3 cases to consider:
1) (MT)max + (ML)assoc + Passoc
2) (ML)max + (MT)assoc + Passoc
3) Pmax + (ML)assoc + (MT)assoc
Each of these three cases applies to both the Design Vehicle live load and the
Permit load. In the Permit load case, up to two permit trucks are placed in order to
produce maximum force effects. These loads are then used in a column design program
such as Caltrans WINYIELD (2007).
3.5.3.1 Example
Consider the following bridge with a single column bent as shown in Figure 3.5-
5 and 3.5-6 to calculate the force effects at the bottom of the column:
285'
150' 135'
Figure 3.5-5 Example Bridge Elevation for Substructure Calculations

51' -10''
1' -5'' 5' -0'' 12' -0'' 12' -0'' 12' -0'' 8' -0''
Figure 3.5-6 Example Bridge Typical Section for Substructure Calculations
Live load effects from a longitudinal frame analysis are tabulated:
Table 3.5-6 CTBRIDGE Live Load Effects

Bottom of Column Live Load Forces (one lane + IM)
Vehicle class Case P (kips) ML(kip-ft)
Pmax 154 66
Design Truck+IM
(ML)max 100 465
Pmax 103 39
Design Lane
(ML)max 61 228
Pmax 455 240
Permit Truck+IM
(ML)max 333 1,319
1. Design Vehicle
Maximum Transverse Moment (MT)max Case
To obtain the moments in the transverse direction, the axial forces due to
one lane of live load listed above are placed on the bent to produce maximum
effects.
By inspection, placing two design vehicle lanes on one side of the bent
will produce maximum transverse moments in the column (Figure 3.5-7).
When not obvious, cases with one, two, three, and four vehicles should be
evaluated. Note that wheel lines must be placed 2 ft from the face of the barrier.
The edge of deck to edge of deck case should also be checked. Longitudinally,
the vehicles are located over the bent thus maximizing MT.

12' 12' 12' 12'

LL LL
6' 6'
2'
22' -6''
Figure 3.5-7 Vehicle Position for (MT)max
LL = 154 + 103 = 257 kips

Multiple presence factor, m = 1.0 for two lanes.
257
(M T=
) max ( 22.5 + 16.5 + 10.5 + 4.5
= ) 6,939 kip-ft
2
(ML)associated =(66 + 39) 2 = 210 kip-ft
Passociated = 257 2 = 514 kips
Maximum Axial Force Pmax Case
To maximize axial forces on the column, place as many lanes as can fit
on the bridge. In this case four lanes are required:
12' 12' 12' 12'

LL LL LL LL
6' 6' 6' 6'
Figure 3.5-8 Vehicle Position for (P)max

Multiple presence, m = 0.65 for four-lanes loaded.

257
=
( M T ) associated (0.65) (22.5 + 16.5 + 10.5 + 4.5 1.5 7.5 13.5 19.5)
2
= 1, 002 kip-ft
(ML)associated = (0.65)(66+39)(4) = 273 kip-ft

Pmax = (0.65)(257)(4) = 668 kips
Maximum Longitudinal Moment (ML)max Case
Load the bridge with as many lanes as possible but this time, the vehicles
are located longitudinally somewhere within the span:
=
( M T ) associated (0.65)
(100 + 61) (22.5 + 16.5 + 10.5 + 4.5 1.5 7.5 13.5 19.5)
2
= 628 kip-ft
(ML)max = (0.65)(465 + 228)(4) = 1,802 kip-ft
Passociated = (0.65)(100 + 61)(4) = 419 kips
2. Permit Vehicle
Next calculate the live load forces at the bottom of the column due to the
Permit vehicle. Note: Multiple presence, m = 1.0 when using either one or
two lanes (Article CA 3.6.1.8.2).
(MT)max Case
Two lanes of Permit load are placed on one side of the bent cap as shown
in Figure 3.5-7.
455
( M T )=
max ( 22.5 + 16.5 + 10.5 + 4.5
= ) 12, 285 kip-ft
2
(ML)associated = 240 (2) = 480 kip-ft
Passociated = 455(2) = 910 kips
Pmax Case
Again, to maximize the axial force, the trucks are located right over the
bent and a maximum of 2 lanes of Permit vehicles are placed on the bridge.
This results in the same configuration as in the (MT)max case. Therefore, the
results are the same.

(ML)max Case
333
=
( M T ) associated ( 22.5 + 16.5 + 10.5 + 4.5
= ) 8, 991 kip-ft
2
(ML)max = 1,319(2) = 2,638 kip-ft
Passociated = 333(2) = 666 kips
Summary of the live load forces at the bottom of column for all live load
cases are shown in Tables 3.5-7 and 3.5-8.
Table 3.5-7 Summary of Design Vehicle Forces for Column Design

Load (MT)max Case (kip-ft) (ML)max Case (kip-ft) Pmax Case (kips)
MT 6,939 628 1,002
ML 210 1,802 273
P 514 419 668
Table 3.5-8 Summary of Permit Vehicle Forces for Column Design

Load (MT)max Case (kip-ft) (ML)max Case (kip-ft) Pmax Case (kips)
MT 12,285 8,991 12,285
ML 480 2,638 480
P 910 666 910
3.5.4 Skew Modification of Shear Force in Superstructures
To illustrate the effect of skew modification, the example bridge shown in Figure
3.5-9 is used. Because load takes the shortest pathway to a support, the girders at the
obtuse corners of the bridge will carry more load. A 2-D model cannot capture the
effects of skewed supports. Therefore, shear forces must be amplified according to
Table 3.5-9.
Table 3.5-9 Skew correction of shear forces
Type of Applicable Cross-Section Range of

Correction Factor
Superstructure from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 Applicability
Cast-in-place d 0 < < 60o

Concrete Multicell 1.0 + for
50
Box 6.0 < S < 13.0
exterior girder
20 < L < 240

1.0 + for first
300 35 < d < 110
interior girder
Nc > 3

The example bridge has a 20 degree skew. Correction Factors are as follows:
20
Exterior Girder: 1.0 + =
1.4
50
20
First Interior Girder: 1.0 + =
1.067
300
To illustrate the application of these correction factors, apply them to dead load
(DC) shear forces only on the northern most exterior girder. Correction would also be
made to DW and LL in general (as well as the other exterior girders). Figure 3.5-9
shows the girder layout and Table 3.5-10 lists DC correction factors for the example
bridge.
Figure 3.5-9 Girder Layout

Table 3.5-10 Example Bridge DC Skew Correction (Northern Most Girder)

VDC (VDC)per girder (VDC)corrected
Span Tenth Point Correction
(kips) (kips) (kips)
0.0 721 144 1.39 201
0.1 540 108 1.32 143
0.2 334 66.8 1.24 82.8
0.3 128 25.6 1.16 29.7
0.4 -78 -15.6 1.08 -16.8
1 0.5 -284 -56.8 1.00 -56.8
0.6 -490 -98.0 1.00 -98.0
0.7 -696 -139 1.00 -139
0.8 -906 -181 1.00 -181
0.9 -1,121 -224 1.00 -224
1.0 -1,285 -257 1.00 -257
0.0 1,357 271 1.386 376
0.1 1,124 225 1.32 297
0.2 840 168 1.24 208
0.3 562 112 1.16 130
0.4 288 57.5 1.08 62.1
2 0.5 13.2 2.6 1.00 2.6
0.6 -261 -52.3 1.00 -52.3
0.7 -536 -107 1.00 -107
0.8 -815 -163 1.00 -163
0.9 -1,098 -220 1.00 -220
1.0 -1,331 -266 1.00 -266
0.0 1,219 244 1.38 336
0.1 1,068 214 1.32 282
0.2 866 173 1.24 215
0.3 669 134 1.16 155
0.4 476 95.3 1.08 103
3 0.5 284 56.7 1.00 56.7
0.6 90.6 18.1 1.00 18.1
0.7 -102 -20.4 1.00 -20.4
0.8 -295 -59.0 1.00 -59.0
0.9 -488 -97.6 1.00 -97.6
1.0 -656 -131 1.00 -131

3.6 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATION

The Limit States of AASHTO (2012) and CA (Caltrans, 2014) Section 3 require
combining the individual loads with specific load factors to achieve design objectives.
The example bridge shown in Figure 3.3-1 is used to determine the maximum positive
moments in the superstructure by factoring all relevant load effects in the appropriate
limit states.
Tables 3.6-1, 3.6-2 and 3.6-3 summarize load factors used for the example bridge
Span 2.
For Span 2, unfactored midspan positive moments are as follows:
MDC = 20,936 kip-ft

MDW = 2,496 kip-ft
MHL-93 = 13,206 kip-ft
MPERMIT = 26,029 kip-ft
MPS = 7,023 kip-ft
Factored positive moments are calculated as follows:

Strength I:
M = 1.25(20,936) + 1.5(2,496) + 1.0(7,023) + 1.75(13,206) = 60,047 kip-ft
Strength II:
M = 1.25(20,936) + 1.5(2,496) + 1.0(7,023) + 1.35(26,029) = 72,076 kip-ft
Therefore the Strength II Limit State controls for positive moment at this location.
Table 3.6-1 Load Combinations for Span 2 +M

Load DC LLHL-93 LLPermit WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ
Combination DD IM IM BL
DW CE CE IC
EH BR CT
EV PL CV
Limit State ES LS (use
EL only
PS one)
CR
SH
STRENGTH
I
p 1.75 1.0 - - 1.0 0.50/1.20 TG SE -
STRENGTH
II
p - 1.35 1.0 - - 1.0 0.50/1.20 TG SE -

Table 3.6-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p
Type of Load, Foundation Type, Load Factor

and Method Used to Calculate Downdrag Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90

DC: Strength IV, only 1.50 0.90
Piles, Tomlison Method 1.4 0.25
DD: Downdrag Piles, Method 1.05 0.30
Drilled Shafts, ONeill and Reese (1999) Method 1.25 0.35
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
Active 1.50 0.90
At-Rest 1.35 0.90
AEP for Anchored Walls 1.35 N/A
EL: Locked-in Construction Stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure

Overall Stability 1.00 N/A
Retaining Walls and Abutments 1.35 1.00
Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
Flexible Buried Structures
o Metal Box Culverts and Structural Plate Culverts
with Deep Corrugations 1.5 0.9
o Thermoplastic Culverts 1.3 0.9
o All Others 1.95 0.9
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
Table 3.6-3 Load Factors for Permanent Loads Due to Superimposed

Deformations, p
Bridge Component PS CR,SH
SuperstructuresSegmental 1.0 See p for DC, Table 3.6-2
Concrete Substructures supporting Segmental
Superstructures (see 3.12.4, 3.12.5)
Concrete Superstructuresnon-segmental 1.0 1.0
Substructures supporting non-segmental Superstructures
using Ig 0.5 0.5
using Ieffective 1.0 1.0
Steel Substructures 1.0 1.0

NOTATION
Load Designations
BR = vehicular braking force

CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = force effects due to creep
CT = vehicular collision force
CV = vessel collision force
DC = dead load of components
DD = downdrag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EQ = earthquake
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
FR = friction
IC = ice load
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning
SE = force effects due to settlement
SH = force effects due to shrinkage
TG = force effects due to temperature gradient
TU = force effects due to uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure

General Symbols
A = area of section (ft2)

C = centrifugal force factor
CD = drag coefficient
CL = lateral drag coefficient
d = structure depth (in.)
de = distance from cl exterior girder and face of barrier (ft)
e = girder LL distribution factor multiplier for exterior girders
eg = vertical distance from c.g. beam to c.g. deck (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity (ksi)
f = CE fatigue factor
Ft = transverse barrier collision force (kip)
FL = longitudinal barrier collision force (kip)
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec)
gM = girder LL distribution factor for moment
gS = girder LL distribution factor for shear
heq = equivalent height of soil for vehicular load (ft)
H = height of element (ft)
I = moment of inertia (ft4)
k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
ka = active earth pressure coefficient
ks = earth pressure coefficient due to surcharge
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter (in.4)
L = span length (ft)
MCT = vehicular collision moment on barrier (kip-ft)
MLL = moment due to live load (kip-ft)
MT = transverse moment on column (kip-ft)
ML = longitudinal moment on column (kip-ft)
MDC = moment due to dead load (kip-ft)
MDW = moment due to dead load wearing surface (kip-ft)
MHL-93 = moment due to design vehicle (kip-ft)
MPERMIT = moment due to permit vehicle (kip-ft)

MPS = moment due to secondary pre-stress forces (kip-ft)

n = modular ratio
Nb = number of beams
Nc = number of cells in the box girder section
p = stream force pressure (ksf)
p = pressure against wall
P = axial load on column (k)
PB = base wind pressure (ksf)
PD = wind pressure (ksf)
qs = uniform surcharge applied to upper surface of the active earth wedge (ksf)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (ft)
S = center to center girder spacing (ft)
ts = top slab thickness (in.)
v = highway design speed (ft/sec)
V = design velocity of water (ft/sec)
VDC = shear due to dead load (kip)
VDZ = design wind velocity at elevation z (mph)
Vo = friction velocity (mph)
V30 = wind velocity at 30 ft above ground (mph)
VB = base wind velocity of 100 mph at 30 ft height (mph)
w = uniform load (kip/ft)
X = moment arm for overhang load (ft)
z = depth to point below ground surface (ft)
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated (ft)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch (ft)
= coefficient of thermal expansion
p = earth surcharge load
s = density of soil (pcf)
= skew angle (degrees)

REFERENCES
Washington, D.C.
2. AASHTO, (2010). Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of
Highway Bridges, 2nd Edition, with 2010 Interim Revisions, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
3. CSI, (2015). CSiBridge 2015, v. 17.0.0, Computers and Structures, Inc., Walnut Creek,
CA.

5. Caltrans, (2014). CTBRIDGE, Caltrans Bridge Analysis and Design v. 1.6.1, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
6. Caltrans, (2007). WINYIELD, Column Design Program v. 3.0.10, California Department

of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (2008). Memo to Designers 10-20: Deck and Soffit Slab, California Department
8. Caltrans, (2004). Memo to Designers 22-2: Soundwall Load Distribution, California

9. Caltrans, (1988). Memo to Designers 15-17: Future Wearing Surface, California


CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4-1

4.2 STRUCTURE MODELING ........................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 General ............................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.2 Structural Modeling Guidelines ......................................................................... 4-5
4.2.3 Material Modeling Guidelines............................................................................ 4-7
4.2.4 Types of Bridge Models ..................................................................................... 4-7
4.2.5 Slab-Beam Bridges ............................................................................................. 4-9
4.2.6 Abutments ........................................................................................................ 4-15
4.2.7 Foundation........................................................................................................ 4-16
4.2.8 Examples .......................................................................................................... 4-18
4.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 4-27
4.3.1 General ............................................................................................................. 4-27
4.3.2 Analysis Methods ............................................................................................. 4-28
4.4 BRIDGE EXAMPLES 3-D VEHICLE LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS ........................... 4-36
4.4.1 Background ...................................................................................................... 4-36
4.4.2 Moving Load Cases .......................................................................................... 4-37
4.4.3 Live Load Distribution For One And Two-Cell Box Girders Example ........... 4-40
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................... 4-53
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 4-54
Chapter 4 Structural Modeling and Analysis 4-i

Chapter 4 Structural Modeling and Analysis 4-ii

CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural analysis is a process to analyze a structural system to predict its
responses and behaviors by using physical laws and mathematical equations. The
main objective of structural analysis is to determine internal forces, stresses and
deformations of structures under various load effects.
Structural modeling is a tool to establish three mathematical models, including
(1) a structural model consisting of three basic components: structural members or
components, joints (nodes, connecting edges or surfaces), and boundary conditions
(supports and foundations); (2) a material model; and (3) a load model.
This chapter summarizes the guidelines and principles for structural analysis and
modeling used for bridge structures.
4.2 STRUCTURE MODELING

4.2.1 General
For designing a new structure, connection details and support conditions shall be
made as close to the computational models as possible. For an existing structure
evaluation, structures shall be modeled as close to the actual as-built structural
conditions as possible. The correct choice of modeling and analysis tools/methods
depends on:
a) Importance of the structure
b) Purpose of structural analysis
c) Required level of response accuracy
This section will present modeling guidelines and techniques for bridge
structures.
4.2.1.1 Types of Elements

Different types of elements may be used in bridge models to obtain characteristic
responses of a structure system. Elements can be categorized based on their principal
structural actions.
a) Truss Element
A truss element is a two-force member that is subjected to axial loads either
tension or compression. The only degree of freedom for a truss (bar) element
is axial displacement at each node. The cross sectional dimensions and
material properties of each element are usually assumed constant along its
length. The element may interconnect in a two-dimensional (2-D) or three-
Chapter 4 Structural Modeling and Analysis 4-1

dimensional (3-D) configuration. Truss elements are typically used in

analysis of truss structures.
b) Beam Element
A beam element is a slender member subject to lateral loads and moments.
In general, it has six degrees of freedom at each node including translations
and rotations. A beam element under pure bending has only four degrees of
freedom.
c) Frame Element
A frame element is a slender member subject to lateral loads, axial loads and
moments. It is seen to possess the properties of both truss and beam elements
and also called a beam-column element. A three-dimensional frame
formulation includes the effects of biaxial bending, torsion, axial
deformation, and biaxial shear deformations. A frame element is modeled as
a straight line connecting two joints. Each element has its own local
coordinate system for defining section properties and loads.
d) Plate Element
A plate element is a two dimensional solid element that acts like a flat plate.
There are two out-of-plane rotations and the normal displacement as Degree
of Freedom (DOF). These elements model plate-bending behavior in two
dimensions. The element can model the two normal moments and the cross
moment in the plane of the element. The plate element is a special case of a
shell element without membrane loadings.
e) Shell Element
A shell element (Figure 4.2-1) is a three-dimensional solid element (one
dimension is very small compared with another two dimensions) that carries
plate bending, shear and membrane loadings. A shell element may have
either a quadrilateral shape or a triangular shape. Shell element internal
forces are reported at the element mid-surface in force per unit length and are
reported both at the top and bottom of the element in force per unit area. It is
primarily used to determine local stress levels in cellular superstructure or in
cellular pier and caissons. It is generally recommended to use the full
behavior unless the entire structure is planar and is adequately restrained.

Figure 4.2-1 Shell and Solid Elements
f) Plane Element
The plane element is a two-dimensional solid, with translational degrees of
freedom, capable of supporting forces but not moments. One can use either
plane stress elements or plane strain elements. Plane stress element is used to
model thin plate that is free to move in the direction normal to the plane of
the plate. Plane strain element is used to model a thin cut section of a very
long solid structure, such as walls. Plain strain element is not allowed to
move in the normal direction of the elements plane.
g) Solid Element
A solid element is an eight-node element as shown in Figure 4.2-1 for
modeling three-dimensional structures and solids. It is based upon an
isoparametric formulation that includes nine optional incompatible bending
modes. Solid elements are used in evaluation of principal stress states in joint
regions or complex geometries (CSI, 2014).
h) The NlLink Element

A NlLink element (CSI, 2014) is an element with structural nonlinearities. A
NlLink element may be either a one-joint grounded spring or a two-joint link
and is assumed to be composed of six separate springs, one for each degree
of deformational degrees of freedom including axial, shear, torsion, and pure
bending. Non-linear behavior is exhibited during nonlinear time-history
analyses or nonlinear static analyses.
4.2.1.2 Types of Boundary Elements

Selecting the proper boundary condition has an important role in structural
analysis. Effective modeling of support conditions at bearings and expansion joints
requires a careful consideration of continuity of each translational and rotational
component of displacement. For a static analysis, it is common to use a simpler
assumption of supports (i.e. fixed, pinned, roller) without considering the soil/
foundation system stiffness. However for dynamic analysis, representing the
soil/foundation stiffness is essential. In most cases choosing a [66] stiffness matrix
is adequate.

For specific projects, the nonlinear modeling of the system can be achieved by
using nonlinear spring/damper. Some Finite Element programs such as ADINA
(ADINA, 2014) have more capability for modeling the boundary conditions than
others.
4.2.1.3 Types of Materials

Different types of materials are used for bridge structure members such as
concrete, steel, prestressing tendons, etc. For concrete structures, see Article C5.4.1
and for steel structures see Article 6.4 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).
The material properties that are usually used for an elastic analysis are: modulus
of elasticity, shear modulus, Poissons ratio, the coefficient of thermal expansion, the
mass density and the weight density. One should pay attention to the units used for
material properties.
4.2.1.4 Types of Loads

There are two types of loads in a bridge design:
Permanent Loads: Loads and forces that are assumed to be either constant upon
completion of construction or varying only over a long time interval (AASHTO
3.2). Such loads include the self weight of structure elements, wearing surface,
curbs, parapets and railings, utilities, locked-in force, secondary forces from post-
tensioning, force effect due to shrinkage and due to creep, and pressure from
earth retainments (CA 3.3.2).
Transient Loads: Loads and forces that can vary over a short time interval
relative to the lifetime of the structure (AASHTO 3.2). Such loads include
gravity loads due to vehicular, railway and pedestrian traffic, lateral loads due to
wind and water, ice flows, force effect due to temperature gradient and uniform
temperature, and force effect due to settlement and earthquakes (CA 3.3.2).
Loads are discussed in Chapter 3 in detail.
4.2.1.5 Modeling Discretization

Formulation of a mathematical model using discrete mathematical elements and
their connections and interactions to capture the prototype behavior is called
Discretization. For this purpose:
a) Joints/Nodes are used to discretize elements and primary locations in
structure at which displacements are of interest.
b) Elements are connected to each other at joints.
c) Masses, inertia, and loads are applied to elements and then transferred to
joints.
Figure 4.2-2 shows a typical model discretization for a bridge bent.

Figure 4.2-2 Model Discretization for Monolithic Connection
4.2.2 Structural Modeling Guidelines
4.2.2.1 Lumped-Parameter Models (LPMs)
Mass, stiffness, and damping of structure components are usually combined

and lumped at discrete locations. It requires significant experience to
formulate equivalent force-deformation with only a few elements to represent
structure response.
For a cast-in-place prestressed (CIP/PS) concrete box girder superstructure, a
beam element located at the center of gravity of the box girder can be used.
For non-box girder structures, a detailed model will be needed to evaluate the
responses of each separate girder.
4.2.2.2 Structural Component Models (SCMs) - Common Caltrans Practice
Based on idealized structural subsystems/elements to resemble geometry of

the structure. Structure response is given as an element force-deformations
relationship.
Gross moment of inertia is typically used for non-seismic analysis of
concrete column modeling.
Effective moment of inertia can be used when analyzing large deformation
under loads, such as prestressing and thermal effects. Effective moment of
inertia is the range between gross and cracked moment of inertia. To
calculate effective moment of inertia, see AASHTO LRFD 5.7.3.6.2
(AASHTO, 2012).

Cracked moment of inertia is obtained using section moment - curvature

analysis (e.g. xSection or CSiBridge Section Designer), which is the moment
of inertia corresponding to the first yield curvature. For seismic analysis,
refer to Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) 5.6 Effective Section Properties
(Caltrans, 2013).
4.2.2.3 Finite Element Models (FEMs)
A bridge structure is discretized with finite-size elements. Element

characteristics are derived from the constituent structural materials
(AASHTO 4.2).
Figure 4.2-3 shows the levels of modeling for seismic analysis of bridge
structures.
Figure 4.2-3 Levels of Modeling for Seismic Analysis of Bridge

(Priestley, et al 1996)
The importance of the structure, experience of the designer and the level of
needed accuracy affects type of model, location of joints and elements within the
selected model, and number of elements/joints to describe geometry of the structure.
For example, a horizontally curved structure should be defined better by shell
elements in comparison with straight elements. The other factors to be considered
are:
a) Structural boundaries - e.g., corners
b) Changes in material properties
c) Changes in element sectional properties
d) Support locations
e) Points of application of concentrated loads - Frame elements can have in-
span loads

4.2.3 Material Modeling Guidelines

Material models should be selected based on a materials deformation under
external loads. A material is called elastic, when it returns to its original shape upon
release of applied loads. Otherwise it is called an inelastic material.
For an elastic body, the current state of stress depends only on the current state of
deformation while, in an inelastic body, residual deformation and stresses remain in
the body even when all external tractions are removed.
The elastic material may show linear or nonlinear behavior. For linear elastic
materials, stresses are linearly proportional to strains ( = E) as described by
Hookes Law. The Hookes Law is applicable for both homogeneous and isotropic
materials.
Homogeneous means that the material properties are independent of the
coordinates.
Isotropic means that the material properties are independent of the rotation of
the axes at any point in the body or structure. Only two elastic constants
(modulus of elasticity E and Poissons ratio ) are needed for linear elastic
materials.
For a simple linear spring, the constitutive law is given as: Fs = k where is the
relative extension or compression of the spring, while Fs and k represent the force in
the spring and the spring stiffness, respectively. Stiffness is the property of an
element which is defined as force per unit displacement.
For a nonlinear analysis, nonlinear stress-strain relationships of structural
materials should be incorporated.
For unconfined concrete a general stress-strain relationship proposed by
Hognestad is widely used. For confined concrete, generally Manders model
is used (Akkari and Duan, 2014).
For structural steel and reinforcing steel, the stress-strain curve usually
includes three segments: elastic, perfectly plastic, and a strain-hardening
region.
For prestressing steel, an idealized nonlinear stress-strain model may be
used.
4.2.4 Types of Bridge Models
4.2.4.1 Global Bridge Models

A global bridge model includes the entire bridge with all frames and connecting
structures. It can capture effects due to irregular geometry such as curves in plane and
elevation, effects of highly-skewed supports, contribution of ramp structures, frames
interaction, expansion joints, etc. It is primarily used in seismic design to verify
design parameters for the individual frame. The global model may be in question
because of spatially varying ground motions for large, multi-span, and multi-frame

bridges under seismic loading. In this case a detailed discretization and modeling
force-deformation of individual element is needed.
4.2.4.2 Tension and Compression Models

The tension and compression models are used to capture nonlinear responses for
bridges with expansion joints (MTD 20-4, Caltrans, 2007) to model the non-linearity
of the hinges with cable restrainers. Maximum response quantities from the two
models are used for seismic design.
a) Tension Model
Tension model is used to capture out-of-phase frame movement. The tension
model allows relative longitudinal movement between adjacent frames by
releasing the longitudinal force in the rigid hinge elements and abutment
joints and activating the cable restrainer elements. The cable restrainer unit is
modeled as an individual truss element with equivalent spring stiffness for
longitudinal movement connecting across expansion joints.
b) Compression Model
Compression model is used to capture in-phase frame movement. The
compression model locks the longitudinal force and allows only moment
about the vertical and horizontal centerline at an expansion joint to be
released. All expansion joints are rigidly connected in longitudinal direction
to capture effects of joint closing-abutment mobilized.
4.2.4.3 Frame Models

A frame model is a portion of structure between the expansion joints. It is a
powerful tool to assess the true dynamic response of the bridge since dynamic
response of stand-alone bridge frames can be assessed with reasonable accuracy as an
upper bound response to the whole structure system. Seismic characteristics of
individual frame responses are controlled by mass of superstructure and stiffness of
individual frames. Transverse stand-alone frame models shall assume lumped mass at
the columns. Hinge spans shall be modeled as rigid elements with half of their mass
lumped at the adjacent column (SDC Figure 5.4.1-1, Caltrans, 2013). Effects from
the adjacent frames can be obtained by including boundary frames in the model.
4.2.4.4 Bent Models

A transverse model of bent cap and columns is needed to obtain maximum
moments and shears along bent cap. Dimension of bent cap should be considered
along the skew.
Individual bent model should include foundation flexibility effects and can be
combined in frame model simply by geometric constraints. Different ground motion
can be input for individual bents. The high in-plane stiffness of bridge superstructures
allows rigid body movement assumption which simplifies the combination of
individual bent models.

4.2.5 Slab-Beam Bridges
4.2.5.1 Superstructures
For modeling slab-beam bridges, either Spine Model or a Grillage Model should
be used.
Figure 4.2-4 Superstructure Models (Priestley, et al 1996)
a) Spine Model
Spine Models with beam elements are usually used for ordinary bridges. The
beam element considers six DOF at both ends of the element and is modeled
at their neutral axis.
The effective stiffness of the element may vary depending on the
structure type.
Use SDC V1.7 to define effective flexural stiffness EIeff for
reinforced concrete box girders and pre-stressed box girders as
follows:
For reinforced concrete (RC) box girder, (0.5~0.75) EIg
For prestressed concrete (PS) box girder, 1.0 EIg and for tension
it considers Ig,
where Ig is the gross section moment of inertia.
The torsional stiffness for superstructures can be taken as: GJ for un-
cracked section and 0.5 GJ for cracked section.
Spine model cant capture the superstructure carrying wide roadway,
high-skewed bridges. In these cases use grillage model.

b) Grillage Models/3D Finite Element Model

Grillage Models are used for modeling steel composite deck
superstructures and complicated structures where superstructures
cant be considered rigid such as very long and narrow bridges,
interchange connectors.
4.2.5.2 Bents
If the bridge superstructure can be assumed to move as a rigid body under
seismic load, the analysis can be simplified to modeling bents only. Frame elements,
effective bending stiffness, cap with large torsional and transverse bending stiffness
to capture superstructure, and effective stiffness for outriggers should be considered.
Figure 4.2-5 shows single column bent models.
Figure 4.2-5 Single-Column Bent Models (Priestley et al, 1996)
4.2.5.3 Superstructure - Bents Connection

In modeling the superstructure bent connections, two different connections as
shown in Figures 4.2-2 and 4.2-6 may be considered:
a) Monolithic connections for cast-in-place box girders and integral bent cap for
precast girders.
b) Bearing supported connections for precast concrete girders or steel
superstructures on drop cap. Different types of bearings are: PTFE, stainless
steel sliders, rocker bearings and elastomeric bearings. With the bearing-
supported connections, one may use the isolated bearing by using special
seismic bearings and energy-dissipating devices to reduce resonant buildup
of displacement.
In monolithic connections all the degrees of freedom are restrained (three degrees
of translations and three degrees for rotation); however, in bearing supported

connections, only three degrees of translations are restrained but the rotational
degrees of freedom are free.
In the bearing supported structures, the superstructure is not subjected to seismic
moment transferred through the column. However the design is more sensitive to
seismic displacement than with the monolithic connection.
The energy dissipation devices in the isolated bearing reduce the seismic
displacement significantly in comparison with bearing-supported structures. The
designer should pay attention to the possibility of increased acceleration when using
the bearing-supported connections with or without energy-dissipation devices in soft
soils.
Figure 4.2-6 Superstructure-Bent Connection

4.2.5.4 Hinges
Hinges separate frames in long structures to allow for movements due to thermal,
initial pre-stress shortening and creep without large stresses and strains in members.
A typical hinge should be modeled as 6 degrees of freedom, i.e., free to rotate in
the longitudinal direction and pin in the transverse direction to represent shear
(Figure 4.2-7).
It is Caltrans practice to use Linear Elastic Modal Analysis with two different
structural models, Tension and Compression, to take care of this analysis issue.
Figure 4.2-7 Span Hinge Force Definitions (Priestley et al, 1996)
4.2.5.5 Substructures
Figures 4.2-8 and 4.2-9 show a multi-column bent model and a foundations
spring model at a bent, respectively. Figure 4.2-10 shows a multi bridge frame model.
a) Column-Pier Sections
Prismatic - same properties or Non-Prismatic
Shapes Circular Column, Rectangular, Hollow-Section Column

Figure 4.2-8 Multi-Column Bent Model (Priestley et al, 1996)
b) Bent-Foundation Connection
Pin base: Generally used for multi-column bents.
Fixed Base: For single column base.

Figure 4.2-9 Foundation Spring Definition at a Bent

Figure 4.2-10 Multi Bridge Frame (Priestley et al, 1996)
4.2.6 Abutments
When modeling bridge structure, abutment can be modeled as pin, roller or fixed
boundary condition. For modeling the soil-structure interaction, springs can be used.

Figure 4.2-11 shows end restraint with springs to model soil-structure interaction for
seat and rigid abutments. Abutment stiffness, capacities, and damping affect seismic
response. Seismic Design Criteria V1.7, Section 7.8 discusses the longitudinal and
transverse abutment responses in an earthquake. For modeling gap, back wall and
piles effective stiffness is used with non-linear behavior. Iterative procedure should
be used to find a convergence between stiffness and displacement.
Figure 4.2-11 Foundation Spring Definition
4.2.7 Foundation
4.2.7.1 Group Piles

Supports can be modeled using:
Springs - 6 6 stiffness matrix - defined in global/joint local coordinate
system.
Restraints - known displacement, rotation - defined in global DOF.
Complete pile system with soil springs along with the bridge.

4.2.7.2 Pile shaft

When modeling the pile shaft for non-seismic loading, an equivalent fixity model
can be used (Figure 4.2-12c). For seismic loading, a soil-spring model (Figure 4.2-
12b) should be considered to capture the soil-structure interaction. Programs such as
Wframe, L-Pile, CSiBridge or ADINA can be used.
a) Prototype b) Soil-Spring Model c) Equivalent Fixity Model
Figure 4.2-12 CIDH Pile Shaft Models (Priestley et al, 1996)
4.2.7.3 Spread Footing

Spread footings are usually built on stiff and competent soils, fixed boundary
conditions are assumed for the translational springs, and rotation is considered only
when uplift and rocking of the entire footing are expected.

4.2.8 Examples
4.2.8.1 CTBridge
CTBridge (Caltrans, 2014b) is a Finite Element Analysis and Design software

using a 3D spine model for the bridge structure. This allows description of skewed
supports, horizontal and vertical curves, and multi-column bents.
CTBridge allows user manipulation of various settings such as:

Number of Elements
Live Load Step Sizes
Prestress Discretization
P-Jack Design Limits
For non-skewed bridges, the abutment can be considered pinned or roller. For
skewed bridges, springs should be used at the abutments. The stiffness of the springs
shall be based on the stiffness of the bearing pads. If bearing stiffness is not available,
slider can be used instead of pin or roller. For bridges with curved alignments and
skewed supports or straight bridges with skews in excess of 60 degrees, a full 3-D
analysis model, such as a grillage or shell model may be required to more accurately
capture the true distribution of the load.
Note that in order to get the result at each 0.1 span, you should define the offset
from begin and end span, i.e. from CL abutment to face of abutment.
The following structure shown in Figures 4.2-13a to 4.2-13c is used as an
example for CTBridge.
Figure 4.2-13a Elevation View of Example Bridge

Figure 4.2-13b Typical Section View of Example Bridge
Figure 4.2-13c Plan View of Example Bridge

Figure 4.2-14 shows CTBridge model for example bridge.
Figure 4.2-14 Example Bridge - CTBridge Model
Figure 4.2-15 shows sign convention for CTBridge.
Figure 4.2-15 Sign Convention at CTBridge

Figure 4.2-16 shows two spine models.
Figure 4.2-16 3D Frame in CTBridge
4.2.8.2 CSiBridge
CSiBridge is the latest and one of the most powerful versions of the well-known
Finite Element Program SAP series of Structural Analysis Programs, which offers the
following features:
Static and Dynamic Analysis
Linear and Nonlinear Analysis
Dynamic Seismic Analysis and Static Pushover Analysis
Vehicle Live-Load Analysis for Bridges, Moving Loads with 3D Influence
Surface, Moving Loads with Multi-Step Analysis, Lane Width Effects
P-Delta Analysis
Cable Analysis
Eigen and Ritz Analyses
Fast Nonlinear Analysis for Dampers
Energy Method for Drift Control
Segmental Construction Analysis

The following are the general steps to be defined for analyzing a structure using
CSiBridge:
Geometry (input nodes coordinates, define members and connections)

Boundary Conditions/Joint Restraints (fixed, free, roller, pin or partially
restrained with a specified spring constant)
Material Property (Elastic Modulus, Poissons Ratio, Shear Modulus,
damping data, thermal properties and time-dependent properties such as
creep and shrinkage)
Loads and Load cases
Stress-strain relationship
Perform analysis of the model based on analysis cases
Bridge Designers can use CSiBridge templates for generating Bridge Models,
Automated Bridge Live Load Analysis and Design, Bridge Base Isolation, Bridge
Construction Sequence Analysis, Large Deformation Cable Supported Bridge
Analysis, and Pushover Analysis.
The user can either model the structure as a Spine Model (Frame) or a 3D Finite
Element Model.
Concrete Box Girder Bridge:
In this section, we create a CSiBridge model for the Example Bridge using
the Bridge Wizard (BrIM-Bridge Information Modeler). The Bridge Modeler has
13 modeling step processes which the major steps are described below:
a) Layout line
The first step in creating a bridge object is to define highway layout lines
using horizontal and vertical curves. Layout lines are used as reference
lines for defining the layout of bridge objects and lanes in terms of
stations, bearings and grades considering super elevations and skews.
b) Deck Section
Various parametric bridge sections (Box Girders & Steel Composites)
are available for use in defining a bridge. See Figure 4.2-17.
User can specify different Cross Sections along Bridge length.

Figure 4.2-17 Various Bridge Sections
c) Abutment Definition
Abutment definitions specify the support conditions at the ends of the
bridge. The user defined support condition allows each six DOF at the
abutment to be specified as fixed, free or partially restrained with a
specified spring constant.
Those six Degrees of Freedom are:
U1- Translation Parallel to Abutment

U2- Translation Normal to Abutment
U3- Translation Vertical
R1- Rotation about Abutment
R2- Rotation about Line Normal to Abutment
R3- Rotation about Vertical
For Academy Bridge consider U2, R1 and R3 DOF directions to have a
Free release type and other DOF fixed.
d) Bent Definition
This part specifies the geometry and section properties of bent cap beam
and bent cap columns (single or multiple columns) and base support
condition of the bent columns.

The base support condition for a bent column can be fixed, pinned or
user defined as a specified link/support property which allows six
degrees of freedom.
For Example Bridge enter the column base supports as pinned. All units
should be kept consistent (kip-ft for this example).
The locations of columns are defined as distance from left end of the cap
beam to the centerline of the column and the column height is the
distance from the mid-cap beam to the bottom of the column.
For defining columns use Bent definition under bridge wizard, then go to
define/show bents and go to Modify/show column data. The base column
supports at top and bottom will be defined here.
e) Diaphragm Definition
Diaphragm definitions specify properties of vertical diaphragms that
span transverse across the bridge. Diaphragms are only applied to area
objects and solid object models and not to spine models. Steel diaphragm
properties are only applicable to steel bridge sections.
f) Hinge Definition
Hinge definitions specify properties of hinges (expansion joints) and
restrainers. After a hinge is defined, it can be assigned to one or more
spans in the bridge object.
A hinge property can be a specified link/support property or it can be

user-defined spring. The restrainer property can be also a link/support or
user defined restrainer. The user-restrainer is specified by a length, area
and modulus of elasticity.
g) Parametric Variation Definition

Any parameter used in the parametric definition of the deck section can
be specified to vary such as bridge depth, thickness of the girders and
slabs along the length of the bridge. The variation may be linear,
parabolic or circular.
h) Bridge Object Definition

The main part of the Bridge Modeler is the Bridge Object Definition
which includes defining bridge span, deck section properties assigned to
each span, abutment properties and skews, bent properties and skews,
hinge locations are assigned, super elevations are assigned and pre-stress
tendons are defined.

The user has two tendon modeling options for pre-stress data:
Model as loads
Model as elements
Since we calculate the pre-stress jacking force from CTBridge, use

option (a) (layout line) to input the Tendon Load force. The user can
input the Tendon loss parameters which have two parts:
1) Friction and Anchorage losses (Curvature coefficient, Wobble

coefficient and anchorage setup).
2) Other loss parameters (Elastic shortening stress, Creep stress,
Shrinkage stress and Steel relaxation stress).
When you input values for Friction and Anchorage losses, make sure the
values match your CTBridge which should be based on CALIFORNIA
Amendments Table 5.9.5.2.2b-1 (Caltrans, 2014) and there is no need to
input other loss parameters. If the user decides to model tendon as
elements, the values for other loss parameters shall be input; otherwise,
leave the default values.
Note:
If you model the bridge as a Spine Model, only define one single
tendon with total Pjack load. If you model the bridge with shell
element, then you need to specify tendon in each girder and input
the Pjack force for each girder which should be calculated as Total
Pjack divided by number of the girders.
Anytime a bridge object definition is modified, the link model
must be updated for the changes to appear in /CSiBridge model.
i) Update Linked Model

The update linked model command creates the CSiBridge object-based
model from the bridge object definition. Figures 4.2-18 and 4.2-19 show
an area object model and a solid object model, respectively. Note that an
existing object will be deleted after updating the linked model. There are
three options in the Update Linked Model including:
Update a Spine Model using Frame Objects
Update as Area Object Model
Update as Solid Object Model

Figure 4.2-18 Area Object Model
Figure 4.2-19 Solid Object Model
Other analysis steps include:

Parametric Bridge Modeling
Layered Shell Element
Lane Definition Using Highway Layout or Frame Objects
Automatic Application of Lane Loads to Bridge
Predefined Vehicle and Train Loads
Bridge Results & Output

Influence Lines and Surfaces
Forces and Stresses Along and Across Bridge
Displacement Plots
Graphical and Tabulated Outputs

CSiBridge also has an Advanced Analysis Option that is not discussed in this
section including:
Segmental Construction
Effects of Creep, Shrinkage Relaxation
Pushover Analysis using Fiber Models
Bridge Base Isolation and Dampers
Explicitly Model Contact Across Gaps
Nonlinear Large Displacement Cable Analysis
Line and Surface Multi-Linear Springs (P-y curves)
High Frequency Blast Dynamics using Wilson FNA
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis & Buckling Analysis
Multi-Support Seismic Excitation
Animated Views of Moving Loads
The program has the feature of automated line constraints that enforce the
displacement compatibility along the common edges of meshes as needed.
4.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural Analysis provides the numerical mathematical process to extract
structure responses under service and seismic loads in terms of structural demands
such as member forces and deformations.
4.3.1 General
For any type of structural analysis, the following principles should be considered.
4.3.1.1 Equilibrium
a) Static Equilibrium
In a supported structure system when the external forces are in balance with the
internal forces, or stresses, which exactly counteract the loads (Newtons Second
Law), the structure is said to be in equilibrium.
Since there is no translatory motion, the vector sum of the external forces must

be zero ( F = 0 ). Since there is no rotation, the sum of the moments of the

external forces about any point must be zero ( M = 0 ).
b) Dynamic Equilibrium
When dynamic effects need to be included, whether for calculating the dynamic
response to a time-varying load or for analyzing the propagation of waves in a
structure, the proper inertia terms shall be considered for analyzing the dynamic
equilibrium:
F =mu

4.3.1.2 Constitutive Laws

The constitutive laws define the relationship between the stress and strain in the
material of which a structure member is made.
4.3.1.3 Compatibility
Compatibility conditions are referred to continuity or consistency conditions on
the strains and the deflections. As a structure deforms under a load, we want to
ensure that:
a) Two originally separate points do not merge into a single point.
b) Perimeter of a void does not overlap as it deforms.
c) Elements connected together remain connected as the structure deforms.
4.3.2 Analysis Methods

Different types of analysis are discussed in this section.
4.3.2.1 Small Deflection Theory

If the deformation of the structure doesnt result in a significant change in force
effects due to an increase in the eccentricity of compressive or tensile forces, such
secondary force effects may be ignored. Small deflection theory is usually adequate
for the analyses of beam-type bridges. Suspension bridges, very flexible cable-stayed
bridges and some arches rather than tied arches and frames in which flexural
moments are increased by deflection are generally sensitive to deflections. In many
cases the degree of sensitivity can be evaluated by a single-step approximate method,
such as moment magnification factor method (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2).
4.3.2.2 Large Deflection Theory

If the deformation of the structure results in a significant change in force effects,
the effects of deformation shall be considered in the equations of equilibrium. The
effect of deformation and out-of-straightness of components shall be included in
stability analysis and large deflection analyses. For slender concrete compressive
components, time-dependent and stress-dependent material characteristics that cause
significant changes in structural geometry shall be considered in the analysis.
Because large deflection analysis is inherently nonlinear, the displacements are
not proportional to applied load, and superposition cannot be used. Therefore, the
order of load application are very important and should be applied in the order
experienced by the structure, i.e. dead load stages followed by live load stages, etc. If
the structure undergoes nonlinear deformation, the loads should be applied
incrementally with consideration for the changes in stiffness after each increment.

4.3.2.3 Linear Analysis

In the linear relation of stress-strain of a material, Hookes law is valid for small
stress-strain range. For linear elastic analysis, sets of loads acting simultaneously can
be evaluated by superimposing (adding) the forces or displacements at the particular
point.
4.3.2.4 Non-linear Analysis

The objective of non-linear analysis is to estimate the maximum load that a
structure can support prior to structural instability or collapse. The maximum load
which a structure can carry safely may be calculated by simply performing an
incremental analysis using non-linear formulation. In a collapse analysis, the
equation of equilibrium is for each load or time step.
Design based on assumption of linear stress-strain relation will not always be
conservative due to material or physical non-linearity. Very flexible bridges, e.g.
suspension and cable-stayed bridges, should be analyzed using nonlinear elastic
methods (LRFD C4.5.1, AASHTO, 2012).
P-Delta effect is an example of physical (geometrical) non-linearity, where
principle of superposition doesnt apply since the beam-column element undergoes
large changes in geometry when loaded.
4.3.2.5 Elastic Analysis

Service and fatigue limit states should be analyzed as fully elastic, as should
strength limit states, except in the case of certain continuous girders where inelastic
analysis is permitted, inelastic redistribution of negative bending moment and
stability investigation (LRFD C4.5.1, AASHTO, 2012).
When modeling the elastic behavior of materials, the stiffness properties of
concrete and composite members shall be based upon cracked and/or uncracked
sections consistent with the anticipated behavior (LRFD 4.5.2.2, AASHTO, 2012). A
limited number of analytical studies have been performed by Caltrans to determine
effects of using gross and cracked moment of inertia. The specific studies yielded the
following findings on prestressed concrete girders on concrete columns:
1) Using Igs or Icr in the concrete columns do not significantly reduce or increase
the superstructure moment and shear demands for external vertical loads, but
will significantly affect the superstructure moment and shear demands from
thermal and other lateral loads (CA C4.5.2.2, Caltrans, 2014a). Using Icr in
the columns can increase the superstructure deflection and camber
calculations (CA 4.5.2.2, Caltrans, 2014a).
Usually an elastic analysis is sufficient for strength-based analysis.

4.3.2.6 Inelastic Analysis

Inelastic analysis should be used for displacement-based analysis (Akkari and
Duan, 2014).
The extreme event limit states may require collapse investigation based entirely
on inelastic modeling. Where inelastic analysis is used, a preferred design failure
mechanism and its attendant hinge locations shall be determined (LRFD 4.5.2.3,
AASHTO, 2012).
4.3.2.7 Static Analysis

Static analysis mainly used for bridges under dead load, vehicular load, wind
load and thermal effects. The influence of plan geometry has an important role in
static analysis (AASHTO 4.6.1). One should pay attention to plan aspect ratio and
structures curved in plan for static analysis.
Plan Aspect Ratio
If the span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed crossed
section exceeds 2.5 times its width, the superstructure may be idealized as a
single-spine beam. Simultaneous torsion, moment, shear and reaction forces
and the attendant stresses are to be superimposed as appropriate. In all
equivalent beam idealizations, the eccentricity of loads should be taken with
respect to the centerline of the equivalent beam.
Structure curved in plan

Horizontally cast-in-place box girders may be designed as single spine beam
with straight segments, for central angles up to 34 within one span, unless
concerns about other force effects dictate otherwise. For I-girders, since
equilibrium is developed by the transfer of load between the girders, the
analysis must recognize the integrated behavior of all structure components.
Small deflection theory is adequate for the analysis of most curved-girder

bridges. However curved I-girders are prone to deflect laterally if not sufficiently
braced during erection. This behavior may not be well recognized by small deflection
theory.

4.3.2.8 Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA)

It is used to estimate seismic demands for ordinary bridge structures as specified
in Caltrans SDC (Caltrans, 2013). A bridge is usually modeled as Single-Degree-of-
Freedom (SDOF) and seismic load applied as equivalent static horizontal force. It is
suitable for individual frames with well balanced spans and stiffness. Caltrans SDC
(Caltrans, 2013) recommends stand-alone Local Analysis in Transverse &
Longitudinal direction for demands assessment. Figure 4.3-1 shows a stand-alone
model with lumped masses at columns, rigid body rotation, and half span mass at
adjacent columns.
Transverse Stand-Alone Model
Longitudinal Stand-Alone Model
Figure 4.3-1 Stand Alone Model
Types of Equivalent Static Analysis such as Lollipop Method, Uniform Load

Method and Generalized Coordinate Method can be used.
4.3.2.9 Nonlinear Static Analysis (Pushover Analysis)

Nonlinear Incremental Static Procedure is used to determine displacement
capacity of a bridge structure.
Horizontal loads are incrementally increased until a structure reaches collapse
condition or collapse mechanism. Change in structure stiffness is modeled as member
stiffness due to cracking, plastic hinges, yielding of soil spring at each step (event).

Analysis Programs are available such as: WFRAME, CSiBridge, STRUDL, SC-
Push 3D, ADINA.
Figures 4.3-2 and 4.3-3 shows typical force-displacement and moment-curvature
for a concrete column.
Figure 4.3-2 Pushover curve
a) Pushover Analysis - Requirements

Linear Elastic Structural Model
Initial or Gravity loads
Characterization of all Nonlinear actions - multi-linear force-
deformation relationships (e.g. plastic hinge moment-curvature
relationship)
Limits on strain based on design performance level to compute
moment curvature relationship of nonlinear hinge elements.
Section Analysis> Strain> Curvature
Double Integration of curvature> Displacements
Track design performance level strain limits in structural response
Figure 4.3-3 A Typical Moment-Curvature Curve for a Concrete Column

4.3.2.10 General Dynamic Equilibrium Equation

The dynamic equation of motion for a typical SDOF is:
FInput = FI + FD + FS
where:
F1 = mass acceleration = m
FD = Damping const Velocity = m u
FS = Stiffness Deformation = ku
Weight
m = mass = sV =
g
s = Material mass density
V = Element volume = A L
K = stiffness
c = damping constant = z ccr
ccr = critical damping = 2 m w
z = damping-ratio = 0.5 p EDC
ku 2
EDC = Energy dissipated per cycle
U = displacement
In addition to earthquakes, wind and moving vehicles can cause dynamic loads
on bridge structures.
Wind load may induce instability and excessive vibration in long-span bridges.
The interaction between the bridge vibration and wind results in two kind of forces
including motion-dependent and motion-independent. The motion dependent force
causes aerodynamic instability with emphasis on vibration of rigid bodies. For short
span bridges the motion dependent part is insignificant and there is no concern about
aerodynamic instability. The bridge aerodynamic behavior is controlled by two types
of parameters: structural and aerodynamics. The structure parameters are the bridge
layout, boundary condition, member stiffness, natural modes and frequencies. The
aerodynamic parameters are wind climate, bridge section shape. The aerodynamic
equation of motion is expressed as:
m + cu + ku= FU md + Fmi
where:
FUmd = motion-dependent aerodynamic force vector

Fmi = motion-independent wind force vector
For a detailed analytical solution for effect of wind on long span bridges and
cable vibration, see (Cai, etl al., 2014).

4.3.2.11 Free Vibration Analysis

Vehicles such as trucks and trains passing bridges at certain speed will cause
dynamic effects. The dynamic loads for moving vehicles on bridges are counted for
by a dynamic load allowance, IM. See (Duan, et al., 1999).
Major characteristics of the bridge dynamic response under moving load can be
summarized as follows:
Impact factor increases as vehicle speed increases, impact factor decreases as
bridge span increases.
Under the condition of Very good road surface roughness (amplitude of
highway profile curve is less than 0.4 in.) the impact factor is well below the design
specifications. But the impact factor increases tremendously with increasing road
surface roughness from good to poor (the amplitude of the roadway profile is
more than 1.6 in.) beyond the impact factor specified in AASHTO LRFD
Specifications.
Field tests indicate that in the majority of highway bridges, the dynamic
component of the response does not exceed 25% of the static response to vehicles
with the exception of deck joints. For deck joints, 75% of the impact factor is
considered for all limit states due to hammer effect, and 15% for fatigue and fracture
limit states for members vulnerable to cyclic loading such as shear connectors, see
CA - C3.6.2.1 (Caltrans, 2014a) to AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO, 2012).
Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles may be attributed to two sources:
Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding
surface discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes and
delaminations.
Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which may
be due to long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by
settlement of fill, or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies
of vibration between bridge and vehicle. (AASHTO LRFD C3.6.2.1)
The magnitude of dynamic response depends on the bridge span, stiffness and
surface roughness, and vehicle dynamic characteristics such as moving speed and
isolation systems. There have been two types of analysis methods to investigate the
dynamic response of bridges due to moving load:
Numerical analysis (Sprung mass model).
Analytical analysis (Moving load model).
The analytical analysis greatly simplifies vehicle interaction with bridge and
models a bridge as a plate or beam with a good accuracy if the ratio of live load to
self weight of the superstructure is less than 0.3.
Free vibration analysis assuming a sinusoidal mode shape can be used for the
analysis of the superstructure and calculating the fundamental frequencies of slab-
beam bridges (Zhang, et al., 2014).

For long span bridges or low speed moving load, there is little amplification
which does not result in much dynamic responses.
Maximum dynamic response happens when load frequency is near the bridge
fundamental frequency.
The aspect ratios of the bridge deck play an important role. When they are less
than 4.0 the first mode shape is dominant, when more than 8.0, other mode shapes are
excited.
Free-Vibration Properties are shown in Figure 4.3-4.
cycles
/2
K
R=1.
0

2*
T = 2 sec
f = 1/T = = 0.5 cycle/sec
= 2*/T = rad/sec
T/2
T = 1sec
f = 1/T = 1/1= 1.0
cycle/sec
T
T = 0.5 sec
T T f = 1/T = 1/0.5= 2.0 cycle/sec
= 2*/T = 4* rad/sec
Figure 4.3-4 Natural Period
a) Cycle: When a body vibrates from its initial position to its extreme positive
position in one direction, back to extreme negative position, and
back to initial position (i.e., one revolution of angular displacement
of 2 ) (radians)
b) Frequency (): If a system is disturbed and allowed to vibrate on its own,
without external forces and damping (free Vibration).

A system having n degrees of freedom will have, in general, n distinct natural

frequencies of vibration.
= K/m
2

= = distance/time
T
= 2 f
c) Period (T): Is the time taken to complete one cycle of motion. It is equal to
the time required for a vector to rotate 2 (one round)
d) Frequency (f): The number of cycles per unit time, f = 1/T (H.Z)
4.4 BRIDGE EXAMPLES 3-D VEHICLE LIVE LOAD

ANALYSIS
4.4.1 Background
The United States has a long history of girder bridges being designed girder-by-
girder. That is, the girder is designed for some fraction of live loads, depending on
girder spacing and structure type. The method is sometimes referred to as girder
line or beam line analysis and the fraction of live load lanes used for design is
sometimes referred to as a grid or Load Distribution Factor (LDF).
The approximate methods of live-load distribution in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) use girder load distribution factors (LDFs)
to facilitate beam analysis of multiple vehicular live loads on a three-dimensional
bridge structural system. The formal definition of LDF: a factor used to multiply the
total longitudinal response of the bridge due to a single longitudinal lane load in
order to determine the maximum response of a single girder (Barker and Puckett
2013). A more practical definition: the ratio Mrefined /Mbeam or Vrefined /Vbeam, where the
numerator is the enveloped force effect at one location, and the denominator is force
effect at the same location in a single girder due to the same load.
Although each location within a girder can have a different LDF, the
expressions in the tables of AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS,
Articles 4.6.2.2.2 and 4.6.2.2.3 are based on the critical locations for bending
and shear, respectively. Critical locations refer to maximum absolute positive
moments, negative moments, and maximum absolute shear. For cast-in-place
(CIP) concrete multicell box girders, the AASHTO tables only apply to
typical bridges, which refer to:
Girder spacing, S: 7 < S < 13

Span length, L: 60 < L < 240 (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.2b-1)
The CA Amendments (CA Table 4.6.2.2.2b-2) provides the LDF for one
cell, and two cell boxes based on:

Span Length, L: 60' < L < 240'

Structure Depth, d, 35" < d < 110"
The use of approximate methods on less-typical structures is prohibited. The

less-typical structures refer to either one of the following cases:
Two or three-girder beam-slab structures;

Spans greater than 240 ft in length;
Structures with extra-wide overhangs (greater than one-half of the girder
spacing or 3 ft).
Three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis (FEA) must be used to

determine the girder LDFs of these less-typical bridges. The following cases
may also require such refined analysis:
Skews greater than 45;

Structures with masonry sound walls;
Beam-slab structures with beams of different bending stiffness.
A moving load analysis on a 3D finite element (FE) model provides accurate

load distribution. However, for routine design of commonly used bridge
superstructure system, 3D FEA requires the familiarity with sophisticated,
usually also expensive, finite element methods.
FEM software. It may not be economical due to the additional time required
to build and run the 3D model, and analyze the results, comparing to simple
FEM program, e.g. Caltrans.
CTBridge. In addition, in terms of the reliability of an FE model, 3D FEM

model may not be as reliable as a simple 2D FE model due to the much
greater number of details in a 3D FE model. Based on Caltrans experience, a
combination of LDF formula with the in-house 2D FEM design program,
CTBridge, provides sufficient, reliable and efficient design procedure and
output. The latest version of CTBridge includes the LDF values for a one- or
two-cell box-girder bridge.
4.4.2 Moving Load Cases

In many situations, the one- or two-cell box girders are for widening of existing
bridges. If they are new bridges, it is also possible that they will be widened in the
future. Both cases imply that the traffic loads may be applied anywhere across the
bridge width, i.e., edge to edge, and this shall be taken into account in design. This
also means that one wheel line of the truck can be on the new/widened bridge, while
the other one on the existing bridge. As one can imagine, for certain bridge width, the
maximum force effect may be due to, say, 1.5 or 2.5 lanes. For particularly narrow
bridge, e.g., 6 or 8 ft. bridge, probably only one wheel line load can be applied.

CSiBridge (CSI, 2015) has the capability to permute all the possible vehicular
loading patterns once a set of lanes is defined. First, the entire bridge response due to
a single lane loaded, without the application of the Multiple Presence Factor (MPF),
can be easily obtained by arbitrarily defining a lane of any width within the bridge.
Then, lane configurations that would generate the maximum shear and moment
effects would be defined and the MPF would be defined. The cases where one lane is
loaded are important for fatigue design; in addition, the cases where one lane is
loaded may control over the cases where two lanes are loaded. Therefore, the cases
where one lane is loaded are separated from the permutation and are defined based on
a single lane of the whole bridge width.
AASHTO standard design vehicular live loads, HL-93, are used as the traffic
load for the CSiBridge analyses of the live load distribution factor. Figure 4.4-1
shows the elevation view of the four types of design vehicles per lane, including the
details of the axle load and axle spacing. Transverse spacing of the wheels for design
truck and design tandem is 6 ft. The transverse width of the design lane load is 10 ft.
The extreme force effect, moment and shear in girders for this study, at any location
of any girder, are the largest from the 4 design vehicles:
HL-93K: design tandem and design lane load;

HL-93M: design truck and design lane load;
HL-93S: 90% of two design trucks and 90% of the design lane load;
HL-93LB: pair of one design tandem and one design lane load.

(a) HL-93K
32k 32k
(b) HL-93M 8k
14 14-30
(c) HL-93S
minimum
14 14
(d) HL93-LB
Figure 4.4-1 Elevation View of AASHTO Standard HL-93 Vehicular Live Loads
(Caltrans)
Cases (c) and (d) in Figure 4.4-1 are for maximum negative moment over bent
caps. A dynamic load allowance of 33% is applied and only applied to the design
truck and design tandem in all cases. Multiple Presence Factor as shown in Table
4.4-1 is applied in accordance to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
Table 4.4-1 Multiple Presence Factor (MPF)

Number of Loaded Lanes Multiple Presence Factor
1 1.20
>1 and 2 1
>2 and 3 0.85

4.4.3 Live Load Distribution For One And Two-Cell Box Girders Example
Model Bridge in CSiBridge as given data below:
In this example, the method of calculating LLDF is shown for a two-cell box
girder by using a 3D FEM-CSiBridge model for different lane loading (Figures 4.4-3
to 4.4-6). The bridge data is given as shown below:
Girder spacing, S: 6 < S =13< 13
Span length, L: 60 < L=180 < 220
Structure depth, D: 35 < d =96< 110
Single span, simply supported, 180 foot long, 8-foot depth two-cell Box Girder
Bridge with the following cross section as shown in Figure 4.4-2.
Figure 4.4-2 Live Load Distribution For Two-Cell Box Girders Snap Shot

1) Load groups
Load Group 1
In Group 1
Load Group 2
In Group 2

Load Group 3
In Group 3
Load Group 4
In Group 4
In order to calculate the LDF, both spine model and area object model were run
for different lane loading using BrIM.

2) Bridge Modeler (Figure 4.4-7)

Update Bridge Structural Model as Area Object Model
BrIM Update Link Model Update as Area Object
Figure 4.4-7 Bridge Modeler Snap Shot
3) Define Lane (Figure 4.4-8)

Define Bridge loads Lanes
Figure 4.4-8 Define Lane Snap Shot

Maximum Lane Load Discretization Lengths:

Along Lane 10 ft
Across Lane 2 ft
4) Define Vehicle (Figure 4.4-9)

Define Bridge loads Vehicles
Figure 4.4-9 Define Vehicle Snap Shot
5) Define Vehicle Classes (Figure 4.4-10)

Define Bridge loads Vehicle classes:
Figure 4.4-10 Define Vehicle Classes Snap Shot

6) Analysis Cases (Figure 4.4-11)

Group1: 1 Lane loaded
Define Load cases Define Load cases
Figure 4.4-11 Analysis Cases Snap Shot in One-Lane Loaded
Group 2: 2 Lane loaded (Lanes 1, 2 & 3) (Figure 4.4-12)
Figure 4.4-12 Analysis Cases Snap Shot in Two-Lane Loaded

Group 3: 2 Lane loaded (Lanes 4 & 5)(Figure 4.4-13)
Figure 4.4-13 Analysis Cases Snap Shot in Two-Lane Loaded
Group 4: 3 Lane loaded (Lanes 1, 2 & 3) (Figure 4.4-14)
Figure 4.4-14 Analysis Cases Snap Shot in Three-Lane Loaded

7) Analysis Single Lane Loaded (MPF = 1) with running updated Bridge

Structural Model as Spine Model (Figure 4.4-15)
BrIM Update Link Model Update as Spine Model Define
Lane Define Load cases
Figure 4.4-15 Analysis Single Lane Loaded Snap Shot
Results:
A) Spine Model
The maximum moments and shears at entire bridge width for one lane loaded are
shown in Figure 4.4-16 and 4.4-17.
The Maximum moment value = 6,527 Kips-ft at x = 90 ft

Figure 4.4-16 Maximum Moment Snap Shot

The Maximum shear value =148.35 Kips

Figure 4.4-17 Maximum Shear Snap Shot
B) Area Model
The maximum moments at exterior and interior girders for one lane loaded are
shown in Figure 4.4-18 to 4.4-20.
Left Exterior Girder, M3 = 2566 Kips-ft at x = 90 ft

Figure 4.4-18 Maximum Moment for One-Lane Loaded at Left Exterior Girder

Interior Girder, M3 = 3410 Kips-ft at x = 90 ft

Figure 4.4-19 Maximum Moment for One-Lane Loaded at Interior Girder
Right Exterior Girder, M3 = 2566 Kips-ft at x = 90 ft

Figure 4.4-20 Maximum Moment for One-Lane Loaded at Right Exterior Girder
The maximum shears at exterior and interior girders for one lane loaded are
shown in Figure 4.4-21 to 4.4-23.

Shear at Left Exterior girder = 153.91 Kips at x = 0

Figure 4.4-21 Maximum Shear for One-Lane Loaded at Left Exterior Girder
Shear at Interior Girder = 109.27 Kips at x = 0

Figure 4.4-22 Maximum Shear for One-Lane Loaded at Interior Girder

Shear at Right Exterior girder = 153.91 Kips at x = 0

Figure 4.4-23 Maximum Shear for One-Lane Loaded at Right Exterior Girder
C) Actual, Modified LLDF:

Shear (Table 4.4-2)
Actual LLDF = (VL.Ext. + VInt. +VR.Ext.)/ VSingle lane
Modified LLDF = (Max (VL.Ext., VInt. ,VR.Ext.)) 3/ VSingle lane
Table 4.4-2 Live Load Distribution Factor for Shear

Case Cell L # VSingle lane VL.Ext. VInt. VR.Ext.
LLDFActual LLDFModified
# Type (ft) Lanes (Kips) (Kips) (Kips) (Kips)
1 X2C8 180 1 148.35 156.43 110.45 156.43 2.85 3.16

2 X2C8 180 2 148.35 172.18 165.82 172.18 3.44 3.48
3 X2C8 180 3 148.35 153.69 157.25 153.69 3.13 3.18
Moment (Table 4.4-3)

Actual LLDF = (ML.Ext. + MInt. +MR.Ext.)/ MSingle lane
Modified LLDF = (Max (ML.Ext. , MInt. , MR.Ext.)) 3/ MSingle lane
Table 4.4-3 Live Load Distribution Factor for Moment

Case Cell L # MSingle lane ML.Ext. MInt. MR.Ext.
LLDFActual LLDFModified
# Type (ft) Lanes (Kips-ft) (Kips-ft) (Kips-ft) (Kips-ft)
1 X2C8 180 1 6527 2566.39 3410.52 2566.39 1.31 1.57

2 X2C8 180 2 6527 4045.82 5656.70 4045.82 2.11 2.60
3 X2C8 180 3 6527 4920.23 7074.28 4920.23 2.59 3.25

Although the CSiBridge analysis provides a more exact distribution of force

effects in the girders, it doesnt calculate the amounts of prestressing, longitudinal, or
shear reinforcement required on the contract plans. Different two-dimensional tools
such as CTBridge are used for design. The girders are considered individually, or,
lumped together into a single-spine model.
Caltrans prefers the latter in the case of post-tensioned box girders because post-
tensioning in one girder has an effect on the adjacent girder.
If the individual demands were simply lumped together and used in two-
dimensional software for design and the girders design equally, at least one girder
would be under-designed. Hence, the value from the girder with the highest demand
is used for all girdersas shown above, so it is recommended to consider LDF
Modified, as the Live Load Lanes input for CTBridge.

NOTATION
A = area of section (ft2)

d = structure depth (in.)
E = Youngs modulus (ksi)
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec)
gM = girder LL distribution factor for moment
gS = girder LL distribution factor for shear
H = height of element (ft)
I = moment of inertia (ft4)
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter (in.4)
MT = transverse moment on column (kip-ft)
ML = longitudinal moment on column (kip-ft)
MHL-93 = moment due to design vehicle (kip-ft)
MPERMIT = moment due to permit vehicle (kip-ft)
MPS = moment due to Secondary prestress forces (kip-ft)
n = modular ratio
Nb = number of beams
Nc = number of cells in the box girder section
S = center-to-center girder spacing (ft)
ts = top slab thickness (in.)
tdeck = deck thickness (in.)
tsoffit = soffit thickness (in.)
tgirder = girder stem thickness (in.)
w = uniform load (kip/ft)
X = moment arm for overhang load (ft)
= coefficient of thermal expansion
= skew angle (degrees)

REFERENCES
(6th Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 4th
Edition, Washington, D.C.
2. ADINA, (2014). ADINA System, ADINA R & D, Inc., Watertown, MA.
3. Akkari, M. and Duan, L., Chapter 5: Nonlinear Analysis, Bridge Engineering

Handbook, 2nd Edition: Seismic Design, Chen, W.F. and Duan, L., Ed., CRC Press. Boca
Raton, FL.
4. Barker, R. M. and Puckett, J. A., (2013). Design of Highway Bridges: A LRFD

Approach, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
5. Cai, C.S., Zhang, W. and Montens, S., (2014) Chapter 22: Wind Effects on Long Span
Bridges, Bridge Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition: Fundamentals, Chen, W.F. and
Duan, L., Ed., CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
6. Caltrans, (2014a). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

Specifications 6th Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (2014b). CTBRIDGE, Caltrans Bridge Analysis and Design v. 1.6.1, California
8. Caltrans, (2007). Memo to Designers 20-4 Earthquake Retrofit for Bridges, California
9. Caltrans, (2013). Seismic Design Criteria, v. 1.7, California Department of

Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
10. CSI, (2015). CSiBridge 2015, v. 17.0.0, Computers and Structures, Inc., Walnut Creek,
CA.
11. Duan, M., Perdikaris, P.C. and Chen, W. F., (1999). Chapter 56: Impact Effect of
Moving Vehicle, Bridge Engineering Handbook, Chen, W.F. and Duan, L., Ed., CRC
Press. Boca Raton, FL.
12. Priestley, Seible and Calvi (1996). Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
13. Zhang, W., Vinyagamoorth, M. and and Duan, L., Chapter 3: Dynamic, Bridge
Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition: Seismic Design, Chen, W.F. and Duan, L., Ed., CRC
Press. Boca Raton, FL.

CHAPTER 5
CONCRETE DESIGN THEORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 5-1

5.2 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ....................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.1 Concrete .......................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.2 Reinforcing Steel............................................................................................. 5-2
5.2.3 Prestressing Steel ............................................................................................ 5-2
5.3 DESIGN LIMIT STATES............................................................................................... 5-2
5.4 FLEXURE DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 5-3
5.4.1 Strength Limit States ....................................................................................... 5-3
5.4.2 Service Limit States ........................................................................................ 5-8
5.4.3 Fatigue Limit States ...................................................................................... 5-10
5.5 SHEAR DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 5-10
5.5.1 Basic Concept of Modified Compression Field Theory................................ 5-10
5.5.2 Shear Strength ............................................................................................... 5-11
5.5.3 Flexure Shear Interaction ........................................................................... 5-14
5.5.4 Transverse Reinforcement Limits ................................................................. 5-16
5.6 COMPRESSION DESIGN ........................................................................................... 5-16
5.6.1 Factored Axial Compression Resistance Pure Compression ..................... 5-17
5.6.2 Combined Flexure and Compression ............................................................ 5-17
5.6.3 Reinforcement Limits ................................................................................... 5-20
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................... 5-21
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 5-24
Chapter 5 Concrete Design Theory 5-i

Chapter 5 Concrete Design Theory 5-ii

CHAPTER 5
CONCRETE DESIGN THEORY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most commonly used material in California highway structures,
especially after the wide acceptance of prestressing technology in the 1950s.
Nowadays, concrete bridges, prestressed or non-prestressed, account for about 90%
of all bridges in the California highway system. Such dominancy is attributable to the
many advantages that concrete offers:
Ability to be cast in almost any shape

Low cost
Durability
Fire resistance
Energy efficiency
On-site fabrication
Aesthetic properties
Concrete design has evolved from Allowable Stress Design (ASD), also Working
Stress Design (WSD), to Ultimate Strength Design (USD) or Load Factor Design
(LFD), to todays Limit State Design (LSD) or Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD). Concrete design takes on a whole new look and feel in the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012). New concepts that had been
ruminating amongst concrete experts for decades reached a level of maturity
appropriate for implementation. While not perfect, the new methods are more
rational than those in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
(AASHTO, 2002) and entail an amount of effort appropriate given todays
technology compared to that available when the LFD was developed. Changes
include:
Unified design provisions for reinforced and prestressed concrete

Modified compression field theory for shear and torsion
Alternative Strut and Tie modeling techniques for shear and flexure
End zone analysis for tendon anchorages
New provisions for segmental construction
Revised techniques for estimating prestress losses
Chapter 5 will summarize the general aspects of concrete component design

using the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) with the
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a), while Chapter 7 will give a detailed
description of the design procedure for post-tensioned box girder bridges, and
Chapter 8 will cover the design of precast prestressed girder bridges. Concrete decks
are covered in Chapter 10.
Chapter 5 Concrete Design Theory 5-1

5.2 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

5.2.1 Concrete
The most important property of concrete is the compressive strength. Concrete

with 28-day compressive strength f c = 3.6 ksi is commonly used in conventionally
reinforced concrete structures while concrete with higher strength is used in
prestressed concrete structures. The California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a)
specify minimum design strength of 3.6 ksi for concrete, and AASHTO Article
5.4.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012) requires minimum design strength of 4.0 ksi for prestressed
concrete. When a higher strength is specified for a project, designers should consider
various factors including cost and local availability.
5.2.2 Reinforcing Steel
Steel reinforcing bars are manufactured as plain or deformed bars. In California,

the main reinforcing bars are always deformed. Plain bars are usually used for spirals
or hoops.
Reinforcing bars must be low-alloy steel deformed bars conforming to

requirements in ASTM A 706/A 706M with a 60 ksi yield strength, except that
deformed or plain billet-steel bars conforming to the requirements on ASTM A
615/A 615M, Grade 40 or 60, may be used as reinforcement in some minor structures
as specified in Caltrans Standard Specifications (Caltrans, 2015).
5.2.3 Prestressing Steel
Two types of high-tensile strength steel used for prestressing steel are:
1. Strands: ASTM A 416 Grade 270, low relaxation.

2. Bars: ASTM A 722 Type II
All Caltrans designs are based on low relaxation strands using either 0.5 in. or
0.6 in. diameter strands.
5.3 DESIGN LIMIT STATES

Concrete bridge components are designed to satisfy the requirements of service,
strength, and extreme-event limit states for load combinations specified in AASHTO
Table 3.4.1-1 (AASHTO, 2012) with Caltrans revisions (Caltrans, 2014). The
following are the four limit states into which the load combinations are grouped:

I. Service Limit States

Concrete stresses, deformations, cracking, distribution of reinforcement,
deflection, and camber are investigated at service limit states.
Service I: Crack control and limiting compression in prestressed concrete

Service III: Crack control/tension in prestressed concrete
Service IV: Post-tensioned precast column sections
II. Strength Limit States

Axial, flexural, shear strength, and stability of concrete components are
investigated at strength limit states. Resistance factors are based on
AASHTO Article 5.5.4.2 (AASHTO, 2012).
Strength I: Basic load (HL-93)

Strength II: Owner specified load (Permit)
Strength III: Wind on structure
Strength IV: Structure with high DL/LL (>7)
Strength V: Wind on structure and live load
III. Extreme Event Limit States

Concrete bridge components and connections must resist extreme event loads
due to earthquake and appropriate collision forces, but not simultaneously.
IV. Fatigue Limit States

Fatigue of the reinforcement need not be checked for fully prestressed
concrete members satisfying requirements of service limit state. Fatigue need
not be investigated for concrete deck slab on multi-girder bridges. For fatigue
requirements, refer to AASHTO Article 5.5.3 (AASHTO, 2012).
5.4 FLEXURE DESIGN

5.4.1 Strength Limit States
5.4.1.1 Design Requirement
In flexure design, the basic strength design requirement can be expressed as

follows:
M u M n M r

where Mu is the factored moment at the section (kip-in.); Mn is the nominal flexural
resistance (kip-in.); and Mr is the factored flexural resistance of a section in bending
(kip-in.).

In assessing the nominal resistance for flexure, the AASHTO LRFD provisions
(AASHTO, 2012) unify the strength design of conventionally reinforced and
prestressed concrete sections based on their behavior at ultimate limit state. In the old
LFD Specifications, a flexure member was designed so that the section would fail in
a tension-controlled mode. Thus, there was a maximum reinforcement ratio.
Whereas, in the new LRFD specifications, there is no explicit upper bound for
reinforcement. There is a distinction of compression and tension-controlled section
based on the strain in the extreme tension steel. To penalize for the undesirable
behavior of compression-controlled sections, a lower value of resistance reduction
factor is assigned to compression-controlled sections compared to tension-
controlled sections. The new procedure defines a transition behavior region in which
the resistance factor , to be used for strength computation, varies linearly with the
strain in the extreme steel fibers. The design of sections falling in this behavior
region may involve an iterative procedure.
Here are a few terms used to describe the flexural behavior of the reinforced
section:
Balanced strain condition: Strain in extreme tension steel reaches its yielding
strain as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
Compression-controlled strain limit: Net Tensile Strain (NTS) (excluding effect

of prestressing, creep, etc.) in the extreme tension steel at the balanced condition. It
may be assumed equal to 0.002 for Grade 60 reinforcement and all prestressed
reinforcement.
Compression-controlled section: NTS compression-controlled strain limit just

as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003. When a
section falls into this situation, it behaves more like a column than a beam. Thus, the
component shall be properly reinforced with ties and spirals as required by AASHTO
Article 5.7.2.1 with appropriate resistance factor (Caltrans, 2014a).
Tension-controlled section: NTS 0.005 just as the concrete in compression

reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003.
Resistance factors are as follow:

for precast prestressed members
for cast-in-place prestressed members
for non-prestressed members
Transition region: Compression controlled strain limit < NTS < 0.005. For the
transition region, the resistance factor is calculated by using linear interpolation.
Caltrans Amendments require that reinforced concrete sections in flexure be designed

so that NTS 0.004. This requirement is to ensure that the section will not fail in
compression-controlled modes.
Figure 5.4-1 Illustrates those three regions and equations for resistance factors of
flexural resistance (Caltrans, 2014a).
Figure 5.4-1 Resistance Factor Variation for Grade 60 Reinforcement and

Prestressing Steel
5.4.1.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance
The provisions for conventionally reinforced and prestressed concrete are now
one-and-the-same. The basic assumptions used for flexural resistance (AASHTO
Article 5.7.2.2) are as follows:
Plane section remains plane after bending, i.e., strain is linearly proportional
to the distance from the neutral axis, except the deep members.
For unconfined concrete, maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete
compression fiber is not greater than 0.003. For confined concrete, the
maximum usable strain exceeding 0.003 may be used if verified.
Stress in the reinforcement is based on its stress-strain curve.
Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
Concrete compressive stress-strain distribution is assumed to be rectangular,
parabolic, or any shape that results in predicted strength in substantial
agreement with the test results. An equivalent rectangular compression stress
block of 0.85 f c' over a zone bounded by the edges of the cross-section and a
straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at the distance a = 1c from
the extreme compression fiber may be used in lieu of a more exact concrete
stress distribution, where c is the distance measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis and
0.65 1 1.05 0.05 f c' 0.85

'
where fc is in ksi
For a T-beam section, there are two cases (Figure 5.4-2) depending on where the
neutral axis falls into:
Case 1: flanged section when the neutral axis falls into the web
Case 2: rectangular section when the neutral axis falls into the flange
Figure 5.4-2 Stress and Strain Distribution of T-Beam Section in Flexure

(shown with mild reinforcement only)
For flanged sections, the Mn can be calculated by the following equation

assuming the compression flange depth is less than a = 1c :
a a ' ' ' a ' a hf

M n Aps f ps d p As f s d s As f s d s 0.85 fc (b bw )h f
2 2 2 2 2
(AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2-1)
where a is the depth of equivalent rectangular stress block (in.); c is the distance from
the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (in.); b is the width of the
compression face of the member (in.); bw is the web width (in.); hf is the thickness of
flange (in.); d is the distance from compression face to centroid of tension
reinforcement (in.); ds is the distance from compression face to centroid of mild
tensile reinforcement (in.) and dp is the distance to the centroid of prestressing steel
(in.); As is the area of mild tensile reinforcement (in.2) and Aps is the area of
prestressing steel (in.2); As is the area of mild compressive reinforcement (in.2); f s is
the stress in mild tensile steel (ksi); f s is the stress in the mild steel compression
reinforcement (ksi) and fps is the stress in prestressing steel (ksi).
For rectangular sections, let bw = b. The last term of the above equation will be
dropped.

For circular and other nonstandard cross-sections, strain-compatibility must be

used. WinConc (Caltrans, 2014b) is a suitable tool, and has been modified for LRFD.
To evaluate the prestressing stresses, the following equations can be used:
For bonded reinforcement and tendons:

c
f ps f pu 1 k (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-1)
dp
in which:
f py
k 2 1.04 (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-2)
f pu
For flanged sections:
A ps f pu As f s As f s 0.85 f c( b bw )h f
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-3)
f pu
0.85 f c 1bw kA ps
dp
For rectangular sections:
A ps f pu As f s As f s
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4)
f pu
0.85 f c 1b kA ps
dp
For unbonded tendons:

dp c
f ps f pe 900 f py (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.2-1)
le
in which:
2li
le (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.2-2)
2 Ns
For flanged sections:
A ps f ps As f s As f s 0.85 f c( b bw )h f
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.2-3)
0.85 f c 1 bw

A ps f ps As f s As f s
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.2-4)
0.85 f c 1 b
where fpy and fpu are the yield and ultimate tensile strength of prestressing steel
respectively; fpe is the effective stress in prestressing steel after loss (ksi); le is the
effective tendon length (in.); li is the length between anchorage (in.); and Ns is the
number of support hinges crossed by the tendon between anchorages.
5.4.1.3 Reinforcement Limits
As mentioned before, there is no explicit limit on maximum reinforcement.

Sections are allowed to be over reinforced but shall be compensated for reduced
ductility in the form of a reduced resistance reduction factor.
The minimum reinforcement shall be provided so that, Mr, is at least equal to the
lesser of Mcr and 1.3 Mu .
5.4.2 Service Limit States
Service limit states are used to satisfy stress limits, deflection, and cracking
requirements. To calculate the stress and deflection, the designer can assume concrete
behaves elastically. The modulus of elasticity can be evaluated according to the code
specified formula such as AASHTO Article 5.4.2.4. The reinforcement and
prestressing steel are usually transformed into concrete. For normal weight concrete
with wc = 0.145 kcf, the modulus of elasticity, may be taken as:
E c 1,820 f c
(AASHTO C5.4.2.4-1)
For prestressed concrete members, prestressing force and concrete strength are
determined by meeting stress limits in the service limit states, and then checked in the
strength limit states for ultimate capacity. All other members are designed in
accordance with the requirements of strength limit states first, the cracking
requirement is satisfied by proper reinforcement distribution.
To design the prestressed members, the following stress limits listed in Table
5.4-1 should be satisfied.

Table 5.4-1 Stress Limits for Concrete
Condition Stress Location Allowable Stress

Temporary Tensile In area other than Precompressed
Stress before Tensile Zone and without bonded 0.0948 f ci 0.2
loss tendons or reinforcement
(ksi)
In area with bonded tendons or
reinforcement sufficient to resist
the tensile force in the concrete
computed assuming an uncracked
section, where reinforcement is
proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, f ci (ksi)
0.24
not to exceed 30 ksi
Compression All locations 0.6 f c
Final Stress Tensile In the Precompressed Tensile
after loss at Zone, assuming uncracked section:
service load Components with bonded
tendons or reinforcement, f c (ksi)
0.19
and/or are located in Caltrans
Environment Areas I and II
Components with bonded 0.0948 f c (ksi)
tendons or reinforcement,
and/or are located in Caltrans
Environment Area III
Components with unbonded
tendons 0
Compression All locations due to:
Permanent loads and effective 0.45 f c
prestress loads
All load combinations 0.6 f c
Permanent Tensile Precompressed Tensile Zone with
loads only bonded prestressing tendons or 0
reinforcement

5.4.3 Fatigue Limit States
As per AASHTO 5.5.3.1 (AASHTO, 2012), the stress range in reinforcing bars
due to the fatigue load combination should be checked and should satisfy:
F TH 24 0.33 f min (AASHTO 5.5.3.2-1)
where:
(F)TH = stress range (ksi)
f min = algebraic minimum live load stress (ksi) resulting from the fatigue
load combined with the more severe stress from either the unfactored
permanent loads or the unfactored permanent loads, shrinkage, and
creep-induced external loads; positive if tension, negative if
compression
For the fatigue check:
The fatigue load combination is given in the California Amendment Table

3.4.1-1 (Caltrans, 2014a). A load factor of 1.0 is specified on the live load
(Fatigue truck) for finite fatigue life and a load factor of 1.75 for the infinite
fatigue life.
A fatigue load is one design truck with a constant 30-ft spacing between the
32.0-kip axles as specified in AASHTO Article 3.6.1.4 (AASHTO, 2012).
Apply the IM factor to the fatigue load.
There is no permanent load considered in this check.
Check both top and bottom reinforcements to ensure that the stress range in
the reinforcement under the fatigue load stays within the range specified in
the above equation.
5.5 SHEAR DESIGN

5.5.1 Basic Concept of Modified Compression Field Theory
Perhaps the most significant change for concrete design in AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications is the shear design methodology. It provides two
methods: Sectional Method, and Strut and Tie Method. Both methods are acceptable
to Caltrans. The Sectional Method, which is based on the Modified Compression
Field Theory (MCFT), provides a unified approach for shear design for both
prestressed and reinforced concrete components. For a detailed derivation of this
method, please refer to the book by Collins and Mitchell (1991).
The two approaches are summarized as follows:

Sectional Method
- Plane section remains plane Basic Beam Theory
- Based on Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT)

- Used for most girder design, except disturbed-end regions

- Used for any undisturbed regions
Strut and Tie Method

- Plane section does not remain plane
- Used in disturbed regions and deep beams
- Examples of usage: Design of Bent Caps (clear span to depth ratio less
than 4); pile caps; anchorage zones (general or local); area around
openings
In this chapter, only the Sectional Method will be outlined. The Strut and Tie
Method will be discussed in other chapters.
Compression Field Theory (CFT) is highlighted as follows:
Angle for compressive strut (or crack angle) is variable

Plane section remains plane (for strain compatibility)
Strength of concrete in tension is ignored
Element level strains incorporate the effects of axial forces, shear and flexure
Equations are based on element level stresses and strains
The shear capacity is related to the compression in diagonally cracked
concrete through equilibrium
This theory is further modified by including the strength of concrete in tension,

and it is referred to as the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT).
5.5.2 Shear Strength
According to AASHTO LRFD 5.8.3.3, the nominal shear resistance, Vn , shall be

determined as:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
But total resistance by concrete and steel: Vc + Vs should be no greater than 0.25
f c bvdv . In the end region of the beam-type element when it is not built integrally
with the support, Vc + Vs should not exceed 0.18 f c bvdv . If it exceeds this value, this
region should be designed using the Strut and Tie Method and special consideration
should be given to detailing.
Vc 0.0316 f cbv d v (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3)
Av f y d v (cot cot ) sin

Vs (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4)
s

where Vp is the component in the direction of applied shear of the effective

prestressing force (kip); bv is the effective web width (in.); and dv is the effective
shear depth (in.).
5.5.2.1 Simplified Procedure for Nonprestressed Sections
For concrete footings in which the distance from point of zero shear to the face of
the column, pier, or wall is less than 3dv, and for other nonprestressed concrete
sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least the minimum amount of
transverse reinforcement, or having an overall depth of less than 16.0 in., = 45o and
= 2.0 may be used (AASHTO, 2012). The current California Amendments
(Caltrans, 2014) do not allow the use of simplified procedure for prestressed and
nonprestressed sections.
5.5.2.2 General Procedure
Parameter and may be determined either by the following general procedure

or the MCFT method specified in AASHTO Appendix B5 (AASHTO, 2012).
29 3500 s (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-3)
Mu
0.5 N u Vu V p A ps f po
dv
s (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-4)
E s As E p A ps
For sections with minimum transverse reinforcement:

4 .8
(AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-1)
(1 750 s )
For sections without minimum transverse reinforcement:
4.8 51
(AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-2)
(1 750 s ) 39 s xe
The crack spacing parameter sxe , is determined as:

1.38
12 .0 s xe s x 80 in. (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-5)
a g 0.63
where ag is maximum aggregate size (in.); and sx is the lesser of either dv , or the
maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack control reinforcement (in.).
5.5.2.2 MCFT Method
Unlike in the old LFD code where the angle of crack was assumed as a constant
45, the MCFT method assumes it is a variable, which is a more accurate depiction of
actual behavior.

For sections containing at least the minimum transverse reinforcement, and

values calculated from the MCFT are given as functions of x, shear stress vu , and f c
in AASHTO Table B5.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012). x is taken as the calculated
longitudinal strain at mid-depth of the member when the section is subjected to Mu ,
Nu , and Vu .
Mu
0.5 N 0.5 V V cot A f
d u u p ps po
x v (AASHTO B5.2-1)
2( Es As E p Aps )
For sections containing less than the minimum transverse reinforcement, and
values calculated from the MCFT are given as functions of x, and the crack spacing
sxe in AASHTO Table B5.2-2 (AASHTO, 2012). x is taken as the largest calculated
longitudinal strain which occurs within the web of the member when the section is
subjected to Mu , Nu , and Vu .
Mu
0 . 5 N 0 . 5 V V cot A f
d u u p ps po
x v (AASHTO B5.2-2)
( E s As E p A ps )
If the value of x from AASHTO Equations (B5.2-1) or (B5.2-2) is negative, the

strain is taken as:
Mu
0 . 5 N 0 . 5 V V cot A f
d u u p ps po
x v (AASHTO B5.2-3)
2( Ec Ac E s As E p A ps )
The crack spacing parameter sxe , is determined as:

1.38
s xe s x 80 in. (AASHTO B5.2-4)
a g 0.63
As one can see, x, and are all inter-dependent. So, design is an iterative process:
1. Calculate shear stress demand vu at a section and determine the shear ratio
(vu/f c)
2. Calculate x at the section based on normal force (including p/s), shear and
bending and an assumed value of
3. Longitudinal strain x is the average strain at mid-depth of the cross section
4. Knowing vu /f c & x, obtain the values of and from the table
5. Recalculate x based on revised value of ; repeat iteration until convergence
in is achieved.

where vu , the shear stress on the concrete, should be determined as:
Vu V p
vu (AASHTO 5.8.2.9-1)
bv d v
To simplify this iterative approach, Professors Bentz, Vecchio, and Collins have
proposed a simplified method (Bentz, E. C. et al, 2006).
5.5.3 Flexure - Shear Interaction
In the MCFT model, the concrete is essentially modeled as a series of

compression struts in resisting shear forces. The horizontal components of these
diagonal forces have to be resisted by horizontal ties - longitudinal reinforcement.
Therefore, after the design of flexure and shear is completed, the longitudinal
reinforcement is checked for such interaction. Provide additional reinforcement if
required.
The following equations should be used for checking the adequacy of

longitudinal reinforcement:
Mu N V
A ps f ps As f y 0.5 u u V p 0.5Vs cot
d v f c v

(AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1)
V
Vs u

V
Aps f ps As f y u 0.5Vs V p cot (AASHTO 5.8.3.5-2)
v
Requirement for the interaction check depends on the support / load transfer
mechanism (direct supports or indirect supports)
Maximum flexural steel based on moment demand need not be exceeded in /
near direct supports
Interaction check is required for simple spans made continuous for live load
or where longitudinal steel is not continuous
Equation (5.8.3.5-2) is required to be satisfied at the inside edge of the
bearing area of simple support

Direct Support / Direct Loading
Figure 5.5-1 shows some of the examples of direct support and direct loading:
Figure 5.5-1 Examples of Direct Support and Direct Loading
Special Notes:
If flexural reinforcement is not curtailed (eg: in bent cap), then there is no

need to check for interaction.
If flexural reinforcement is curtailed (eg: in a superstructure), check for
interaction:
- Check at 1/10 points and/or at curtailment locations.
- If reinforcement per equation is inadequate, extend primary flexural
reinforcement.
- Area of tensile reinforcement need not exceed that required for
maximum moment demand acting alone.
Indirect Support / Integral Girders
Figure 5.5-2 shows some of the examples of indirect support and integral girders.
The girders framing into the bent cap are indirectly supported while the bent cap
itself is directly supported by the columns.
Figure 5.5-2 Example of Indirect Support and Integral Girder

Special Notes:
In bent caps, check interaction at 10 points, and at the girder locations of
major concentrated loads
Check for interaction at face of integral supports
If interaction is not satisfied, then adopt one of the following:
- Increase flexural reinforcement
- Increase shear reinforcement
- Combination of the above
5.5.4 Transverse Reinforcement Limits
Minimum Transverse Reinforcement
Except for segmental post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges, the area of
steel should satisfy:
bs
Av 0.0316 f c v (AASHTO 5.8.2.5-1)
fy
Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement
The spacing of the transverse reinforcement should not exceed the maximum
spacing, smax , determined as:
If u < 0.125 f c then:

smax = 0.8dv 18.0 in. (CA 5.8.2.7-1)
If u 0.125 f c then:
smax = 0.4dv 12.0 in. (AASHTO 5.8.2.7-2)
5.6 COMPRESSION DESIGN

As stated previously, when a member is subjected to a combined moment and
compression force its resulting strain can be in a compression-controlled state.
Compression design procedure applies. The following effects are considered in
addition to bending: degree of end fixity; member length; variable moment of inertia;
deflections; and duration of loads. This chapter will only cover the two basic cases:
pure compression, and combined flexure and compression ignoring slenderness.
AASHTO LRFD 5.7.4.3 provides an approximate method for evaluating slenderness
effect.

5.6.1 Factored Axial Compression Resistance Pure Compression
The factored axial resistance of concrete compressive members, symmetrical

about both principal axes, is taken as:
Pr Pn (AASHTO 5.7.4.4.-1)
In which: Pn , the nominal compression resistance, can be evaluated for the

following two cases:
For members with spiral reinforcement:
Pn = 0.85[0.85 f c (Ag Ast Aps)+ fy Ast Aps (fpe Ep cu)]

(AASHTO 5.7.4.4-2)
For members with tie reinforcement:
Pn = 0.80[0.85 f c (Ag Ast Aps)+ fy Ast Aps (fpe Ep cu)]

(AASHTO 5.7.4.4-3)
where Ag is the gross area of the section (in.2); Ast is the total area of longitudinal mild
reinforcement (in.2); Aps is the area of prestressing steel (in.2); Ep is the modulus of
elasticity of prestressing steel (ksi); and cu is the failure strain of concrete in
compression.
In order to achieve the above resistance, the following minimum spiral shall be
supplied:
Ag f c
s 0.45 1 (AASHTO 5.7.4.6-1)
Ac f yh
where fyh is the specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement (ksi).
To achieve more ductility for seismic resistance, Caltrans has its own set of
requirements for spirals and ties. For further information, please refer to the current
version of the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (Caltrans, 2013).
5.6.2 Combined Flexure and Compression
When a member is subjected to a compression force, end moments are often

induced by eccentric loads. The end moments rarely act solely along the principal
axis. So at any given section for analyzing or design, the member is normally
subjected to biaxial bending as well as compression. Furthermore, to analyze or
design a compression member in a bridge substructure, many load cases need to be
considered.

Under special circumstances, the Specifications allow designers to use an

approximate method to evaluate biaxial bending combined with axial load (AASHTO
Article 5.7.4.5). Generally, designers rely on computer programs based on
equilibrium and strain compatibility, such as WinYield (Caltrans, 2014b), to generate
a moment-axial interaction diagram. For cases like noncircular members with biaxial
flexure, an interaction surface is required to describe the behavior. Figure 5.6-1
shows a typical moment-axial load interaction surface for a concrete section (Park
and Pauley 1975).
Figure 5.6-1 Moment-Axial Interaction Surface of a Noncircular Section
In day-to-day practice, such a surface has little value to designers. Rather, the
design program normally gives out a series of lines, basically slices of the surface, at
fixed intervals, such as 15. Figure 5.6-2 is an example plot from WinYield (Caltrans,
2014b).

Figure 5.6-2 Interaction Diagrams Generated by WinYield
From these lines, it can be seen that below the balanced condition the moment
capacity increases with the increase of axial load. So, when designing a column, it is
not enough to simply take a set of maximum axial load with maximum bending
moments. The following combination needs to be evaluated:
1. Mux max , corresponding Muy and Pu

2. Muy max , corresponding Mux and Pu
3. A set of Mux and Muy that gives largest Mu combined, and corresponding Pu
4. Pu max and corresponding Mux and Muy
Special Notes:
Columns will be more thoroughly covered in Chapter 13.

For load cases 1 through 3, the load factor p corresponding to the minimum
shall be used.
Pn and Mn shall be multiplied by a single factor depending on whether it is
compression controlled or tension controlled, as illustrated previously and as
shown in AASHTO Figure C5.5.4.2.1-1.
Slenderness effect shall be evaluated with an appropriate nonlinear analysis
program or the use of approximate methods such as AASHTO Article
5.7.4.3.
In California, the column design is normally controlled by seismic
requirements. That topic is not covered in this chapter.

5.6.3 Reinforcement Limits
The maximum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement

for non-composite compression members is as follows:
As A ps f pu
0.08 (AASHTO 5.7.4.2-1)
Ag Ag f y
and
A ps f pe
0.30 (AASHTO 5.7.4.2-2)
Ag f c
The minimum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement

for non-composite compression members is as follows:
As f y A ps f pu
0.135 (AASHTO 5.7.4.2-3)
Ag f c A g f c
Due to seismic concerns, Caltrans put further limits on longitudinal steel in

columns. For such limits, please refer to the latest version of the Caltrans Seismic
Design Criteria (Caltrans, 2013).

NOTATION
Ac = area of core of spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside

diameter of the spiral (in.2)
Ag = gross area of section (in.2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (in.2)
As = area of non-prestressed tension steel (in.2)
As = area of compression reinforcement (in.2)
Ash = cross-sectional area of column tie reinforcement (in.2)
Ast = total area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement (in.2)
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within distances (in.2)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block (in.)
b = width of compression face of the member (in.)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width (in.)
bw = web width (in.)
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (in.)
D = external diameter of the circular members (in.)
d = distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement (in.)
db = nominal diameter of a reinforcing bar (in.)
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of tensile force in
the tensile reinforcement (in.)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of prestressing strand (in.)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of non-prestressed tensile
reinforcement (in.)
dv = effective shear depth (in.)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (ksi)
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons (ksi)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars (ksi)
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi)
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads (ksi)
fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses (ksi)

fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance of
members is required (ksi)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (ksi)
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel (ksi)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete (ksi)
fs = stress in mild tensile reinforcement at nominal flexural resistance (ksi)
f s = stress in mild compression reinforcement at nominal flexural resistance (ksi)
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars (ksi)
fyh = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement (ksi)
hf = thickness of flange (in.)
le = effective tendon length (in.)
li = length of tendon between anchorages (in.)
Mb = nominal flexural resistance at balanced condition (kip-in.)
Mcr = cracking moment (kip-in.)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance (kip-in.)
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic or non-composite
section (kip-ft.)
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending (kip-in.)
Mu = factored moment at the section (kip-in.)
Mux = factored moment at the section in respect to principal x axis (kip-in.)
Muy = factored moment at the section in respect to principal y axis (kip-in.)
Nu = factored axial force (kip)
Ns = number of support hinges crossed by the tendon between anchorages or
discretely bonded points
Pn = nominal axial resistance of a section (kip)
Po = nominal axial resistance of a section at 0 eccentricity (kip)
Pr = factored axial resistance of a section (kip)
Pu = factored axial load of a section (kip)
s = spacing of reinforcing bars (in.)
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete (kip)
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered (kip)
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
forces; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip)

Vr = factored shear resistance (kip)

Vs = shear resistance provided by the shear reinforcement (kip)
Vu = factored shear force (kip)
vu = average factored shear stress on the concrete (ksi)
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite section where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
Snc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the monolithic or non-composite section
where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis ()
= factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete, as
indicated by the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone assumed
in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
= load factor
cu = failure strain of concrete in compression (in./in.)
x = Longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the
member (in./in.)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stress ()
= resistance factor
c = resistance factor for compression
f = resistance factor for moment
v = resistance factor for shear
s = ratio of spiral reinforcement to total volume of column core

REFERENCES
Washington, D.C.
2. AASHTO, (2002). Standard Bridge Design Specifications, 17th Edition, American

3. Bentz, E. C. et al, (2006). Simplified Modified Compression Field Theory for

Calculating Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Elements, ACI Structural
Journal/July-August 2006.
4. Caltrans, (2015). Standard Specifications, California Department of Transportation,

Sacramento, CA.
5. Caltrans, (2014a). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

6.
7. Caltrans, (2014b). WinYield, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
8. Caltrans, (2014c). WinConc, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
9. Caltrans, (2013). Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.7, California Department
10. Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D. (1991). Prestressed Concrete Structures, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
11. Park, R. and Paulay, T. (1975). Reinforced Concrete Structures, John Willey & Sons,
New York, NY.

CHAPTER 6
STEEL DESIGN THEORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 6-1

6.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL MATERIALS ........................................................................... 6-1
6.3 DESIGN LIMIT STATES ................................................................................................ 6-2
6.4 FLEXURE DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 6-2
6.4.1 Design Requirements ......................................................................................... 6-2
6.4.2 Composite Sections in Positive Flexure ............................................................. 6-4
6.4.3 Steel Sections ..................................................................................................... 6-9
6.5 SHEAR DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 6-13
6.5.1 Design Requirements ....................................................................................... 6-13
6.5.2 Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 6-13
6.5.3 Transverse Stiffeners ........................................................................................ 6-14
6.5.4 Shear Connectors.............................................................................................. 6-14
6.6 COMPRESSION DESIGN ............................................................................................ 6-15
6.6.2 Axial Compressive Resistance ......................................................................... 6-16
6.7 TENSION DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 6-16
6.7.2 Axial Tensile Resistance .................................................................................. 6-17
6.8 FATIGUE DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 6-18
6.9 SERVICEABILITY STATES ........................................................................................ 6-20
6.10 CONSTRUCTIBILITY .................................................................................................. 6-21
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................... 6-22
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 6-26
Chapter 6 - Steel Design Theory 6-i

Chapter 6 - Steel Design Theory 6-ii

CHAPTER 6
STEEL DESIGN THEORY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel has higher strength, ductility and toughness than many other structural
materials such as concrete or wood, and thus makes a vital material for bridge
structures. In this chapter, basic steel design concepts and requirements for I-sections
specified in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and
the California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) for flexure, shear, compression, tension,
fatigue, and serviceability and constructibility are discussed. Design considerations,
procedure and example for steel plate girders will be presented in Chapter 9.
6.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL MATERIALS

AASHTO M 270 (Grade 36, 50, 50S, 50W, HPS 50W, HPS 70W and
100/100W) structural steels are commonly used for bridge structures. AASHTO
material property standards differ from ASTM in notch toughness and weldability
requirements. When these additional requirements are specified, ASTM A 709 steel
is equivalent to AASHTO M 270 and is pre-qualified for use in welded steel bridges.
The use of ASTM A 709 Grade 50 for all structural steel, including flanges,
webs, bearing stiffeners, intermediate stiffeners, cross frames, diaphragms and splice
plates is preferred. The use of ASTM A 709 Grade 36 for secondary members will
not reduce material unit costs. The use of ASTM A 709 Grade 100 or 100W steel is
strongly discouraged. The hybrid section consisting of flanges with a higher yield
strength than that of the web may be used to save materials and is becoming more
promoted due to the new high performance steels. Using HPS 70W top and bottom
flanges in negative moment regions and bottom flanges in positive moment regions
and Grade 50 top flanges in positive moment regions, and Grade 50 for all webs may
provide the most efficient hybrid girder.
The use of HPS (High Performance Steel) and weathering steel is encouraged if
it is acceptable for the location. FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.22 (FHWA,
1989) provides guidelines on acceptable locations. In some situations, because of a
particularly harsh environment, steel bridges must be painted. Although weathering
steel will perform just as well as conventional steel in painted applications, it will not
provide superior performance, and typically costs more than conventional steel.
Therefore, specifying weathering steel in painted applications does not add value and
should be avoided. HPS and weathering steel should not be used for the following
conditions:
The atmosphere contains concentrated corrosive industrial or chemical
fumes.
The steel is subject to heavy salt-water spray or salt-laden fog.
Chapter 6 - Steel Design Theory 6-1

The steel is in direct contact with timber decking, because timber retains
moisture and may have been treated with corrosive preservatives.
The steel is used for a low urban-area overcrossing that will create a tunnel-
like configuration over a road on which deicing salt is used. In these
situations, road spray from traffic under the bridge causes salt to accumulate
on the steel.
The location has inadequate air flow that does not allow adequate drying of
the steel.
The location has very high rainfall and humidity or there is constant wetness.
There is low clearance (less than 8 to 10 ft) over stagnant or slow-moving
waterways.
6.3 DESIGN LIMIT STATES

Steel girder bridges shall be designed to meet the requirements for all applicable
limit states specified by AASHTO (2012) and California Amendments (Caltrans,
2014). For a typical steel girder bridges, Strength I and II, Service II, Fatigue and
Constructibility are usually controlling limit states.
6.4 FLEXURE DESIGN

6.4.1 Design Requirements
The AASHTO 6.10 and its Appendices A6 and B6 provide a unified flexural
design approach for steel I-girders. The provisions combine major-axis bending,
minor-axis bending and torsion into an interaction design formula and are applicable
to straight bridges, horizontally curved bridges, or bridges combining both straight
and curved segments. The AASHTO flexural design interaction equations for the
strength limit state are summarized in Table 6.4-1. Those equations provide an
accurate linear approximation of the equivalent beam-column resistance with the
flange lateral bending stress less than 0.6Fy as shown in Figure 6.4-1 (White and
Grubb 2005).

Table 6.4-1 I-Section Flexural Design Equations (Strength Limit State)

Section Type Design Equation
Compact 1
M u f l S xt f M n (AASHTO 6.10.7.1.1-1)
3
Composite
Sections in
Noncompact Compression flange
Positive Flexure
fbu f Fnc (AASHTO 6.10.7.2.1-1)
Tension flange
1
f bu f l f Fnt (AASHTO 6.10.7.2.1-2)
3
Compression flange
1
Composite Discretely braced f bu fl f Fnc (AASHTO 6.10.8.1.1-1)
3
Sections in Tension flange
Negative Flexure
1
and f bu f l f Fnt (AASHTO 6.10.8.1.2-1)
Noncomposite 3
Sections
Continuously
braced fbu f Rh Fyf (AASHTO 6.10.8.1.3-1)
fbu = flange stress calculated without consideration of the flange lateral bending (ksi)
fl = flange lateral bending stress (ksi)
Fnc = nominal flexural resistance of the compression flange (ksi)
Fnt = nominal flexural resistance of the tension flange (ksi)
Fyf = specified minimum yield strength of a flange (ksi)
Mu = bending moment about the major axis of the cross section (kip-in.)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance of the section (kip-in.)
f = resistance factor for flexure = 1.0
Rh = hybrid factor
Sxt = elastic section modulus about the major axis of the section to the tension flange
taken as Myt/Fyt (in.3)
Figure 6.4 -1 AASHTO Unified Flexural Design Interaction Equations

For compact sections, since the nominal moment resistance is generally greater
than the yield moment capacity, it is physically meaningful to design in terms of
moment. For noncompact section, since the nominal resistance is limited to the yield
strength, stress format is used. For composite I-sections in negative flexure and for
noncomposite I-sections with compact or noncompact webs in straight bridges, when
the web slenderness is well below the noncompact limit, the provisions specified in
AASHTO Appendix 6A are encouraged to be used. However, when the web
slenderness approaches the noncompact limit, Appendix 6A provides only minor
increases in the nominal resistance.
6.4.2 Composite Sections in Positive Flexure
6.4.2.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance

At the strength limit state, the compression flange of composite sections in
positive flexure is continuously supported by the concrete deck and lateral bending
does not need to be considered. For compact sections, the flexural resistance is
expressed in terms of moment, while for noncompact sections, the flexural resistance
is expressed in terms of the elastically computed stress. The compact composite
section shall meet the following requirements:
Straight bridges
Fyf 70 ksi
D
150 (AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw
2Dcp E
3.76 (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.2-1)
tw Fyc
where Dcp is the web depth in compression at the plastic moment (in.); E is modulus
of elasticity of steel (ksi); Fyc is specified minimum yield strength of a compression
flange (ksi). Composite sections in positive flexure not satisfying one or more of
above four requirements are classified as noncompact sections. The nominal flexural
resistances are listed in Table 6.4-2.

Table 6.4-2 Nominal Flexural Resistance for Composite Sections

in Positive Flexure (Strength Limit State)
Section Nominal Flexural Resistance

Type
M p for D p 0.1 Dt

My D p / Dt 0.1
M n min M p 1 1 for D p 0.1 Dt

M p 0.32
Compact
1.3Rh M y for a continous span
(AASHTO 6.10.7.1.2-1, 3) and (CA 6.10.7.1.2-2)
Noncompact Compression flange

Fnc Rb Rh Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.7.2.2-1)
Tension flange
Fnt Rh Fyt (AASHTO 6.10.7.2.2-2)
Ductility For both compact and noncompact sections

Requirement D p 0.42Dt (AASHTO 6.10.7.3-1)
Dp = distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the composite
section at the plastic moment (in.)
Dt = total depth of the composite section (in.)
Fyt = specified minimum yield strength of a tension flange (ksi)
Mp = plastic moment of the composite section (kip-in.)
My = yield moment of the composite section (kip-in.)
Rb = web load-shedding factor
6.4.2.2 Yield Moment

The yield moment My for a composite section in positive flexure is defined as the
moment which causes the first yielding in one of the steel flanges. My is the sum of
the moments applied separately to the appropriate sections, i.e., the steel section
alone, the short-term composite section, and the long-term composite section. It is
based on elastic section properties and can be expressed as:
M y M D1 M D2 M AD (AASHTO D6.2.2-2)
where MD1 is moment due to factored permanent loads applied to the steel section
alone (kip-in.); MD2 is moment due to factored permanent loads such as wearing
surface and barriers applied to the long-term composite section (kip-in.); MAD is
additional live load moment to cause yielding in either steel flange applied to the
short-term composite section and can be obtained from the following equation (kip-
in.):

M D1 M D2 M
Fyf AD (AASHTO D6.2.2-1)
S NC S LT S ST
M M D2
M AD S ST Fyf D1 (6.4-1)
S NC S LT
where SNC, SST and SLT are elastic section modulus for steel section alone, short-term
composite and long-term composite sections, respectively (in.3).
6.4.2.3 Plastic Moment

The plastic moment Mp for a composite section is defined as the moment which
causes the yielding of the entire steel section and reinforcement and a uniform stress
distribution of 0.85 f c' in the compression concrete slab. f c' is minimum specified
28-day compressive strength of concrete. In positive flexure regions the contribution
of reinforcement in the concrete slab is small and can be neglected. Table 6.4-3
summarizes calculations of Mp.

Table 6.4-3 Plastic Moment Calculation

Regions Case and PNA Condition and Y Mp
I - In Web Pt Pw Pc Ps Prb Prt Pw 2

Y D Y
2
Mp
D P Pc Ps Prt Prb 2 D
Y t 1
2 Pw Ps d s Prt d rt Prb d rb Pc d c Pt d t

II - In Top Pt Pw Pc Ps Prb Prt Pc Y 2 t Y 2
Mp
Flange t Pw Pt Ps Prt Prb 2t c
c
Y c 1
2 Pc Ps d s Prt d rt Prb d rb Pw d w Pt d t
Positive III- In Slab, C Y 2P
Pt Pw Pc rb Ps Prb Prt
Figure Below Prb ts
Mp s

2ts
6.4.2 Pw Pc Pt Prt Prb
Y t s Prt d rt Prb d rb Pc dc Pwd w Pt dt
Ps
IV - In Slab, C
Pt Pw Pc Prb rt

Ps Prt Y 2P
Above Prb ts Mp s

2t s
Below Prt P Pc Pw Pt Prt
Y t s rb
Ps

Prt d rt Prb d rb Pc dc Pwd w Pt dt
V - In Slab, C
Pt Pw Pc Prb Prt rt

Ps Y 2P
above Prt ts Mp s

2t s
P Pc Pw Pt Prt
Y t s rb
Ps

Prt d rt Prb d rb Pc dc Pwd w Pt dt

I - In Web Pc Pw Pt Prb Prt Pw 2
Y D Y
2
Mp
Negative D P Pt Prt Prb
Y c

1
2D
Figure 2 Pw Prt drt Prbdrb Pd
t t Pcdc
6.4.3
II - In Top
Flange
Pc Pw Pt Prb Prt
Mp
Pt 2
2tt

Y tt Y
2

t P Pc Prt Prb
Y t w 1
2 Pt Prt drt Prbdrb Pwd w Pc dc
Prt Fyrt Art ; Ps 0.85 f cbs t s ; Prb Fyrb Arb ; Pc Fyc bc t t ; Pw Fyw Dt w ; Pt Fyt bt t t ;
f c = minimum specified 28-day compressive strength of concrete (ksi)
PNA = plastic neutral axis
Arb, Art = reinforcement area of bottom and top layer in concrete deck slab (in.2)
Fyrb, Fyrt = yield strength of reinforcement of bottom and top layers (ksi)
bc, bt, bs = width of compression, tension steel flange and concrete deck slab (in.)
tc, tt, tw, ts = thickness of compression, tension steel flange, web and concrete deck slab (in.)
Fyt, Fyc, Fyw = yield strength of tension flange, compression flange and web (ksi)

Case - I Case - II
Case - III Case - IV Case - V
Pc1 Y bc Fyc ; Pc 2 tc Y bc Fyc

Pw1 Y t w Fyw ; Pw 2 D Y t w Fyw
Pt1 Y bt Fyt ; Pt 2 tt Y bt Fyt
Figure 6.4-2 Plastic Moment Calculation Cases for Positive Flexure

Case - I Case - II
Pw1 Y t w Fyw ; Pw 2 D Y t w Fyw
Pt1 Y bt Fyt ; Pt 2 tt Y tt Fyt
Figure 6.4-3 Plastic Moment Calculation Cases for Negative Flexure
6.4.3 Steel Sections

The flexural resistance of a steel section (i.e., composite sections in negative
flexure and noncomposite sections) is governed by three failure modes or limit states:
yielding, flange local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling. The moment capacity
depends on the yield strength of steel, the slenderness ratio of the compression
flange, f in terms of width-to-thickness ratio (bfc/2tfc) for local buckling and the
unbraced length Lb for lateral-torsional buckling. Figure 6.4-4 shows dimensions of a
typical I-girder. Figures 6.4-5 and 6.4-6 show graphically the compression flange
local and lateral torsional buckling resistances, respectively. Calculations for nominal
flexural resistances are illustrated in Table 6.4-4.
For sections in straight bridges satisfying the following requirements:
Fyf 70 ksi
2 Dc E
5. 7 (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.3-1)
tw Fyc
I yc
0.3 (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.3-2)
I yt
The flexural resistance in term of moments may be determined by AASHTO

Appendix A6, and may exceed the yield moment.

bf tf
tp
bt
Figure 6.4-4 Dimensions of a Typical I-Girder
Figure 6.4-5 I-Section Compression-Flange Flexural Local-Buckling Resistance

Figure 6.4-6 I-Section Compression-Flange Flexural Torsional Resistance

Table 6.4-4 Nominal Flexural Resistance for Steel Sections

(Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Section)
(Strength Limit State)
Flange Nominal Flexural Resistance
Fnc smaller [ Fnc( FLB) , Fnc( LTB) ] (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.1)
Rb Rh Fyc for f pf

Compression Fnc FLB Fyr f pf
1 1 R F
Rb Rh Fyc for f pf
h yc rf pf
(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-1 &2)

Rb Rh Fyc for Lb L p

Fyr Lb L p
Fnc LTB Cb 1 1 Rb Rh Fyc Rb Rh Fyc for Lb L p Lr

Rh Fyc Lr L p

Fcr Rb Rh Fyc for Lb Lr
(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-1, 2 &3)

Tension Fnt R h F yt (AASHTO 6.10.8.3-1)
Lb = unbraced length of compression flange (in.)

L p limiting unbraced length toachieve Rb Rh Fyc 1.0 rt E / Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-4)
Lr limiting unbraced length toachievethe onset of nominalyielding rt E / Fyr

(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-5)
b fc
f slenderess ratio for compression flange (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-3)
2t fc
E
pf slenderess ratio for a compact compression flange 0.38 (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-4)
Fyc
E
rf limiting slenderness ratio for a noncompact flange 0.56 (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-5)
Fyc
Cb Rb 2 E
Fcr elastic lateral torsional buckling stress (ksi)
Lb / rt
2
(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-8)

Fyr smaller 0.7 Fyc , Fyw 0.5Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2)
Cb = moment gradient modifier
rt = effective radius of gyration for lateral torsional buckling (in.)

6.5 SHEAR DESIGN

For I-girder web panels, the following equation shall be satisfied.
Vu cVn (AASHTO 6.10.9.1-1)
where Vu is factored shear at the section under consideration (kip); Vn is nominal
shear resistance (kip) and c is resistance factor for shear = 1.0.
6.5.2 Nominal Shear Resistance
Similar to the flexural resistance, web shear resistance is also dependent on the
slenderness ratio in terms of depth-to-thickness ratio (D/tw).
For the web without transverse stiffeners, shear resistance is provided by the
beam action of shearing yield or elastic shear buckling. For end panels of stiffened
webs adjacent to simple support, shear resistance is limited to the beam action only.
Vn Vcr CV p (AASHTO 6.10.9.2-1; 9.3-1)
V p 0.58Fyw Dtw (AASHTO 6.10.9.2-2)
D Ek
1.0 For 1.12
tw Fyw

1.12 Ek Ek D Ek
C For 1.12 1.40
D / t w Fyw Fyw t w Fyw

1.57 Ek D Ek
D / t 2 F For t 1.40 F
w yw w yw
(AASHTO 6.10.9.3.2-4,5,6)
5
k 5 (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.2-7)
(d o / D) 2
where do is transverse stiffener spacing (in.); C is ratio of the shear-buckling

resistance to the shear yield strength; Vcr is shear-buckling resistance (kip) and Vp is
plastic shear force (kip).
For interior web panels with transverse stiffeners, the shear resistance is provided
by both the beam and the tension field actions as shown in Figure 6.5-1.

Figure 6.5-1 Tension Field Action

2 Dt w
For 2 .5 (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.2-1)

b fc t fc b ft t ft

0.871 C
Vn V p C (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.2-2)
2
do
1
D
otherwise

0.871 C
Vn V p C (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.2-8)
2
do d
1 o
D D
where bfc and bft are full width of a compression and tension flange, respectively (in.);
tfc and tft are thickness of a compression and tension flange, respectively (in.); tw is
web thickness (in.) and do is transverse stiffener spacing (in.).
6.5.3 Transverse Stiffeners
Transverse intermediate stiffeners work as anchors for the tension field force so
that post-buckling shear resistance can be developed. It should be noted that elastic
web shear buckling cannot be prevented by transverse stiffeners. Transverse
stiffeners are designed to (1) meet the slenderness requirement of projecting elements
to prevent local buckling, (2) provide stiffness to allow the web to develop its post-
buckling capacity, and (3) have strength to resist the vertical components of the
diagonal stresses in the web.
6.5.4 Shear Connectors
To ensure a full composite action, shear connectors must be provided at the
interface between the concrete slab and the steel to resist interface shear. Shear
connectors are usually provided throughout the length of the bridge. If the
longitudinal reinforcement in the deck slab is not considered in the composite

section, shear connectors are not necessary in negative flexure regions. If the
longitudinal reinforcement is included either additional connectors can be placed in
the region of dead load contra-flexure points or they can be continued through the
negative flexure region at maximum spacing. The fatigue and strength limit states
must be considered in the shear connector design.
6.6 COMPRESSION DESIGN

For axially loaded compression members, the following equation shall be
satisfied:
Pu Pr = cPn (6.6-1)
where Pu is factored axial compression load (kip); Pr is factored axial compressive
resistance (kip); Pn is nominal compressive resistance (kip) and c is resistance factor
for compression = 0.9.
For members subjected to combined axial compression and flexure, the following
interaction equation shall be satisfied:
Pu
For 0 .2
Pr
Pu M M uy
ux 1.0 (AASHTO 6.9.2.2-1)
2.0 Pr M rx M ry

Pu
For 0 .2
Pr
Pu 8.0 M ux M uy
1.0 (AASHTO 6.9.2.2-2)
Pr 9.0 M rx M ry
where Mux and Muy are factored flexural moments (second-order moments) about the
x-axis and y-axis, respectively (kip-in.); Mrx and Mry are factored flexural resistance
about the x-axis and y-axis, respectively (kip-in.).
Compression members shall also meet the slenderness ratio requirements, Kl/r 120
for primary members, and Kl/r 140 for secondary members. K is effective length
factor; l is unbraced length (in.) and r is minimum radius of gyration (in.).

6.6.2 Axial Compressive Resistance

For steel compression members with non-slender elements, axial compressive
resistance equations specified in the AASHTO (2012) are identical to the column
design equations in AISC (2010).
Pe
For 0.44
Po
Po
P
Pn 0.658 e Po (AASHTO 6.9.4.1.1-1)

P
For e 0.44
Po
Pn 0.877 Pe (AASHTO 6.9.4.1.1-2)
2E
Pe 2
(AASHTO 6.9.4.1.2-1)
Kl

rs eff
in which
Po QFy Ag
2E
Pe 2
Ag (AASHTO 6.9.4.1.2-1)
Kl

rs eff
where Ag is gross cross section area (in.2); K is effective length factor in the plane of
buckling; l is unbraced length in the plan of buckling (in.); rs is radius of gyration
about the axis normal to the plane of buckling (in.); Q is slender element reduction
factor determined as specified in AASHTO Article 6.9.4.2.
6.7 TENSION DESIGN

For axially loaded tension members, the following equation shall be satisfied:
Pu Pr (6.7-1)
where Pu is factored axial tension load (kip) and Pr is factored axial tensile resistance
(kip).

For members subjected to combined axial tension and flexure, the following
interaction equation shall be satisfied:
Pu
For 0 .2
Pr
Pu M M uy
ux 1.0 (AASHTO 6.8.2.3-1)
2.0 Pr M rx M ry

Pu
For 0 .2
Pr
Pu 8.0 M ux M uy
1.0 (AASHTO 6.8.2.3-2)
Pr 9.0 M rx M ry
where Mux and Muy are factored flexural moments about the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively (kip-in.); Mrx and Mry are factored flexural resistance about the x-axis
and y-axis, respectively (kip-in.).
Tension members shall also meet the slenderness ratio requirements, l/r 140
for primary members subjected to stress reversal, l/r 200 for primary members not
subjected to stress reversal, and l/r 240 for secondary members.
6.7.2 Axial Tensile Resistance
For steel tension members, axial tensile resistance equations are smaller of
yielding on the gross section and fracture on the net section as follows:
Yielding in gross section:
Pr y Pny y Fy Ag (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-1)
Fracture in net section:
Pr u Pnu u Fu AnU (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-2)
where Pny is nominal tensile for yielding in gross section (kip); Pnu is nominal tensile
for fracture in net section (kip); An is net cross section area (in.2); Fu is specified
minimum tensile strength (ksi); U is reduction factor to account for shear leg; y is
resistance factor for yielding of tension member = 0.95; u is resistance factor for
fracture of tension member = 0.8.

6.8 FATIGUE DESIGN

There are two types of fatigue: load and distortion induced fatigue. The basic
fatigue design requirement for load-induced fatigue is limiting live load stress range
to fatigue resistance for each component and connection detail. Distortion-induced
fatigue usually occurs at the web near a flange due to improper detailing. The design
requirement for distortion-induced fatigue is to follow proper detailing practice to
provide sufficient load paths. For load-induced fatigue consideration, the most
common types of components and details in a typical I- girder are (AASHTO Table
6.6.1.2.3-1) listed in Table 6.8-1.
Table 6.8-1 I-Section Flexural Design Equations (Strength Limit State)

Type of Details Category
(AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1)
1 Base metal and weld metal at full- B
penetration groove-welded splices
2 Base metal at gross section of high- B
strength bolted slip-critical connections
(bolt gusset to flange)
3 Base metal at fillet-welded stud- type C
shear connectors
4 Base metal at toe of transverse C
stiffener-to-flange and transverse
stiffener-to-web welds
Nominal fatigue resistance as shown in Figure 6.8-1 (AASHTO, 2012) is calculated
as follows:
For infinite fatigue life (N > NTH)
Fn F TH (AASHTO 6.1.2.5-1)
For finite fatigue life (N NTH)

1
Fn A
3
(AASHTO 6.6.1.2.5-2)
N
in which:
N = (365)(75)n(ADTT)SL (AASHTO 6.6.1.2.5-3)

A
NTH 3
(CA 6.6.1.2.3-2)
F
TH

Finite life -Fatigue II Infinite Life - Fatigue I

Fn Lower Traffic Volume Higher Traffic Volume
Fatigue Resistance P9 Truck 1.75HL93 Truck
Fn F TH
1/ 3
A
F n
N
A Number of cycle N
N TH
F TH 3
Figure 6.8-1 Fatigue Resistance
where A is a constant depending on detail category as specified in AASHTO Table
6.6.1.2.5-1, and (F)TH is the constant-amplitude fatigue threshold taken from
AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.5-3. NTH is minimum number of stress cycles corresponding
to constant-amplitude fatigue threshold, (F)TH, as listed in CA Table 6.6.1.2.3-2.
ADTTSL p(ADTT ) (AASHTO 3.6.1.4.2-1)
where p is fraction of truck traffic in a single lane (AASHTO Table 3.6.1.4.2-1) = 0.8
for three or more lanes traffic, N is the number of stress-range cycles per truck
passage = 1.0 for the positive flexure region for span > 40 ft. (CA Table 6.6.1.2.5-2).
ADTT is the number of trucks per day in one direction averaged over the design life
and is specified in CA 3.6.1.4.2.
Fatigue I: ADTT = 2500, N 365 751.0 0.8 2500 0.5475 10 NTH

8
Fatigue II: ADTT = 20, N 365 751.0 0.8 20 438,000 NTH
The nominal fatigue resistances for typical Detail Categories in an I-girder are
summarized in Table 6.8-2.

Table 6.8-2 Nominal Fatigue Resistance
Detail Constant A Fatigue II Fatigue I

Category ( 108 ) 1
(ksi3) Fn
A 3 Fn F TH
N (ksi)
(ksi)
B 120.0 30.15 16.0
C 44.0 21.58 10.0
C 44.0 21.58 12.0
E 11.0 13.59 4.5
6.9 SERVICEABILITY STATES

The service limit state design is intended to control the elastic and permanent
deformations, which would affect riding ability. For steel girder, vehicular live load
deflection may be limited to L/800 by AASHTO 2.5.2.6.
Based on past successful practice of the overload check in the AASHTO
Standard Specifications (AASHTO, 2002) to prevent the permanent deformation due
to expected severe traffic loadings, AASHTO 6.10.4 requires that for SERVICE II
load combination, flange stresses in positive and negative bending without
considering flange lateral bending, ff shall meet the following requirements:
For the top steel flange of composite sections
f f 0.95Rh Fyf (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-1)
For the bottom steel flange of composite sections

fl
ff 0.95Rh Fyf (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-2)
2
For both steel flanges of noncomposite sections
fl
ff 0.8 Rh Fyf (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-3)
2
For compact composite sections in positive flexure in shored construction,

longitudinal compressive stress in concrete deck without considering flange lateral
bending, fc, shall not exceed 0.6 f c where f c is minimum specified 28-day
compressive strength of concrete (ksi).
Except for composite sections in positive flexure satisfying D / t w 150 without
longitudinal stiffeners, all sections shall satisfy
fc Fcrw (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-4)

6.10 CONSTRUCTIBILITY
An I-girder bridge constructed in unshored conditions shall be investigated for
strength and stability for all critical construction stages, using the appropriate
strength load combination discussed in Chapter 3. All calculations shall be based on
the non-composite steel section only.
AASHTO Article 6.10.3 requires checking the following requirements:
Compression Flange
For discretely braced flange (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1)
fbu fl f Rh Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-1)
1
fbu fl f Fnc (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-2)
3
f bu f Fcrw (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-3)
where fbu is flange stress calculated without consideration of the flange lateral
bending (ksi); Fcrw is nominal bending stress determined by AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-1
(ksi).
For sections with compact and noncompact webs, AASHTO Equation 6.10.3.2.1-
3 shall not be checked. For sections with slender webs, AASHTO Equation
6.10.3.2.1-1 shall not be checked when fl is equal to zero.
For continuously braced flanges
fbu f Rh Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.3-1)
Tension Flange
For discretely braced flange
fbu fl f Rh Fyc (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-1)
For continuously braced flanges
fbu f Rh Fyt (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.3-1)
Web
Vu vVcr (AASHTO 6.10.3.3-1)
where Vu is the sum of factored dead loads and factored construction load applied to
the non-composite section (AASHTO 6.10.3.3) and Vcr is shear buckling resistance
(AASHTO 6.10.9.3.3-1).

NOTATION
A = fatigue detail category constant

ADTT = average daily truck traffic in one direction over the design life
ADTTS L = single lane ADTT life
Ag = gross cross section area (in.2)
An = net cross section area (in.2)
Arb = reinforcement area of bottom layer in concrete deck slab (in.2)
Art = reinforcement area of top layer in concrete deck slab (in.2)
bc = width of compression steel flange (in.)
bf = full width of the flange (in.)
bfc = full width of a compression flange (in.)
bft = full width of a tension flange (in.)
bs = width of concrete deck slab (in.)
bt = width of tension steel flange (in.)
C = ratio of the shear-buckling resistance to the shear yield strength
D = web depth (in.)
Dcp = web depth in compression at the plastic moment (in.)
Dp = distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the
composite sections at the plastic moment (in.)
d = total depth of the steel section (in.)
do = transverse stiffener spacing (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (ksi)
Fcr = elastic lateral torisonal buckling stress (ksi)
Fcrw = nominal bend-buckling resistance of webs (ksi)
Fexx = classification strength specified of the weld metal
Fyc = specified minimum yield strength of a compression flange (ksi)

Fyr = compression-flange stress at the onset of nominal yielding including residual

stress effects, taken as the smaller of 0.7Fyc and Fyw but not less than 0.5Fyc
(ksi)
Fyrb = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcement of bottom layers (ksi)
Fyrt = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcement of top layers (ksi)
Fys = specified minimum yield strength of a stiffener (ksi)
Fyw = specified minimum yield strength of a web (ksi)
Fyu = specified minimum tensile strength of steel (ksi)
fbu = flange stress calculated without consideration of the flange lateral bending
(ksi)
fc = longitudinal compressive stress in concrete deck without considering flange
lateral bending (ksi)
ff = flange stresses without considering flange lateral bending (ksi)
fs = maximum flexural stress due to Service II at the extreme fiber of the flange
(ksi)
fsr = fatigue stress range (ksi)
f c = minimum specified 28-day compressive strength of concrete (ksi)
I = moment of inertia of a cross section (in.4)
Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange about the vertical axis in the
plane of web (in.4)
Iyt = moment of inertia of the tension flange about the vertical axis in the plane of
web (in.4)
K = effective length factor of a compression member
Lp = limiting unbraced length to achieve RbRhFyc (in.)
Lr = limiting unbraced length to onset of nominal yielding (in.)
l = unbraced length of member (in.)
MAD = additional live load moment to cause yielding in either steel flange applied to
the short-term composite section and can be obtained from the following
equation (kip- in.)
MD1 = moment due to factored permanent loads applied to the steel section alone
(kip-in.)

MD2 = moment due to factored permanent loads such as wearing surface and
barriers applied to the long-term composite section (kip-in.)
Mp = plastic moment (kip-in.)
Mrx, Mry = factored flexural resistance about the x-axis and y-axis, respectively (kip-in.)
Mux, Muy = factored flexural moments about the x-axis and y-axis, respectively (kip-in.)
My = yield moment (kip-in.)
N = number of cycles of stress ranges
NTH = minimum number of stress cycles corresponding to constant-amplitude
fatigue threshold, (F)TH
n = number of stress-range cycles per truck passage
Pu = factored axial load (kip)
Pr = factored axial resistance (kip)
p = fraction of truck traffic in a single lane
Q = slender element reduction factor
Rh = hybrid factor
R = radius of gyration
rt = effective radius of gyration for lateral torsional buckling (in.)
SLT = elastic section modulus for long-term composite sections, respectively (in.3)
SNC = elastic section modulus for steel section alone (in.3)
SST = elastic section modulus for short-term composite section (in.3)
Sxt = elastic section modulus about the major axis of the section to the tension
flange taken as Myt/Fyt (in.3)
tc = thickness of compression steel flange (in.)
tf = thickness of the flange (in.)
tfc = thickness of a compression flange (in.)
tft = thickness of a tension flange (in.)
tt = thickness of tension steel flange (in.)
tw = thickness of web (in.)
ts = thickness of concrete deck slab (in.)
Vcr = shear-buckling resistance (kip)

Vn = nominal shear resistance (kip)

Vp = plastic shear force (kip)
Vu = factored shear (kip)
f = slenderness ratio for compression flange = bfc/2tfc
pf = limiting slenderness ratio for a compact flange
rf = limiting slenderness ratio for a noncompact flange
(F)TH = constant-amplitude fatigue threshold (ksi)
(F)n = fatigue resistance (ksi)
f = resistance factor for flexure = 1.0
v = resistance factor for shear = 1.0
c = resistance factor for axial compression = 0.9
u = resistance factor for tension, fracture in net section = 0.8
y = resistance factor for tension, yielding in gross section = 0.95

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Unit
Washington, DC.
2. AASHTO, (2002). Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition,

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. AISC, (2010). Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC 360-10,

American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
4. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendment to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

5. FHWA, (1989). Technical Advisory T5140.22, Federal Highway Administration,

Washington, DC.
6. White, D. W., and Grubb, M. A., (2005). Unified Resistance Equation for Design of
Curved and Tangent Steel Bridge I-Girders. Proceedings of the 2005 TRB Bridge
Engineering Conference, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.

BBRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE FEBRUARY 2015
CHAPTER 7
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE GIRDERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 7-1
7.1.1 General ............................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1.2 Basic Concepts ................................................................................................ 7-2
7.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................ 7-4
7.3 GIRDER LAYOUT AND STRUCTURAL SECTION .................................................. 7-6
7.4 PRESTRESSING CABLE LAYOUT ............................................................................. 7-7
7.5 PRESTRESS LOSSES FOR POST-TENSIONING ....................................................... 7-9
7.5.1 Instantaneous Losses ..................................................................................... 7-10
7.5.2 Long Term Loss ............................................................................................ 7-15
7.6 SECONDARY MOMENTS AND RESULTING PRESTRESS LOSS........................ 7-18
7.7 STRESS LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................. 7-18
7.7.1 Prestressing Tendons..................................................................................... 7-18
7.7.2 Concrete ........................................................................................................ 7-19
7.8 STRENGTH DESIGN .................................................................................................. 7-21
7.9 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ................................................................................... 7-21
7.10 POST-TENSIONING ANCHOR DESIGN .................................................................. 7-24
7.11 DESIGN PROCEDURE................................................................................................ 7-25
7.12 DESIGN EXAMPLE .................................................................................................... 7-31
7.12.1 Prestressed Concrete Girder Bridge Data ..................................................... 7-31
7.12.2 Design Requirements .................................................................................... 7-32
7.12.3 Select Girder Layout and Section ................................................................. 7-32
7.12.4 Determine Basic Design Data ....................................................................... 7-34
7.12.5 Design Deck Slab and Soffit ......................................................................... 7-35
7.12.6 Select Prestressing Cable Path ...................................................................... 7-36
7.12.7 Post Tensioning Losses ................................................................................. 7-46
7.12.8 Cable Path Eccentricities............................................................................... 7-53
7.12.9 Moment Coefficients..................................................................................... 7-56
7.12.10 Gravity Loads................................................................................................ 7-60
7.12.11 Determine the Prestressing Force.................................................................. 7-63
Chapter 7 - Post-Tensioning Concrete Girders 7-i

7.12.12 Determine the Required Concrete Strength .................................................. 7-67

7.12.13 Design of Flexural Resistance ....................................................................... 7-77
7.12.14 Design for Shear............................................................................................ 7-90
7.12.15 Calculate the Prestressing Elongation ......................................................... 7-105
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................. 7-109
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 7-114
Chapter 7 - Post-Tensioning Concrete Girders 7-ii

CHAPTER 7
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE GIRDERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 General
Post-tensioned concrete box girders are widely used in the highway bridges in
California. Figure 7.1-1 shows the San Luis Rey River Bridge a typical cast-in-place
post-tensioned (CIP/PT) concrete box girder bridge.
Figure 7.1-1 San Luis Rey River Bridge: A Concrete Box CIP/PT Bridge
Basic concepts, definitions and assumptions are first discussed in this Chapter. An
example problem with longhand solution is then worked through to illustrate typical
design procedure.
Chapter 7 - Post-Tensioning Concrete Girders 7-1

7.1.2 Basic Concepts

Post tensioning is one of methods of prestressing concrete. The concrete members
are cast first. Then after the concrete has gained sufficient strength, tendons (strands of
high strength steel wire) are inserted into preformed has ducts and tensioned to induce
compressive stresses in the expected tensile stress regions of the member. Concrete
must be free to shorten under the precompression. The strands are then anchored and
a corrosion protection such as grout or grease, is installed (Gerwick, 1997).
Before further discussing prestressing, we should compare it with conventionally
reinforced concrete. Prior to gravity loading, the stress level in conventional reinforced
concrete is zero. The reinforcing steel is only activated by the placement of the gravity
load. The concrete and reinforcing steel act as a composite section. However, once the
tensile capacity of the concrete surrounding the longitudinal reinforcement has been
surpassed, the concrete cracks. Prestressed concrete activates the steel prior to gravity
loading through prestressing the reinforcement. This prevents cracking at service loads
in prestressed concrete.
Prestressed concrete utilizes high strength materials effectively. Concrete is strong
in compression, but weak in tension. High tensile strength of prestressing steel and
high compressive strength of concrete can be utilized more efficiently by pre-
tensioning high strength steel so that the concrete remains in compression under service
loads activated while the surrounding concrete is compressed. The prestressing
operation results in a self-equilibrating internal stress system which accomplishes
tensile stress in the steel and compressive stress in the concrete that significantly
improves the system response to induced service loads (Collins and Mitchell, 1997).
The primary objectives of using prestressing is to produce zero tension in the
concrete under dead loads and to have service load stress less than the cracking strength
of the concrete along the cross section. Thus the steel is in constant tension. Because
of this the concrete remains in compression under service loads throughout the life of
the structure. Both materials are being activated and used to their maximum efficiency.
Figure 7.1-2 shows elastic stress distribution for a prestressed beam after initial
prestressing.

FC ( Pj ) FC ( Pj e)c1 * FC ( Pj ) FC ( Pj e)c1 *

Ag Ig Ag Ig
FC ( Pj ) FC ( Pj e)c 2 FC ( Pj ) FC ( Pj e)c2

Ag Ig Ag Ig
Note: *Component of Equation is negative because c is on opposite side of center of gravity
from the tendon. Tension is denoted as negative (-), compression is denoted as positive
(+)
Figure 7.1-2 Elastic Stresses in an Uncracked Prestress Beam. Effects
of Initial Prestress by Component (Nilson, 1987)
The stress at any point of the cross-section can be expressed as:

FC ( Pj ) FC ( Pj e) y MCs ( Pj ) y
f pe (7.1-1)

Ag Ig Ig
Where:
e = eccentricity of resultant of prestressing with respect to the centroid of
the cross section. Always taken as a positive (ft)
FC = force coefficient for loss
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (ksi)
Ig = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement (in.4)
Pj = force in prestress strands before losses (ksi)
MCs = secondary moment force coefficient for loss (ft)
y = distance from the neutral axis to a point on member cross-section (in.)
The prestressing force effect is accomplished by two components of the general

equation shown above as Equation 7.1-1. The first component is uniform compression
stress due to the axial prestressing force. The second component is the bending stress
caused by eccentricity of the prestressing steel with respect to the center of gravity of
the cross section. This creates a linear change in stress throughout the beam cross

section (Figure 7.1-2). It is noted that the distance from the neutral axis to the fiber in
question y, (y is the general term, c1 and c2 which are more specific terms shown in
Figure 7.1-2), may result in a negative value for the bending part of the equation. It is
possible the prestressing force will create tension across the center of gravity from the
tendon, and therefore part of the beam section may be in tension prior to applying load.
The use of prestressed concrete has its advantages and limitations. Some
limitations are its low superstructure ductility, the need for higher concrete
compressive strengths, and larger member sizes to accommodate ducts inside the
girders.
Post-tension box girder superstructures are commonly used due to their low costs,
their performance throughout the life of the structure, and contractors experience with
the structure type. Post-tensioning also allows for thinner superstructures. A
continuous superstructure increases the stiffness of the bridge frame in the longitudinal
direction and gives the designer the option to fix the columns to the superstructure,
reducing foundation costs.
7.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

At first glance, prestressed concrete and reinforced concrete make use of the same
two core materials: concrete and steel. However, the behavior of the materials vary due
to usage. Conventional concrete structures use deformed bars for reinforcement. Most
prestressed applications use tightly wrapped, low-relaxation (lo-lax) seven-wire strand.
As shown in Figure 7.2-1, the stress strain curves for those steel are quite different.
Figure 7.2-1 Stress-Strain Curves of Mild Steel (Deformed Reinforcing Bars)

and Prestress Steel (7-Wire Strand) (Collins and Mitchell, 1997)

Table 7.2-1 shows the steel material properties for ASTM A706 Grade 60 and
ASTM A416 PS Strand Grade 270. The mild reinforcement steel (ASTM A706 Grade
60) used for reinforced concrete has a much lower yield strength and tensile strength
than the prestressing strands (ASTM A416 PS Strand Grade 270). Prestressing steel
shall be high strength and possesses superior material properties. This enables a
smaller quantity of steel to be used to support the bridge. Higher strength steel is also
used because the ratio of effective prestess (prestress force after losses in force) to
initial prestress (prestress force before losses in force) of high strength steel is much
higher than that of mild steel (Figure 7.2-2). This is because losses, which will be
discussed below, consume a large percentage of the strain in the elastic range of the
mild steel, but a small portion of the prestressed steel.
Table 7.2-1 Steel Material Properties for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Grade 60 ASTM A706 Grade 270 ASTM A416 PS Strand
fy 60 ksi 250 ksi
fu 80 ksi 270 ksi

Jacking Stress Stress in

the strand
Effective Prestress-
stress remaining in
strand after losses
Loss of pre-strain due

to instantaneous and
long term losses
Initial Prestress
Stress in steel before
any losses
Figure 7.2-2 Loss Effects Comparison Between Prestressing Strand and Mild
Reinforcement (Based inpart on Portland Cement Association 2001 Bridge
Professors Seminar Chicago, IL)
7.3 GIRDER LAYOUT AND STRUCTURAL SECTION

Section design is a very important tenant of structure design. An efficient section
maximizes the ability of a structure to carry applied loads while minimizing self-
weight. Basic mechanics of materials theory shows that the further away the majority
of a material lies from the centroid of the shape, the better that shape is at resisting
moment. A shape such as a basic I is perfect for maximizing flexural strength and
minimizing weight. The placement of I-girders side by side results in a box; which is
easier to construct and has seismic advantages over individual I-girders.
Determination of the typical section of a bridge has been made a simple process.
Creation of a typical section begins with the calculation of structure depth for a given
span length. Table 7.3-1 lists (AASHTO, 2012) minimum structural depth for various
structural spans.

Table 7.3-1 Traditional Minimum Depth for Constant Depth Superstructures

(AASHTO Table 2.5.2.6.3-1, 2012)
Minimum Depth (Including Deck)
When variable depth members are uses,

values may be adjusted to account for
changes in relative stiffness of positive
Superstructure and negative moment sections
Material Type Simple Spans Continuous Spans
Slabs with main + 10
1.2 ( + 10)
reinforcement parallel to 0.54 ft
traffic 30 30
Reinforced
T-Beams 0.070L 0.065L
Concrete
Box Beams 0.060L 0.055L
Pedestrian Structure 0.035L 0.033L
Beams
Slabs 0.030L > 6.5 in. 0.027L > 6.5 in.
CIP Box Beams 0.045L 0.040L
Prestressed Precast I-Beams 0.045L 0.040L
Concrete Pedestrian Structure 0.033L 0.030L
Beams
Adjacent Box Beams 0.030L 0.025L
Overall Depth of 0.040L 0.032L
Composition I-Beam
Steel Depth of I-Beam Portion 0.033L 0.027L
of Composite I-Beam
Trusses 0.100L 0.100L
In order to use MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008), a simple rule of thumb is girder
spacing for a prestressed box girder should not exceed twice the superstructure depth.
A larger girder spacing may require a customized deck and soffit slab design and may
result in a larger web thickness. MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008) provides predetermined
soffit and deck thickness based on girder to girder spacing as well as overhang length.
7.4 PRESTRESSING CABLE LAYOUT

To induce compressive stress along all locations of the bridge girder, the
prestressing cable path must be raised and lowered along the length of the girder. A
typical continuous girder is subjected to negative moments near fixed supports, and
positive moments near mid-span. As Equation 7.1-1 shows, eccentricity determines the
stress level at a given location on the cross-section. In order to meet the tension face
criteria the location of the prestressing cable path will be high (above the neutral axis)
at fixed supports, low (below the neutral axis) at midspans, and at the centroid of the
section near simply supported connections (Figure 7.4-1). The shape of the cable path
is roughly the same as the opposite sign of the dead load moment diagram shown in
Figure 7.4-2.

Figure 7.4-1 Typical Prestressing Path for a Two-Span Bridge
30000
25000
20000
Opposite sign Service Level Moment
15000
10000
(k-ft)
5000
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
Location on Bridge from Abutment 1
Figure 7.4-2 Opposite Sign of Dead Load Moment Diagram
Determining the most efficient possible final pre-stress cable layout is an iterative
process. This requires using Bridge Design Aids (BDA) Sections 11-13 through 11-18
(Caltrans, 2005) to determine a best guess initial prestressing force (Pjack) as a
function of deck area, span length, and span configuration. Using tables and charts
provided in MTD 11-28 (Caltrans, 2010), the designer can then locate critical points
along the cable path. The highest point should occur at the locations of highest negative
moments, on our example bridge that would be at the bents. At its highest, the duct
will fit in just below the bottom transverse mat of steel in the deck. The lowest point
will occur near mid-span, and is limited by the location of the top mat of transverse
soffit steel.

7.5 PRESTRESS LOSSES FOR POST-TENSIONING

Throughout the life of a prestressed concrete girder, the initial force applied to the
pre-stress tendons significantly decreases. This decrease in the force is called loss. Loss
of stress in a girder can revert a location previously in compression to tension, or
increase a tension stress. This may be very dangerous when stress in concrete is near
its stress limit. Because of the significant impact to the structure of these losses, losses
must be quantified and accounted for in design.
In Caltrans practice, coefficients are usually used to estimate the reduction factor
in initial force to find a final prestressing force. These coefficients are called force
(Equation 7.5-1) and moment coefficients (Equation 7.5-2). Both coefficients are used
to determine a jacking force, as most losses are both functions of and dependant of
jacking force. These force coefficients are given as the sum of lost force of each
component of loss divided by the allowable stress in the tendon (modification of
AASHTO, 2012, Equations 5.9.5.1-1, 5.9.5.1-2).
FC pT (1
f ) i
(7.5-1)
f ps
where:
FCpT = force coefficient for loss
fi = change in force in prestressing tendon due to an individual loss (ksi)
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal
resistance is required (ksi) (5.7.3.1.1-1)
MCP ( FC pT )(ex ) (7.5-2)
where:
MCp = primary moment force coefficient for loss (ft)
FCpT = total force coefficient for loss
ex = eccentricity as a function of x along parabolic segment (ft)
The force coefficient is defined as one at the jacking location and begins decreasing
towards zero to the point of no movement. The point of no movement is a finite point
of the strand that does not move when jacked and is defined as the location where
internal strand forces are in equilibrium. For single-end post tensioning, the point of
no movement is at the opposite anchorage from stressing. For two-end tensioning the
location is where the movement in one direction is countered by movement from the
other direction, and is generally near the middle of the frame.
Force coefficients are determined at each critical point along the girder. The
product of the force coefficients and strand eccentricities (e) are called moment
coefficients. The coefficients determined from the locked in moments at fixed supports

are used to convert initial strand moment resistant capacities into capacities after
losses, or final capacities.
7.5.1 Instantaneous Losses

There are two types of losses: instantaneous and long term. The instantaneous
losses are due to anchor set, friction, and elastic shortening. Instantaneous losses are
bridge specific, yet still broad enough to be estimated in user friendly equations.
Therefore a lump sum value is not used and a bridge specific value is calculated. Given
below are three different types of instantaneous losses.
7.5.1.1 Anchor Set Loss

Anchor Set is caused by the movement of the tendon prior to seating of the
anchorage gripping device. This loss occurs prior to force transfer between wedge (or
jaws) and anchor block. Anchor set loss is the reduction in strand force through the
loss in stretched length of the strand. Once a force is applied to the strands, the wedges
move against the anchor block, until the wedges are caught. Because of the elasticity
of the strands, this movement will cause a loss in strain, stress, and force. This
movement and the resulting loss of force prior to being caught is the anchor set loss.
The force necessary to pull the movement out, will not be captured as the effective
force. Even though the size of the slip is small, it still manifests as a reduction in
prestressing force. AASHTO 5.9.5.2.1 suggests a common value for anchor set as 3/8
inch. This anchor set loss represents the amount of slip in Caltrans approved anchorage
systems. Equation 7.5.1.1-1 puts the Anchor Set into a more familiar change in force
and force coefficient form.
f pA 2(f L )( x pA )
FC pA (7.5.1.1-1)
f ps L( f ps )
E p ( Aset ) L
x pA (7.5.1.1-2)
12f L
where:
FCpA = force coefficient for loss from anchor set
xpA = influence length of anchor set (ft)
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing
Aset = anchor set length (in.)
L = distance to a point of known stress loss (ft)
fL = friction loss at the point of known stress loss (ksi)
fpA = jacking stress lost in the P/S steel due to anchor set (ksi)

Figure 7.5.1-1 Anchorage System for Multi-Strand Tendon

(Collins and Mitchell, 1997)
7.5.1.2 Friction Loss

Friction loss is another type of instantaneous loss, which occurs when the
prestressing tendons get physically caught on the ducts. This is a significant loss of
force on non-linear prestressing paths because of the angle change of the ducts.
Friction loss has two components: curvature and wobble frictional losses. Modified
Equation AASHTO 5.9.5.2.2b-1 results in Equation 7.5.1.2-1, the equation used to
obtain friction losses.
Curvature loss occurs when some fraction of the jacking force is used to maneuver
a tendon around an angle change in a duct. An example would be: as a tendon is
bending around a duct inflection point near a pier or bent, the bottom of the tendon is
touching (and scraping) the bottom of the duct. This scraping of the duct is loss of
force via friction.
f pF
FC pF e ( Kx ) (7.5.1.2-1)
f pj
where:
e = e is the base of Napierian logarithms
FCpF = force coefficient for loss from friction
fpj = stress in the prestressing steel at jacking (ksi)
K = wobble friction coefficient (per ft of tendon)
x = general distance along tendon (ft)
total angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking end to a
point under investigation (rad)
fpF = change in stress due to friction loss
= coefficient of friction

Table 7.5-1 Provides Wobble Friction Coefficient and Coefficient of Friction as

Specified in the California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014).
Table 7.5-1 Friction Coefficient K and Coefficient of Friction

Type of Steel Type of Duct K (1/ft)
Wire or strand Rigid and semi-rigid 0.0002 0.15-0.25
galvanized metal sheathing
Tendon Length:
< 600 ft 0.0002 0.15
600 ft < 900 ft 0.0002 0.20
900 ft < 1200 ft 0.0002 0.25
> 1200 ft 0.0002 >0.25
Polyethylene 0.0002 0.23
Rigid steel pipe deviators for 0.0002 0.25
external tendons
High-strength bars Galvanized metal sheathing 0.0002 0.30
Figure 7.5.1-2 Wobble Friction Losses (Collins & Mitchell, 1997)
Wobble losses result from unintended angle changes of the tendon along the length
of the cable path (Figure 7.5.1-2). These losses depend on the properties of the duct
such as rigidity, diameter, support spacing, and type of duct. Wobble losses are the
accumulation of the wobble coefficient over the length of the cable path.

FCpF = 1.000 FCpF = 1.000

fpF = 202.50 ksi fpF = 202.50 ksi
Force coefficient (decimal % of Pj)
Point of no FCpF = 0.879

Movement fpF = 178.00 ksi
(2-end)
2nd End P/S Steel Stress
L1 = 219.6 ft
L2 = 192.4 ft FCpF = 0.773
fpF = 156.53 ksi
1st End P/S Steel Stress
Length Along Girder (ft)
Figure 7.5.1-3 Two-End Stressing Versus One-End Stressing
Friction losses over a long girder begin to add up to a high percentage of the
prestressing force. High friction losses can be counteracted by using two-end stressing.
As stated above, two-end stressing moves the point of no movement from the anchored
end to a point close to the middle of the frame. By jacking the end that was previously
anchored, friction stress that was building up in the tendons between the point of no
movement and the second end, is effectively pulled out thus reducing the friction losses
between the second end and the point of no movement. Figure 7.5.1-3 shows the
difference in stress when using two-end stressing instead of one for the design example
in Section 7.12.
7.5.1.3 Elastic Shortening
When the pre-stressing force is applied to a concrete section, an elastic shortening
of the concrete takes place simultaneously with the application of the pre-stressing
force to the pre-stressing steel. It is caused by the compressive force from the tendons
pulling both anchors of the concrete towards the center of the frame. Therefore, the
distance between restraints has been decreased. Because of the elastic nature of the
strand decreasing the distance between restraints after the pre-stressing force has been
applied, thus reducing the strain, stress, and force levels in the tendons.
The equations for elastic shortening in pre-tensioned (such as precast elements)
members are shown in AASHTO Equation 5.9.5.2.3a-1.
Ep
f pES f cgp (AASHTO 5.9.5.2.3a-1)
Ect
The equations for elastic shortening in post-tensioned members other than slabs
are shown in Equation AASHTO 5.9.5.2.3b-1.

N 1 Ep
f pES fcgp (AASHTO 5.9.5.2.3b-1)
2 N Ect
where:
Ect = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer or time of load application
(ksi)
N = number of identical prestressing tendons
fcgp = concrete stress at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons, that
results from the prestressing force at either transfer or jacking and the
self-weight of the member at sections maximum moment (ksi)
fpES = change in stress due to elastic shortening loss
The California Amendments to the AASHTO LRFD specify that as the number of
tendons increase, the first fractional term converges to 1/2, and the formula is
simplified as follows:
Ep
f pES 0.5 f cgp (CA Amendments 5.9.5.2.3b-1)
Ect
M DL e Pj Pj e 2
f cgp f g f ps ( ) (7.5.1.3-1)
Ig Ag Ig
where:
e = eccentricity of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to
the centroid of the cross section. Always taken as a positive (in.)
fg = stress in the member from dead load (ksi)
resistance is required (ksi)
MDL = dead load moment of structure (kip-in.)

Turning this into a force coefficient results in:

f pES E p fcgp
FC pES 0.5
f pi Ect f pi
where:
FCpES = force coefficient for loss from elastic shortening
7.5.2 Long Term Loss

Long term, time-dependent losses are the losses of presstress force in the tendon
during the life of the structure. When using long term losses on post-tensioned
members it is acceptable to use a lump sum value (CA Amendments to AASHTO
5.9.5.3) in lieu of a detailed analysis. In the CA Amendments to AASHTO 2012, this
value is 20 ksi. When completing a detailed analysis, long term losses are the
combination of the following three losses.
7.5.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The evaporation of free water in concrete causing the concrete to lose volume is a
process known as shrinkage. The amount of shrinkage, and therefore the amount of
loss caused by shrinkage, is dependent on the composition of the concrete and the
curing process (Libby, 1990). Empirical equations for calculating shrinkage have been
developed which rely on concrete strength, and relative humidity of the region where
the bridge will be placed. Combining and modifying AASHTO 2012 Equations
5.9.5.3-1, 5.9.5.3-2, and 5.9.5.3-3 results in Equation 7.5.2.1-1.
5
f pSR 12.0(1.7 .01H ) (7.5.2.1-1)
(1 fci )
where:
fpSR = change in stress due to shortening loss
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity (percent)
fci = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial loading or
prestressing (ksi); nominal concrete strength at time of application of
tendon force (ksi)
7.5.2.2 Creep
Creep is a phenomenon of gradual increase of deformation of concrete under
sustained load. There are two types of creep, drying creep and basic creep. Drying
creep is affected by moisture loss of the curing concrete and is similar to shrinkage, as
it can be controlled by humidity during the curing process. Basic creep is the constant
stress of the post-tensioning steel straining the concrete. Creep is determined by
relative humidity at the bridge site, concrete strengths, gross area of concrete, area of

prestressing steel, and initial prestressing steel. Combining and modifying AASHTO
2012 Equations 5.9.5.3-1, 5.9.5.3-2, and 5.9.5.3-3 results in Equation 7.5.2.2-1.
f pi Aps 5
f pCR 10.0 (1.7 .01H ) (7.5.2.2-1)
Ag (1 f ci )
where:
fpCR = change in stress due to creep loss
fpi = prestressing steel/stress immediately prior to transfer (ksi)
prestressing (ksi); nominal concrete strength at time of application of
tendon force (ksi)
7.5.2.3 Relaxation of Steel

The relaxation of steel is a phenomenon of gradual decrease of stress when the
strain is held constant over time. As time goes by, force is decreasing in the elongated
steel. Relaxation losses are dependent on how the steel was manufactured (Figure
7.5.2.3-1). The manufacturing processes used to create prestressing strands result in
significant residual stresses in the strand.

Figure 7.5.2.3-1 7-Wire Strand Production Method (Collins & Mitchell, 1997)
The steel can be manufactured to reduce relaxation as much as possible; this steel
is called low relaxation (lo-lax). Lo-lax is generally the type of prestressing steel used
in Caltrans post-tensioned girder bridges. A lo-lax strand goes through the production
of high strength steel (patenting, cold drawing, stranding) and is then heated and cooled
under tension. This process removes residual stresses and reduces the time dependant
losses due to the relaxation of the strand. AASHTO 2012 allows for the use of lump-
sum values. (AASHTO, 2012. 5.9.5.3-1). These are given as 2.4 ksi for lo-lax and 10.0
ksi for stress relieved steel.

7.6 SECONDARY MOMENTS AND RESULTING PRESTRESS

LOSS
Another type of loss exists based on the frame configuration and support boundary
conditions. A continuous prestressed flexural member which is free to deform (i.e.
unrestrained by its supports), will deform axially and deflect from its original shape
(Libby, 1990). If the prestress reactions are restrained by the supports, moments and
shear forces are created as a result of the restraint. Distortions due to primary prestress
moments generate fixed end moments at rigid supports. These fixed end moments are
always positive, due to the geometry of the cable path, and always enhance the effects
of prestressing. These locked in secondary moments decrease the effect of prestressing
by lowering the effective prestressing force.
For statically indeterminate concrete flexural members, loss of prestress can be
tabulated by using the moment distribution method; accounting for eccentricities, and
curvature of tendons. Secondary moments vary linearly between supports.
7.7 STRESS LIMITATIONS

7.7.1 Prestressing Tendons
Tensile stress is limited to a portion of the ultimate strength to provide a margin of
safety against tendon fracture or end-anchorage failures. Stress limits are also used to
avoid inelastic tendon deformation, and to limit relaxation losses. Table 7.7.1-1
provides the stress limitations for prestresseing tendons as specified in the California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014). Those limitations can be increased if necessary in long
bridges where losses are high.

Table 7.7.1-1 Stress Limitations for Prestressing Tendons CA Amendments Table

CA5.9.3-1, (Caltrans, 2014)
Tendon Type
Stress-Relieved Deformed
Condition Low
Strand and High-
Relaxation
Plain High- Strength
Strand
Strength Bars Bars
Pretensioning
Prior to Seating : short-term fpbt
0.90fpy 0.90 fpy 0.90fpy
may be allowed
Immediately prior to transfer (fpbt) 0.70fpu 0.70fpu
At service limit state after all losses (fpe) 0.80fpy 0.80fpy 0.80fpy
Post-tensioning
Prior to Seating short term fpbt may be
0.90fpy 0.90fpy 0.90fpy
allowed
Maximum Jacking Stress: short-term
0.75fpu 0.75fpu 0.75fpu
fpbt may be allowed
At anchorages and couplers
0.70fpu 0.70fpu 0.70fpu
immediately after anchor set
Elsewhere along length of member
away from anchorages and complers 0.70fpu 0.70fpu 0.70fpu
immediately after anchor set
At service limit state after losses (fpe) 0.80fpy 0.80fpy 0.80fpy
7.7.2 Concrete
Stress in concrete varies at discrete stages within the life of an element. These
discreet stages vary based on how the element is loaded, and how much pre-stress loss
the element has experienced. The stages to be examined are the Initial Stage:
Temporary Stresses Before Losses, and the Final Stage: Service Limit State after
Losses, as defined by AASHTO 2012. The prestress force is designed as the minimum
force required to meet the stress limitations in the concrete as specified in AASHTO
Article 5.9.4 (AASHTO, 2012).
During the time period right after stressing, the concrete in tension is especially
susceptible to cracking. This is before losses occur when prestress force is the highest
and the concrete is still young. At this point the concrete has not completely gained
strength. Caltrans project plans should show an initial strength of concrete that must
be met before the stressing operation can begin. This is done to indicate a strength
required to resist the post tensioning during the concretes vulnerable state. During
this initial temporary state, the Table 7.7.2-1 (AASHTO, 2012) allows for a higher
tensile stress limit and the concrete is allowed to crack. The concrete is allowed to
crack because as the losses reduce the high tension stress and the young concrete
strengthens, the crack widths will reduce. Then the high axial force from prestressing
will pull the cracks closed.

Table 7.7.2-1 Temporary Tensile Stress Limits in Prestressed Concrete Before

Losses in Non-Segmental Bridges (AASHTO Table 5.9.4.1.2-1, 2012)
Location Stress Limit
In precompressed tensile zone without bonded
reinforcement N/A
In area other than the precompressed tensile zone and

without bonded reinforcement 0.0948 f ci 0.2(ksi)
In areas with bonded reinforcement (reinforcing bars or

prestressing steel) sufficient to resist the tensile force in the
concrete computed assuming an uncracked section, where
reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5 fy, not to
0.24 f ci (ksi)
exceed 30 ksi.
For handling stresses in prestressed piles 0.158 f ci (ksi)
The final stage of a bridges lifespan is known as the in place condition. Stresses
resisted by concrete and prestressing steel in this condition are from gravity loads. At
the service limit, the bridge superstructure concrete should not crack. The code
provides for this by setting the stress limit (Table 7.7.2-2) to be less than the tensile
strength of the concrete. Under permanent loads tension is not allowed in any concrete
fiber (Caltrans, 2014).
Table 7.7.2-2 Tensile Stress Limits on Prestressed Concrete at Service Limit State,
After Losses, Fully Prestressed Components (CA Amendements Table 5.9.4.2.2-1,
2014)
Precompresssed Tensile Zone Bridges, Assuming Uncracked
Sectionscomponents with bonded prestressing tendons or No tension
reinforcement, subjected to permanent loads only.
Tension in the Precompressed Tensile Zone Bridges, Assuming
Uncracked Sections
For components with bonded prestressing tendons or
reinforcement that are subjected to not worse than moderate
0.19 f c (ksi)
corrosion conditions, and/or are located in Caltrans
Environmental Areas I or II.
For components with bonded prestressing tendons or
reinforcement that are subjected to severe corrosive
conditions, and/or are located in Caltrans Environmental 0.0948 f c (ksi)
Area III.
For components with unbonded prestressing tendons.
No tension

Note that Caltrans Environmental Areas I and II correspond to Non-Freeze Thaw

Area, and Environmental Area III corresponds to Freeze Thaw Area, respectively.
Because concrete is strong in compression, the code-defined compression limits
are much higher than corresponding tension limits. Compression limits as shown in
Table 7.7.2-3 are in place to prevent the concrete from crushing. The code establishes
a portion of the concrete strength to resist both gravity loads and compression from the
prestressing tendons. Because compression limits are dependent on stage, like tension
limits, careful consideration must not only be taken for force level in the steel but for
the loading conditions as well.
Table 7.7.2-3 Compressive Stress Limits in Prestressed Concrete at Service Limit

State, Fully Prestressed Components (AASHTO Table 5.9.4.2.1-1, 2012)
In other than segmentally constructed bridges due to the sum 0.45 f c (ksi)
of effective prestress and permanent loads
In segmentally constructed bridges due to the sum of effective 0.45 f c (ksi)

prestress and permanent loads
Due to the sum of effective prestress, permanent loads, and 0.60 w f c (ksi)
transient loads and during shipping and hanling
7.8 STRENGTH DESIGN

Prestressing force and concrete strength are usually determined for the Service
Limit States, while mild steel are determined for Strength Limit States. Flexural and
shear design are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
7.9 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER

Deflection is a term that is used to describe the degree to which a structural element
is displaced under a load. The California Amendments to the AASHTO 2012 code
defines camber as the deflection built into a member, other than prestressing, in order
to achieve a desired grade. Camber is the physical manifestation of removing
deflection from a bridge by building that deformation into the initial shape. This is
done in the long term to give the superstructure a straight appearance, which is more
pleasing to the public and also for drainage purposes.
There are two types of deflections. Instantaneous deflections consider the
appropriate combinations of dead load, live load, prestressing forces, erection loads, as
well as instantaneous prestress losses. All deflections are based on the stiffness of the
structure versus the stiffness of the supports. This stiffness is a function of the Moment
of Inertia (Ig or Ie) and Modulus of Elasticity (E). AASHTO 2012 (Equation 5.7.3.6.2-
1) has developed an equation to define Ie based on Ig. With Ie obtained an instantaneous

deflection can be determined by using a method such as virtual work, or a design

software such as CT-BRIDGE.
M
3
M 3
I e cr I g 1 cr I cr I g (AASHTO 5.7.3.6.2-1)
Ma M a
where:
Ie = effective moment of inertia (in.4)
Ma = maximum moment in a member at the stage which the deformation is
computed (kip-in.)
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked section, transformed to concrete (in.4)
Ig
M cr f y (AASHTO 5.7.3.6.2-2)
yt
where:
fy = yield strength of mild steel (ksi)
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (in.)
The primary function of calculating long-term deflections is to provide a camber

value. Permanent loads will deflect the superstructure down, and give the bridge a
sagging appearance. Prestressing force and eccentricity cause upward camber in
superstructures. When calculating long-term deflections of a bridge, creep, shrinkage,
and relaxation of the steel must be considered. This is done by multiplying the
instantaneous deflection (deflection caused by DC and PS case) by code defined factor
(CA 5.7.3.6.2). This product of instantaneous deflection and long term coefficient is
the long term deflection of the bridge. The opposite sign of these deflections is what is
placed on the project plans of new structures as camber. Generally, negative cambers
(upward deflection) is ignored.

Figure 7.9-1 Expressions for Deflections Due to Uniform Load and Camber for
Hand Checks (Collins and Mitchell, 1997)

7.10 POST-TENSIONING ANCHOR DESIGN

The abrupt termination of high force strands within the girder generates a large
stress ahead of the anchorage. Immediately ahead of the girder are bursting stresses,
and surrounding the anchorages are spalling stresses. The code specifies that for ease
of design, the anchorage zone shall consist of two zones (Figure 7.10-1). One a Local
Zone consisting of high compression stresses which lead to spalling. Also there is a
General Zone consisting of high tensile stresses which lead to bursting (AASHTO,
Equation 5.10.9.2.1).
Figure 7.10-1 General and Local Zone (AASHTO, 2012)
The local zone of the anchorage system is dependent on the nearby crushing
demand. Compression reinforcement is used within the local zone to keep concrete
from spalling and eventually crushing. The local zone is more influenced by the
characteristics of the anchorage device and its anchorage characteristics than by
loading and geometry. Anchorage reinforcement is usually designed by the
prestressing contractor and reviewed/approved by the design engineer during the shop
drawing process.
The general zone is defined by tensile stresses due to spreading of the tendon force
into the structure. These areas of large tension stresses occur just ahead of the
anchorage and slowly dissipate from there. Tension reinforcement is used in the

general zone as a means to manage cracking and bursting. The specifications permit
the general anchorage zone to be designed using:
the Finite Element Method
the Approximate Method contained in the specifications
the Strut and Tie method, which is the preferred method
The result of this design yields additional stirrups and transverse bars into and near
the end diaphragm.
7.11 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Start
CIP/PT bridge
superstructure
selected
Span Lengths, and bridge

widths are determined by
need, existing
surroundings
Span Lengths (L)

Bridge Width (W)
Material properties
Superstructure concrete:
f c = 4.0 ksi min, and 10.0 ksi max (Article 5.4.2.1, AASHTO, 2012)
f ci min = 3.5 ksi
Normal weight concrete c = 0.15 kcf
Ec = 33,000 c1.5f c = (33,000)(0.15)1.5(4) = 3834 ksi
(Article 5.4.2.4, AASHTO, 2012)
Prestressing Steel:
fpu = 270 ksi, fpy = 0.9 fpu = 243 ksi (Table 5.4.4.1-1, AASHTO, 2012)
Maximum jacking stress, fpj = 0.75 fpu = 202.5 ksi
(CA Amendements, Caltrans, 2014)
Ep = 28,500 ksi (Article 5.4.4.2, AASHTO, 2012)
Mild Steel
A706 bar reinforcing steel:
fy = 60 ksi
Es = 29,000 ksi

Span Lengths (L)

Bridge Width (W)
Material Properties (fpu, fy, Ep, Es, Ec)
Span Lengths (L)

Bridge Width (W)
Structure Depth (Ds)
Select Typical Section Girder Spacing (S, Scir)
D/S Ratio = 0.40 Continuous, 0.45 Deck and Soffit Thickness (t, To)
Simple Span (AASHTO Table
2.5.2.6.3-1) Seismic Design
Deck and Soffit Size, Overhand, (see other
Typical Section Rebar chapters)
(MTD 10-20)
Span Lengths (L)

Bridge Width (W) Detail Typical
Material Properties Section
Span Lengths (L)
(fpu, fy, Ep, Es, Ec)
Bridge Width (W)
Girder Spacing (S, Scir)
Deck and Soffit Thickness (t, To)
Girder Spacing (S, Scir)
Deck and Soffit Thickness (t, To)
Typical Section Rebar
Loads
DC = Dead load of structural components and non-
structural attachments (Article 3.3.2, AASHTO, 2012)
Unit weight of concrete (c)
(Table 3.5.1-1, AASHTO, 2012)
Includes the weight of the box girder
structural section
Barrier rail where appropriate
DW = Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
(Article 3.3.2, AASHTO, 2012)
3 in. Asphault Concrete (A.C.) overlay (3 in.
thick of 0.140 kcf A.C.) = 0.035 ksf
HL93, which includes the design truck plus the design
lane load (Article 3.6.1.2, AASHTO, 2012)
California long-deck P15 (CA Amendments to
AASHTO LRFD Article 3.6.1.8, Caltrans, 2012)
MDC, VDC, MDC w/o Barrier

MDW, VDW
Calculate Section Properties (Ig, Ag, yt, yb) M+HL93, M-HL93,
assoc V+HL93, V-HL93
V+HL93, V-HL93,
Span Lengths (L)
assoc M+HL93, M-HL93
Bridge Width (W)
M+P-15, M-P-15,
1 assoc V+P-15, V-P-15
Section Properties (Ig, Ag, yt, yb )
V+P-15, V-P-15,
assoc M+P-15, M-P-15

Estimate Pj BDA 11-16, and 11-66

Estimated Prestress Force (Pj(est)) 2
Prestressing Path
Minimum distance to soffit and deck
(MTD 11-28)
One-end versus two-end stressing

Estimated Prestress Force (Pj(est))
Eccentricities (e)
Calculate Losses
Instantaneous Losses
Anchor Set Loss (AASHTO 5.9.5.2.1)
Friction Losses (CA Amendments
Table 5.9.5.2.2b-1)
Elastic Shortening (AASHTO 5.9.5.2.3)
Long Term Losses
Shrinkage of Concrete (AASHTO 5.9.5.3)
Creep (AASHTO 5.9.5.3)
Relaxation of Steel (AASHTO 5.9.5.3)

Eccentricities (e)
Anchor Set Loss (fpA)
Friction Loss (fpF)
Elastic Shortening Loss (fpES)
Shrinkage Loss (fpSH)
Creep (fpCR)
Relaxation of Steel (fpR)
Secondary Moments
Moment Distribution
4 5
1


3
Eccentricities (e)
Anchor Set Loss (fpA)
4 5 Friction Loss (fpF)
Elastic Shortening Loss (fpES)
Shrinkage Loss (fpSH)
Creep (fpCR)
Relaxation of Steel (fpR)
Secondary Moment Coefficent (MCs)
Coefficients
Force Coefficients
Moment Coefficients

Eccentricities (e)
Friction Force Coefficient (FCpF) 2
Final Force Coefficient (FCpT)
Final Moment Coefficient (MCpT)
Enviromental Area
Areas I and II
(Non-Freeze-Thaw)
Calculate Pj Service III

No tension allowed under dead load (CA Amendments
Table 5.9.4.2.2-1)
M DC DW y FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y Area III
0 (Freeze-Thaw)
I A I
0.19f c (ksi) allowed under SERVICE III (CA
Amendments Table 5.9.4.2.2-1)
M DC DW 0.8 HL93 yt (bent ) FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y
0.19 f c
I A I
Calculate Pj Service III

No tension allowed under dead load (CA Amendments
Table 5.9.4.2.2-1)
M DC DW y FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y
0
I A I
Prestress Force (Pj) 0.0948f c (ksi) allowed under SERVICE III (CA
Amendments Table 5.9.4.2.2-1)
M DC DW 0.8 HL93 yt (bent ) FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y
0.0948 f c
I A I

Prestress Force (Pj)
Prestress Force (Pj) Eccentricities (e)
Friction Force Coefficient (FCpF)
6 Final Force Coefficient (FCpT) 2

6
4 5 2
No
Was Pj closely approximated?
i.e. is Pj ~ Pj(est)
Yes
Do Elastic Shortening Losses

No converge on assumed? Now
that Pj is known, does the
assumed Elastic Shortening value
approximate the actual?
Eccentricities (e)
Yes Friction Force Coefficient (FCpF)
Calculate fpi and fpe
Effective stress in concrete after
initial losses but before long term
losses:
Pj FC F Pj (e)( FC F ) yb
f pi
Ag Ig
Effective stress in steel after all
losses
Pj FC pT Pj ( MC pT ) yb
f pe
Ag Ig
Eccentricities (e)
Initial effective steel stress (fpi) Design f c and f ci (AASHTO
Final effective steel stress (fpe) Table 5.9.4.2.1-1)
Dead Load Only
f pe f DC DW
f c
0.45 Convert
Live Load + Dead Load fDC+DW
fHL93 Moments
f pe f DC DW f HL 93 into Stresses
f c
0.60 Dead Load
Dead Load w/o barrier Only
f pi f DC w/ o f
My
f ci
b
I
0.60 w

7 2

Eccentricities (e)
Compressive Strength of Concrete (fc)
Initial Compressive Strength of
Concrete (fci)
Flexural Reinforcement Design Strength I and II

AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-1:
kc
f ps = f pu 1 -
d
p
AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4 (for rectangular section, see AASHTO for T-sections):

Aps f pu As f s As f s
c
f
0.85 f c1b kAps ps
dp
AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2-1
a a a a hf
M n Aps f ps d p As f s d s As f s d s 0.85 f c b bw h f
2 2 2 2 2
Prestressing Steel only Additional Flexural Steel Compression Steel Flanged Section Component
a 1 c h f
Minimum Requirement M n shall be larger than or equal to the lesser of

1.33 Mu as defined in Article 5.7.3.3.2 (AASHTO, 2012)
Or AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1
S
M cr 3 ( 1 f r 2 f cpe ) Sc M dnc c 1
nc
S
Modified AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4 (for rectangular section, see AASHTO for T-sections)
Pj
f ps As f s As f s
0.75 f pu
a
k Pj f ps
0.85 f c b
1 0.75 f pu d p
Use AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2-1 to solve for As once a is known.
Check AASHTO C5.7.3.3.1 to make sure that Mild Steel yields
8 2

Continued from previous page

8 2
Eccentricities (e)
Initial Compressive Strength of Concrete (fci)
Area of Additional Mild Steel (As)
Shear Reinforcement Design Strength I and II

See AASHTO Figure C5.8.3.4.2-5

Area of Additional Mild Steel (As)
Area of Shear Stirrup (Av)
Shear Stirrup Spacing (s)
Final Force Coefficient (FCpT) End
Initial Compressive Strength of Concrete
(fci)
7.12 DESIGN EXAMPLE

7.12.1 Prestressed Concrete Girder Bridge Data
412-0
126-0 168-0 118-0

44-0
47-0
Abut 1 Abut 4
Bent 2 Bent 3
Figure 7.12.1-1 Elevation View of the Example Bridge

It is important, in a two-span configuration, to try and achieve equal, or nearly

equal spans. In frames consisting of three or more spans, the designer should strive for
75% end spans, with nearly equal interior spans whenever possible.
The overall width of the bridge in this example is based on the following traffic
requirements:
3 12-foot lanes with traffic flow in same direction
2 10-foot shoulders
2 Type 732 barriers supporting Type 7 chain link railing
Overall bridge width, W = 58 ft 10 in. (See Figure 7.12.3-1)
Materials
Superstructure Concrete:
fc = 4.0 ksi min, and 10.0 ksi max (AASHTO Article 5.4.2.1)
fci min = 3.5 ksi
Normal weight concrete c = 0.15 kcf
Ec = 33,000 c1.5fc = (33,000)(0.15)1.5(4) = 3834 ksi (AASHTO Article 5.4.2.4)
Prestressing Steel:
fpu = 270 ksi, fpy = 0.9 fpu = 243 ksi (AASHTO Table 5.4.4.1-1)
Maximum jacking stress, fpj = 0.75 fpu = 202.5 ksi (Caltrans, 2014)
Ep = 28,500 ksi (AASHTO Article 5.4.4.2)
Mild Steel:
A706 bar reinforcing steel
fy = 60 ksi, Es = 29,000 ksi

Perform the following design portions for the box girder in accordance with the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th Edition (2012) with California
Amendments 2014 (Caltrans, 2014).
7.12.3 Select Girder Layout and Section

Table 2.5.2.6.3-1 (AASHTO, 2012) states that the traditional minimum depth for
a continuous CIP box girder shall be calculated using 0.040 L, where L is the length of
the longest span within the frame.
Structure depth, d ~ (0.040)(168) = 6.72 ft use: d = 6.75 ft = 81 in.

Assuming an overhang width that is about 40 50% of the clear spacing between
girders, and that the maximum girder spacing, Smax, should not exceed (2)(d), where
d = structure depth, find the number and spacing of the girders. Overhang width should
be limited to 6-0 max. When span lengths are of similar length on the same structure,
its generally a good idea to use the same depth for the entire frame.
Maximum girder spacing, Smax = (2)(6.75) = 13.50 ft
Try 4 girders: As an estimate, assuming the combined width of the
overhangs is approximately equal to a bay width, S~W/4. Therefore S4 =
58.83/4 = 14.71 ft. Since S4 = 14.71 > Smax = 13.50 ft, an extra girder should
be added to the typical section.
Try 5 girders: S5 = 58.83/5 = 11.77 ft. Since S5 = 11.77 < Smax = 13.50 ft, 5
girders should be used to develop the typical section. Using 5 girders will
improve shear resistance, provide one more girder stem for placing P/S ducts,
and keep the overhang width less than 6 feet. With 5 girders use an exterior
girder spacing of 11 ft -11 in. and an interior girder spacing of 12 feet.
Figure 7.12.3-1 Typical Section View of Example Bridge

The column diameter Dc = 6 ft

2:1 Sloped exterior girders used for aesthetic purposes
Assuming no other issues, the distance as measured perpendicular to A line
from A line to centerline of column is 16 ft-7 in.
Bent cap width is Dc+2 ft = 8 ft
Overhang thickness varies from 12 in. at exterior girder to 8 in. at Edge of
Deck (EOD)
Girders are 12 in. wide to accommodate concrete vibration (Standard Plans
Sheet B8-5)
Exterior girders flared to 18 in. minimum at abutment diaphragms to
accommodate prestressing hardware (Standard Plans Sheet B8-5)
Soffit flares to 12 in. at face of bent caps for seismic detailing and to optimize
prestress design. Length of flares approximately 1/10 Span Length
All supports are skewed 20 relative to centerline of bridge. Based on guidance
material in MTD 11-28 (Caltrans, 2010), use abutment diaphragm thickness
of 3 ft -3 in.
Four inches fillets are to be located between perpedicular surfaces except for
those adjoining the soffit
7.12.4 Determine Basic Design Data
Section Properties
Prismatic Section (midspan):

Area (Ag) = 103 ft2
Moment of Inertia (Ig) = 729 ft4
Bottom fiber to C.G. (yb) = 3.80 ft
Flared Section (bent):

Area (Ag) = 115 ft2
Moment of Inertia (Ig) = 824 ft4
Bottom fiber to C.G. (yb) = 3.50 ft
Loads
DC = Dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments

(AASHTO Article 3.3.2)
Unit weight of concrete (c) = 0.15 kcf (AASHTO Article 3.5.1)
Includes the weight of the box girder structural section
Type 732 Barrier rail on both sides (0.4 klf each)

DW = Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (AASHTO Article 3.3.2)

3 in. Asphault Concrete (A.C.) overlay (3 in. thick of 0.140 kcf A.C.) =
0.035 ksf
HL93, which includes the design truck plus the design lane load (AASHTO
Article 3.6.1.2)
California long-deck P15 (CA Amendements to AASHTO LRFD Section 3.6.1.8,

Caltrans, 2014)
Slab design: Design is based on the approximate method of analysis strip method
requirements from Article 4.6.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012), and slab is designed for strength,
service, and extreme event Limit Statess Article 9.5 (AASHTO, 2012). Caltrans Memo
to Designers 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008b) provides deck thickness and reinforcement.
7.12.5 Design Deck Slab and Soffit

Deck Slab: Refer to MTD 10-20 Attachment 2. Enter centerline girder spacing
into design chart and read the required slab thickness and steel requirements. In this
example, the centerline spacing of girders is a maximum of 12 feet. Using the chart,
the deck slab thickness required is 9 inches.
Table 7.12.5-1 LRFD Deck Design Chart, taken from MTD 10-20, Attachment 2
(Caltrans, 2008)
CIP PRESTRESSED BOX, PRECAST-I, & STEEL GIRDERS w/ flange width 24

"S" "t" Dimension Transverse Bars "D" Bars "G" Bars
Girder CL to CL Top Slab
"F" Size Spacing #5 Bars #4 Bars
Spacing Thickness
11-9 8 7/8 1-5 #6 11 12 5

12-0 9 1-5 #6 11 12 5
12-3 9 1/8 1-6 #6 11 12 5
Soffit Slab: Refer to MTD 10-20 Attachment 3 (formerly BDD 8-30.1). Enter
effective girder spacing into the design chart. Read the required slab thickness and steel
requirements. In this example, the effective spacings for interior and exterior bays are
11 ft and 8 ft 4 in., respectively.
Use a constant soffit thickness of 8.25 in. and E bar spacing based on 11 ft, and
H bar spacing based on individual bay widths.

Table 7.12.5-2 LRFD Soffit Design Chart, taken from MTD 10-20,
Attachment 3 (Caltrans, 2008)
7.12.6 Select Prestressing Cable Path

In general, maximum eccentricities (vertical distance between the C.G.s of the
superstructure concrete and the P/S steel) should occur at the points of maximum
gravity moment. These points usually occur at the maximum negative moment near
the bent cap, or at the maximum positive moment regions near midspan. In order to
define the prestressing path for this frame, we need to get an estimate of the jacking
force, Pj. An estimate of Pj will aid us in determining how much vertical room is needed
to physically fit the strands/ducts in the girders, and will help optimize the prestress
design.
Estimate pounds of P/S steel per square meter of deck area using the chart found
on the next page.

10.0
9.0 3/4 L L 3/4 L
8.0
3 Span Box Girder
w/ 3/4 L end spans
d/s = 0.030 - 0.050
7.0 =0.15; f's = 270 ksi
6.0
5.0
Chapter 7 - Post-Tensioning Concrete Girders

4.0
d/s = 0.030
3.0
Prestressing Steel (lbs per sq.ft. deck area)

d/s = 0.035
2.0
d/s = 0.040
d/s = 0.050
1.0
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Span Length (ft)
Figure 7.12.6-1 Estimate of Required Pj from the Modified for use with
7-37
English Units BDA Chapter 11-15, (Caltrans, 2005)

With a length of span = 168 ft, and a depth of span ratio of 0.040, read 2.75 lb per
ft2 deck area off the chart shown below:
Estimate Pj using the Equation on BDA, page 11-66 (Caltrans, 2005).
Total weight of prestressing steel
= (2.80 lb/ft2)(deck area)
= (2.80 lb/ft2) (412.0 ft)(58.83 ft) = 67,870 lb
Re-arranging the English equivalent of the equation found on BDA, page 11-66,
(Caltrans, 2005) to solve for Pj results in the following:
W 202.5
Pj (7.12.6-1)
L frame 3.4
where:
Lframe = length of frame to be post-tensioned (ft)
W = weight of prestressing steel established by BDA, page 11-66 (lb)
67, 870 lb 202.5

Pj 9, 810 kips
412 ft 3.4
Develop preliminary maximum eccentricities at midspan and bent cap using MTD
11-28 (Caltrans, 2010) found on the next page.
Determine D value based on estimate of Pj :
Pj /girder = 9,810 kips/5 girders = 1,962 kips/girder.
Enter D chart for cast-in-place girders (MTD 11-28 Attachment 2, Caltrans
2010), and record a value of D as 5 inches. This chart accounts for the Z
factor, which considers the vertical shift of the tendon within the duct,
depending on whether you are at midspan, or at the centerline of bent. The
D values produced in this chart are conservative, and the designer may
choose to optimize the prestressing path by using an actual shop drawing to
compute a D value.

D Chart for Cast-in-Place P/S Concrete Girders
18
15
Detail A C.G of Prestressing Steel
See Memo to Designer 11-31
12

6
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Figure 7.12.6-2 MTD 11-28 Attachment 2 D Chart used to Optimize
7-39
Prestressing Tendon Profile (Caltrans, 2010)

21/2clr
C.G Prestressing Force D
ts K
1 clr
Figure 7.12.6-3 MTD 11-28 Attachment 1 Tendon Configuration at Low

Point of Tendon Profile (Caltrans, 2013)
The value K for a bridge with a skew of less than 20 is the distance from the top
mat of steel in the soffit to the bottom mat of steel in the soffit. Therefore, for this
bridge, K is:
K t clrint (7.12.6-2)
where:
K = distance to the closest duct to the bottom of the soffit or top of the deck
(in.)
t = thickness of soffit or deck (in.)
clrint = clearance from interior face of bay to the first mat of steel in the soffit
or deck (usually taken as 1 in.) (in.)
lp ts 1 " D " (7.12.6-3)
where:
lp = offset from soffit to centroid of duct (in.)
ts = thickness of soffit (in.)
Using Figure 7.12.6-2 and Equation 7.12.6-3, determine offset from bottom fiber
to the C.G. of the P/S path at the low point:
lp tsoffit 1 " D " 8.25 1 5 12.25 in.

tD K 1 clr
C.G. Prestressing Force

D
21/2 clr * - An increase in the K value will

usually be required when main bent cap
reinforcement falls below the limits
shown here, particularly when the skew
angle of the bent cap exceeds 20 degrees,
and a thickened top slab is required.
Figure 7.12.6-4 MTD 11-28 Attachment 1 Tendon Configuration

at High Point of Tendon Profile (Caltrans, 2013)
hp td 1 " D " (7.12.6-4)
where:
hp = offset from deck to centroid of duct (in.)
td = thickness of deck (in.)
Using Figure 7.12.6-4 and Equation 7.12.6-4, determine offset from top fiber to
the C.G. of the P/S path at the high point:
lp tdeck 1 " D " 9 1 5 13 in.
Another method to optimize the prestressing path is to use an actual set of P/S shop
drawings to find D. Both post-tensioning subcontractors as of the publication of this
material use 27 tendon - 0.6 in. diameter strand systems, with a maximum capacity of
27 strands @ 44 kips/strand = 1188 kips. The calculation of D is as follows:
The equation for Pj in BDA, page 11-66 gave us an estimate of 1962 kips/girder.
Assuming 0.6 in. diameter strands, with Pj per strand = 44 kips, the number of strands
per girder is as given in Equation 7.12.6-5:
strands force per girder
= (7.12.6-5)
girder force per strand
strands force per girder 1, 927 kips/girder

43.79
girder force per strand 44 kips/strand

Use: 44 Strands
Assume 22 strands in duct A, and 22 strands in duct B.
Find D based on the Equation 7.12.6-6
Figure 7.12.6-4 Example of Sub-contractor Tendon Layout for

a Two-Duct per Girder Configuration
n
(n d ) i i
"D" i 1
n
Z (7.12.6-6)
n i
i 1
where:
ni = number of strands in the i th duct
di = distance between C.G. of i th duct and the i th duct LOL (See Figure
7.12.6-4) (in.)
Z = C.G. tendon shift within duct (in.)

(n d ) i i
( na d a ) ( nb d b )
"D" i 1
Z Z
na nb
n
n i
i 1
(22 2.19) [22 (2.19 4.13)]

0.75 in.
22 22
"D" = 5.0 in.
Final design offsets using Equations 7.12.6-3 and 7.12.6-4:
Values from Tendon Layout:
lp tsoffit 1 " D " 8.25 1 5.0 12.25 in.
hp tdeck 1 " D " 9.0 1 5.0 13.0 in.
Values using MTD 11-28 D:
lp 12.25 in.
hp 13.0 in.
It is noted that for each change in Pjack there is an accompanying change in D

value. Changes in D values results in rerunning a model, and can change other
portions of the design. Because of this, it is recommended to use a conservative value
that will result in stable D values. However, this is an area where Pj can be decreased
through iteration, if necessary. In this case, these values are equal, use a minimum
value of 12.5 in. at the soffit and of 13.5 in. at the deck.
Once the high and low points of the tendon path are established, the locations of
the inflection points can be obtained. Locating the inflection points at the 10% span
length locations on either side of the bent cap not only delivers adequate moment
resistance to this zone, but provides a smooth path that allows for easy tendon
installation. The vertical position of these inflection points lie on a straight line between
the high and low points of the tendon path, at the 0.1L locations. Similar triangles can
be used to find the vertical location of the inflection point: (See Figures 7.12.6-5 and
7.12.6-6)
Spans 1 and 3:
yBD = 81 13.5 12.5 = 55 in.
55 yBC
Similar Triangles:
0.5 0.1 0.5
55 in. 0.5
Rearranging yields: yBC 45.83 in.
0.6

Figure 7.12.6-5 Spans 1 and 3 Inflection Point Sketch
Span 2:
yFH = 81 13.5 12.5 = 55 in.
55 yFG
Similar Triangles:
0.4 0.1 0.4
55 0.4
Rearranging yields: yFG 44 in.
0.5
Figure 7.12.6-6 Span 2 Inflection Point Sketch. Middle Spans of Frames

Typically have Inflection Points at Mid-Span
The final cable path used for design is shown in Figure 7.12.6-7 on the following
page. The yb = 45.625 in. values at the abutment diaphragms is the distance to the C.G.
of the Concrete Box Section, with 6 in. of tolerance (up or down) to allow for
constructability issues.

Figure 7.12.6-7 Final Cable Path as it would Appear on the Plans

One vs. Two-End Stressing: According to MTD 11-3, One-end stressing is

considered economical when the increase in Pj does not exceed 3% when compared
to two end stressing. An increase in Pj corresponds to an equivalent increase in
materials, and 3% is the breakeven point between cost of materials vs. the cost of time
and labor in moving the stressing operation to the opposite end of the frame. Two-end
stressing controls the design of most 3+ span frames, and we will assume it controls in
this example problem. Two-end stressing is used as a means to control friction loss.
7.12.7 Post Tensioning Losses
7.12.7.1 Friction Loss
Angle change of P/S path: The cumulative angle change of the P/S path must be
found in order to find the friction loss. Each individual parabola (10 in. this example)
must be isolated so that angle change (yij) can be calculated for each segment. Friction
losses have a cumulative effect, and increase as you get further away from the jacking
end. Use the following formula to solve for angle change in each parabolic segment:
2 yij
ij (rad ) (7.12.7.1-1)
lij
where:
yij = height of individual parabola (in.)
lij = length of individual parabola (in.)
Find the angle change in segment BC in span 1:

y BC = 4.861 1.042 = 3.82 ft
lBC = 0.5L1 = (0.5)(126) = 63 ft
2 yBC 2 3.82
ij 0.121(rad )
lBC 63
The table shown on the next page includes a summary of values that will be used
to calculate initial friction losses:
Note in Table 7.12.7.1-1 that the prestressing cable is located at the exact neutral
axis of the member (3.813 in.). However, for all future equations the rounded number
3.8 in. will be used.

Table 7.12.7.1-1 Summary of P/S Path Angle Changes used in Friction Loss Calculations
Left-end Right-end Left-end Right-end
yij Calculation yij xij Calculation xij xAK xKA ij AK KA

Segment (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (rad) (rad) (rad)
AB 3.813 - 1.042 2.77 (0.4)(126) 50.4 50.4 412.0 0.110 0.110 1.166
BC 4.861 - 1.042 3.82 (0.5)(126) 63.0 113.4 361.6 0.121 0.231 1.056
CD 5.625 - 4.861 0.76 (0.1)(126) 12.6 126.0 298.6 0.121 0.352 0.934
DE 5.625 - 4.708 0.92 (0.1)(168) 16.8 142.8 286.0 0.109 0.462 0.813
EF 4.708 - 1.042 3.67 (0.4)(168) 67.2 210.0 269.2 0.109 0.571 0.704
FG 4.708 - 1.042 3.67 (0.4)(168) 67.2 277.2 202.0 0.109 0.680 0.595
GH 5.625 - 4.708 0.92 (0.1)(168) 16.8 294.0 134.8 0.109 0.789 0.486
HI 5.625 - 4.861 0.76 (0.1)(118) 11.8 305.8 118.0 0.130 0.919 0.376
IJ 4.861 - 1.042 3.82 (0.5)(118) 59.0 364.8 106.2 0.130 1.048 0.247
JK 3.813 - 1.042 2.77 (0.4)(118) 47.2 412.0 47.2 0.117 1.166 0.117
412.0 1.166
Initial Friction Coefficient: The percent in decimal form of jacking stress

remaining in the P/S steel after losses due to friction, FCpF , can now be calculated
based on the cumulative lij and ij computed above. Using Equation 7.5.1.2-1, modified
Equation 5.9.5.2.2b-1 (AASHTO, 2012) from Article 7.5.1.2 above:
f pF
FC pF e ( Kx )
f pj
(7.5.1.2-1)
Inputting values from CA Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Table 5.9.5.2.2b-1
(Caltrans, 2014)
K = 0.0002 per ft
= 0.15 (Lframe < 600 ft)
Find the percent in decimal form of Pj remaining after the effects of friction loss
at the 0.1 point in span 2.
( Kx )
At pt. E: FC pF e
xE (left-end) = 142.8 ft
E (left-end) = 0.4616 rad
FCpF (@E) = e [(0.0002)(142.8) + (0.15)(0.462)] = 0.907

Table 7.12.7.1-2 includes a summary of values of initial friction losses:
Table 7.12.7.1-2 Summary of Cumulative Angle Change for Two-End Stressing

Left-end Stressing Right-end Stressing
KxAK AK
xAK AK e =FCpF xKA KA e KxKA KA =FCpF
Location (ft) (rad) (decimal %) (ft) (rad) (decimal %)
A 0.0 0.000 1.000 412.0 1.166 0.773

B 50.4 0.110 0.974 361.6 1.056 0.794
C 113.4 0.231 0.944 298.6 0.934 0.819
D 126.0 0.352 0.925 286.0 0.813 0.836
E 142.8 0.462 0.907 269.2 0.704 0.853
F 210.0 0.571 0.880 202.0 0.594 0.878
G 277.2 0.680 0.854 134.8 0.486 0.905
H 294.0 0.789 0.837 118.0 0.376 0.923
I 305.8 0.919 0.819 106.2 0.247 0.943
J 364.8 1.048 0.794 47.2 0.117 0.973
K 412.0 1.166 0.773 0.0 0.000 1.000
7.12.7.2 Anchor Set Losses

The method used for determining losses due to anchor set is based on similar
triangles. The assumption is that the effects of friction is the same whether a tendon
is being stressed, or released back into the duct to seat the wedges. Most of the time,
the end of the influence length of anchor set, xpA, lies between the high and low
inflection points from the jacking end in a multi-span frame. The equations that solve
for FCpA and xpA are shown on the next page:
Figure 7.12.7.2-1 Typical Anchor Set Loss

f pA 2(f L ) x pA
FC pA (7.5.1.1-1)
f ps L( f ps )
E p ( Aset ) L
x pA (7.5.1.1-2)
12f L
Define the anchor set loss diagram by finding xpA and FCpA in span 1 due to
the left-end stressing operation:
Given:
Ep = 28,500 ksi
Aset = 0.375 in.
L = Distance from point A to point C = 0.9 L1 = (0.9) (126 ft) =
113.4 ft
fpj = 0.75
fpu = (0.75)(270 ksi)
= 202.5 ksi ( Table 5.9.3-1 AASHTO, 2012)
fL = [1 - FCpF (@ point C)](202.5 ksi)
= [1 0.944](202.5) = 11.34 ksi
Solving for xpA and FCpA at the intersection of initial losses and anchor set
(the location xpA away from the anchor).
E p ( Aset ) L 28, 500(0.375)113.4

x pA 94.37ft
12f L 12(11.34)
f pA 2(f L )( x pA ) 2(11.34)(94.37)
FC pA 0.093
f ps L( f ps ) 113.4(202.5)
Figure 7.12.7.2-2 Bridge Specific Anchor Set Loss

The anchor set loss diagram is found in a similar manner in Span 3 due to the
second (right) end stressing operation.
Given:
Ep = 28,500 ksi
Aset = 0.375 in.
L = Distance from point K to point I = 0.9 L3 = (0.9)(118 ft) = 106.2 ft
fpj = 0.75fpu = (0.75)(270ksi) = 202.5 ksi (Table found in commentary to
AASHTO Article 5.9.3-1)
fL = [1 - FCpF (@ point I )] (202.5 ksi)
= [1 0.943] (202.5) = 11.54 ksi
Solving for xpA and FCpA at the intersection of initial losses and anchor set (the
location xpA away from the anchor).
E p ( Aset ) L 28,500(0.375)106.2
x pA 90.53 ft
12f L 12(11.54)
f pA 2(f L )( x pA ) 2(11.54)(90.53)
FC pA 0.097
f ps L( f ps ) 106.2(202.5)
Losses due to elastic shortening are usually assumed at the beginning and then
checked once more for convergent numbers for MDL, Pj, and e have been found.
Therefore, based on experience, we will assume a realistic and typically conservative
value of fpES = 3 ksi for this practice problem.
To turn this into a Force Coefficient:

f pES 3 ksi
FC pES 0.015
f ps 202.5 ksi
7.12.7.4 Approximate Estimate of Time Dependent Long-Term Loss
The long-term change in prestressing steel stress due to creep of concrete,

shrinkage of concrete, and relaxation of P/S steel occur over time and begin
immediately after stressing.
5
f pSH 12.0(1.7 .01H ) (7.5.2.1-1)
(1 fci )
f pi Aps 5
f pCR 10.0 (1.7 .01H ) (7.5.2.2-1)
Ag (1 f ci )
f pR 2.4 ksi for lo-lax strands (AASHTO 5.9.5.3-1)

Most of the research done on time-dependant losses considered precast concrete

girders, without much consideration given to continuous, CIP PT box girder structures.
Ongoing research, indicate time-dependant losses as high as 30 ksi may be appropriate
for cast-in-place, post-tensioned structures. This portion of the code has undergone
revision from 2008 to 2014.
f pLT 20 ksi (CA Amendments 5.9.5.3)
For this example, lets use 25 ksi. This is a reasonable value and was the value
used in the 2008 CA Amendments.
Converting to a Force Coefficient:

f pR 25
FC pLT 0.123
f ps 202.5
7.12.7.5 Total Loss of Prestress Force

As stated in section 7.5 the loss of force in the prestressing steel is cumulative.
In lieu of more detailed analysis, prestress losses in members constructed and
prestressed in a single stage, relative to the stress immediately before transfer, may be
taken as:
FC (1
f )i
(7.5-1)
f ps
A summary of our calculated immediate and total prestress stress remaining along
the prestressing path is included in Table 7.12.7.5-1.

Table 7.12.7.5-1 Summary of Cumulative Prestress Loss
Percentage of Cumulative Prestress Stresses Remaining After All Losses

Left-end Stressing Right-end Stressing
Location FCpF FCpA FCpES FCpLT FCpF FCpA FCpES FCpLT
A 1.000 0.907 0.893 0.770 0.773 0.773 0.758 0.635

B 0.974 0.933 0.917 0.794 0.794 0.794 0.779 0.656
C 0.944 0.944 0.929 0.806 0.819 0.819 0.804 0.681
D 0.925 0.925 0.910 0.787 0.836 0.836 0.821 0.698
E 0.907 0.907 0.892 0.769 0.853 0.853 0.838 0.715
F 0.880 0.880 0.865 0.742 0.878 0.878 0.863 0.740
G 0.854 0.854 0.839 0.716 0.905 0.905 0.890 0.767
H 0.837 0.837 0.822 0.699 0.923 0.923 0.908 0.785
I 0.819 0.819 0.804 0.681 0.943 0.943 0.928 0.805
J 0.794 0.794 0.779 0.656 0.973 0.930 0.915 0.792
K 0.773 0.773 0.758 0.635 1.000 0.903 0.890 0.767
FCpI FCpT FCpI FCpT
(ft)
Figure 7.12.7.5-1 Summary of Prestress Losses for Two-End Stressing

7.12.8 Cable Path Eccentricities

In order to design the jacking force, and track stresses in both top and bottom
fibers, cable path eccentricities must be calculated at the 10th points of each span in the
frame. Derived from the equation of a parabola, the diagram and formula shown below
can be used to compute eccentricities for parabolic P/S paths:
x2
ex yij 1 c (7.12.8-1)
xij 2

where:
yij = height of the individual parabola (ft)
x = location along parabolic segment where eccentricity is calculated (percent
of span L)
xij = length of parabolic segment under consideration (must originate at vertex)
(percent of span L)
c = shifting term to adjust eccentricities when yij does not coincide with the
C.G. of concrete
Figure 7.12.8-1 Cable Path Calculation Diagram

Find the cable path eccentricities in Span 1:
Figure 7.12.8-2 Cable Path Calculation Diagram from Abut 1 to the

Low Point of Span 1
0.42
e0.0 L1 2.771 1 2
0 0 ft
0.4
0.32
e0.1L1 2.771 1 2
0 1.212 ft
0.4
0.22
e0.2 L1 2.771 1 2
0 2.078 ft
0.4
0.12
e0.3 L1 2.771 1 2
0 2.598 ft
0.4
0.02
e0.4 L1 2.771 1 2
0 2.771 ft
0.4

Figure 7.12.8-3 Cable Path Calculation Diagram from the Low Point of Span 1
to the Inflection Point Near Bent 2
0.02
e0.4 L1 3.819 1 1.048 2.771 ft
0.5
2

0.12
e0.5 L1 3.819 1 1.048 2.618 ft
0.5
2

0.2
2
e0.6 L1 3.819 1 2
1.048 2.160 ft
0.5
0.32
e0.7 L1 3.819 1 2
1.048 1.396 ft
0.5
0.42
e0.8 L1 3.819 1 2
1.048 0.327 ft
0.5
0.52
e0.9 L1 3.819 1 2
1.048 1.048 ft
0.5
The eccentricity at the centerline of Bent 2 must be calculated using the section
properties that include the soffit flare:
e1.0L1 =yCD + c + yb = 0.764 + 1.048 + 0.310 = 2.122 ft

Figure 7.12.8-4 Cable Path Calculation Diagram from the Inflection Point
Near Bent 2 to CL of Bent 2
Cable path eccentricities for all three spans are summarized in the Figure 7.12.8-5
below:
Abut Bent Bent Abut

1 2 3 4
2.122 2.122
0.895 CG P/S Steel 1.048

0.895
1.048 e e
x CG Concrete x
0.000 - -
-
- - 0.327 0.000
0.327
- e 0.709 e 0.709 -
- - e
1.212 x 1.396 1.396 x 1.212
- - x -
- - -
2.078 1.855 1.855
- - 2.160 - - 2.160
- 2.078
-
2.598 - 2.618 2.542 - 2.542 2.618 - 2.598
2.771 2.771 2.771
A B C D E F G H I J K
Figure 7.12.8-5 Cable Path Eccentricities
7.12.9 Moment Coefficients

Now that weve identified both the eccentricity and the percentage of prestressing
force present at each tenth point along each span in the frame, we can now find the
moment coefficients. The moment coefficients will help us solve for Pj, as well as
compute flexural stresses in the concrete for determining fc and fci. The total moment
coefficient consists of two parts; primary and secondary moment coefficients.

Primary Moment Coefficient: The primary moment coefficient at any location

along the frame is simply defined as the total force coefficient (FCpT) multiplied by the
eccentricity (ex).
Find the primary moment coefficients at each tenth point in Span 1:
MCP ( FC pT )(ex ) (7.12.9-1)
where:

@ 0.0 L1: (0.770) (0) = 0 ft

@ 0.1 L1: (0.776) (-1.212) = -0.941 ft
@ 0.2 L1: (0.782) (-2.078) = -1.625 ft
@ 0.3 L1: (0.788) (-2.598) = -2.047 ft
@ 0.4 L1: (0.794) (-2.771) = -2.200 ft
@ 0.5 L1: (0.800) (-2.618) = -2.094 ft
@ 0.6 L1: (0.806) (-2.160) = -1.741 ft
@ 0.7 L1: (0.812) (-1.396) = -1.134 ft
@ 0.8 L1: (0.812) (-0.327) = -0.266 ft
@ 0.9 L1: (0.806) (1.048) = 0.845 ft
@ 1.0 L1: (0.787) (2.122) = 1.670 ft
Secondary Moment Coefficient: Prestress secondary moments occur in multi-

span post-tensioned concrete frames where the superstructure is fixed to the column.
The result of this fixity is an indeterminate structure. Prestress secondary moments are
made up of two components:
Distortions due to primary prestress moments, MCP = (FCpT)(ex), generate
fixed-end moments at rigid column supports. These fixed-end moments are
always positive due the the geometry of the cable path and always enhance the
effects of prestressing at the bent caps. On the other hand, this component of
prestress secondary moment always reduces the flexural effects of the
prestressing force near midspan.
Prestress shortening of superstructure between rigid supports generates
moments in the columns, which result in fixed-end moments in the
superstructure. This component of secondary prestress moment occurs in
frames with three or more spans. Long frames with short columns result in
larger secondary prestress moments, which can be a significant factor in the
design of the superstructure.
There are several analysis methods a designer can use to find the prestress
secondary moments for a given frame. In stiffness based frame analysis
software packages, the forces generated by prestressing the concrete are

replicated with a series of uniform and point loads. In other words, primary
internally applied moments and axial loads are converted into externally
applied loads. The drawback of this method is that it is extremely difficult to
do by hand, especially in multi-span frames.
Each span within the frame is transformed into a simple span so that the ends
can rotate freely.
Create an MCP /EI diagram, as the applied prestress moments are simply the
prestress force times eccentricity.
Using conjugate beam theory, sum moments about one end of the beam to
solve for the rotation at the opposite end. The moment needed to rotate the end
of the beam back to zero is the fixed-end secondary moment due to MCP
distortion.
When a frame is three spans or longer, secondary prestress deflections are
generated in the column supports. The resulting column moments are a result
of prestress shortening of the superstructure between the interior spans of the
frame.
The fixed-end moments of the two components of prestress secondary
moments are then combined; with the use of moment distribution, these fixed-
end moments are distributed to both the superstructure and columns based on
the relative stiffness of each member.
Because Pj is still unknown, the prestress secondary moments must be solved
for in terms of coefficient (MCS).
The secondary prestress moment coefficients used in this example problem are a
result of the conjugate beam and moment distribution methods of analysis. The primary
(MCP) and secondary (MCS) are then added together algebraically resulting in the total
moment coefficient (MCPT). A summary of MCP, MCS, and MCPT are summarized in
the following diagram:

Abutment 1 Bent 2 Bent 3 Abutment 4
3
MCp
2.342 2.375 MCs 2.285
2.241
MCpt
2
1.713 1.700
1.432 1.544 1.539 1.429
1.392
1.412
0.856 0.852
0.934 0.920 0.857
1 0.869
0.772
0.676 0.845
0.579 0.855 0.855 0.854 0.854 0.854 0.853 0.853 0.852 0.762
0.688 0.666
0.483 0.856 0.686 0.844 0.571
0.386 0.509 0.499 0.476
0.290 0.381
0.193 0.315 0.313
0.097 0.286
0.023 0.190
0.095
0 0.000 0.024
0.000
-0.201
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -0.213 3.0

-0.262 -0.236
-0.222 -0.263
-0.441 -0.449
-0.547 -0.546 -0.539
-0.540
-0.843
-0.839
Prestress Moment Coefficient

-1.048 -0.934
-1 -0.939
-1.049
-1.145 -1.117 -1.115 -1.146
-1.430
-1.401 -1.202 -1.400 -1.424
-1.597
-1.753 -1.599 -1.749 -1.615
-1.623 -1.724 -1.717
-1.809 -1.903 -1.902 -1.806

-2 -2.056
-2.081 -2.073 -2.034
-2.042
-2.195 -2.186
-3
Length Along Frame (ft)
Figure 7.12.9-1 Moment Coefficients
7-59
7.12.10 Gravity Loads
DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments.

Includes the self weight of the box section itself, assuming a unit
weight of concrete (wc) = 0.15 (kcf) (Round up from 0.145) Table
3.5.1-1(AASHTO, 2012)
Type 732 barrier rail: (2 barriers) (0.4 klf ea.) = 0.80 klf
DW = Dead load of wearing surface and utilities.
3 in. A.C. Overlay: (56 ft) (0.035 ksf) = 1.96 klf
Vehicular Live load (LL): The application of vehicular live loads on the
superstructure shall be calculated separately for flexure and shear design. In each case,
live load distribution factors shall be calculated for an interior girder, then multiplied
by the total number of girders in the cross-section. Treating all girders as interior is
justifiable because exterior girders become interior when bridges are widened.
Distribution of live load per lane for moment in interior beams, with two or more
design lanes loaded:
0.3 0.25
13 S 1
(AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1)
N c 5.8 L
where:
Nc = number of cells in a concrete box girder (Nc 3)
S = spacing of beams or webs (ft) (6.0 S 13.0)
L = individual span length (ft) (60 L 240)
(Note: if L varies from span to span in a multi-span frame, so will the distribution
factors)
Distribution of live load per lane for shear in interior beams, with two or more
design lanes loaded:
0.9 0.1
S d
(AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1)
7.3 12.0 L
where:
S = spacing of beams or webs (ft) (6.0 S 13.0)
L = individual span length (ft) (20 L 240)
(Note: if L varies from span to span in a multi-span frame, so will the distribution
factors)

d = depth of member (in.) (35 d 110)
Calculate the number of live load lanes for both moment and shear design for
Span 1:
7.12.10.1 Live Load Lanes for Moment
Using an equation from Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1:
0.3
13 S 1
0.25 0.3 0.25
. 13 12 1
= 0.879 lanes/girder
Nc 5.8 L 4 5.8 126
Number of live load moment lanes (Span 1) = (0.879 lanes/girder)(5 girders)

= 4.395 lanes
7.12.10.2 Live Load Lanes for Shear
Using an equation from Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1:
0.9 0.1 0.1

S d 12
0.9
81
= = 1.167 lanes/girder
7.3 12.0 L 7.3 (12.0)(126)
Number of live load shear lanes (Span 1) = (1.167 lanes/girder)(5 girders)

= 5.835 lanes
Notes:
Assuming a constant structure width, the only term that will probably vary
within a frame is the span length, L. Therefore, the number of live load lanes
for both moment and shear will vary from span to span. Article 4.6.2.2.1
(Caltrans, 2014).
In negative moment regions, near interior supports, between points of DC
flexural contraflexure, the L used to calculate negative moment is the
average length of the two adjacent spans.
The Dynamic Load Allowance Factor (IM) (in the LFD code known as Impact)
is applied to the design and permit trucks only, not the design lane load. Table
3.6.2.1-1 (Caltrans, 2014) summarizes the values of IM for various
components and load cases.
The results of a gravity load analysis, including the unfactored moment
envelopes of the (DC), (DC + DW) and (DC + DW+ HL93) load cases, are
summarized in the diagram on the next page:

40000
34068
29634 30596 31050

30000 28460
26825
25643 24791
23511
23232
21462 22948
20672 21175 20337
18554 18917 20126 20550
20000
15280 16370
19838 16799 15621 15545
13774 15640 17445 17869 13665 13144 12916
15946 10911 12099
12880 13799 12659
9095 9552 11538 7192
10690 8115 13167
10000 11079 7735
7667 9198 13103 10888
5886
6839 6520
3673 2143 3444
2430 965 532
2542 -544 830 2209
0 -443
447 1862
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-8749 -5127
-9614
-10000 -7377 -8107
-14366

-14688
-19430 -16062 -15818
-18889
-17034
-20000 -19046
-23030 -29118 -22387
-24134
-27244
-26395
-28969
-30000 -30484 -30989 -30012
Unfactored Gravity Load Moment (kip-ft)

MDC (w/o barrier) -32280
-34502 -34319
MDC + MDW -36714
-40000
MDC+MDW+0.8HL93 -42003
-44609
-45552
-50000 -48134
-60000
Figure 7.12.10-1 Gravity and Service Load Moment Envelopes for Design of Prestressing
7-62
7.12.11 Determine the Prestressing Force

The design of the prestressing force, Pj , is based on the Service III Limit States.
The Service III Limit States is defined as the Load combination for longitudinal
analysis relating to tension in prestressed concrete superstructures with the objective
of crack control Article 3.4.1 (AASHTO, 2012). The following loads, and
corresponding load factors, shall be considered in the design of Pj :
DC = Dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments,
( = 1.0) Article 3.3.2 (AASHTO, 2012)
DW = Dead load of wearing surface and utilities, ( = 1.0) Article 3.3.2
(AASHTO, 2012)
HL93 = Service live load, ( = 0.8) Section 3.3.2 (AASHTO, 2012)
Service III Limit States load cases: CA Amendments Table 5.9.4.2.2 (Caltrans,
2014).
Case 1: No tension allowed for components with bonded prestressing tendons or
reinforcement, subjected to permanent loads (DC, DW) only.
M DC DW y FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y
0 (7.12.11-1, modified 7.1-1)
I A I
Case 2: Allowable tension 0.19fc ksi are for components subjected to the Service
III Limit States (DC, DW, (0.8) HL93), and subjected to not worse than moderate
corrosion conditions, located in Environmental Areas I or II. Allowable tension
0.0948fc ksi are for components subjected to severe corrosion condions located in
Enviromental Area III.
M DC DW 0.8 HL 93 yt ( bent ) FC pT ( Pj ) MC pT ( Pj ) y
0.19 fc or 0.0948 fc
I A I
(7.12.11-2, modified 7.1-1)
The design of the jacking force usually controls at locations with the highest
demand moments within a given frame. Upon inspection of the demand moment
diagram plotted earlier in this example, the design of Pj will control at one of two
locations:
The right face of the cap at Bent 2 (top fiber)
Mid-span of Span 2 (bottom fiber)
Load cases 1 and 2 must be applied at both the right face of the cap at Bent 2, and
at midspan of Span 2, with the overall largest Pj controlling the design of the entire
frame.

Solve for the jacking force based on two-end stressing data gathered earlier in the
example problem:
Right face of the cap at Bent 2 (top fiber):
-0.19fc
C T C T C T 0 C T
Case 1 yt(bent) Case 1

Case 2
Neutral Axis
Case 2
M DC DW yt (bent face) FC pT Pj MC pT Pj yt (bent face)

Case 1: + + =0
I (bent face) A(bent face) I (bent face)
M DC DW 0.8 HL93 yt (bent ) FC pT Pj MC pT Pj yt (bent face)

Case 2: + + = 0.19 fc
I (bent ) A(bent face) I (bent face)
Figure 7.12.11-1 Elastic Stresses in an Uncracked Prestress Beam. Effects of Prestress

by Component at Top of the Beam
Reading Figure 7.12.13-1

MDC+DW = -36,713 kip-ft
MDC+DW+0.8HL93 = -48,134 kip-ft
Interpolating the Force Coefficent from Table 7.12.7.5-1 between points D and E
FC@pt D = 0.787
FC@pt E = 0.769
Span 2 Length = 168 ft
Distance from CL of column to face of cap (pt D) = 4 ft
Distance from CL of column to location of first inflection point of Span 2 (pt E)
= 16.8 ft
0.787 0.769
4 0 0.787 0.783
0 16.8
Reading Figure 7.12.9-1 for MCPT @ the face of cap at Bent 2: MCPT = 2.375

Rearranging terms of 7.12.11-1 and 7.12.11-2 to solve for Pj:

M DC DW yt (bent face )
0
I (bent )
Case 1: Pj
FC pT MC pT yt ( bent face )

A( bent face ) I ( bent face )
( 36, 713)(3.25)
0
Pj 824 8, 957 kips
0.783 (2.375)(3.25)

115 824
M DC DW 0.8 HL 93 yt ( bent face )

(0.19) f c 144
I ( bent face )
Case 2: Pj
FC pT MC pT yt ( bent )

A( bent face ) I ( bent face )
( 48,134)(3.25)
(0.19) 4(144)
Pj 824 8, 359 kips
0.783 (2.375)(3.25)

115 824
Mid-span of Span 2 (bottom fiber):
C C C C
T T T T
Neutral
Axis
Case 2
yb(mi Case 2
Case 1 d) Case 1
0 -0.19fc
M DC DW yb ( mid ) FC pT Pj MCPT Pj yb ( mid )
Case 1: + + =0
I ( mid ) A( mid ) I ( mid )
M DC DW 0.8 HL93 yb ( mid ) FC pT Pj MC pT Pj yt (bent )
Case 2: + + = 0.19 f c
I ( mid ) A( mid ) I (bent )
Figure 7.12.11-2 Elastic Stresses in an Uncracked Prestress Beam. Effects of

Prestress by Component at the Bottom of the Beam

Reading the Force Coefficent from Table 7.12.7.5-1 at point F

FC@pt F = 0.742
Reading Figure 7.12.9-1 for MCPT @ the CL of Span 2: MCPT = -1.202
Reading Figure 7.12.10-1

MDC+DW = 23,511 kip-ft
MDC+DW+0.8HL93 = 34,068 kip-ft
M DC DW yb ( mid )
0
I ( mid )
Case 1: Pj
FC pT ( MC pT ) yb ( mid )

A( mid ) I ( mid )
(23, 511)( 3.8)
0
Pj 729 9,100 kips
0.742 ( 1.202)( 3.8)

103 729
M DC DW 0.8 HL 93 yb ( mid )
(0.19) f c
I ( mid )
Case 2: Pj
FC MCyb ( mid )

A( mid ) I ( mid )
(34, 068)( 3.8)

(0.19)( 4) (144)
Pj 729 9,124 kips
0.742 ( 1.202)( 3.8)

103 729
Therefore, Pj = 9,124 kips, round to the nearest 10 kips, Pj = 9,120 kips
Notes: The overall largest Pj was calculated at the midspan of Span 2 under the Case
2 load condition. Two observations can be made:
Now that we have a Pj we can check our elastic shortening assumption using CA
Amendments 5.9.5.2.3b-1 and Equation 7.5.1.3-1:
M DL e Pj Pj e2
f cgp f g f ps ( ) (7.5.1.3-1)
Ig Ag Ig
Ep
f pES 0.5 f (CA Amendments 5.9.5.2.3b-1)
Ect cgp

Table 7.12.11-1 Values of fcgp and fpES

Loc fcgp fpES Loc fcgp fpES Loc fcgp fpES
0.024 -0.615 -2.285 1.024 -1.546 -5.745 2.034 -1.424 -5.292
0.100 -0.770 -2.863 1.100 -0.847 -3.147 2.100 -0.934 -3.470
0.200 -1.170 -4.348 1.200 -0.655 -2.433 2.200 -0.594 -2.208
0.300 -1.579 -5.870 1.300 -1.137 -4.227 2.300 -0.791 -2.940
0.400 -1.772 -6.585 1.400 -1.677 -6.232 2.400 -1.187 -4.412
0.500 -1.682 -6.252 1.500 -1.903 -7.071 2.500 -1.538 -5.716
0.600 -1.357 -5.043 1.600 -1.689 -6.277 2.600 -1.694 -6.297
0.700 -0.929 -3.453 1.700 -1.155 -4.293 2.700 -1.586 -5.894
0.800 -0.632 -2.349 1.800 -0.665 -2.471 2.800 -1.246 -4.629
0.900 -0.797 -2.964 1.900 -0.830 -3.083 2.900 -0.832 -3.091
0.968 -1.281 -4.761 1.976 -1.504 -5.590 2.975 -0.615 -2.285
Average -4.351
At this point, we would rerun our numbers using the 4.4 ksi value for fpES .
However, for this example we will choose not to rerun the numbers. The 1.4 ksi
difference between assumed and calculated result in about a 3% increase in Pj .
7.12.12 Determine the Required Concrete Strength

Now that the jacking force has been calculated for this structure, we can determine
the stresses in the concrete due to prestressing. Prestress stresses need to be computed
in order to determine the initial (fci) and final (fc) concrete strengths required. The
design of fci is based on concrete stresses present at the time of jacking, which includes
the initial prestress stress, fpi . The initial prestress stress considers losses due to friction
(FCpF) only. The design of fc is based on service level concrete stresses that occur
after a period of time, which includes the effective prestress stress, fpe . The effective
(total) prestress stress considers the effects of all prestress losses (FCpT). The
equations for concrete stresses due to prestressing are as follows:
Pj FCF Pj (e)( FCF ) yb
f pi (7.12.12-1)
Ag Ig
Pj FC pT Pj (MC pT ) yb
f pe (7.12.12-2)
Ag Ig
where:
FC = force coefficient for loss

e = eccentricity of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect

to the centroid of the cross section. Always taken as a positive (ft)
fpi = initial stress in the prestressing steel after losses, considering only the
effects of friction loss. No other P/S losses have occurred (ksi)
Ig = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal
axis, neglecting reinforcement (in.4)
MCPT = total moment force coefficient for loss (ft)
Pj = force in prestress strands before losses (kip)
Both initial and final stresses for the concrete top and bottom fibers due to the
effects of prestressing have been calculated, and are shown on the following two
diagrams.

1.2
Pj(FC)/Ag
1.022 1.001
1.025 0.996
1.0 Pj(MC)y/Ig
0.928
0.935 fpi
0.916 0.931
0.921
0.869 fpe 0.866 0.839
0.833
0.8
0.834 0.766 0.764
0.625 0.585 0.593 0.621

0.6 0.571 0.560 0.535
0.540
0.496 0.549 0.548 0.495 0.493
0.477 0.504 0.472
0.505 0.472
0.487 0.489 0.491 0.492 0.494 0.436 0.491 0.489 0.487 0.485 0.481
0.480 0.483 0.439 0.473 0.469 0.465 0.478 0.474
0.422 0.461 0.456 0.460 0.464 0.468 0.430
0.4 0.437 0.431 0.395 0.436
0.390 0.389 0.376
0.379 0.396 0.324
0.325 0.302
0.302
0.246 0.246
0.261 0.195
0.197 0.192
0.2 0.259
0.148 0.191

0.114
0.079 0.125 0.125 0.113
0.128
0.131 0.078
0.081 0.034 0.080 0.033
0.059 0.081
0.059 0.081 0.022
0.0 0.023 -0.032 -0.032
-0.051 -0.084 -0.055
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
-0.054 -0.093 -0.050 3.0
-0.050 -0.054
-0.093 -0.115
-0.113 -0.140 -0.140
Initial and Final Concrete Stresses due to P/S (ksi)

-0.2
-0.216 -0.215
-0.293 -0.269 -0.269

-0.294
-0.307
-0.366 -0.365
-0.4
-0.410 -0.409
-0.449 -0.463-0.448
-0.464
-0.6
Figure 7.12.12-1 Top Fiber Concrete Stresses Due to Prestressing
7-69
2.0
Abutment 1 Bent 2 Pj(FC)/Ag Bent 3 Abutment 4
Pj(MC)y/Ig
fpi
fpe 1.488
1.5
1.490 1.345 1.430 1.443
1.445 1.432
1.288 1.288
1.284 1.276
1.278 1.284
1.062 1.096
1.059 1.081
1.017 1.094
1.014 1.008
1.084 1.028 1.027
1.0 1.009 0.952 0.948
0.867
0.869 0.852
0.807 0.890 0.715
0.891
0.841 0.837 0.806 0.836 0.841
0.708 0.764 0.804 0.763
0.755 0.686
0.686 0.686 0.744 0.744 0.645
0.677 0.645 0.640 0.685 0.677 0.751
0.638
0.496 0.495 0.493
0.540
0.477 0.547 0.546 0.472 0.472
0.5
0.480 0.483 0.487 0.489 0.491 0.492 0.494 0.468 0.491 0.489 0.487 0.485 0.481 0.478 0.474
0.473 0.469 0.465 0.461 0.456 0.460 0.464 0.430 0.440
0.398 0.441 0.437 0.431 0.365 0.436 0.397
0.325 0.365 0.328

0.289 0.289
0.253
0.210 0.147
0.211
0.254 0.072
0.095 0.079 0.054 0.102 0.101
0.102
0.0 -0.037 -0.067
-0.037
-0.070
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-0.193
-0.208 -0.185 -0.167
-0.268 -0.359
-0.327
Initial and Final Convtere Stresses due to P/S (ksi)

-0.327 -0.268
-0.434-0.453 -0.440
-0.5
-1.0
7-70
Figure 7.12.12-2 Bottom Fiber Concrete Stresses Due to Prestressing
Design of both initial and final concrete strengths required are governed by the
Service I load case. This load case is defined as a load combination relating to the
normal operational use of the bridge with a 55 mph wind and all loads taken at their
nominal value ( = 1.0) Article 3.4.1(AASHTO, 2012).
7.12.12.1 Design of fc
The definition of fc is the specified strength concrete for use in design Article
5.3 (AASHTO, 2012). Article 5.4.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012) specifies the compressive
strength for prestressed concrete and decks shall not be less than 4.0 ksi.
Additionally, Table 5.9.4.2.1-1 (AASHTO, 2012) lists compressive stress limits

for prestressed components at the service Limit States after all losses as:
In other than segmentally constructed bridges due to the sum of the effective
prestress and permanent loads, the concrete has a compressive stress limit of
0.45 fc (ksi).
f pe f DC DW
fc (ksi) (7.12.12-3)
0.45
where:
fDC+DW = stress in bridge from DC and DW load cases (ksi)
Due to the sum of effective prestress, permanent loads and transient loads, the
concrete has a compressive stress limit of 0.60 fc (ksi).
f pe f DC DW f HL 93
fc (ksi) (7.12.12-4)
0.60
Solving for fc at face of support at Bent 2 (0.0 L2 point).
Using Equations 7.12.12-2 and 7.12.12-3 for only the DL case.
At the cap face for Bent 2 the deck is in tension under service loads, therefore the
prestressing steel is close to the deck to pull the section together, and resist tension.
The controlling concrete strength demand will be opposite of the tension where the
service loads act in compression, and the prestressing force acts in tension.
Pj FC pT Pj ( MC pT ) yb
fpi
Ag Ig

9,120 (0.783) (9,120 )(2.375)(3.5) 30.0 ksf
115 824

Notice that the stress due to the prestressing steel is negative. This means that the
prestressing steel is pulling together the face of the concrete that is in tension, causing
the side opposite side of the prestressing steel to be in tension.
1
f pe 30.0 ksf 0.21ksi
144
M DC DW ( yb ) 36,713(3.5)
f DC DW 156.0 ksf
Ig 824
1
f DC DW 156.0 ksf 1.08 ksi
144
f pe f DC DW 0.21 1.08
fc 1.9 ksi
0.45 0.45
Using Equation 7.12.12-4 for only the LL case.
M HL 93 ( yb ) 14, 275 kip-ft(3.5ft)

f HL 93 60.6 ksf
Ig 824 ft 4
1
f HL 93 60.6 ksf 0.42 ksi
144
Using Equation 7.12.12-5 for only the service load case.
f pe f DC DW f HL 93 0.21 1.08 0.42

fc 2.16 ksi
0.60 0.60
Therefore the minimum fc controls from Article 5.4.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012):
fc = 4.0 ksi

Figure 7.12.12-3 Determining Final Concrete Strength Required

7.12.12.2 Design of fci

The definition of fci is the specified compressive strength of concrete at time of
initial loading of prestressing (AASHTO Article 5.3). There are two criteria used to
design fci, and they are as follows:
The compressive stress limit for pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete
components, including segmentally constructed bridges, shall be 0.60 fci (ksi). Only
the stress components present during the time of prestressing shall be considered
(AASHTO Article 5.9.4.1.1).
f pi f DC w/ o
f ci
b
(ksi) (7.12.12-6)
0.60
where:
fDC w/o b = stress in concrete due to the Dead Load of the structural section only
(ksi)
The specified initial compressive strength of prestressed concrete shall not be less
than 3.5 ksi (MTD 11-3).
Solving for fci at the cap face Bent 2 (0.02 L2 point).
Interpolating the Force Coefficent due to Friction from Table 7.12.7.5-1 between
points D and E
FCpF@pt D = 0.925
FCpF@pt E = 0.907
= 16.8 ft
0.925 0.907
4 0 0.925 0.921
0 16.8
Interpolating the eccentricities from Figure 7.12.8-5 between points D and E
e@pt D = 2.122 ft
e@pt E = 0.896
= 16.8 ft
2.122 0.896
4 0 2.122 1.830
0 16.8

Using Equations 7.12.12-1 and 7.12.12-5

Pj FCF Pj (e)( FCF ) yb
fpi =
Ag Ig

9,120 (0.921) 9,120 (1.830 ) (0.921) ( 3.5) 7.75 ksf
115 824
1
f pi 7.5 0.054 ksi
144
Using Equation 7.12.12-6
M DC w/ o b ( yb ) 30, 990 (3.5)

f DC w/ o B 68.2 ksf
Ig 824
f DC w / o B 68.2 ksf 0.474 ksi
Using Figure 7.12.12-4 the minimum fc controls from MTD 11-3: fci = 3.5 ksi

3.5
Specified minimum f'ci = 3.5 ksi

2.5
Reserve Capacity
1.5
Top Fibers
0.996 0.979
0.863 0.688 0.809
0.739 0.763 0.790 0.783 0.748
0.5 0.649 0.709 0.645
0.592 0.556 0.629 0.601
0.529 0.510 0.496 0.480 0.524 0.504 0.461 0.530
0.430 0.419 0.429 0.462
0.291
0.197
0.132 0.077
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-0.5

-1.025-1.057
-1.095 -1.044 -1.069 -1.128 -1.079
-1.219 -1.181 -1.222
-1.300 -1.348 -1.286
-1.363
-1.464 -1.451 -1.460 -1.483
-1.521 -1.554 -1.574 -1.562
Final Concrete Strength Required (ksi)

-1.585 -1.589-1.595
-1.613 -1.615
-1.5 -1.669 -1.632 -1.685
-1.714 -1.716 -1.686
Bottom Fibers
-2.5
Specified minimum f'ci = 3.5 ksi

Reserve Capacity
-3.5
Figure 7.12.12-4 Determining Initial Concrete Strength Required
7-76
7.12.13 Design of Flexural Resistance

For rectangular or flanged sections subjected to flexure about one axis where the
approximate stress distribution as specified in Article 5.7.2.2 (AASHTO, 2012) is used
and for which fpe is not less than 0.5 fpu, the average stress in the prestressing steel, fps,
may be taken as:
kc
f ps f pu 1 (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-1)
d p

f py
k 2 1.04 (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-2)
f pu
Alternatively, the stress in the prestressing steel may be determined by strain
compatibility (see AASHTO 5.7.3.2.5).
For rectangular section behavior, the distance between the neutral axis and the
compressive face can be represented as:
Aps f pu As f s As f s
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1-4)
f ps
0.85 f c 1b kAps
dp
Substitute fps for fpu after solving Equation 5.7.3.1.1-1 (AASHTO, 2012)
The factored resistance Mr shall be taken as:
M r M n (AASHTO 5.7.3.2.1-1)
For flanged sections subjected to flexure about one axis and for biaxial flexure
with axial load as specified in Article 5.7.4.5, (AASHTO, 2012), where the
approximate stress distribution specified in Article 5.7.2.2 (AASHTO, 2012) is used
and the tendons are bonded and where the compression flange depth is less than a=1
c, as determined in accordance with Equation 5.7.3.1.1-3, the nominal flexural
resistance may be taken as:
a a a a h
M n Aps f ps d p As f s d s As f s d s 0.85 f c(b bw )h f f
2 2 2 2 2
Prestressing Additional Compression Flanged Section Component
Steel only Flexural Steel Steel a=1c h f
f ps
0.9 (AASHTO C5.7.3.1.1-1)
f pu
k 0.28 (AASHTO C5.7.3.1.1-1)

Pj
Aps (7.12.13-1)
0.75 f pu
where:
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (in.2)
b = width of the compression face of a member (in.)
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (in.)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressing tendons (in.)
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete used in design (ksi)
Mn = nominal flexure resistance (kip-in.)
1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone
assumed in the strength Limit States to the depth of the actual
compression zone
= resistance factor
The factored ultimate moment, Mu , shall be taken as the greater of the following
two Strength I and II Limit Statess as defined in California Amendments Article 3.4.1
and Table 3.4.1-1 (Caltrans, 2014).
Strength I: Mu(HL93) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.75 (MHL93) + 1.00 (MP/S s)
Strength II: Mu(P-15) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.35 (MP-15) + 1.00 (MP/S s)
The largest value of Mu indicated the governing Limit States at a given location.
It is possible to have different Limit Statess at different locations.
Unless otherwise specified, at any section of a flexural component, the amount of
prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a
factored flexural resistance, Mr (min), at least equal to the lesser of:
1.33 Mu as defined in Section 5.7.3.3.2 (AASHTO, 2012)
f r 0.24 f r (AASHTO 5.4.2.6)

S
M cr 3 ( 1 f r 2 f cpe )Sc M dnc ( c 1) (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1)
Snc

The second part of the equation is crossed out because this is not a composite
section.
Article 5.7.3.3.2 defines:
1 = 1.6 for super structures that are not precast segmental
2 = 1.1 for bonded tensions
3 = 0.75 if additional mild reinforcement is A 706, grade 60 reinforcement
where:
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only
(after allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (ksi)
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite sections where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
1 = flexural cracking variability factor
2 = prestress variability factor
3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of
reinforcement
The prestressing steel present in the section by itself may be enough to resist the
applied factored moment. However, additional flexural steel may have to be added to
provide adequate moment resistance for the Strength I and II Limit Statess. Flexural
steel provided for seismic resistance can be relied upon for Strength Limit Statess.
AASHTO Article 5.7.3.3, defines a limit on tension steel to prevent over-
reinforced sections, has been eliminated in the 2006 interims. The current approach
involves reducing the flexural resistance factor when the tensile strain in the
reinforcement falls below 0.005. In other words, over-reinforced sections are allowed
by the code, but a more conservative resistance factor is applied. Conventional designs
will likely result in tensile strains greater than 0.005. The tensile strain can be
determined using the c/de ratio. From a simple plane strain diagram assuming concrete
strain of 0.003, a c/de ratio of 0.375 corresponds to a tensile strain of 0.005. If the c/de
ratio exceeds 0.375, then a reduced must be used as defined in Article 5.5.4.2
(Caltrans, 2014).

30000
Abutment 1 Bent 2 26007 Bent 3 Abutment 4
24451 24096 24083 23868
22246 21727 22020
20768 20884
19991
18811 18867
20000 17837 18002 18364 17846
16470 16793 15932
14531 14819
13564 13717 13866 13799
12144 11667
11518 11251 11465
10491 10855
13396 13070 13196 9495
12383 12405 12343 8646 12254 12527
10000 8074 11558
9686 6866
9941 9864 9747
8762 9275
8325
7203
2977 2627 2869
2157 5849 2084 2125 1838 2257 2308 2365 6152
1716 1225 1408 1521 1477 1755 1746 1451 5456 1960
1022 868 912 869
273 286 -72 97 472
61 248
-981 -471
-1077
0 1555 -2134 -1909 1545
-2575 -2502
-4095
-3850
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-3826 -3602
-7767
-8536
-5729
-9618

-7424 -7755
-10000 -8875
-9318 -9187 -9531
-13958 -13994 -13774
-14629
Unfactored Moments (kip-fti)

-15126
-15703 -12155
-12634 -16912 -16458
-14275 -14041
-19885
-20455 -20569
-21153
-20000
-23630 -23466
-28678
-30651 -30493
Mdc
-30000 -32619
Mdw
Mhl93
Mp-15
-40000
Figure 7.12.13-1 Gravity Load Moment Envelopes for Design of Flexural Resistance
7-80
Find the flexural resistance of the section at the right face of cap at Bent 2
considering the Area of P/S steel only. If required, find the amount of additional
flexural steel needed to resist the factored nominal resistance Mn.
MP/S s = Pj (MCs) (7.12.13-2)
where:
MP/S s = moment due to the secondary effects of prestressing (k-ft)
Step 1: Determine the controlling Strength Limit State used to determine the
factored ultimate moment, Mu:
Strength I:
(MCs) = 0.856 ft (Figure 9.12.12-1)
MP/S s = (9,120 kips) (0.856 ft) = 7,810 kip-ft
Mu(HL93) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.75 (MHL93) + 1.00 (MP/S s)
Mu(HL93) = 1.25 (-32,619) + 1.50 (-4,095) + 1.75 (-14,275) + 1.00 (7,810)
= -64,090 kip-ft
Strength II:
Mu(P-15) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.35 (MP-15) + 1.00 (MP/S s)
Mu(P-15) = 1.25 (-32,619) + 1.50 (-4,095) + 1.35 (-23,630) + 1.00 (7,810)
= -71,010 kip-ft
The Strength II Limit State controls, Mu = -71,010 kip-ft
Step 2: Compute Mcr to determine which criteria governs the design of the factored
resistance, Mr (1.33Mu or using AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1).
I bent face (824 ft 4 )124
Sc 438,100 in.3
ybent face 3.25 ft(12)
f r 0.24 fc 0.37 4 0.48 ksi

fcpe = 1.025 ksi (from plot of P/S stresses)
S
M cr 2 ( 1 f r 2 f cpe ) Sc M drc c 1
Snc

0.75 1.6(0.48) 1.1(1.024) 438,100 0
622, 700 kip-in.

Mcr = 622,700 kip-in. = 51,900 kip-ft

Mr (min) = the lesser of:
Mcr = (51,900) = 51,900 kip-ft
1.33Mu = 1.33(71,010) = 94,440 kip-ft
Therefore, Mr (min) = 51,900 kip-ft
Step 3: Compute the nominal moment resistance of the section based on the effects
of the prestressing steel using AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4 only and substituting out Aps:
Pj
f pu As f s As f s
Aps f pu As f s As f s 0.75 f pu
c
f pu Pj f pu
0.85 f c 1b kAps 0.85 f c 1b k
dp 0.75 f pu d p
Assuming no compression or tension resisting mild steel, As and As both equal

zero.
b = The soffit width = overall width overhang width (including slope)
b = 58(12)+10 2[5(12)+10.5] = 517 in.
dp = structure depth prestressing force distance to deck (interpolated
between points D and E)
dp = 81 17.0 = 64.0 in.
9,120
00
c 0.75 7.9 in.
9,120
0.85(4)(0.85) (517) 0.28
0.75(64)
7.9 in. < hsoffit = 12 in.; therefore, rectangular section assumption is satisfied
Using AASHTO Equation 5.7.3.1.1-1:
c 7.9
f ps f pu 1 k 270 1 0.28 260.7 ksi
64.0
dp
Modifying AASHTO Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 for rectangular sections produces

Equation 7.12.13-3:
a
M n Aps f ps d p (7.12.13-3)
2

From Article 5.7.2.2 (AASHTO, 2012):
a 1c (7.12.13-4)
a 1c 0.85(7.9) 6.7 in.

Pj 9,120
Aps 45.0 in.
2
0.75 f pu 0.75(270)
a
M n Aps f ps d p 45.0(260.7) 64.0
6.7
711, 500 kip-in.
2 2
Mn = 711,500 kip-in. = 59,300 kip-ft
Calculating Mn = 0.95 (59,300) = 56,350 kip-ft > 751,900 kip-ft shows that no
additional flexural steel is required. However, for illustrative purposes, lets determine
As based on Mr = 77,300 kip-ft.
Step 4: Compute the area of mild steel required to increase Mn to resist the full
factored resistance, Mr:
Rearranging AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4 and Equation 7.12.13-4 and substituting out the
values for fps and Aps, results in Equation 7.12.13-5.
Pj
f pu As f s As f s
0.75 f pu
a (7.12.13-5)
k Pj f pu
0.85 f c b

1 0.75 f pu d p
9,120
(60) As 0
a 0.75
3.35 0.0166 As
2 0.28(9,120)
2 0.85(4) (517)
(0.85)(0.75) (64.0)
Note that we will assume fs = fy. This assumption is valid if the reinforcement at the
extreme steel tension fiber fails. We can check this by measuring t at the end of the
calculation.
Modifying AASHTO Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 for rectangular sections produces
Equation 7.12.13-6.
a a
M n Aps f ps d p As f y d s (7.12.13-6)
2 2

where:
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centriod of the
nonprestressed tensile reinforcement (in.)
ds = d 0.5(hdeck) = 81 0.5(9.125) = 76.4 in.
77,300 12
0.95 (45.0)(260.6) (64.0 (3.35 0.0166 As )) ...

+ 60 As (76.4 (3.5 + 0.0166 As))
0.99 As2 4,190 As + 264,990 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation: As = 64.2 in.2 (65 # 9 bars As = 65 in.2)
Step 5: Verify Assumptions Two assumptions were made in the determination
of As. The first was that the mild steel would yield and we could use fy for fs. The
validity of this assumption can be checked by calculating the t. According to the
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) and Figure 7.12.13-2 if t is > 0.005 then the
section is tension controlled and 1.00, which is more conservative than the 0.95 we
used initially. These values can be easily obtained with a simple strain diagram setting
the concrete strain to 0.003.
Figure 7.12.13-2 Variation of with Net Tensile Strain t for Grade 60 Reinforcement
and Prestressed Members (California Amendments Figure C5.5.4.2.1-1, 2014)

cu = 0.003
de - c
Figure 7.12.13-3 Strain Diagram
where:
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
tensile force in the tensile reinforcement (in.)
t = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at nominal resistance (in./in.)
Having just calculated As, it is possible to calculate both c and de using AASHTO
5.7.3.1.1-4 and substituting out fps and Aps:
Pj
As f s As f s
c 0.75
Pj 1
0.85 f s 1b k
0.75 d p
9,120
(64.2)(60)
0.75 10.35 in.
9,120 1
(0.85)(4)(0.85)(517) (0.28)
0.75 64.0
Therefore c = 10.35 in. 12 in., the rectangular section assumption satisfied.
Aps f ps d p As f y d s
de
Aps f ps As f y
(45.02)(260.6)(64.2) (64.2)(60)(76.50)

(45.02)(260.6) (64.2)(60)
de = 67.1 in.

By similar triangles: c t :
c de c
c
de c
0.003
t 67.1 10.35 0.016 > 0.005
c 10.35
Therefore, the mild steel yields and = 1.00

Find the flexural resistance of the section at midspan of Span 2 considering the
area of P/S steel only. If required, find the amount of additional flexural steel needed
to resist the factored nominal resistance, Mn :
Step 1: Determine the controlling Strength Limit State used to determine the
factored ultimate moment, Mu:
Strength I:
MP/S s = (9,120) (0.854) = 7,790 kip-ft

Mu(HL93) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.75 (MHL93) + 1.00 (MP/S s)
Mu(HL93) = 1.25 (20,884) + 1.50 (2,627) + 1.75 (13,196) + 1.00 (7,790)
= 60,930 kip-ft
Strength II:
Mu(P-15) = 1.25 (MDC ) + 1.50 (MDW) + 1.35 (MP-15) + 1.00 (MP/S s)

Mu(P-15) = 1.25 (20,884) + 1.50 (2,627) + 1.35 (26,007) + 1.00 (7,790)
= 72,940 kip-ft
The Strength II Limit State controls, Mu = 72,940 kip-ft
Step 2: Compute Mcr to determine which criteria governs the design of the factored
resistance, Mr (1.33Mu or using AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1).
I mid (728.94)
Sc ft 3 331, 475 in.3
yb mid 3.8
f r 0.24 fc 0.24 4 0.48 ksi
fcpe = 0.851 ksi (from plot of P/S stresses)

M cr 3 1 f r 2 f cpe Sc M dnc
0.75 1.6 0.48 1.1 0.851 331, 500 423,800 kip-in.
Mcr = 423,800 kip-in. = 35,300 kip-ft

Mr (min) = the lesser of:
1.33Mu = 1.33(72,940) = 97,000 kip-ft
Therefore Mr (min) = 35,300 kip-ft
Step 3: Compute the nominal moment resistance of the section based on the effects
of the prestressing steel using AASHTO 5.7.3.1-4 only and substituting out fps and Aps:
Pj
f pu As f s As f s
Aps f pu As f s As f s 0.75 f pu
c
f pu Pj f pu
0.85 f c 1b kAps 0.85 f c 1b k
dp 0.75 f pu d p
Assuming no compression or tension resisting mild steel, As and As both equal

zero.
b = compression (top) flange width = 58 ft 10 in. = 706 in.
dp = structure depth prestressing force distance to soffit
dp = 81 12.5 = 68.5 in.
9,120
00
c 0.75 5.8in.
9,120 1
0.85(4)(0.85)(706) 0.28
0.75 68.5
5.8 in. < hdeck = 9.0 in., therefore, rectangular section assumption satisfied.
kc 5.8
f ps f pu 1 270 1 0.28 263.6 ksi
dp 68.5

Using Equations 7.12.13-3 and 7.12.13-4:
a 1c 0.85(5.8) 4.9 in.
a
M n Aps f ps d p (45.0)(263.6) 68.5
4.9
783,500 kip-in.
2 2
Mn = 783,500 kip-in. = 65,300 kip-ft
Calculating Mn = 0.95 (65,300) = 62,000 kip-ft > 33,500 kip-ft shows that no
additional flexural steel is required. At this point, the calculation should stop, and we
would not include any mild steel for the bottom of the superstructure at midspan.
However, to illustrate this example we will continue by setting Mr = 75,000 kip-ft.

Step 4: Compute the area of mild steel required to increase Mn to resist the full
factored, Mr .
Using Equation 7.12.13-5:
Pj
f pu As f s As f s
0.75 f pu
a
k Pj f pu
0.85 f c b
1 0.75 f pu d p
9,120
(60) As 0
a 0.75
2.48 0.012 As
2 0.28 9,120 1
2 0.85(4)(706)
0.85 0.75 68.5
Again assume fs = fy. This assumption is valid if the reinforcement at the extreme
steel tension fiber fails. We can check this by measuring t at the end of the calculation.
Using Equation 7.12.13-6:
a a
M n Aps f ps d p As f y d s
2 2
(75,000) (12)
(45.0) (263.6) ( 68.6 (2.48 0.012 Ag )) ...
0.95
... 60 Ag (76.44 (2.48 0.012 Ag ))
0.73As2 4,292As + 164,257 = 0

Solving the quadratic equation: As = 38.520 in.2 (39 # 9 bars As = 39.00 in.2)
Step 5: Verify the two assumptions that were made in the determination of As. The
first was that the mild steel would yield and we could use fy for fs. The validity of this
assumption can be checked by calculating the t. According to the California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) and Figure 7.12.13-2 if t is > 0.005 then the section is
tension controlled and 1.0. These values can be easily obtained with a simple strain
diagram setting the concrete strain to 0.003.
c = 0.003
de - c
Figure 7.12.13-4 Strain Diagram

Having just calculated As., it is possible to calculate both c and de using AASHTO
5.7.3.1.1-4 and substituting out fps and Aps:
Pj 9,120
As f s As f s (39.0)(60)
c 0.75 0.75 6.9 in.
Pj 1 9,120 1
0.85 f c1b k (0.85)(4)(0.85)(706) (0.28)
0.75 d p 0.75 68.5
ts = 8.25 in.
c = 6.9 in. 8.25 in., therefore, the rectangular section assumption is satisfied.
Aps f ps d p As f y d s (45.04) (263.6) (68.5) (39.00) (60) (76.44)
de
Aps f ps As f y (45.04)(263.6) (39.00) (60)
de = 69.8 in.
c t
By similar triangles: therefore
c de c
c
de c
0.003
t 69.8 6.9 0.027 > 0.005
c 6.9
Therefore, the mild steel yields and = 1.00.

Table 7.12.13-1 Additional Mild Steel Required per Location of Bridge

Loc As req'd Mn Loc As req'd Mn Loc As req'd Mn
0.024 0.0 35492 1.024 65.0 81785 2.034 64.0 80527

0.100 0.0 46543 1.100 0.0 51660 2.100 20.0 60549
0.200 7.0 59535 1.200 0.0 33687 2.200 0.0 38316
0.300 0.0 63394 1.300 0.0 54413 2.300 0.0 48864
0.400 0.0 65317 1.400 0.0 62681 2.400 0.0 58036
0.500 0.0 63592 1.500 0.0 65317 2.500 0.0 63592
0.600 0.0 58036 1.600 0.0 62681 2.600 0.0 65317
0.700 0.0 48864 1.700 0.0 54413 2.700 0.0 63394
0.800 0.0 38316 1.800 0.0 40528 2.800 0.0 57031
0.900 15.0 58814 1.900 0.0 51660 2.900 0.0 46543
0.968 66.0 81518 1.976 62.0 80767 2.975 0.0 35699
7.12.14 Design for Shear

Where it is reasonable to assume that plane sections remain plane after loading,
regions of components shall be designed for shear using either the sectional method as
specified in Article 5.8.3 (AASHTO, 2012), or the strut-and-tie method as specified in
Article 5.6.3 (AASHTO, 2012). When designing for nominal shear resistance in box-
girders, it is appropriate to use the sectional method.
In the sectional design approach, the component is investigated by comparing the
factored shear force and the factored shear resistance at a number of sections along its
length. Usually, this check is made at the tenth point of the span and at locations near
the supports.
Where the reaction force in the direction of the applied shear introduces
compression into the end region of a member, the location of the critical section for
shear shall be taken as dv from the internal face of support.
Figure CB5.2-5 shown on the next page, illustrates the shear design process by
means of a flow chart. This Figure is based on the simplified assumption that 0.5 cot
=1.0.

Figure CB5.2-5 Flow Chart for Shear Design Containing at Least Minimum
Transverse Reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012)

2000
1811
1582 1598
1433
1500 1335
1317
1276
1193 1181
1105 1120
1061
984 1012
1000 858 838 862

821
695 721
643 666
826 599
538 560 800
747 485 747
682 485 462
639 662
500 596 382
333 575
532 287 474
489
166 427
390
128 140 133 282
88 105 318 109 84 90
68 42 71 60 306
16 36 13 36 11
-10 2 -33 -13
-36 -62 -68 149 -37 -62
-77 -102 -80
0
0.0 0.5
-282 -88 1.0 1.5 -260 2.0 2.5 -294 3.0
-114 -102 -137 -163
-139
-455 -157 -486
-309 -491 -534
-500 -621
-400 -621
-387 -629
-487 -692 -427
-730 -483
-582 -532
-831 -811 -823 -588
-671
Unfactored Moments (kip-fti)

-639

-901 -671
-756 -746
-1022 -812 -994
-1057
-1113 -1093 -825
-1000
-1237 -1258 -1257
-1287 -1308
-1498
-1592
-1500
-1690
-1821
Vdc
-2000 Vdw
Vhl93
Vp-15
-2500
Figure 7.12.14-1 Gravity Load Shear Envelopes for Design of Shear Resistance
7-92
Design the interior girders at the right cap face at Bent 2 to resist the ultimate
factored shear demand. Use Figure 7.12.14-1 as a guide, and take advantage of the
reduction in demands by using the critical section for shear as dv from the internal face
of support.
Step 1: Determine dv , calculate Vp . Check that bv satisfies. Equation 5.8.3.3-2.
(AASHTO, 2012)
Mn
dv (7.12.14-1)
As f y Aps f ps
where:
dv = the effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to
the neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive
forces due to flexure
At the right cap face of Bent 2, dv becomes:

Mn 81,785
dv
As f y Aps f ps 64.00(60) 45.04(260.7)
= 5.25 ft = 63.0 in.
Article 5.8.2.9 (AASHTO, 2012) states that dv should not be less than the greater
of 0.9de or 0.72h. Therefore:
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (in.)
de (min) = 0.9(67.0 in.) = 60.3 in.
dv (min) = 0.72(81 in.) = 58.32 in.
dv = 63.0 in. > 60.3 in. > 58.3 in.
Finding Vp after establishing Equation 7.12.14-2:

Vp = Pj () kips (7.12.14-2)

where:
Vp = the component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective
prestressing force; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip).
total angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking end to a point
under investigation (rad)
Since the angle that is formed between the tangent of the parabola and the
horizontal changes as the location on the parabola changes, we will take two s at
each point. One looking back to the previous point, and the other looking forward to
the next point.
Given such a short distance along the larger parabolas, a triangle can be used to
approximate angle change of the much smaller parabola segments:
Figure 7.12.14-2 Components of Alpha
The general equation of a parabola: y = ax2

For any parabola with side l and : a
l2
The angle change at any given point on the parabola is its first derivative:
dy 2
(rads) x (7.12.14-3)
dx l 2
at a distance dv from the face of cap at Bent 2
2 2.12 3.5 0.90 3.8 63.0
(rads) 4 0.06
0.1(168) 12
2
Vp = Pj () kips = 9,120 (0.06 rad) = 547 kips

Vn is the lesser of:

Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
Vn = 0.25 fcbvdv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
where:
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width, measured parallel
to the neutral axis, between resultants of the tensile and compressive
forces due to flexure. This value lies within the depth dv (in.)
dv = the effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular
to the neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive
forces due to flexure (in.)
For now we will use AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2, and return to AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1 later.
Vn Vp
bv (reqd ) (7.12.14-4)
0.25 f cd v
where:
Vn = the nominal shear resistance of the section considered (kip)
Vp = the component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective
prestressing force; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip)
Vu
Vn (7.12.14-5)

Using Figure 7.12.14-1 to compare Strength I and Strength II results of Vu at the
Bent 2 cap face:
Vu 1.25(1, 334) 1.50(166) 1.75(826)
Vn @ face ( Str I ) 3, 736 kips
0.90
Vu 1.25(1,120) 1.50(140) 1.75(745)

Vn @ pt E ( Str I ) 3, 238 kips
0.90
Vu 1.25(1, 334) 1.50(166) 1.35(1,810)

Vn @ face ( Str II ) 4,844 kips
0.90
Vu 1.25(1,120) 1.50(140) 1.35(1, 582)

Vn @ pt E ( Str II ) 4,146 kips
0.90

Strength II controls so now interpolate to find Vn a distance dv from the face of

Bent 2:
4,162 4,844 63.0
Vn @ dv fromface 4 4 4,844 4,564 kips
0.1(168) 4 12
From above fc = 4 ksi and now using Equation 7.14.12-3 to find bv:
Vn Vp 4,564 547
bv (reqd ) 64.0 in.
0.25 fcd v 0.25(4)63.0
This results in bv ~12.8 in. per girder. Flare the interior girders at bent faces to 13
in. for added capacity in future calculations.
bv (13 in.flare) (5girders)(13 in.) 65 in.
Step 2: Calculate shear stress ratio vu / fc using Equation 5.8.2.9-1. (AASHTO,

2012)
Vu V p
vu (AASHTO 5.8.2.9-1)
bv d v
where:
vu = average factored shear stress on the concrete (ksi) (5.8.2.7) (5.8.2.9)
Vu @ dv from face = 0.90 (4564) = 4,108 kips
Vp = 0.9(547) = 492 kips
Vu V p 4,108 492
vu 0.981ksi
bv d v 0.9(65)63.0
vu 0.981
0.245
f c 4
Step 3: If section is within the transfer length of any strands, then calculate the
effective value of fpo, else assume fpo = 0.7 fpu. This step is necessary for members
without anchorages.
fpo = 0.7 fpu = 189 ksi

Step 4: Calculate x using Equations B5.2-1, B5.2-2 or 5.2-3 (AASHTO, 2012)
Assuming the section meets the requirements specified in Article 5.8.2.5

(AASHTO, 2012)
Mu
0.5 N u 0.5 Vu V p cot A ps f po
dv
x (AASHTO B5.2-1)
2( E s As E p A ps )
where:
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons
multiplied by the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing
tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi)
Nu = applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (kip)
x = longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural tension side of
the member (in/in)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (degrees)
Mu @ face = 1.25(-32,619)+1.50(-4,095)+1.35(-23,620)+0.856(9,120)
= -70,997 kip ft
Mu @ pt E = 1.25(-16,910)+1.50(-2,130)+1.35(-14,000)+0.856(9,120)
= -35,426 kip ft
By interpolation, find Mu a distance dv from the face of Bent 2:
35,426 70,997 63.0

M u @ d v fromface 4 4 70,997
0.1(168) 4 12
= -56,407 kip ft = 676,884 kip in.
Now using AASHTO B5.2-1 with Nu = 0, begin with cot = 1, and values
calculated earlier
676,884
0.5 (0) 0.5 4,108 547 (1) 45.04 (189)
x 63.0 0.000639
2 29,000 (64) 28,500 (45.04)
Step 5: Choose values of and corresponding to next-larger x from AASHTO

Table B5.2-1 (California Amendments to AASHTO, 2012).
Based on calculated values of vu 0.245 ; x = 0.000639, we obtain:
f c
34.3 and = 1.58.


Table B5.2-1 Values of and for Sections with Transverse

Reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012)
Step 6: Determine transverse reinforcement, Vs, to ensure: Vu (Vc + Vs + Vp)

Equations 5.8.2.1-2, 5.8.3.3-1 (AASHTO, 2012). First we must introduce the concrete
component of shear resistance:
Vc = 0.0316 fcbvdv (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3)
where:
= factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of
concrete as indicated by the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to
transmit tension
Vc = 0.0316 fcbvdv = 0.0316(1.58) 4(65)(63.0) = 409 kips
Vp = 547 kips
Vu = 4,108 kips
Combining Equations 5.8.2.1-2 and 5.8.3.3-1 (AASHTO, 2012) results in design

equation as follows:
Vu (Vc + Vs + Vp)
Rearranging and solving for Vs:
Vu 4,108
Vs Vc V p 409 547 3,608 kips
0.90

Av f y d v (cot cot ) sin

Vs (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4)
s
where:
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within distance s (in2.)
angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis ()
s spacing of reinforcing bars (in.)
Vs shear resistance provided by the transverse reinforcement at the section
under investigation as given by AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4, except Vs shall not be
taken greater than Vu/ (kip)
Then = 90 since stirrups in this bridge are perpendicular to the deck. Thus
Equation 5.8.3.3-4 reduces to:
Av f y d v (cot)
Vs (AASHTO C5.8.3.3-1)
s
Rearranging terms to solve for s
Av f y d v (cot)
s (7.12.14-6)
Vs
Assume 2 - #5 legs per stirrup 5 girders, Av = 2(5)(0.31) = 3.10 in.2
Av f y dv (cot ) 3.10 (63.0) (cot 34.3)

s 4.76 in.
Vs 3,608
Use # 5 stirrups, s = 4 in. spacing
Step 7: Use Equation 5.8.3.5-1 (AASTHO, 2012) to check if the longitudinal

reinforcement can resist the required tension.
Mu Nu Vu
Aps f ps As f y 0.5 Vp 0.5Vs cot (AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1)
d v f c c
Breaking into parts and solving both sides of Equation 5.8.3.5-1 results in:
45.0(260.2) + 64.0(60) = 15,549 kips
56, 407(12)
0 4, 564 547 0.5(3, 520) cot 36.0 15, 044 kips
63.0(0.9)

Since 15,549 is greater than 15,044 therefore the shear design is complete. Had the
left side been smaller than the right side we would use the following procedure to
determine As. If the conditions of Equation 5.8.3.5-1 (AASHTO, 2012) were met then
the shear design process is complete.
Step 8: If the right side of AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1 was greater than the left side, we
would need to solve Equation 5.8.3.5-1 to increase As to meet the minimum
requirements of 5.8.3.5-1.
Mu Nu Vu
0.5 Vp 0.5Vs cot Aps f ps
d v f c c
As (AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1)
fy
Design the exterior girders right cap face at Bent 2 to resist the ultimate factored
shear demand. Use Figure 7.12.14-1 as a guide, and take advantage of the reduction
in demands by using the critical section for shear as dv from the internal face of support.
In this example, all values will be per girder, since only the exterior girder is affected
by this analysis. Use the modification chart found in BDA 5-32 to amplify values of
Vu .
Step 1: Determine dv , calculate Vp . Check that bv satisfies Equation 5.8.3.3-2.
(AASHTO, 2012)
From above:
dv = 63.0 in.
Vp = 547 kips or 110 kips/girder
Vn is the lesser of AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1 and AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp
Vn = 0.25 fcbvdv + Vp
For now we will use AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2, and return to AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1 later.
Equations 7.12.14-4 and 7.12.14-5 respectively state:

Vn Vp
bv (reqd ) (7.12.14-4)
0.25 f cd v
Vu
Vn (7.12.14-5)


From above Strength II controls:

Vn @ dv from face = 4,570 kips
We can now use BDA 5-32 (Figure 7.12.14-2) to amplify the obtuse exterior
girders shear demand.
For an exterior girder with a 20 skew the chart reads that the modification factor
is 1.4.
4564
Now Vn(mod) = Vn (ext ) 1.4 1278 kips
5
From above fc = 4 ksi and now using Equation 7.12.12-3 to find bv:
Vn Vp 1, 278 110
bv (reqd ) 18.5 in.
0.25 f cd v 0.25(4)63.0
This results in bv = 18.5 in. per girder. We will flare exterior girders at bent faces
to 19 in. for added capacity in future calculations.

Figure 7.12.14-3 Shear Modification Factor Found in BDA 5-32 (Caltrans, 1990)
Step 2: Calculate shear stress ratio vu / fc using Equation 5.8.2.9-1. (AASHTO,

2012)
Vu V p
vu
bv d v
Vu @ dv from face = 0.90 (1,2780) = 1,150 kips
Vu V p 1,150 100
vu 0.975 ksi
bv d v 0.9 (19) 63.0
vu 0.975
0.244
f c 4

Step 3: If the section is within the transfer length of any strands, then calculate
the effective value of fpo, else assume fpo = 0.7 fpu. This step is necessary for members
with no anchorage devices.
fpo = 0.7 fpu = 189 ksi
Step 4: Calculate x using Equations B5.2-1, B5.2-2 or B5.2-3 (AASHTO, 2012)
Assuming the section meets the requirements specified in Article 5.8.2.5

(AASHTO, 2012)
Mu
0.5 N u 0.5 Vu V p cot A ps f po
dv
x
2( E s As E p A ps )
From above and in terms of a single girder:
-676,884 kip in
M u @d v from face 135,877 kip in
5
Now using AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-1 with Nu = 0, begin with cot = 1, and values
calculated earlier
135,530 45.04
0.5 (0) 0.5 1,150 100 (1) (189)
x 63.0 5 0.0012
65 45.04
2 29,000 ( ) 28,500 ( )
5 5
Step 5: Choose values of and corresponding to next-larger x from AASHTO

Table B5.2-1 (California Amendments to AASHTO, 2012).
Based on calculated values of

vu
0.244 and x = 0.0012, we obtain
f c
35.8and = 1.50

Table B5.2-1 Values of and for Sections with Transverse

Reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012)
Step 6: Determine transverse reinforcement, Vs, to ensure: Vu (Vc + Vs + Vp)

Equations 5.8.2.1-2, 5.8.3.3-1 (AASHTO, 2012). First use AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3 to
determine the concrete component of shear resistance.
Vc = 0.0316 fcbvdv
Vc = 0.0316 fcbvdv = 0.0316 (1.50)4 (19)(63.0) =113.5 kips
Vp = 110 kips
Vu = 1,110 kips
Combining Equations 5.8.2.1-2 and 5.8.3.3-1 (AASHTO, 2012) results in design

equation as follows:
Vu (Vc + Vs +Vp)
Rearranging and solving for Vs:
Vu 1,110
Vs Vc V p 113.5 110 1,010 kips
0.9
Then using Eq. 7.12.14-6
Av f y d v (cot)
s
Vs
Assume 2 - #5 legs per stirrup 1 girders, Av = 2 (1) (0.31) = 0.62 in.2
Av f y d v (cot ) (0.62) (60) (63.0) (cot 35.8)

s 3.22 in.
Vs 1,010

Use # 5 stirrups, s = 3 in. spacing
Step 7: Use Modified Equation 5.8.3.5-1 (AASTHO, 2012) to check if the

longitudinal reinforcement per girder can resist the required tension.
Aps f ps As f y Mu Nu Vu
0.5 Vp 0.5Vs cot
5 5 d v f c c
Breaking into parts and solving both sides of Equation 5.8.3.5-1 results in:
45.04(260.2) 64(60)
3,112 kips
5 5
11, 281(12)
0 1, 278 110 0.5(1,039) cot 37.4 3, 236 kips
63.0(0.9)
3,112 is not greater than 3,236. Use the following procedure to determine As.
Step 8: Solve Equation 5.8.3.5-1 to increase As to meet the minimum requirements

of 5.8.3.5-1:
Mu Nu Vu
0.5 Vp 0.5Vs cot Aps f ps
d v f c c
As
fy
45.04(260.2)
3,236
As 5 14.87 in.2
60
If the right side of Equation 5.8.3.5-1 is equal to 3,290, the exterior 1/2 bay
64
reinforcement should be increased from As 12.8 in.2 to As = 15 in.2
5
7.12.15 Calculate the Prestressing Elongation

Tendon elongation calculations are necessary to help ensure the proper jacking
force is delivered to the superstructure. Elongation calculations are one way for
construction field personnel to check the actual Pj force applied to tendons.
Since the structure has been designed for two-end stressing, both first and second
end elongations need to be computed.
Figure 7.12.15-1 shows the information that should be included on the contract
plans.

Article
7.12.11
Article 5.9.5.2.1
(California Amendments
to AASHTO, 2014)
Article
7.12.12
Table 7.12.7.5-1
Figure 7.12.15-1 Decal Shown on Contract Plans
Based on the location and magnitude of fpF (stress with friction losses) shown on
the contract plans, the post-tensioning fabricator develops a simplified diagram, like
the one shown in Figure 7.12.15-2.
FCpF = 1.000 FCpF = 1.000

fpF = 202.50 ksi fpF = 202.5 ksi
Force coefficient (decimal % of Pj)
Point of no FCpF = 0.879

Movement fpF = 178 ksi
(2-end)
2nd End P/S Steel

Stress
L1 = 219.6 ft
L2 = 192.4 ft FCpF = 0.773
fpF = 156 ksi
1st End P/S Steel

Stress
Length Along Girder (ft)
Figure 7.12.15-2 Simplified Diagram

The 1st end elongation calculation (from the 1st end of jacking side to the anchorage
side, the entire length of the span):
The prestressing elongation is based on the stress-strain relationship and results in
Equation 7.12.15-1:
f avg Lx
E (7.12.15-1)
Ep
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendon (ksi)
favg = average stress in the strand from jacking end to point of no movement (ksi)
E = change in length of prestressing tendons due to jacking (in.)
For one-end stressing, MTD 11-1 (Caltrans, 2013) provides the following formula:
T (1 )(L 3.5' )
E o (7.12.15-2)
2E p
In Equation 7.12.15-2, the 3.5 term is the expected length of jack.
For two end stressing, MTD 11-1 (Caltrans, 2013) provides the following formula:
1st
To
(1 )L1 (3 1) L2 (7.12.15-3)
2E p
T (1 )L2
2nd o (7.12.15-4)
Ep
where:
1st = elongation after stressing the first end (in)
2nd = elongation after stressing the second end (in)
To = steel stress at the jacking end before seating (generally 202.5 ksi) (ksi)
= initial force coefficient at the point of no movement
L = Length of tendon (ft)
L1 = Length of tendon from first stressing end to the point of no movement (ft)
L2 = Length of tendon from point of no movement to second stressing end (ft)
For our bridge, lets use the values shown on the graph above and applying the
3 ft length of jack:
202.5
1st [(1+0.879)(219.6)+((30.897)-1)(192.40)]=2.585 ft =31.02 in.
(2) 28,500

When applying these measurements in the field, it is necessary to determine the

measureable elongation. The measureable elongation includes the length of tendon
in the contractors jack (3 ft). It is been found that by applying 20% of Pj before
monitoring elongations, the tendon is allowed to shift from its resting place to its final
position. Therefore, only 80% of the elongation calculated above is measureable.
1st = (0.8)(31.02) = 24.81 in.
The 2nd end elongation calculation (from the 2nd end of jacking side to the point of
no movement):
202.5 (1 0.879) (192.4)

2 nd 0.165 ft 1.98 in.
28,500

NOTATION
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within distance s (in.2)
b = width of the compression face of a member (in.)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width, measured parallel to the
neutral axis, between resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure. bv lies within the depth dv (in.)
bw = web width (in.)
clrint = clearance from interior face of bay to the first mat of steel in the soffit or deck
(Usually taken as 1 in.) (in.)
d = depth of member (in.)
de = defective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
di = distance between C.G. of i th duct and the i th duct LOL
(See Figure 7.12.7-4) (in.)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing
tendons (in.)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centriod of the nonprestressed
tensile reinforcement (in.)
dv = the effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure (in.)
Ect = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer or time of load application (ksi)
FCpA = force coefficient for loss from anchor set
FCpES = force coefficient for loss from elastic shortening
e = eccentricity of resultant of prestressing with respect to the centroid of the cross
section. Always taken as a positive. (ft) The base of Napierian logarithms


favg = average stress in the strand from jacking end to point of no movement (ksi)
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete used in design (ksi)
prestressing (ksi); nominal concrete strength at time of application of tendon
force (ksi)
fpi = initial stress in the prestressing steel after losses, considering only the effects of
friction loss. No other P/S losses have occurred (ksi)
fcgp = concrete stress at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons, that results from
the prestressing force at either transfer or jacking and the self-weight of the
member at maximum moment sections (ksi)
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads (ksi)
fDC+DW = stress in concrete from DC and DW load cases (ksi)
fDCw/o b = stress in concrete due to the Dead Load of the structural section only (ksi)
fpi = prestressing steel stress immediately prior to transfer (ksi)
fg = stress in the member from dead load (ksi)
fHL93 = stress in concrete from HL93 load cases (ksi)
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by
the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the
surrounding concrete (ksi)
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance
is required (ksi)
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel (ksi)
fy = specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcment (ksi)
hf = compression flange depth (in.)
Ie = effective moment of inertia (in.4)

= distance to the closest duct to the bottom of the soffit or top of the deck (in.)
k = wobble friction coefficient (per ft of tendon)
L = distance to a point of known stress loss (ft), individual span length (ft) (60 L
240)
Lframe = length of frame to be post-tensioned (ft)
Ma = maximum moment in a member at the stage which the deformation is computed
(kip-in.)
MDL = dead load moment of structure (kip-in.)
MP/S s = moment due to the secondary effects of prestressing (k-ft)
MCs = secondary moment force coefficient for loss (ft)
MCPT = total moment force coefficient for loss (ft)
N = number of identical prestressing tendons
Nc = number of cells in a concrete box girder (Nc 3)
Nu = applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (kip)
lij = length of individual parabola (in.)
ni = number of strands in the i th duct
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite sections where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
s spacing of reinforcing bars (in.)
t = thickness of soffit or deck (in.)
td = thickness of deck (in.)
ts = thickness of soffit (in.)
Vn = the nominal shear resistance of the section considered (kip)
Vp = the component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip)

Vs shear resistance provided by the transverse reinforcement at the section under

investigation as given by AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4, except Vs shall not be taken greater
than Vu / (kip)
vu = average factored shear stress on the concrete (ksi)
W = weight of prestressing steel established by BDA page 11-66 (lb)
x = general distance along tendon (ft), location along parabolic segment where
eccentricity is calculated (% span L)
xpA = influence length of anchor set (ft)
y = general distance from the neutral axis to a point on member cross-section (in.)
y ij = height of individual parabola (in.)
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (in.)
Z = C.G. tendon shift within duct (in.)
angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis () total
angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking end to a point under
investigation (rad)
factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete, as
assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
hp = offset from deck to Centroid of duct (in.)
lp = offset from soffit to Centroid of duct (in.)
Aset = anchor set length (in.)
E = change in length of prestressing tendons due to jacking (in.)
fi = change in force in prestressing tendon due to an individual loss (ksi)
fL = friction loss at the point of known stress loss (ksi)
fpA = jacking stress lost in the P/S steel due to anchor set (ksi)
fpCR = change in stress due to creep loss
fpES = change in stress due to elastic shortening loss
fpF = change in stress due to friction loss
fpSR = change in stress due to shrinkage loss
s = net longitudinal tensile strain in section at the centroid of the tension
reinforcement (in./in.)

= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (degrees)

= resistance factor
= coefficient of friction
reinforcement

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, 6th Edition, Washington, D.C.
2. Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D., (1997). Prestressed Concrete Structures, Response

Publications, Toronto, Canada.
3. Libby, J. R., (1990). Modern Prestressed Concrete: Design Principles and

Construction Methods 4th edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold New York, NY.
4. Nawy, E. G., (2005). Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach 5th Edition,

Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NY.
5. Nilson, A. H., (1987). Design of Prestressed Concrete, Wiley Hoboken, NJ. 1987.
6. Gerwick, B. C. Jr., (1997). Chapter 11 Construction of Prestressed Concrete,

Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, Editor, Nawy, E.G., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL.
7. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendments to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

Specifications Sixth Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento,
CA.
8. Caltrans, (2013). Memo to Designers 11-11 Prestressed Concrete Shop Drawing

Review, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
9. Caltrans, (2005). Bridge Design Aids Chapter 11 Estimating, California Department

10. Caltrans, (2008b). Memo to Designers 10-20 Deck and Soffit Slabs, California
11. Caltrans, (2010). Memo to Designers 11-3 Designers Checklist for Prestressed
Concrete, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
12. Caltrans, (1994). Memo to Designers 11-28 Attachment 1 Prestress Clearances for
CIP P/S Box Girder Structures, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento,
CA.
13. Caltrans, (1996). Memo to Designers 11-28 Attachment 2 Clearance Requirement

for Ducts, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
14. Caltrans, (1994). Memo to Designers 11-28 Attachment 31 ''D'' Chart for Cast-in-
Place Girders Estimating, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.

15. Caltrans, (1989). Memo to Designers 15-2 Concrete Girder Spacing, California

CHAPTER 8
PRECAST PRETENSIONED CONCRETE GIRDERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 8-1

8.2 PRECAST GIRDER FEATURES ....................................................................... 8-3
8.2.1 Typical Sections and Span Ranges ..................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Primary Characteristics of Precast Girder Design .............................................. 8-7
8.2.3 Methods to Vary Strand Eccentricity and Force .............................................. 8-11
8.3 PRECAST BRIDGE TYPES ............................................................................. 8-15
8.3.1 Single-Span Bridges ......................................................................................... 8-15
8.3.2 Multi-Span Bridges .......................................................................................... 8-16
8.3.3 Spliced Girder Bridges ..................................................................................... 8-22
8.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................... 8-26
8.4.1 Materials ........................................................................................................... 8-26
8.4.2 Prestress Losses ................................................................................................ 8-27
8.4.3 Flexure .............................................................................................................. 8-30
8.4.4 Shear ................................................................................................................. 8-31
8.4.5 Deflection and Camber..................................................................................... 8-32
8.4.6 Anchorage Zones.............................................................................................. 8-37
8.4.7 Diaphragms and End Blocks ............................................................................ 8-37
8.4.8 Lateral Stability ................................................................................................ 8-38
8.5 DESIGN FLOW CHART .................................................................................. 8-39
8.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE ......................................................................................... 8-41
8.6.1 Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 8-41
8.6.2 Select Girder Depth, Type, and Spacing .......................................................... 8-43
8.6.3 Establish Loading Sequence ............................................................................. 8-44
8.6.4 Select Materials ................................................................................................ 8-45
8.6.5 Calculate Section Properties ............................................................................. 8-46
8.6.6 Determine Loads .............................................................................................. 8-49
Chapter 8 Precast Pretensioned Concrete Girders 8-i

8.6.7 Perform Structural Analysis ............................................................................. 8-50

8.6.8 Estimate Prestressing Force and Area of Strands ............................................. 8-55
8.6.9 Estimate Prestress Losses ................................................................................. 8-59
8.6.10 Design for Service Limit State ......................................................................... 8-62
8.6.11 Design for Strength Limit State........................................................................ 8-75
8.6.12 Check Reinforcement Limits............................................................................ 8-80
8.6.13 Design for Shear ............................................................................................... 8-82
8.6.14 Design for Interface Shear Transfer between Girder and Deck ....................... 8-93
8.6.15 Check Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement ................................................ 8-95
8.6.16 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone Reinforcement ................................................. 8-96
8.6.17 Deflection and Camber..................................................................................... 8-97
NOTATION ................................................................................................................. 8-103
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 8-111
Chapter 8 Precast Pretensioned Concrete Girders 8-ii

CHAPTER 8
PRECAST PRETENSIONED CONCRETE GIRDERS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Precast concrete elements such as girders, piles, deck panels, and pavement are
being used with increasing frequency in California. This chapter focuses exclusively
on precast pretensioned concrete girders, referred to herein as PC girders.
PC girders are a type of prestressed concrete girder that facilitates rapid
construction of a bridge using girders that are fabricated off-site and then transported
and erected into place at the job site. Once the deck is poured, the structural section
becomes composite, minimizing deflections. Because PC girders require little to no
falsework, they are a preferred solution for jobs where Accelerated Bridge
Construction (ABC) is sought, where speed of construction, minimal traffic
disruption, and/or environmental impact is required, and where temporary
construction clearance is limited. PC girders employ high performance concrete for
strength, durability, and/or constructability and tend to be more economical and
competitive when significant repeatability exists on a job (i.e., economy of scale).
The use of PC girders in California highway bridge system has increased rapidly in
recent years (Figure 8.1-1).
A) Pretensioned bulb-tee girders B) Pretensioned wide flange girder
Figure 8.1-1 Example of Precast Pretensioned Concrete Girder Sections
Similar to cast-in-place (CIP) post-tensioned (PT) girders, PC girders are

prestressed to produce a tailored stress distribution along the member at service level
to help prevent flexural cracking. For member efficiency, the girders have
precompressed tensile zones-regions such as the bottom face of the girder at midspan
where compression is induced to counteract tension due to expected gravity loads
(e.g., self-weight, superimposed dead loads such as deck weight, barrier weight, and
overlay, as well as live loads). To achieve this, PC girders employ prestressing
Chapter 8 Precast Pretensioned Concrete Girders 8-1

strands that are stressed before the concrete hardens. This is in contrast to PT girders,
in which the tendons are stressed after the concrete hardens. However, PC girders
may also be pretensioned, then post-tensioned, and are sometimes spliced together to
form a single span or continuous superstructure.
As shown in Figure 8.1-2, pretensioning requires the use of a stressing bed, often
several hundred feet long for efficient casting of a series of members in a long line,
and using abutments, stressing stands, jacks, and hold-downs/hold-ups to produce the
desired prestressing profile. The transfer of strand force to the concrete members by
bond is typically evident by the upward deflection (camber) of members when the
strands are detensioned (cut or burned) at the member ends. Steam curing of
members allows for a rapid turnover of forms (typically one-day cycle or less) and
cost efficiency. Control during fabrication of PC girders also permits the use of
quality materials and provides many benefits compared to CIP PT girders, such as
higher strength materials (e.g., fci, fc) and modulus of elasticity, as well as reduced
creep, shrinkage, and permeability. Article 5.5.4.2.1 of CA Amendments to AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (Caltrans, 2014) takes advantage of this higher
quality control and thus increases the resistance factor, , for tensioned-controlled
sections from 0.95 for CIP PT members to 1.0 for PC girders.
Removable End
Stressing
abutment abutment
jack Original length, L Formwork
Precasting bed
A) Strands tensioned
L - ES*
ES = elastic shortening
B) Strands detensioned
Figure 8.1-2 Pretensioning of Members with Straight Strands on

Stressing Bed

8.2 PRECAST GIRDER FEATURES

8.2.1 Typical Sections and Span Ranges
The designer may select from a wide variety of standard sections, as described in
Chapter 6 of the Bridge Design Aids (BDA). Girder sections not covered in this
section are considered non-standard and must be approved by the Type Selection
Meeting.
Figure 8.2-1 shows representative PC girder sections, and Table 8.2-1 lists
typical and preferred span lengths for eight common PC girder types, including four
standard California girders (I, bulb-tee, bath-tub, and wide-flange) and the California
voided slab, as well as three other PC girders (box, delta, and double-tee).
Table 8.2-1: PC Girder Types and Span Lengths (Caltrans, 2012)
Preferred Span
Girder Type Possible Span Length(ft)
Length(ft)
California I-girder 50 to 125 50 to 95
California bulb-tee girder 80 to 150 95 to 150
California bath-tub girder 80 to 150 80 to 120
California wide-flange girder 80 to 200 80 to 180
California voided slab 20 to 70 20 to 50
Precast box girder 40 to 120 40 to 100
Precast delta girder 60 to 120 60 to 100
Precast double-tee girder 30 to 100 30 to 60
Among these girders, the I-girder is most commonly used and has been in use in
California for nearly 60 years. With bridge span lengths normally ranging from 50 ft
to 125 ft, the I-girder typically uses a depth-to-span ratio of approximately 0.05 to
0.055 for simple spans and approximately 0.045 to 0.05 for multi-span structures
made continuous for live load.
The bulb-tee and bath-tub (or U-shape) girders are targeted for bridge spans up to
150 ft. The depth-to-span ratio is slightly smaller than that for I-girders: 0.045 to 0.05
for simple spans and 0.04 to 0.045 for continuous structures, respectively. However,
due to the weight limits for economical hauling, the length of bath-tub girders is
usually restricted to a range of 100 ft to 120 ft.
The California wide-flange girder (Figure 8.2-2) was recently developed in
coordination with California precasters to produce more efficient bottom and top
flange areas that permit design for spans up to 200 ft, with a depth-span ratio of 0.045
(simple) and 0.04 (continuous). The larger bottom bulb accommodates nearly 20%
more strands than the standard California bulb tee and, due to its shape, provides
enhanced handling and erection stability at longer spans. Greater economy is also
anticipated due to larger girder spacing and reduction in girder lines. Standard
sections have been developed for both pretensioning alone, as well as combined pre-
and post-tensioned sections. For longer span lengths, special permits for hauling,
trucking routes, and erection must be verified.

Other girders that are less commonly used include girders with trapezoidal,
double-tee, and rectangular cross sections as well as box girders. These are
sometimes used for cost effectiveness and aesthetics. Precast box girders are often
used for railway systems and relatively short span lengths ranging from 40 ft to 100
ft.
It should be noted that using the given bridge depth-to-span ratios to determine
the girder section is approximate but is usually a reasonable starting point for initial
design and cost estimates. Normally, girder spacing is set at approximately 1.25 to
1.75 times the bridge superstructure depth. When a shallow girder depth is required,
girder spacing may have to be reduced to satisfy all design criteria, which may result
in increased cost.
A) I girder

B) Bulb-tee
C) Bath-tub

D) Wide-flange
Figure 8.2-1 Example PC Girder Sections (Caltrans, 2012)

Figure 8.2-2 California Wide-Flange Girders
8.2.2 Primary Characteristics of Precast Girder Design
At the heart of the prestressed concrete design philosophy is the positioning of

the prestressing strands within the PC girder: the center of gravity of the strands
(CGS) is deliberately offset from the center of gravity of the concrete section (CGC)
to establish an eccentricity, defined as the distance between the CGS and CGC at a
section. This eccentricity produces a beneficial tailored flexural stress distribution
along the length of the member to counteract the flexural tension expected from
gravity loads. The largest eccentricity is provided at locations where tension is
expected to be the greatest (e.g., at midspan of simple span girder).
For PC girder design, the following three basic stages are addressed: Transfer,
service, and ultimate.
Transfer refers to the stage at which the tensile force in the strands is
transferred to the PC girder, by cutting or detensioning the strands after a
minimum girder concrete strength has been verified. Because the girder
is simply supported and only self-weight acts with the prestressing at this
stage, the most critical stresses typically occur at the ends of the girder or
harping points (also known as drape points). Both tensile and
compressive stresses should be checked at these locations against
AASHTO LRFD stress limits.
Service refers to the stage at which girder and deck self-weight act on the
non-composite girder, together with additional dead loads (e.g., barrier
and wearing surface) and live load on the composite section. This stage
is checked using the AASHTO LRFD Service I and III load
combinations (AASHTO, 2012). Per Caltrans Amendments Table
5.9.4.2.2.-1 (Caltrans, 2014), the girder must also be designed to prevent
tension in the precompressed tensile zones (zero tension) due to
permanent loads.

Ultimate refers to the Strength Limit State. Flexural and shear strengths
are provided to meet all factored load demands, including the Caltrans P-
15 design truck (Strength II load combination).
In service limit state design, the concrete stresses change at various loading
stages. In general, there are three major stages that need to be considered in the
design, and these stages are described in the following sections.
Stage I: Cast and stress girder (transfer) (Fig. 8.2-3):
o Strands are stressed to jacking force within form. Girder concrete is
cast. Once concrete gains sufficient strength, strands are cut,
transferring prestressing force to the girder.
o Girder self-weight is supported by the PC girder alone.
o This transfer stage is a temporary condition. Tensile stresses are
limited to 0.0948 f ci' 0.2 ksi for section without bonded
reinforcement or 0.24 f ci' for section with reinforcement sufficient
to resists the tensile force in the concrete per Table 5.9.4.1.2-1
(AASHTO, 2012). The compressive stresses are governed by limits
in Article 5.9.4.1.1 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).
C C T T*
C C 0 . 6 f c'
T C
Girder (Mg/S) (P/A) (Pe/S)
Prestress Stage I
- Self wt. Prestress Concrete
Stresses
* T 0.0948 f ci' or 0.2 ksi for section without bonded reinforcement
* T 0 .24 f ci' for section with reinforcement sufficient to resist concrete tensile force
Figure 8.2-3 Representative Concrete Flexural Stress Distribution

at Stage I (Transfer)

Stage IIA: Erect girder and cast deck slab (Fig. 8.2-4):
o Girders are transported to job site and erected on structure supports.
Diaphragms and concrete deck are cast.
o When deck concrete is wet, deck slab does not contribute to section
modulus for flexural resistance.
o Temporary construction loads for machinery (e.g., Bidwell) need to
be accounted for.
o Girder self-weight plus weight of diaphragms and deck are supported
by the PC girder alone.
o This stage is a temporary condition. Tensile and compressive stresses
are governed by the limits in Article 5.9.4.1 of LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2012).
T C C
Neutral
Axis
C T
C 0.6 f c'
M slab
S
Stage I Stage IIA
concrete concrete
(Slab DL)
stresses stresses
Figure 8.2-4 Representative Concrete Flexural Stress Distribution

at Stage IIA (Erection and Deck Pour)
Stage IIB: Construct barrier rails (Fig. 8.2-5)

o Deck concrete hardens and barrier rails are constructed. The girder
and deck act together as a composite section.
by the PC girder alone and additional dead load (haunch and barrier
rails) is supported by the composite section.
o Tensile and compressive stresses are governed by the limits in
Article 5.9.4.1 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).

C M slab C
C S
Neutral
Axis (new)
Neutral
Axis
C T C
Composite Stage IIA concrete M ADL DL ADL 0
Section of stresses (No Tension)
Girder and S
Deck
ADL on Composite Stage IIB
Section Concrete
Stresses
Figure 8.2-5 Representative Concrete Flexural Stress Distribution at Stage

IIB (Barrier Rail Construction).
Stage III: Open to traffic (Fig. 8.2-6):

o Girder and deck continue to act as a composite section.
by the PC girder alone. Additional dead load (haunch and barrier
rails) and live loads are supported by the composite section.
o This stage is a permanent condition. Compressive and tensile stresses
are governed by the limits in LRFD Specifications Table 5.9.4.2.1-1
and Table 5.9.4.2.2-1 (AASHTO, 2012), respectively.
C C C
C C
Neutral
AxisNeut
C T
T 0.19 f c'
DC+DW M LL 1 Service Level
Composite Stage IIB S Stage III
Section of Girder Stresses Adjusted HL-93 Concrete
and DeckGirder for Stage III
Stresses
with Wet Deck
Figure 8.2-6 Representative Concrete Flexural Stress Distribution at
Stage III (Open to Traffic).

8.2.3 Methods to Vary Strand Eccentricity and Force
Efficient design of PC girders typically requires varying the strand eccentricity

along the length of the member and/or limiting the strand force at transfer. PC girders
are fabricated, transported, and initially installed as simply-supported segments. For a
simply-supported girder with straight strands, the large eccentricity between the CGS
and the CGC section helps reduce tension and possible cracking at midspan at service
level. However, excessive flexural tensile stresses may develop at the top of the
girder segments near the ends, where counteracting flexural stresses due to self-
weight are minimal. Excessive flexural compressive stresses may similarly develop.
The critical location near the ends is at the transfer length, the distance from the end
of the girder at which the strand force is fully developed. For this temporary
condition, Table 5.9.4.1.2-1 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) specifies
appropriate stress limits to mitigate cracking and compression failure.
Figure 8.2-7 Draped Strand Profile (Pritchard, 1992)
Figure 8.2-8 Hold-Down Assembly in Stressing Bed

(Ma and Schendel, 2009)

To reduce the tensile and compressive stresses at the ends of girders, the designer
normally considers two primary methods, both of which are used in California:
Harping (or draping) strands to reduce the strand eccentricity (Figures
8.2-7 and 8.2-8):.
o Advantages of harping include:
Flexural design efficiencies due to the strand CGS achieving a
profile corresponding to the moment envelope
Reduction of eccentricity at member ends to control concrete
stresses at these critical regions at transfer
Additional shear capacity due to the contribution of the vertical
component of the prestress force in the harped strands
o Disadvantages of harping include:
Safety issues and precaster ability to economically deflect and
anchor harped strands
Slightly higher cost for fabrication and embedded hold-down
devices
Beam form patching to accommodate variable hold down
locations
Debonding (or shielding) select strands at the member ends to reduce the
transfer prestress force (Figure 8.2-11):
o Advantages of debonding include:
Reduction in concrete stresses at member ends
Simpler fabrication by the use of straight strands in the stressing
bed
Elimination of hold-down devices
o Disadvantages of debonding include:
Potential increase in design compressive strength of concrete
Increased design effort to determine debonding patterns, shear
reinforcement, and camber

Figure 8.2-9 Bottom Fiber Stress Distribution at Transfer:

Harping vs. Debonding (PCI Bridge Design Manual 2011)
Figure 8.2-10 Top Fiber Stress Distribution at Transfer:

Harping vs. Debonding (PCI Bridge Design Manual 2011)
By draping the strands in a PC girder, the eccentricity can be varied in linear

segments along the length of the girder by mechanically deflecting some of the
stressed strands in the casting beds prior to casting using hold-downs and hold-ups,
as shown in Figures 8.2-7 and 8.2-8. Although draping is limited to strands within the
web, only a portion of the strands typically needs to be draped to achieve the required
eccentricity at girder ends. Typically, the drape points are located between
approximately 0.33L and 0.4L. Some fabricators may not have suitable equipment for
all drape profiles. In addition, the drape angle must be limited to ensure that jacking
requirements and hold-down forces do not exceed available capacity. The patterns in
Figures 8.2-9 and 8.2-10 provide a comparison of the bottom and top fiber stresses
associated with draped and debonded strands.

A) Single strand sheathing B) Debonded strands in PC girder
Figure 8.2-11 Plastic Sheathing Used for Debonding Strand
Alternatively, the designer may choose to limit transfer stresses by reducing the
prestress force through debonding strands along a portion of the girder length at
member ends. This is known as partial debonding. Figure 8.2-11 shows debonding of
a strand by encasing the strand in a plastic sheathing. Debonding strand prevents the
prestressing force from developing in the debonded region and causes the critical
section for stresses to shift a transfer length (i.e., 60 strand diameters, per LRFD
Specifications) beyond the end of debonding. Caltrans Amendments (Caltrans, 2014)
limit the number of partially debonded strands to 33% of the total number of strands
and the number of debonded strands in any horizontal row to 50% of the strands in
that row. Increases in development length at ultimate are also addressed in Article
5.11.4.3 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).
Due to the limitations in number of debonded strands at the girder bottom, the
temporary stress at girder top at the ends may still exceed the allowable stress limits,
especially for longer span girders. One solution is to use temporary strands at the
girder tops that are shielded along the member length except at the girder ends. These
strands can be cut at a later stage such as erection, when they are no longer needed,
by providing an access pocket formed in the girder top.

8.3 PRECAST BRIDGE TYPES

There are three main PC bridge types: i) precast pretensioned girders, ii) precast
post-tensioned spliced girders, and iii) precast segmental girders. Table 8.3-1
summarizes the typical span lengths for these bridge types.
Table 8.3-1 Precast Bridge Types and Span Lengths (Caltrans, 2012)
Possible Span Preferred Span
Bridge Type
Length (ft) Length (ft)
Precast pretensioned girder 30 to 200 30 to 180
Post-tensioned spliced girder 100 to 325 120 to 250
Precast segmental girder 200 to 450 250 to 400
The selection among these three bridge types is normally decided by span length
requirements. As shown in Table 8.3-1, a single precast, pretensioned girder could be
designed to span from 20 ft to 200 ft. Trucking length, crane capacity, and
transporting routes may limit the girder length (and weight) that could be delivered.
Therefore, a girder may need to be manufactured in two or more segments and
shipped before being spliced together on-site to its full span length. Such splicing
techniques can be applied by using post-tensioning systems for both single-span and
multiple-span bridges, which span up to 325 ft. For span lengths over approximately
250 ft, precast segmental girder bridges may be considered, which is beyond the
scope of this document. Section 8.3.3 further addresses spliced girder bridges.
8.3.1 Single-Span Bridges
As the simplest application of PC girders, single-span bridges normally consist of

single girders. As shown in Figure 8.3-1, girders are set onto bearing pads at seat-
type abutments. Dead and live load effects are based on a simply supported
condition. PC girders obviously lend themselves to being single-span elements
because they are fabricated as single elements. Abutments can be seat-type or end
diaphragm-type.
Figure 8.3-1 Single-Span I Beam Lowered onto Abutments at Mustang Wash

Bridge (Bridge No. 54-1279L, Caltrans)

8.3.2 Multi-Span Bridges
Many design considerations for single-span bridges apply to multi-span bridges

because girders or girder segments exist as single-span elements for several stages,
namely, fabrication, transportation, erection, and deck pour. In addition, some multi-
span bridges or portions thereof are constructed using expansion joints that can
produce a simply supported condition for a span.
Most multi-span bridges are constructed with simple-span girders made
continuous for live load to increase efficiency and redundancy. Limiting expansion
joints, designing deck reinforcement to serve as negative moment reinforcement at
interior bents, and providing girder continuity at bents by using a continuous CIP
deck and/or CIP diaphragms accomplishes this.
In addition, some bridges are detailed to provide an integral connection with full
moment transfer between the superstructure and substructure. To achieve this, use
CIP diaphragms at bent caps; reinforcing bars between the bent cap, diaphragm, and
girders; and/or longitudinal post-tensioning. An integral connection provides not only
longitudinal continuity for live load but also longitudinal continuity for seismic
loading. Due to moment continuity between the superstructure and substructure,
columns in multi-column bents may be designed to be pinned at their base, thus
reducing foundation cost.
The following sections summarize three typical bent cap configurations for
achieving continuity in multi-span bridges:
Drop caps
Inverted-tee caps
Integral caps with precast post-tensioned girders
8.3.2.1 Drop Caps
Figure 8.3-2 Drop Cap at Chuckwalla Wash Bridge

(Bridge No. 54-1278L, Caltrans)

Drop caps are bent caps that provide intermediate supports for girders together
with live-load continuity (Figure 8.3-2). Drop caps are commonly detailed to provide
a non-integral connection-without moment continuity to the substructure but with
moment continuity in the superstructure through negative moment reinforcement in
the deck. Simple-span girders are placed on bearing pads at the top of drop caps.
Girders at the top of drop caps are normally tied together with a CIP diaphragm and
dowels placed through the webs at the ends of the girders. As shown in Figure 8.3-3,
steel pipe shear keys may extend from the top of the drop cap into the CIP
diaphragms at bent caps. With pipe shear keys, moment transfer is prevented between
the superstructure and substructure, and the bearing can more easily be replaced if
needed.
Figure 8.3-3 Nonintegral Drop Cap Detail Using Pipe Shear Key

With proper design and detailing of the diaphragm and bent cap, an integral
connection can be developed between the superstructure and substructure, as shown
in Figure 8.3-4. For example, the system can be designed to emulate seismic
performance of a continuous CIP PT concrete bridge if the joint between girder and
cap (due to positive moment during a seismic event) is prevented from opening. One
method is to extend pretensioning strands through the joint for development within
the cap, in accordance with the requirements of MTD 20-6 (Caltrans, 2001). As
mentioned in the subsequent section on integral caps with post-tensioned precast
girders, post-tensioning of the girders to the cap at intermediate supports can also be
used. The designer is encouraged to clearly detail the reinforcement between the
superstructure, diaphragm, and bent cap so that conditions assumed in design
realistically match field conditions.
Figure 8.3-4 Integral Drop Cap Detail
Adequate seat width must be provided for drop caps to prevent unseating due to
longitudinal displacement in a seismic event. Aesthetics should also be considered in
the use of drop caps, as they lack the clean lines of inverted-tee caps or CIP PT box
girders with integral caps.

8.3.2.2 Inverted-Tee Caps
Using an upside down T shaped cross section with a ledge, inverted-tee caps
combine the ability to place precast girders directly on the bent and the aesthetic
appeal of the flush bottom of cap with the precast girders. Hooked reinforcement
extending from side faces of the cap is placed between girders, and a diaphragm is
cast to tie the girders and cap together. A deck is later cast for live-load continuity.
This is shown in Figures 8.3-5 and 8.3-6.
Figure 8.3-5 Dapped End Girder with Inverted-Tee Cap (Snyder, 2010)

Figure 8.3-6 Existing Inverted-Tee to Dapped End

Girder Connection Detail
Designers have commonly modeled this connection as a pin (i.e., non-integral

connection between the superstructure and substructure) due to the assumption that
the connection would degrade to a pin in a seismic event. However, recent research
demonstrated that plastic hinges do indeed form at the column top, confirming that
moment continuity develops due to the use of CIP diaphragm and dowel bars through
the girder webs (Snyder, 2010). For this connection type, continuity at the column
top may be assumed, and joints may be designed for the force transfer associated
with plastic hinging. Confining reinforcement at the column top is required.
Designers should consult with the Caltrans Earthquake Committee for further
Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) updates and instructions for seismic design of invert-
tee cap-girder connections.
8.3.2.3 Integral Caps with Precast Post-Tensioned Girders
Post-tensioning PC girders through a CIP bent creates an integral connection

between the superstructure and substructure as well as a frame that is continuous for
service, strength, and extreme event limit states (Figure 8.3-7). In addition, such a
connection provides a means for bridge widening using PC girders to match the
performance and appearance of an existing CIP PT bridge. Without an integral
connection, continuity is not effectively developed at the bent cap, which would
require columns and foundations to be designed to provide the necessary fixity at the
base of the structure.
If the connection between post-tensioned PC girders and the bent cap is designed
and detailed properly, the system can emulate the seismic performance of a
continuous CIP PT concrete bridge (Holombo et al., 2000; Castrodale and White,
2004). Post-tensioning of the girders to the cap and intermediate supports is intended

to prevent joint opening due to positive moment during a seismic event. Extending
bottom pretensioning strands into the cap for development provides positive moment
capacity.
Figure 8.3-7 Integral Bent Cap Connection Using Longitudinal

Post-tensioning of PC Girders

8.3.3 Spliced Girder Bridges
Due to limitations in transportation length and member weight, as well as

stressing bed size, a girder may need to be fabricated in two or more segments and
shipped before being spliced together on-site to its full span length. Such splicing
techniques can be applied to both single-span and multiple-span bridges. By using
this approach, the designer has significant flexibility in selecting the span length,
number and location of intermediate supports, segment lengths and splice locations.
Splicing is more commonly used for multi-span bridge construction. However,
spliced girders have also been used successfully in the construction of several single-
span bridges in California such as the Angeles Crest Bridge (208 ft).
Splicing of girders is typically conducted on-site, either on the ground adjacent to
or nearby the bridge location, or in place using temporary supports. Figure 8.3-8
shows two precast bathtub girder segments being placed on temporary supports in
preparation for field splicing at midspan.
Figure 8.3-8 Precast Bathtub Girder Segments Spliced Near Midspan Using
Temporary Supports at Harbor Blvd. Overcrossing
(Bridge No. 22-0108, Caltrans)
Full continuity needs to be developed between spliced girder segments. This is

commonly achieved using post-tensioning tendons between segments and mechanical
coupling of reinforcement that is extended from the ends of the girder segments
within a CIP closure pour. Figure 8.3-9 shows these details at the closure pour,
including the use of couplers for PT ducts and ultimate splice couplers for
reinforcement.

Figure 8.3-9 Details of Spliced Girder Closure Pour Using Mechanical

Splices and PT Duct Couplers (Bridge No. 22-0108, Caltrans)
Post-tensioning spliced girders not only provides continuity but also enhances
structural efficiency. Post-tensioning enhances interface shear capacity across the
splice joint (closure pour), which normally includes roughened surfaces or shear keys
(Figure 8.3-9).
When splicing together multiple spans of PC girders, it is critical that the precast
girder placement, post-tensioning sequence, and material properties be properly
defined. Figure 8.3-10 shows the construction sequence of a typical two-span (or
multi-span) spliced girder bridge. At each stage, the following must be checked:
concrete compressive strength and stiffness, creep and shrinkage of concrete, and
tension force in the prestressing steel (and debonded length, if needed). The designer
must consider each stage as the design of an individual bridge with given constraints
and properties defined by the previous stage.

Figure 8.3-10 Spliced Bridge Construction Sequence

(Bridge No. 22-0108, Caltrans)

The simplest multi-span precast spliced girder system includes consideration of a

minimum of four stages or steps after fabrication and before service loads, as
follows:
Transportation: The girder acts as a simply supported beam, with
supports defined by the locations used by the trucking company.
Typically, the manufacturer or trucking company is responsible for
design and check of loads, stability, and bracing during transportation
and erection of the girder.
Erection: The girder initially acts as a simply supported beam, with
supports defined by the abutments, bents or temporary falsework
locations. A CIP closure pour is placed after coupling of PT tendons and
reinforcing bars in the splice joint. Optionally, a first stage of post-
tensioning may be applied before the deck pour instead of after the deck
pour (not shown in Figure 8.3-10).
Deck pour: The deck is poured but not composite with the girders until
attaining full strength. Therefore, the girders alone carry girder self-
weight and the wet deck weight.
Post-tensioning: The hardened deck and girder act compositely, and the
girders are spliced together longitudinally using post-tensioning. As the
number of girders that are spliced and the stages of post-tensioning
increases, so does the complexity of design.

8.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

PC girder design must address three basic stagestransfer, service, and
ultimateas well as additional stages if post-tensioning is introduced. PC girder
design, including section size, prestress force (number and size of strands), strand
layout, and material properties, may be governed by any of these stages. Although
design for flexure dominates the PC girder design process, other aspects must also be
considered, such as prestress losses, girder shear and interface shear strength,
deflection and camber, anchorage zones, diaphragms, and end blocks. The following
sections briefly introduce the various aspects of PC girder design.
The designer is encouraged to read the references cited in the following sections,
particularly LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), Caltrans Amendments
(Caltrans, 2014), Caltrans Memo To Designers (MTD) 11-8 (Caltrans, 2014),
Caltrans Bridge Design Aids 6-1 (Caltrans, 2012), and Chapters 5 and 6.
8.4.1 Materials
8.4.1.1 Concrete
Concrete used in PC girders produced under plant-controlled conditions is

typically of higher strength and higher quality than for CIP concrete. Per MTD 11-8,
the minimum concrete compressive strength at release, fci, and minimum 28-day
concrete compressive strength, fc, for PC girders is 4 ksi. In addition, the concrete
compressive strength at release, fci, may be selected as large as 7 ksi and fc as large
as 10 ksi. However, designers should verify with local fabricators economical ranges
of fci on a project-specific basis, especially for fci and fc exceeding these limits.
Minimum concrete compressive strengths may also be specified at girder erection
and for post tensioning, when used.
In most PC girder design, a relatively large value of fci is used in design, which
typically controls the overall concrete mix design. If an excessively large value of fci
is required in design to resist temporary tensile stresses at transfer in areas other than
the precompressed tensile zone, such as the top flange at girder ends, then bonded
reinforcement or prestress strands may be designed to resist the tensile force in the
concrete, per stress limits in LRFD Specifications Table 5.9.4.1.2-1 (AASHTO,
2012). This helps reduce the required fci used in design.
The relatively large value of fci used in design also results in a relatively large
value of fc (e.g., often in excess of 7 ksi), which is normally larger than that required
to satisfy the concrete compressive strength requirements at the serviceability and/or
ultimate limit state. In cases where a larger fci is required to produce an economical
design (e.g., girders of long span, shallow depth, or wide spacing), high strength
concrete mixes that require longer than the normal 28-day period may be specified.
Current Standard Specifications allow 42 days for achieving specified strength and
56 days for low cement mixes. However, designers should verify the impact of such a
decision on the overall construction schedule.

Advantages of the concrete used in PC girders produced under plant-controlled

conditions are wide ranging. Higher modulus of elasticity and lower creep, shrinkage,
and permeability are by-products of the relatively higher compressive strength and
steam curing process used for PC girders. In addition, reduced effects of creep and
shrinkage for PC girders occur after installation because most creep and shrinkage
occurs prior to erection. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and regional
materials may also be used for benefits in cost, material properties, and
environmental impact through the use of in-house batch plants, mix designs, and
sustainability practices.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC), a highly flowable yet cohesive concrete that
consolidates under its own weight, is becoming more commonly used in precast
plants. It provides significant advantages such as elimination of external and internal
vibration for consolidation and reduced manual labor and equipment requirements
resulting in reduced construction time; excellent consolidation, even in congested
regions of reinforcement; higher level of quality control; extremely smooth concrete
surfaces, even in negative draft regions; eliminated need for patching; increased
safety; and lower noise levels, usually combined with higher strength and improved
durability. Some disadvantages of SCC include more costly material, stricter control
on selection and measurement of materials, larger number of trial batches, greater
sensitivity to water content, more rapid hardening, faster drying, higher formwork
design loads (for fluid pressure), as well as greater experience and care in handling
and production of SCC.
8.4.1.2 Steel
For economy, PC girders commonly use 0.6 in. diameter, 270 ksi (Grade 270),
low-relaxation strands. Use of 0.5 in. diameter strands is less common because the
0.6 in. diameter strands provide a significantly higher efficiency due to a 42%
increase in capacity. However, 0.375 in. diameter strands are commonly used for
stay-in-place, precast deck panels. If epoxy coated prestressing strands are required, a
note should be shown on the design plans, and the corresponding section of the
Standard Specifications should be used.
Deformed welded wire reinforcement (WWR), conforming to ASTM A497 and
Caltrans Standard Specifications based on a maximum tensile strength of 60 ksi, is
permitted and commonly used as shear reinforcement in PC girder design.
8.4.2 Prestress Losses
From the time prestressing strands are initially stressed, they undergo changes in
stress that must be accounted for in design. Figure 8.4-1 illustrates the change in
strand stress over time for a typical pretensioned girder.

Figure 8.4-1 Strand Stress vs. Time in Pretensioned Girder

(Tadros et al., 2003)
Prestress losses in prestressed concrete members consist of instantaneous (or

immediate) and time-dependent losses in prestressing strands. Total losses can be
estimated using the LRFD Specifications approach:
fpT = fpES fpLT (AASHTO 5.9.5.1-1)
where:
fpT = total change in stress due to losses (ksi)
fpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time
of application of prestress and/or external loads (ksi)
fpLT = losses due to long-term shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of
the steel (ksi)
Losses are normally defined from the time of initial stress (immediately after
seating of strands for PC girders). Time-dependent losses of prestress include
concrete creep and shrinkage and steel relaxation. LRFD Specifications (AASHTO,
2012) provides an approximate estimate and refined estimate for determining time-
dependent losses. The background can be found in the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 496, Prestress Losses in Pretensioned
High-Strength Concrete Bridge Girders (Tadros et al., 2003).
For PC girders, instantaneous loss refers to loss of prestress due to elastic
shortening of the girder at transfer. Elastic gain refers to increase in strand stress due
to strand extension related to application of external loads.

A reasonable estimate of prestress losses is critical to properly estimate the

required prestress force (and thus the required number of strands). Overestimating
losses leads to a larger than necessary initial prestress force, which results in larger
initial tensile and compressive stresses and may, in turn, result in cracking and larger
than expected camber. Overestimation of losses tends to reduce design efficiency
because of the increase in number of strands, fci cost of the concrete mix, and/or
curing time. In addition, problems in girder placement and haunch height in the field
may result from excessive camber. Although underestimating losses could potentially
produce adverse effects such as flexural cracking in the precompressed tensile zone
at service level, such problems have rarely been found to occur in practice.
8.4.2.1 Instantaneous Losses
In PC girders, the entire prestressing force is applied to the concrete in a single

operation. For pretensioned members, the loss due to elastic shortening can be
calculated from AASHTO Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1, as shown below:
Ep
f pES fcgp (AASHTO 5.9.5.2.3a-1)
Ect
where:
fpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the
time of application of prestress and/or external loads (ksi)
fcgp = the concrete stress at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to
the prestressing force immediately after transfer and the self-weight of
the member at the section of maximum moment (ksi)
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel (ksi)
Ect = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer or time of load application
(ksi)
Calculation of fpES requires iteration for fcgp. However, iteration can be avoided
by using LRFD Specifications Eq. C5.9.5.2.3a-1 (AASHTO, 2012) for fpES. It is
important that LRFD Specifications Articles C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 be consulted
when using transformed section properties in the stress analysis.
8.4.2.2 Time-Dependent Losses
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) provides two methods to estimate the

time-dependent prestress losses: approximate method (Article 5.9.5.3) and refined
method (Article 5.9.5.4). This chapter introduces a sample calculation using the
approximate method. However, for cases in which the refined method is required or
preferred, the designer should consult Article 5.9.5.4 of AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO,
2012). Chapter 9 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual (2011) provides useful PC girder
design examples with prestress loss calculations using both the refined and
approximate methods.

Per Article 5.9.5.3, the approximate method is applicable to standard precast,

pretensioned members subject to normal loading and environmental conditions,
where:
Members are made from normal-weight concrete
Concrete is either steam- or moist-cured
Prestressing strands use low relaxation properties
Average exposure conditions and temperatures characterize the site
In addition, the estimate is intended for sections with composite decks. This
method should not be used for uncommon shapes (volume-to-surface ratios, V/S,
significantly different than 3.5 in.), unusual level of prestressing, or with complex
construction staging.
Long-term prestress losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation
of steel are estimated using the following formula, in which the three terms
corresponds to creep, shrinkage, and relaxation, respectively:
f pi Aps
f pLT 10 h st 12 h st f pR (AASHTO 5.9.5.3-1)
Ag
where:
Ag = gross area of girder section
Aps = area of prestressing steel
h = correction factor for relative humidity of ambient air
= 1.7-0.01H
st = correction factor for specified concrete strength time at of prestress
transfer to concrete member
= 5/(1+ fc)
fpR = an estimation of relaxation loss taken as 2.4 ksi for low relaxation strand,
10 ksi for stress relieved strand, and in accordance with manufacturers
recommendation for other types of strand (ksi)
8.4.3 Flexure
Bridge Design Practice provides a detailed summary of flexural design

provisions, with limit states for service (including transfer), strength, and fatigue in
accordance with LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and Caltrans Amendments
(Caltrans, 2014). Figures 8.2-3 through 8.2-6 illustrate the change in flexural stress
distribution near midspan for a typical PC girder at transfer, deck pour, and service
level.

MTD 11-8 provides specific guidance for design of PC girders, addressing issues
such as:
Order of design (service limit state followed by strength check)
Live load continuity and negative moment reinforcement over the bents
Determination of Pj and centroid of PS steel (CGS) and their inclusion on
plan sheets
Harping versus debonding, including tolerances for harping and
debonding provisions
Use of temporary strands and associated blockouts
Positive moment reinforcement for continuous spans
Design modifications for long span girders
In addition, the following practical aspects should also be noted in carrying out
flexural design of PC girders:
The initial girder section size is typically based on the minimum depth-
to-span ratio required for a given girder type.
The specified concrete compressive strengths (initial and 28-day) are
commonly governed by the initial compressive strength, fc , required to
limit stresses at transfer.
The total prestress force (number and size of strands) and strand layout
are usually determined to satisfy the service limit state (Service III) but
may have to be revised to satisfy flexural strength at ultimate (Strength
II, California P-15 permit truck).
Girder design is based on the minimum overall depth when computing
capacity of the section.
8.4.4 Shear
8.4.4.1 Shear Design for Girders
Per MTD 11-8, shear design of PC girders is performed using the sectional
method specified in LRFD Specifications Article 5.8.3 (AASHTO, 2012). The
sectional method is based on the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT),
which provides a unified approach for shear design for both prestressed and
reinforced concrete components (Collins and Mitchell, 1991). The MCFT is based on
a variable angle truss model in which the diagonal compression field angle varies
continuously, rather than being fixed at 45 as assumed in prior codes. For
prestressed girders, the compression field angle for design is typically in the range of
20 to 40.
Per Article 5.8.3.4.3 of the California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014), the LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) simplified shear design procedure cannot be used in
PC girder design.

For disturbed regions, such as those occurring at dapped ends, shear provisions
using the strut and tie method should be used (AASHTO, 2012).
In the sectional method, a component is investigated by comparing the factored
shear force and the factored shear resistance at a number of sections along the
member length. Usually this check is made at a minimum of tenth points along the
span as well as at locations near the supports.
Because shear design typically follows flexural design, certain benefits can be
realized in shear design. For example, when harped strands are used, the vertical
component of the harped strand force contributes to shear resistance. In addition, the
higher strength concrete specified for flexure enhances the Vc term for shear design.
Because flexure-shear interaction must be checked per Article 5.8.3.5 of LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), the longitudinal reinforcementbased on flexural
designmust be checked after shear design, to ensure that sufficient longitudinal
reinforcement is provided to resist not only flexure (and any axial forces along the
member), but also the horizontal component of a diagonal compression strut that
generates a demand for longitudinal reinforcement. LRFD Specifications (AASHTO,
2012) includes an upper limit on the nominal shear resistance, Vn, that is independent
of transverse reinforcement, to prevent web crushing prior to yielding of transverse
reinforcement.
For skewed bridges, live load shear demand in the exterior girder of an obtuse
angle must be magnified in accordance with LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012)
Article 4.6.2.2.3c unless a three-dimensional skewed model is used.
To accommodate field bending of stirrups, #4 or #5 stirrups are commonly
preferred. In most cases, the size of stirrups should not exceed #6.
8.4.4.2 Interface Shear Design
Interface shear should be designed based on the shear friction provisions of

LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) Article 5.8.4 and MTD 11-8.
8.4.5 Deflection and Camber
8.4.5.1 Key Aspects for Design
Designers must address potentially challenging issues related to downward

deflection and upward camber of PC girders. Camber in a PC girder occurs
instantaneously at transfer but can increase to much larger values long-term,
particularly due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. Excessive camber at erection
may cause potential intrusion of the top flange of the girder into the CIP deck.
Although the contractor is responsible for deflection and camber calculations (per
Caltrans Standard Specifications and MTD 11-8), the designer is responsible for
specifying a midspan haunch thickness and calculating the minimum haunch
thickness at supports, which affects the total bridge depth at both mid-span and at
supports. In order to calculate the minimum haunch thickness at supports, girder
deflections at release and at erection, as well as immediate girder deflection due to

the deck weight, must be considered. To complete the deflection design and provide
better construction support, the following guidelines are recommended:
Specify unfactored instantaneous girder deflections on plan sheets: Per
Caltrans Standard Specifications, the contractor is responsible for
deflection and camber calculations and any required adjustments for
deck concrete placement to satisfy minimum vertical clearance, deck
profile grades, and cross slope requirements. However, the designer must
provide, on plan sheets, the unfactored instantaneous girder deflections
due to:
o Deck and haunch weight on the non-composite girder
o Weight of barrier rail and future wearing surface on the composite
girder-deck section
These deflection components are used to set screed grades in the field.
For spliced girders, instantaneous upward deflections due to post-
tensioning at different stages should be shown on the design plans.
Determine minimum haunch thickness and specify on plan sheets: The

haunch is the layer of concrete placed between the top flange of the
girder and bottom of deck to ensure proper bearing. It accommodates
construction tolerances such as unknown camber of the girder at time of
erection. Because camber values vary along the span length, the actual
haunch thickness varies along the span, too. The designer should specify
the haunch thickness at mid-span and then calculate the minimum
required haunch thickness at supports.
The haunch:
o Accommodates variation in actual camber
o Allows the contractor to adjust screed grades
o Eliminates potential intrusion of the top flange of the girder into the
CIP deck
o Establishes the seat elevation at supports
Cross slope and width at the top flange of the girder should be
considered in determining the specified midspan haunch thickness.
The typical section should show:
o Minimum structure depth at centerline of bearing at the supports,
including girder depth, deck thickness, plus calculated haunch
thickness
o Minimum structure depth at mid-span, including girder depth, deck
thickness, plus any haunch thickness the designer specifies
It should be noted that for girders with large flange widths, such as the
CA wide-flange girder, a larger haunch thickness might add a significant
concrete quantity and weight to the design.

Satisfy LRFD Specifications for live load deflection: Service level

deflections may be checked per Article 2.5.2.6.2 of LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2012), which suggests a limit of L/800 for live load
deflection due to HL-93 vehicular loading. This is an optional check and
not required per LRFD Specifications. Because this is an instantaneous
deflection check, no multipliers for long-term deflection should be used.
The modulus of elasticity should be determined based on Eq. 5.4.2.4-1 of
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and the effective moment of
inertia, Ie, should be used per Article 5.7.3.6.2.
Verify girder camber is controlled at key stages: The designer may work
with the construction structure representative to ensure that the estimated
PC girder camber and camber growth are controlled throughout all key
stages, such as fabrication, erection, deck placement, and service level.
Camber should not be excessive (i.e., causing concern over intrusion of
the top flange of the girder into the CIP deck) and should be positive
(upward) under both short-term and long-term conditions. This requires
the designer to be aware of girder deflection due to prestress force and
dead loads, as well as the timing of their application. This can be
especially important for bridge widenings. When more accurate camber
values are required for unusual cases such as widening of a long span
bridge, the assumed age of the girder at various stages may need to be
shown on plan sheets.
8.4.5.2 Calculation Approaches
Total deflection of a girder at any stage is the sum of the short-term and long-
term deflections. Short-term deflections are immediate deflections based on the
modulus of elasticity and effective moment of inertia of the appropriate section.
Some loads (such as girder and deck self-weight) are carried by precast girder alone,
while others loads are carried by the much stiffer composite girder-deck system (such
as barriers, overlays, as well as live loads). Long-term deflections consist of long-
term deflections at erection and long-term deflection at final stage (may be assumed
to be approximately 20 years). Long-term deflections at erection are more coarsely
determined because of the highly variable effects of creep and shrinkage. Therefore,
although theoretical values and various procedures to determine instantaneous and
long-term camber and deflection of PC girders are available, calculated values must
be viewed as merely estimates.
Table 8.4-1 lists common equations for instantaneous camber of PC girders for
different prestress configurations. Long-term deflections at erection and final stage
are typically estimated based on one of three approaches:
Historic multipliers (e.g., Table 8.7.1-1 of PCI Bridge Design Manual
(2011) shown as Table 8.4-2 below)
Modified multipliers based on regional industry experience
Detailed time-step analysis accounting for various construction stages
and varying material properties

Table 8.4-1 Camber and Rotation Values for Various Prestress Configurations
(Naaman, 2004)
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4

Table 8.4-2 PCI-Recommended Multipliers for Estimating Long-term Camber and

Deflection for Typical PC Members (PCI, 2011)
Without With
At Erection Composite Composite
Topping Topping
Deflection () component: Apply to the elastic
(1) deflection due to the member weight at transfer of 1.85 1.85
prestress
Camber () component: Apply to the elastic camber
(2) 1.8 1.8
due to prestress at the time of transfer of prestress
Final
(3) deflection due to the member weight at transfer of 2.7 2.4
prestress
Camber () component: Apply to the elastic camber
(4) 2.45 2.2
due to prestress at the time of transfer of prestress
(5) 3 3
deflection due to superimposed dead load only
(6) --- 2.3
Deflection caused by the composite topping
Use of multipliers (either historic or regionally modified) for girders is the most
common approach for estimating long-term deflections at erection of routine bridges
in California. The design example of Section 8.6 uses the historic multiplier method.
Instantaneous deflection due to prestressing force and girder weight is calculated at
release. Long-term deflection of precast concrete girders at erection is then calculated
as the instantaneous deflection multiplied by a multiplier. In performing calculations,
camber due to prestressing force and the self-weight of girder, as well as deflections
due to the weight of deck and haunch are calculated using the initial modulus of
elasticity of concrete and section properties for the non-composite girder. Then,
deflections due to the concrete barrier and future-wearing surface are calculated using
gross composite section properties.
The historic multiplier method is a simple and straightforward method. Even
though it is found to give reasonably accurate prediction of the deflection at time of
erection, it, however, is not recommended for estimating long-term deflection of
bridges comprise of beams that are made composite with cast-in-place deck slab.
This method does not account for the relatively significant effects of cast-in-place
concrete deck, as described here. Once the deck is hardened, it restrains the beam
from creeping upward (due to prestressing). In addition, the differential creep and
shrinkage between girders and cast-in-place concrete deck results in changes of the
bridge member deformation.
The design example in Section 8.6 illustrates the use of Table 8.4-2 to estimate
long-term camber and deflection to determine minimum required haunch thickness at
supports. Chapter 9 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual (2011) provides additional
example calculations for camber and deflection.

8.4.6 Anchorage Zones
8.4.6.1 Splitting Resistance
End splitting can occur along prestressing strands due to local bursting stresses in
the pretensioned anchorage zone. To prevent failure, Article 5.10.10 of LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) requires vertical reinforcement, As, to be provided
within a distance h/4 from the end of the girder to provide splitting or bursting
resistance given by the following equation:
Pr = fs As (AASHTO 5.10.10.1-1)
where:
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance h/4 from end
of beam (in.2)
fs = stress in steel not to exceed 20 ksi
Pr= factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage zone provided by
transverse reinforcement (kip)
Per LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) Article 5.10.10.1, fs should not
exceed 20 ksi and Pr should not be taken as less than 4% of the total prestressing
force at transfer.
For spliced precast girders where post-tensioning is directly applied to the girder
end block, general zone reinforcement is required at the end block of the anchorage
area based on Article 5.10.9 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).
8.4.6.2 Confinement Reinforcement
Article 5.10.10.2 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) requires

reinforcement be placed to confine the prestressing steel in the bottom flange, over
the distance 1.5d from the end of the girder, using #3 rebar or larger with spacing not
to exceed 6 in. and shaped to enclose the strands.
8.4.7 Diaphragms and End Blocks
Although intermediate diaphragms may not be required per Article 5.13.2.2 of

LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), Caltrans practice and MTD 11-8 specify the
use of one or more intermediate diaphragms for girders longer than 80 ft to improve
distribution of loads between girders and to help stabilize the girders during
construction. Also, per Article 5.13.2.2 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012),
end diaphragms are required at abutments, piers, and hinge joints. Due to increase in
fabrication inefficiencies, girder weight, and overall cost, end blocks should only be
used where essential for shear resistance. For more information, see MTD 11-8.

8.4.8 Lateral Stability
Because PC girders tend to be rather long slender members, they should be

checked for lateral stability during all construction stages, including handling,
transportation, and erection. Fabricators are normally responsible for all girder
stability checks. However, the designer is encouraged to consider and verify lateral
stability during design, especially when non-standard girders are selected.
Procedures for checking lateral stability were developed by Mast, 1989 and 1993,
and recently summarized in Section 8.10 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual. Some
commercial software incorporates this method. The designer should verify specific
assumed support and stability parameters (e.g., support locations, impact, transport
stiffness, super elevation, height of girder center of gravity and roll center above
road, and transverse distance between centerline of girder and center of dual tire)
with local fabricators, contractors, and other engineers, as appropriate.

8.5 DESIGN FLOW CHART

The following flow chart shows the typical steps for designing single-span precast, prestressed
concrete girders. The example in the next section closely follows this flow chart.
START
DEVELOP GEOMETRY
- Select Girder Type and Spacing
- Determine Structure Depth
- Check Deck Thickness
SELECT MATERIALS
- Select Material Properties for Concrete and Steel
CALCULATE SECTION PROPERTIES

- Calculate Precast Section Properties
- Calculate Composite Section Properties
DETERMINE LOADS AND PERFORM STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

- Calculate DC, DW, LL
- Calculate Distribution Factors
- Calculate Unfactored Shear and Moment Envelopes
ESTIMATE PRESTRESS FORCE

- Estimate of PS Force under Service Limit III
- Calculate Required Area of Strands and CGS
ESTIMATE PRESTRESS LOSSES

- Estimate Elastic Shortening
- Estimate Long-Tem Losses (Approximate or Refined Method)
DESIGN FOR SERVICE LIMIT STATE

- Check Concrete Stress at Release Condition
- Check Concrete Stress at Service Condition
NO
Stress Limits
YES
DESIGN FOR STRENGTH LIMIT STATE - FLEXURE

- Calculate Factored Applied Moment, Mu
- Calculate Nominal Flexural Resistance, Mn
- Check Reinforcement Limits
NO
Determine Additional Mn Mu?
Required Aps or As
YES
DESIGN FOR STRENGTH LIMIT STATE - SHEAR

- Calculate Factored Applied Shear, Vu
- Calculate Concrete Shear Resistance, Vc
- Calculate Required Shear Reinforcement
- Check Spacing and Reinforcement Limits
MORE

CONTINUED
DESIGN FOR INTERFACE SHEAR

- Calculate Interface Shear Reinforcement
- Check Reinforcement Limits
- Check Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
CHECK MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

- Check Longitudinal Reinforcement for V-M Interaction
DESIGN FOR ANCHORAGE ZONE

- Design Pretensioned Anchorage Zone Reinforcement:
Vertical and Confinement
DETERMINE CAMBER, DEFLECTION, AND HAUNCH THICKNESS

- Calculate Deck and Rail Deflections for Contract Plans
- Check Live Load Deflection against AASHTO LRFD criteria
- Determine Minimum Haunch Thickness at Supports for Contract Plans
END
Figure 8.5-1 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Girder Design Flow Chart

8.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE

This example illustrates the design procedure for a typical PC girder using the
AASHTO Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and California Amendments (Caltrans,
2014).
To demonstrate the process, a typical interior girder of a 70 ft single-span bridge
with no skew is designed using a standard California PC I girder with composite CIP
deck to resist flexure and shear due to dead and live loads. The design live load used
for service limit design (Service I and III) is the HL-93 design truck, and the Caltrans
P15 design truck is used for the strength limit design (Strength II). Elastic flexural
stresses for initial and final service limit checks are based on transformed sections.
The LRFD Specifications Approximate Method is used to estimate long-term, time-
dependent prestress losses based on gross section properties. Shear design is
performed using the sectional method.
Major design steps include establishing structural geometry, selecting girder type
and spacing, selecting materials, performing structural analysis, estimating prestress
force, estimating prestress losses, service limit state design, strength limit state
design, shear design, anchorage zone design, determining girder deflections and
determining minimum haunch thickness at supports.
8.6.1 Problem Statement
A 70 ft simple-span bridge is proposed to carry highway traffic across a river.

Preliminary studies have resulted in the selection of a PC concrete bridge based on
traffic and environmental constraints at the site. Figures 8.6-1 and 8.6-2 show the
elevation and plan views of the bridge, respectively. The span length (from centerline
of bearing to centerline of bearing) is 70 ft and the girder length is 71 ft.
The required bridge deck width is 35 ft, which includes a 32 ft roadway and two
1.5 ft concrete barriers. Three inches of polyester concrete overlay are assumed to be
placed on the bridge as a future-wearing surface (additional dead load on girders).
Design of a typical interior girder must satisfy all requirements of LRFD
Specifications Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) for all limit states.

Girder Length = 71'-0"
Span Length = 70'-0"
Figure 8.6-1 Elevation View of the Example Bridge

Direction of
flow
shoulder
12-0"
BB EB Traffic Lane
CL Freeway
35-0"
12-0"
Traffic Lane
shoulder
Figure 8.6-2 Plan View of Example Bridge

8.6.2 Select Girder Depth, Type, and Spacing
For a 70 ft span, the standard California I girder section has been found to be an
efficient section, with a minimum structure depth-to-span length ratio (D/L) of 0.055
for simple spans, based on Chapter 6 of Caltrans Bridge Design Aids (2012). Also for
PC girders, a girder spacing-to-structure depth ratio (S/D) of 1.5 is commonly used.
Span length, L = 70 ft
Assuming:
Structure Depth, Ds
= 0.055
Span Length, L
The minimum depth is: Ds = 0.055 (70) = 3.85 ft
Because the deck thickness is based on girder spacing and girder spacing is based
on structure depth, the concrete slab thickness must be initially assumed. Assume a
slab thickness of 7 in. and later verify this value using Table 10-20.1(a) Deck Slab
Thickness and Reinforcement Schedule in Memo To Designers (Caltrans, 2008b)
after the girder spacing has been determined.
Therefore, the minimum girder height = 3.85 (12) 7 = 39.2 in.
Select a 42 in. standard California I girder (CA I42) from BDA 6-1, slightly
larger than the minimum height.
Assuming a haunch thickness, th = 1 in. at midspan:
The structure depth, Ds = 42 + 1 + 7 = 50 in. (4.17 ft)
Ds 4.17
= =0.060 > 0.055 OK
L 70
The center-center girder spacing is determined as follows:

Maximum girder spacing, S = 1.5 Ds = 1.5 (4.17 ft) = 6.26 ft
Total bridge width = 35 ft (assumed)
Try a girder spacing, S = 6 ft
35 - 6 (5 spacings)
Overhang length= =2.5 ft
2 overhangs
According to MTD 10-20, Attachment 1 (Caltrans, 2013), overhangs should be
less than half the girder spacing (S/2) or 6 ft maximum.
2.5
= 0.42 ft < 0.50 ft OK
6
Therefore, use 6 ft girder spacing.
Determine deck thickness:

From MTD Table 10-20.1(b) Deck Slab Thickness and Reinforcement Schedule
(Caltrans, 2008b), for girder centerline-to-centerline spacing of 6 ft, the required slab
thickness is 7 in. Therefore, a 7 in. deck thickness can be used.
The established typical cross section of the bridge is presented in Figure 8.6-3. It
consists of six standard California 3 ft - 6 in. PC I-girders (CA I42) with a 7 in. CIP
composite deck and two Type 736 concrete barriers.
1-6 1-6
0'-7" 4'-2"
Concrete
3'-6"" Barrier
PC I-Girder, Typ.
Figure 8.6-3 Typical Bridge Cross Section.
8.6.3 Establish Loading Sequence
The loading sequence and corresponding stresses for a single-span PC girder are
normally considered at three distinct stages, as summarized in Table 8.6-1. The table
also indicates what section (non-composite versus composite) resists the applied
loading.
Note: Per Caltrans practice, transportation (shipping and handling) is generally the
responsibility of the contractor and PC manufacturer.

Table 8.6-1 Typical Stages of Loading and Resisting Section for Single-Span
PC Girder
Construction
Stage Location Loads Resisting Section
Activity
Casting Cast and Stress Girder
I DC (Girder)
Yard Girder (Transfer) (Non-composite)
Erect Girder, DC (Girder, Diaphragm, Girder
IIA On Site
Cast Deck Slab Slab), Construction Loads (Non-composite)
DC (Girder, Diaphragm, Girder
Construct Barrier Slab) (Non-composite)
IIB On Site
Rails Girder and Deck
DC (Barrier Rails)
(Composite)
DC (Girder, Diaphragm, Girder
Slab) (Non-composite)
Final Open to Traffic DC (Barrier Rails)
III DW (Future Wearing
Location
Surface) Girder and Deck
LL (Vehicular Loading, (Composite)
HL-93 or P15)
8.6.4 Select Materials
The following materials are selected for the bridge components. The concrete
strengths for PC girders at transfer and at 28 days are assumed at this stage of design
based on common practice in California. However, these values are subsequently
verified during service limit state design:
Concrete compressive strength and modulus of elasticity:
o PC girder
Concrete unit weight is assumed herein wc = 0.15 kcf
At transfer:
fci = 4.8 ksi (80% of fc at 28 days)
Eci = 33,000 w1.5
c (AASHTO 5.4.2.4)
= 33,000 (0.15)1.5 4.8 = 4,200 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time of transfer
At 28 days:
fc = 6 ksi
Ec =33,000 (0.15)1.5 6 = 4,696 ksi
o Cast-in-place deck slab:
Concrete unit weight is assumed herein wc = 0.15 kcf
fc = 3.6 ksi (Article 5.4.2.1 of CA; MTD 10-20)

Ec =33,000 (0.15)1.5 3.6 = 3,637 ksi

o Prestressing steel:
0.6 in. diameter, seven-wire, low-relaxation strands,
Area of each strand, Aps = 0.217 in.2
Grade 270, nominal tensile strength,
fpu = 270 ksi (AASHTO Tab 5.4.4.1-1)
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9 fpu = 243 ksi (AASHTO Tab 5.4.4.1-1)
Initial jacking stress, fpj = 0.75 fpu = 202.5 ksi
(CA Table 5.9.3-1, 2013)
Modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel,
Ep = 28,500 ksi (AASHTO Article 5.4.4.2)
o Mild steel - A706 reinforcing steel:
Nominal yield strength, fy = 60 ksi
Modulus of elasticity of steel, Es = 29,000 ksi
8.6.5 Calculate Section Properties
In calculating section properties, gross sections are used for estimating the
required prestress force (Section 8.6.8) and for estimating prestress losses using the
LRFD Specifications Approximate Method (Section 8.6.9). However, girder flexural
stresses are checked at the service limit state based on transformed section properties
(Section 8.6.10).
8.6.5.1 Precast Section
Figure 8.6-4 shows the standard California Standard 3 ft 6 in. I girder (CA I42)
and gross section properties of the girder. Section properties are obtained from BDA
6-1 (Caltrans, 2012).

SECTION PROPERTIES
Ag = 474 in.2
yt Icg = 95,400 in.4
yb = 20 in.
D = 42" yt = 22 in.
Sb = 4,770 in.3
St = 4,336 in.3
r = 14.2 in.
yb
Figure 8.6-4 Standard CA I42 Girder (BDA 6-1, 2012)
Ag = gross area of girder section (in.2)

Ig = gross moment of inertia of girder about centroidal axis (in.4)
yb = distance from neutral axis to extreme bottom fiber of PC girder (in.)
yt = distance from neutral axis to extreme top fiber of PC girder (in.)
Sb = section modulus for bottom extreme fiber of section (in.3)
St = section modulus for top extreme fiber of section (in.3)
r = radius of gyration (in.)
8.6.5.2 Effective Flange Width
CA Amendements Article 4.6.2.6 (Caltrans, 2014) state that the effective flange
width, beff, may be taken as the full flange width if S 0 . 32 .
L
where:
S = spacing of girders or webs (ft)
L = individual span length (ft)
For this example,
S 6
0.09 0.32
L 70
Therefore, the effective flange width beff = S = 72 in.

Figure 8.6-5 Effective Flange Width.
8.6.5.3 Composite Section
To compute properties of the composite section, the CIP deck slab and haunch
concrete (same material as deck) are transformed to the higher strength girder
concrete using the modular ratio, n.
EB
n (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-2)
ED
where:
n = modular ratio between girder and deck
EB = modulus of elasticity of girder material (ksi)
ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (ksi)
Using AASHTO Eq.4.6.2.2.1-2:
EB 4 ,696
n 1 .29
ED 3,637
72 72
Transformed flange width 55.8 in.
n 1.29
Transformed deck area = 55.8(7) = 391 in.2
19 19
Transformed haunch width = 14.7 in.
n 1.29
Transformed haunch area = 14.7(1) = 14.7 in.2

Table 8.6-2 Section Properties - Gross Composite Section

Section Ai yi Ai (yi ) Io Ai (Y-yi)2
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.4) (in.4)
Deck 391 46.5 18,182 1,681 79,956
Haunch 14.7 42.5 625 1 1,560
Girder 474 20 9,480 95,400 70,550
Total 879.7 - 28,287 97,082 152,066
Ac = 879.7 in.2
Ai yi 28,287
YBC 32.2 in.
Ai 879.7
YTC
YTC = 50 32.2 = 17.8 in.
Neutral
Axis
Ic = 97,082 + 152,066
= 249,148 in.4
yi YBC
Ic 249 ,148
S BC 7,735 in.3
YBC 32 .2
where:
yi = distance from centroid of section i to centroid of composite section
Ac = concrete area of composite section
YTC = distance from centroid of composite section to extreme top fiber of
composite section
Ic = moment of inertia of composite section
SBC = section modulus of the composite section for extreme bottom fiber of PC
girder
8.6.6 Determine Loads
8.6.6.1 Dead Load
PC Girder:
474
wg = (0.15) = 0.494 klf
144

Slab (before reaching design strength):

504
ws = (0.15) = 0.525 klf
144
Haunch:
19
wh = 0.15 = 0.020 klf
144
Dead loads on composite section:

Type 732 barrier rail on both sides of deck (concrete area = 144 in.2):
444
wbr = 0.15 = 0.463 klf/barrier
144
Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities - DW (Article 3.3.2, AASHTO, 2012)
3 in. polyester concrete overlay = 0.035 ksf
8.6.6.2 Live Load
At the Service Limit State, LRFD Specifications requires design for the HL-93
vehicular live load. At the Strength Limit State, LRFD Specifications (AASHTO,
2012) and California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) require design for both HL-93
vehicular live load and the California P15 permit truck.
HL-93 vehicular live load consists of these combinations:
o Design truck or design tandem (AASHTO Art. 3.6.1.2.1)
o Design lane load of 0.64 klf without dynamic load allowance (IM)
(AASHTO Art. 3.6.1.2.4)
California P15 permit truck: The P15 vehicular live load is the California
P15 Permit Design Truck defined in Art. 3.6.1.8 of California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014).
8.6.7 Perform Structural Analysis
8.6.7.1 Dead Load Distribution Factor
According to LRFD Specifications Art. 4.6.2.2.1 (AASHTO, 2012), permanent

dead loads (including concrete barriers and wearing surface) may be distributed
uniformly among all girders provided all of the following conditions are met:
Width of deck is constant. (OK)
Number of girders, Nb, is not less than four; i.e., Nb = 6 (OK)

Girders are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness. (OK)
Roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed 3 ft de is taken as the
distance from the exterior web of exterior girder to interior edge of curb:
de = 2.5 - 1.5 - 0.5(7/12) = 0.71 ft 3 ft (OK)
Bridge is on a tangent line and curvature in plan is zero. (OK)
Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in
AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 (AASHTO, 2012). The superstructure is
type (k). (OK)
Because the design example satisfies the criteria, the concrete barrier and
wearing surface loads can be evenly distributed among the six girders based on the
dead load distribution factor (DFDL), which is determined as:
Tributary Width 6
DFDL = = =0.171
Bridge Width 35
Using the DFDL:
Barrier, wbr = DC3 = (0.463)(2)(0.171) = 0.159 klf/girder
DW = dead load of future wearing surface, 0.035 ksf
DW = (0.035)(32)(0.171) = 0.192 klf/girder
8.6.7.2 Unfactored Shear Force and Bending Moment due to DC and DW
Dead load shear and moment can be obtained from structural analysis software or
can be calculated as follows (for simply-supported, single-span bridges):
Shear at x, Vx = w (0.5Lx)
Moment at x, Mx = 0.5wx (Lx)
where:
w = uniform dead load, klf
x = distance from left end of girder (ft)
L = span length = 70 ft

Table 8.6-3 Unfactored Shear Force and Bending Moment due to DC and DW
Girder Weight Slab, Haunch Wt. Barrier Weight Future Wearing
Location
(DC1) (DC2) (DC3) Surface (DW)
Dist/Span Location Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
(X/L) (ft) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip-ft)
0L 0 17.3 0 19.1 0 5.6 0 6.7 0
0.05L* 3.5 15.6 57.5 17.2 63.4 5 18.5 6 22.3
0.1L 7 13.8 108.9 15.3 120.1 4.4 35 5.4 42.3
0.2L 14 10.4 193.6 11.4 213.6 3.3 62.2 4 75.3
0.3L 21 6.9 254 7.6 280.3 2.2 81.6 2.7 98.8
0.4L 28 3.5 290.3 3.8 320.3 1.1 93.2 1.3 112.9
0.5L 35 0 302.4 0 333.7 0 97.4 0 117.6
*Critical shear section
8.6.7.3 Unfactored Shear Force and Bending Moment due to Live Loads
Live loads are applied to the bridge deck on one or more design lanes. Therefore,
shear forces and bending moments are normally calculated on a per-lane basis.
However, shear forces and moments must then be distributed to individual girders for
girder design. LRFD Specifications permits governing values of shear force and
moment envelopes to be distributed to individual girders using simplified distribution
factor formulas, specified separately for moment and shear (AASHTO Art. 4.6.2.2.2
and Art. 4.6.2.2.3, respectively). As shown previously, the conditions of AASHTO
Art. 4.6.2.2 are satisfied for this example bridge. Therefore, the simplified
distribution factor formulas are applied to the interior girder design in the following
sections.
8.6.7.3.1 Live Load Moment Distribution Factor, DFM (for Interior Girders)
The live load distribution factor for moment (DFM, lanes/girder), for an interior
girder is governed by the larger value for one design lane versus two design lanes
loaded, as shown below.
One design lane loaded:
0.4 0.3 0.1
S S K g
DFM 0.060
14 L 12Lts 3
Provided the following ranges are met:
3.5 S 16
S = girder spacing = 6 ft (OK)
4.5 ts 12
ts = thickness of concrete slab = 7 in. (OK)
20 L 240

L = span length = 70 ft (OK)

Nb = number of girders 4
Nb = 6 (OK)
10,000 Kg 7,000,000
Longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg = 552,464 in.4 (OK)
See calculation below:
Kg =n(I + Ae2g ) (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-1)
n = EB / ED = 1.29 (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-2)
4
I = Icg = 95,400 in.
A = Ag = 474 in.2
eg = distance between centers of gravity of girder and deck
= 46.5 20 = 26.5 in.
Kg = 1.29 [95,400 + 474 (26.5)2] = 552,464 in.4

0.1
0.4 0.3
6 6
DFM 0.06 552,464
70.0
14
12 70 7 3

== 0.06 + (0.713)(0.479)(1.067) = 0.424 lanes / girder

Two or more design lanes loaded:
0.6 0.2 0.1
S S Kg
DFM 0.075
9.5 L 12 Lt 3
s

0.1
0.2
552, 464
0.6
6 6
DFM 0.075
9.5 70 12(70) 7 3

= 0.075 + (0.759)(0.612)(1.067) = 0.571 lanes / girder
Therefore, DFM for two or more lanes loaded is larger and thus controls.
Use DFM = 0.571 lanes / girder

8.6.7.3.2 Live Load Shear Distribution Factor (DFV) for Interior Girders
One design lane loaded: (AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1)

S
DFV 0.36
25
= 0.36 + 0.24 = 0.6 lanes / girder
Two or more design lanes loaded:
2
S S
DFV 0.2
12 35
= 0.2 + 0.5 0.029 = 0.671 lanes / girder
Therefore, DFV for two or more lanes loaded is larger and thus controls.
Use DFV = 0.671 lanes / girder
Note: The dynamic load allowance factor (IM) is applied to the HL-93 design truck
and P15 permit truck only, not to the HL-93 design lane load. Table 3.6.2.1-1 of
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) summarizes the values of IM for various
components and load cases.
The live load moment and shear are commonly calculated at tenth points and can
be obtained from common structure analysis programs. Spreadsheets can also be used
for simple-span structures. In this example, structural analysis software was used to
determine the live load moments. The results are tabulated in Table 8.6-4 for HL-93
loading and Table 8.6-5 for P15 loading, respectively. These tables list the envelope
values for moment and shear per lane, as well as per girder (for design) using the
distribution factors.

Table 8.6-4 Unfactored Live Load Moment and Shear Force Envelope Values due to
HL-93 (LL + IM)
Location Per Lane DFM DFV Per Girder
Moment Shear (Lane per (Lane per M(LL+IM) V(LL+IM)
(ft)
(kip-ft) (kip) Girder) Girder) (kip-ft) (kip)
0L* 0 0 102.11 0.571 0.671 0 68.5
0.05L** 3.5 348.5 97.9 0.571 0.671 199 65.7
0.1L 7 655.03 91.56 0.571 0.671 373.8 61.4
0.2L 14 1144.64 78.18 0.571 0.671 653.2 52.4
0.3L 21 1468.82 65.24 0.571 0.671 838.2 43.8
0.4L 28 1657.38 52.75 0.571 0.671 945.8 35.4
0.5L 35 1695.40 -40.87 0.571 0.671 967.5 -27.4
*L = Span Length
** Critical section for shear
These values were obtained from CT Bridge (Include IM = 33%)
Table 8.6-5 Unfactored Live Load Moment and Shear Force Envelope Values due to
P15 Truck (LL + IM)
Location Per Lane DFM DFV Per Girder
Moment Shear (Lane per (Lane per M(LL+IM) V(LL+IM)
(ft)
(kip-ft) (kip) Girder) Girder) (kip-ft) (kip)
0L* 0 0 178.5 0.571 0.671 0 119.8
0.05L** 3 532.4 152.3 0.571 0.671 304 102.2
0.1L 7 972 138.86 0.571 0.671 554.7 93.1
0.2L 14 1566 111.86 0.571 0.671 893.6 75
0.3L 21 2025 89.68 0.571 0.671 1,155.6 60.1
0.4L 28 2349 69.43 0.571 0.671 1,340.5 46.6
0.5L 35 2328.75 -50.14 0.571 0.671 1,328.9 -33.6
*L = Span Length
** Critical section for shear
These values were obtained from CT Bridge (Include IM = 25%)
8.6.8 Estimate Prestressing Force and Area of Strands
The minimum jacking force, Pj and associated area of prestressing strands, Aps,
can be reaonably estimated based on satisfying the two tensile stress limits at the
bottom fiber of the PC girder at the Service III limit state:
Case A) No tension under permanent loads
Case B) Tension limited to prevent cracking under total dead and live
loads
It should be noted that, for Service III, only the HL-93 vehicular live load
applies. P15 applies to Strength II but not Service III. The critical location for
bending moment is normally midspan. However, other locations such as 0.4L (P15

truck) and harp points can govern and must be checked as well. Gross section
properties are used.
Calculations for these two critical cases are provided below.
Note: Compression is taken as positive (+) and tension as negative (-).
Case A: No tension is allowed for components with bonded prestressing
tendons or reinforcement, subjected to permanent loads (DC, DW) only.
Set the stress at the bottom fiber equal to zero and solve for the required
effective prestress force (at service, i.e., after losses), P, to achieve no
tension.
P Pec M DC1 M DC 2 M DC3 M DW

0
Ag Sb Sb SBC
Rearranging the equation:

M DC 1 M DC 2 M DC 3 M DW

Sb S BC
P
1 e
c
Ag Sb
As shown in Table 8.6-3 (DC and DW) and Table 8.6-4 (HL-93 vehicular
live load), the maximum moment due dead load and live load occurs at
midspan. Moments on a per girder basis are used for girder design.
MDC1 = unfactored moment due to girder self-weight
= 302.4 kip-ft
MDC2 = unfactored moment due to slab and haunch weight
= 333.7 kip-ft
MDC3 = unfactored moment due to barrier weight
= 97.4 kip-ft
MDW = unfactored moment due to future wearing surface
= 117.6 kip-ft
SBC = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the composite
section = 7,735 in.3
To solve for P, the required effective prestressing force, an estimate of
the eccentricity of the noncomposite girder, ec, is needed. To determine
ec, the centroid of the prestressing force at midspan can be reasonably
estimated to be 4 in. from the bottom of the girder.

Thus, the eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan based on the

noncomposite section is taken as:
ec = 20 4 = 16 in.
302 .4 333 .7 12 97.4 117 .6 12

4,770 7,735
P
1 16

474 4,770
Required effective prestressing force, P = 353.9 kips
Case B: Allowable tension for components subjected to the Service III
limit state (DC, DW, (0.8) HL-93), subjected to not worse than moderate
corrosion conditions, and located in Environmental Areas I or II =
0 .19 f c
.
P Pec M DC1 M DC2 . M DC3 M DW 0.8M HL93

0.19 f 'c
Ag Sb Sb S BC
where:
MHL93 = moment due to HL-93 loading at midspan = 967.5 kip-ft
(Table 8.6-4)
M DC1 M DC 2 . M DC 3 M DW 0.8M HL 93
(0.19) f 'c
Sb S BC
P
1 ec

Ag S b
302 .4 333 .7 12 97 .4 117 .6 0.8( 967 .5) 12

0.19 6
4,770 7,735
P
1 16

474 4,770
Required effective prestressing force, P = 488.5 kips
The minimum required effective prestressing force, P, at service level for
an interior girder is the larger value from Case A and Case B. Therefore,
P = Pf = 488.5 kips/girder
To determine the minimum required jacking force, an estimate of
prestress losses is needed. Thus, assuming total (immediate and long-
term) prestress losses of 25% (of the jacking force), the required jacking
force (i.e., just before transfer, ignoring minor losses from jacking to de-
tensioning) is:
488.5
Minimum Jacking Force, Pj = = 651.3 kips
0.75

The required area of prestressing strands, Aps, jacked to 0.75 fpu is:
651.3
Required Aps 3.22 in.2
0.75(270)
Number of 0.6 in. diameter strands required
3.22
= = 14.8 strands
0.217
14.8 is rounded to 16, an even number provided for symmetry (about a

vertical line through the centroid) to produce a uniform stress distribution
in the member.
Therefore, use sixteen 0.6 in. diameter low relaxation Grade 270 strands.
The actual area of strands is thus:
Aps = 16 (0.217) = 3.42 in.2
Total prestressing force at jacking, Pj = 0.75(270)(3.472) = 703 kips
It is a common practice in Caltrans to provide contractors with the prestressing
force and centroid of prestressing path on contract plans, instead of actual strand
patterns. This gives the contractors flexibility in choosing the location and number of
strands, based on the setup of their casting bed. However, designers are encouraged
to layout an actual strand pattern. This helps ensure the design is constructible and
avoids the possible use of too many strands in one girder.
The strand pattern is shown in Fig. 8.6-6: six strands at 2.5 in., eight at 4.5 in. and
two at 6.5 in.
The CGS from the bottom of the girder is:
6(2.5) + 8(4.5) + 2(6.5)
CGS =
16
= 4 in. from bottom of girder.
The actual eccentricity, ec, at midspan for the girder = 20 4 = 16 in., matching
the assumption used in estimating the prestressing force. Normally, the actual value
will vary from the assumption and should be used in subsequent design calculations.

CGS = 4
2 @ 6.5
8 @ 4.5
6 @ 2.5
Figure 8.6-6 Strand Pattern in PC Girder at Midspan Section
8.6.9 Estimate Prestress Losses
Prestress losses were previously estimated in a very approximate way to

determine area of strands. With a trial number of strands and layout now determined,
prestress losses can be more accurately approximated.
Per LRFD Specifications, total prestress losses in prestressing strand stress are
assumed to be the sum of immediate and long-term losses. Immediate losses for
strands in a PC girder are due to elastic shortening. Long-term losses are primarily
due to concrete creep and shrinkage as well as steel relaxation.
fpT = fpES + fpLT (AASHTO 5.9.5.1-1)
where:
fpES = change in stress due to elastic shortening loss (ksi)
fpLT = losses due to long-term shrinkage and creep of concrete and relaxation of
prestressing steel (ksi)
fpT = total change in stress due to losses (ksi)
Immediate elastic shortening losses are easily determined for PC girders using a
closed form solution based on LRFD Specifications Commentary Eq. C5.9.5.2.3a-1:
f pES

A ps f pbt I g e m2 Ag e m M g Ag

A ps I g e m2 Ag
Ag I g E ci
Ep
where:
Aps = area of prestressing steel = 3.472 in.2

Ag = gross area of girder section = 474 in.2

fpbt = stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer
= 0.75(270) = 202.5 ksi, ignoring minor relaxation losses after jacking
Eci = 4,200 ksi
Ep = 28,500 ksi
em = eccentricity at midspan = 16 in.
Ig = moment of inertia of gross section = 95,400 in.4
Mg = midspan moment due to self-weight of girder
= MDC1 =302.4 k-ft (12 in./ft) = 3,629 k-in.
3.472(202.5)[95,400 162 (474)] 16(3,629)(474)

f pES
474(95,400)(4,200)
3.472[(95,400 162 (474)]
28,500
f pES 16.84 ksi
The initial prestressing stress immediately after transfer = 202.5 16.84 = 185.7
ksi.
LRFD Specifications C5.9.5.2.3a notes that when transformed section properties
are used in calculating concrete stresses, the effects of losses and gains due to elastic
deformation are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, fpES should not be used to
reduce the stress in the prestressing strands (and force) for concrete stress
calculations at transfer and service level.
8.6.9.2 Long Term Losses Approximate Method
LRFD Specifications provides two methods to estimate the time-dependent

prestress losses: Approximate Method (Article 5.9.5.3) and Refined Method (Article
5.9.5.4). This example uses the LRFD Specifications Approximate Method to
estimate long-term, time-dependent prestress losses, based on gross section
properties.
Per Article 5.9.5.3, the approximate method is applicable to standard precast,
pretensioned members subject to normal loading and environmental conditions,
where:
Members are made from normal-weight concrete (OK)
Concrete is either steam- or moist-cured (OK)
Prestressing strands use low relaxation properties (OK)
Average exposure conditions and temperatures characterize the site
(OK)
Because the girder in this example satisfies all of the criteria, the Approximate
Method can be used.

Long-term prestress losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation
of steel are estimated using the following formula, in which the three terms
corresponds to creep, shrinkage, and relaxation, respectively:
fpi Aps
fpLT =10 h st + 12h st + fpR (AASHTO 5.9.5.3-1)
Ag
where:
H = the average annual ambient relative humidity (%)
h = correction factor for relative humidity of ambient air
= 1.7-0.01H
st = correction factor for specified concrete strength time at of prestress transfer
to concrete member
= 5/(1+ fci)
fpR an estimation of relaxation loss taken as 2.4 ksi for low relaxation strand,
10 ksi or stress-relieved strand, and in accordance with manufacturers
recommendation for other types of strand (ksi)
For this calculation:
fpi = 202.5 ksi
H = Average annual ambient relative humidity = 70%
h = 1.7 0.01H = 1.7 = 0.01 (70) = 1 (AASHTO 5.9.5.3-2)
5 5
st 0.862 (AASHTO 5.9.5.3-3)
1 f ci 1 4.8
fpR = 2.4 ksi for low relaxation strands
f pR 10
202.53.472 10.862 1210.862 2.4
474
1.8 10.3 2.4 25.5 ksi
Total prestress losses: fpT = 16.85 + 25.5 = 42.3 ksi
42.3
f pT (100%) 24%
202.5
Effective prestress used with gross non-transformed section:
fpe = effective stress in prestressing strands (service level)
= 202.5 42.3 = 160.2 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state:
0.8 fpy fpe (AASHTO Table 5.9.3-1)

0.8 (270)(0.9) = 194.4 ksi > 160.2 ksi, (OK)

For gross non-transformed sections, the effective prestressing force after all
losses, Pf = 3.472 (160.2) = 556.2 kips
Regarding transformed sections, note that with transformed sections used in
subsequent sections of this design example, the prestressing force to be used in
concrete stress calculations at transfer is the jacking force, Pj, and the prestressing
force to be used in concrete stress calculations at service level is the final prestressing
force, Pf , based on long-term losses only:
Effective prestress used with transformed section:
fpe = 0.75 fpu fpLT = 0.75 (270) 25.5 = 177 ksi
Pf = fpe (Aps) = 177(3.472) = 614.5 kips
8.6.10 Design for Service Limit State
Design for the Service Limit State addresses the suitability of the previously
estimated strand force and profile based on Stages I, IIA, and III. Concrete stresses
are checked at transfer, which may lead to design modifications such as adjusting the
strand profile or initial concrete compressive strength fci. The most critical check of
stresses at the Service Limit State is normally the check of the tensile stress at the
bottom of the girder to prevent possible cracking at Service III (HL-93 vehicular live
load).

8.6.10.1 Calculate Transformed Section Properties
The use of transformed concrete section properties generally leads to more

accurate calculations than use of gross section properties. As this is recognized by
LRFD Specifications C5.9.5.2.3a, calculations use transformed section properties.
Three sets of transformed section properties are needed for the service limit state
design. These include transformed section properties of the noncomposite girder at
transfer (Stage I), erection, and deck casting (Stage IIA, before deck hardening), as
well as the composite section of the girder and deck at service (Stage III). The section
property calculations for these stages are presented below. A minor difference in final
and initial transformed noncomposite properties results from the use of Ec versus Eci.
However, the difference between the composite and noncomposite final properties is
significant due to the additional deck area.
Table 8.6-6 Transformed Section Properties: Girders and Strands (Initial, Transfer)
Section Ai yi Ai ( yi ) Ii Ai (Y-yi)2
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.4) (in.4)
Girder 474 20 9,480 95,400 200
Strands 20.1 4 80.4 0 4,736
Total 494.1 -- 9,560.4 95,400 4,936
E ps 28,500
n 1 1 1 5 .8
E ci 4,200
Total Ac = 494.1 in.2
9,560 .4
Y Bti 19 .4 in.
494 .1
YTti = 42 19.35 = 22.6 in.

Iti = 95,4000 + 4,936
= 100,336 in.4 YTti
I ti 100,336
S Bti 5,185 in.3 yi Neutral
YBti 19.4 Axis
eti YBti
I ti 100,336
STti 4,430 in.3
YTti 22.6
CGS
eti = 19.4 - 4 = 15.4 in.

Strands are transformed using (n 1)

Table 8.6-7 Transformed Section Properties: Girders and Strands (Final)

Section Ai yi Ai ( yi ) Ii Ai (Y-yi)2
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.4) (in.4)
Girder 474 20 9,480 95,400 154
Strands 17.7 4 70.8 0 4,190
Total 491.7 -- 9,550.8 95,400 4,344
E ps 28,500
n 1 1 1 5 .1
Ec 4,696
9 ,550 . 8
Y Btf 19 . 4 in.
491 . 7
YTtf
YTti = 42 19.35 = 22.6 in.
Neutral Axis
Iti = 95,4000 + 4,344
= 99,744 in.4
I tf 99 ,744 etf
S Btf 5,135 in. 3
YBtf 19 .4 YBtf
I tf 99 ,744
S Ttf 4,419 in. 3
YTtf 22 .6
CGS
et = 19.4 - 4 = 15.4 in.

Strands are transformed using (n 1)

Table 8.6-8 Transformed Section Properties: Composite Girder and Deck (Final)
Section Ai yi Ai (yi ) Ii Ai (Y-yi)2
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.4) (in.4)
Girder 474 20 9,480 95,400 63,671
Strands 17.7 4 70.8 0 13,473
Deck 391** 46.5 18,182 1,595 86,922
Haunch 14.7** 42.5 624.8 1 1,750
Total 897.4 - 28,357.6 96,996 165,816
Edeck 3,637
n 0.77
E girder 4,696
Ac = 897.4 in.2
28 ,357 . 6
Y BCt 31 . 6 in.
897 . 4
YTCt
YTGCt = 42 31.6 = 10.4 in YTGCt
YTCt = 50 31.6 = 18.4 in

Neutral Axis
ICt = 96,996 + 165,816 = 262,806 in.4

eCt
YBCt
I Ct 262,806
S BCt 8,317 in.3
YBCt 31.6
I Ct 262,806
STGCt 25,271 in.3
YTCt 10.4
I Ct 262,806
STDCt 18,425 in.3 CGS
YDCt 18.4(0.77)
eCt = 31.6 4 = 27.6 in.

**Deck and haunch are transformed using (n = 0.77)

8.6.10.2 Check Concrete Stresses at Transfer Condition
The check of concrete stresses at transfer investigates the suitability of both the
prestressing force and the strand profile for the assumed section. Commonly, strands
must be harped or debonded to produce an efficient design that does not overstress
the section. In addition, the initial concrete compressive strength, fci may be
modified.
Concrete stress limits:
o Compressive stress limit:
Stress limit = 0.6fci = 0.6 (4.8) = 2.880 ksi (AASHTO 5.9.4.1.1)
o Tensile stress limit: (AASHTO Table 5.9.4.1.2-1)
In area other than precompressed tensile zone without bonded
auxiliary reinforcement:
Stress Limit 0.0948 f c 0.200 ksi
Stress Limit = 0.09484.8 = 0.208 ksi

Since 0.208 ksi is larger than 0.200 ksi, 0.200 ksi is taken as the
limit.
In areas with bonded auxiliary reinforcement sufficient to resist
the tensile force
Stress Limit=0.244.8=0.526 ksi
Per AASHTO Commentary C5.9.5.2.3a, when checking concrete stresses using
transformed section properties, the effects of losses and gains due to elastic
deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, the elastic shortening loss,
fpES, should not be subtracted from the strand stress in calculating the prestressing
force at transfer (taken as Pj because relaxation losses between jacking and transfer
are ignored).
Check concrete stresses at transfer length section: (straight strands)
Transfer length = 60(db) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3 ft (LRFD 5.11.4.1)
db = nominal strand diameter (in.)
Pj = 703 kips
Ati = 494 in.2
Where Ati = Gross area of girder concrete at time of force transfer
Eccentricity at 3 ft with CGS strands = 4 in. from bottom
Eti = 15.4 in.
SBti = 5,185 in.3
STti = 4,430 in.3

MDC1 = moment at transfer length section due to girder weight, based on total
girder length
= 0.5(0.494)(3)(71 - 3) = 49.8 kip-ft = 598 kip-in.
Calculate concrete stress at top of girder at transfer length:
Pj P j eti M DC1
f top
Ati S Tti S Tti
703 703(15.4) 598

494 4,430 4,430
0.886 ksi (Tensile)
Because the tensile stress exceeds the upper limit of the allowable tensile stress
(0.526 ksi, assuming bonded reinforcement), the effect of prestressing must be
reduced. Either harping or debonding a portion of strands near the end of the girders
can accomplish this.
Note: Selection of harping versus debonding should be discussed with fabricators.
For this example, two point harping is selected. Harp points are usually located
between 0.33L and 0.4L from girder ends. 0.4L is chosen as the harp point. The
calculations below investigate stressses along the member by the use of four strands
harped with a profile at the girder ends as follows: two strands at 28.5 in. from
bottom and two strands 30.5 in. from bottom. A suitable configuation of harping is
easily arrived at by iteration using spreadsheets or commercially available software.
From midspan to the harped point (0.4L), CGS is 4 in. from the girder bottom, and at
the girder ends, the CGS is 10 in. from the bottom. The strand pattern at the harp
points and girder ends are shown in Figure 8.6-7. Hold-down forces and harp angle
are normally calculated and checked against limits by local precast producers.

2 at 30.5 in.
2 at 28.5 in.
2 at 6.5 in.
6 at 4.5 in.
8 at 4.5 in.
6 at 2.5 in.
6 at 2.5 in.
Strand pattern at 0.4L Strand pattern at ends

CGS = 4 in. CGS = 10 in.
Figure 8.6-7 Strand Patterns at Midspan and Ends of Girder
Check concrete stresses at transfer length section (harped strands):

The eccentricity at transfer length (3 ft) with harped strands:
28 3
eti (10.0 4.0) 4.0 9.4 in.
28
Pj Pj eti M DC1
f top
Ati STti STti
703 703(9.4) 598

494 4,430 4,430
0.066 ksi (Compressive)
Pj Pj eti MDC1
ftop = - +
Ati STti STti
703 703(9.4) 598
= - +
494 4,430 4,430
= 0.66 ksi (Compressive) < 2.880 ksi (OK)
Note that the transformed section properties at midspan are used in the
calculations above. It is not necessary to check the stresses at transfer
length using transformed properties at transfer length since the stress
level is very low.

Check concrete stresses at harp points:

Harped point location = 0.4L =0.4(70) = 28 ft
Pj = 703 kips
Ati = 494 in.2
Eccentricity at 0.4L, eti = 15.4 in.
SBti = 5,158 in.3
STti = 4,430 in.3
MDC1 = moment at 0.4L due to girder weight, based on total girder length
MDC1 = 0.5 (0.494) (28) (70 28) = 290.3 kip ft = 3,484 kip in. (Table
8.6-3)
Calculate concrete stress at top of girder at transfer at 0.4L:
Pj Pj eti MDC1
ftop = - +
Ati STti STti
703 703(15.4) 3,484
= - +
494 4,430 4,430
= -0.227 ksi (Tensile)
Since the tensile stress at top of girder exceeded the limit of 0.200 ksi,
auxiliary (mild) reinforcement must be provided at the tensile face (top)
to resist the total tensile force.
Determine auxiliary reinforcement:
To find the neutral axis of the section, it is necessary to determine:
Pj Pj eti MDC1
fbot = - +
Ati SBti SBti
703 703(15.4) 3,4884
= - +
494 5,185 5,185
= 2.832 ksi (compressive) < 2.889 ksi (OK)
Locate neutral axis, x, from similar triangles.

- 0.227 ksi x
(tension)
42"
2.832 ksi (compression)
Figure 8.6-8 Concrete Stress Distribution
42(0.227)
x 3.12 in.
0.227 2.832
The neutral axis is slightly below the 3 in. rectangular section of the top
flange. The value 3.12 in. can be conservatively used to calculate the
total tension force as the area of concrete times the average tensile stress.
Required tension capacity, FT = 0.5 (0.227) (3.12) (19) = 6.73 kips
Using non-prestressed reinforcement (mild steel) at a working stress of
24 ksi
Area of mild steel required:
6.73
0.28 in.
24
Provide two #4 bars at top flange for entire length of girder,
As,provided = 2 (0.2) = 0.4 in.2 > 0.28 in.2 (OK)
Check concrete stresses at midspan:
Midspan is not expected to govern over the harp points at transfer
because of the beneficial effects of self-weight. However, the calculation
is demonstrated herein. The values for Pj, eti, Ati, SBti, and Stti at midspan
are the same as at 0.4L.
MDC1 = moment at midspan due to girder weight, based on total girder
length = (0.494)(70)2/8 = 302.4 kip-ft = 3,629 kip-in. (Table
8.6-3)

Pj Pj eti MDC1
ftop = - +
Ati STti STti
703 703 15.4 3,629
= - +
494 4,430 4,430
= -0.194 ksi (Tensile)
This is within the tensile limit of 0.2 ksi (OK)
Pj Pj eti M DC1
f bot =
Ati STti STti
703 703 15.4 3,629
= - +
494 5,185 5,185
8.6.10.3 Check Concrete Stresses at Service Condition
The check of concrete stresses at service level investigates the suitability of the
section to resist service level loads. Of particular importance is the prevention of
flexural cracking of the section at midspan for Service Level III due to the LRFD
Specifications HL-93 Vehicular Live Load. In addition, per requirements of the
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014), the section must not develop any tension
under permanent loads (only).
Effective prestressing force, Pf :
Because transformed section properties are used, the effective
prestressing force (Pf) acting on the section is calculated using the force
at transfer, Pj, less long-term losses that were estimated using the
Approximate Method:
fpe = 0.75 fpu fpLT = 0.75 (270) 25.5 = 177 ksi
Pf = fpe (Aps ) = 177 (3.472) = 614.5 kips
Concrete stress limits:
o Compressive stress limits (AASHTO Table 5.9.4.2.1-1)
Compressive stress limits due to unfactored permanent loads
(including girder, slab and haunch, barrier, and future wearing
surface) and prestressing force.
Load combination: PS + Perm
PC girder: 0.45 fc = 0.45(6) = 2.700 ksi
CIP deck: 0.45 fc,deck = 0.45(3.6) = 1.62 ksi
Compression stress limit due to effective prestress, permanent,
and transient loads (including all dead and live loads).
Load combination: Service I = PS + Perm + (LL + IM)HL-93

PC girder: 0.6w fci = 0.6(1.0)(6) = 3.600 ksi

CIP deck: 0.6 w fc,deck = 0.6(1.0)(3.6) = 2.160 ksi
Tensile stress limit (Table 5.9.4.2.2-1, Caltrans 2014)
o For components with bonded prestressing tendons or
reinforcement subjected to permanent loads only.
Load combination: PS + Perm
PC girder: 0 ksi (no tension allowed)
o For components with bonded prestressing tendons or
reinforcement.
Load combination:
Service III = PS + Perm + 0.8(LL+IM)HL-93
PC girder: -0.19 f 'c = -0.196 = -0.465 ksi

Check concrete stresses at midspan:
Bending moments at midspan are given in Table 8.6-9.
Table 8.6-9 Unfactored Bending Moments at 0.4L and Midspan (per Girder).
Location *MDC1 *MDC2 *MDC3 *MDW **M(LL+IM)HL93
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
0.4L 290.3 320.3 93.2 112.9 945.8
0.5L 302.4 333.7 97.4 117.6 967.5
*From Table 8.6-3
** From Table 8.6-4
Check compressive stresses at midspan:

PC girders are checked for compressive stresses under the following two
load combinations:
o Load combination PS + Perm
Stress at top of PC girder:
Pf Petf ( M DC1 M DC 2 ) ( M DC 3 M DW )
ftg =
Atf STtf STtf STGCt
614.5 614.5(15.4 ) (302.4 333.7)(12) (97.4 117.6)(12)

491.7 4,418 4,418 25,271
= 0.938 ksi (compression) < 2.7 ksi (OK)
Stress at bottom of PC girder:

Pf Petf ( M DC1 M DC 2 ) ( M DC 3 M DW )
fb =
Atf S Btf S Btf S BCt

614.5 614.5(15.4 ) (302.4 333.7)(12) (97.4 117.6)(12)

491.7 5,137 5,137 8,317
= 1.299 ksi (compressive) < 2.7 ksi (OK)
Note that both the top and bottom fibers are in compression. This
satisfies the requirement of no tension for components subjected
to permanent loads only per California Amendments Table
5.9.4.2.2-1 (Caltrans, 2014).
o Load combination PS + Perm + (LL+IM)HL-93 (Service I)
Compressive stress at top of PC girder:
Pf Petf ( M DC1 M DC2 ) ( M DC3 M DW ) M ( LL IM ) HL93
f tg
Atf STtf STtf STGCt STGCt
614.5 614.5(15.4 ) (302.4 333.7)(12) (97.1 117.6)(12) 967.5(12)

491.7 4,418 4,418 25,271 25,271

Compressive stress at top fiber of deck:
This check is not normally required. The deck resists all loads
compositely, so that even with a lower compressive strength, the
concrete deck is rarely subjected to significant compressive stress.
However, designers may desire to check Service I (PS + Perm + (LL +
IM)HL-93) for completeness, applying wearing surface, barrier loads, and
HL-93 truck and lane loads to the composite section.
Check tensile stresses at bottom of girder at midspan: (Service III)
This check to prevent cracking at midspan is normally a critical check
that can govern the prestressing force and thus area of prestressing
strand.
Load combination PS + Perm + 0.8L:
Pf Petf ( M DC1 M DC2 ) ( M DC3 M DW ) 0.8( M ( LL IM ) HL93 )
fb
Atf S Btf S Btf S BCt S BCt
614.5 614.5(15.4 ) (302.4 333.7)(12) (97.1 117.6)(12) 0.8(967.5) (12)

491.7 5,137 5,137 8,317 8,317

In this case, not only is the check satisfied, but the girder remained in
compression at the bottom fiber.

Check concrete stress at harped point (0.4L):

The concrete stresses at the harp point (0.4L) should also be checked.
These can be checked using the same procedures as for midspan. The
calculations are not repeated here, but final results are shown.
Check compressive stresses at 0.4L:
o Load combination PS + Perm
ftg = 0.861 ksi (compressive) < 2.7 ksi (OK)
fb = 1.369 ksi (compressive) < 2.7 ksi (OK)
Thus also satisfies the requirement of no tension.
o Load combination PS + Perm + LL
ftg = 1.309 ksi (compressive) < 3.6 ksi (OK)
fb = 0.278 ksi (compressive) < 3.6 ksi (OK)
8.6.10.4 Fatigue Stress Limit
Although fatigue-related compression in concrete deck slabs with multiple PC

girders rarely governs design (because of internal arching action), a check of the
compressive stress in the deck for the Fatigue I load combination is required per
LRFD Specifications Article 5.5.3.1. The compression due to the Fatigue I load
combination and one half of the sum of effective prestress and permanent loads
cannot exceed 0.4 fc.
Per C5.5.3.1, the net concrete stress is usually significantly less than the concrete
tensile stress limit for cracking, leading to very small steel stress ranges in the
prestressing steel less than limiting values.
Fatigue is not likely to control the design and therefore is not checked in this
example. Readers are referred to the PCI Bridge Design Manual for more information
on how to perform fatigue check.

8.6.10.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage
Article 5.9.5.4.3d of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) shows the

procedure to calculate prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck composite section.
However, it is Caltrans practice to ignore this prestress gain due to the fact that the
deck is designed as reinforced concrete, and cracks are allowed to form in the
section. The calculations will not be presented in this example. The readers are
referred to the PCI Bridge Design Manual for information and procedure in
estimating prestress gain due to deck shrinkage.
8.6.11 Design for Strength Limit State
Design of PC girders for the service limit state may produce an adequate design
for the strength limit state. However, this must be checked because of the significant
additional live load design requirement for the Strength II load combinationthe
P-15 permit truck.
8.6.11.1 Determine Factored Moment
The factored moment at ultimate, Mu, is based on the unfactored moments

previously given in Table 8.6-9, shown below:
Table 8.6-10 Unfactored Bending Moments at 0.4L and Midspan (per Girder).
*MDC1 *MDC2 *MDC3 *MDW **M(LL+IM)HL93 M(LL+IM)P15
Location
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
0.4L 290.3 320.3 93.2 112.9 945.8 1,340.5
0.5L 302.4 333.7 97.4 117.6 967.5 1,328.9
*Table 8.6-3; **Table 8.6-4; Table 8.6-5
Mu is taken as the larger of Strength I and II combinations, per Article 3.4.1 of

California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014). Strength I uses the LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2012) HL-93 vehicular live load, whereas Strength II uses the California
P-15 permit truck.
Determine the controlling factored ultimate moment, Mu:
By inspection, moments at midspan govern for Strength I.
Strength I:
Mu = 1.25 [MDC1 + MDC2 + MDC3] + 1.5 MDW + 1.75 [M (LL+IM)HL93]
Mu(LL+IM)HL93 = 1.25 (302.4 + 333.7 + 97.4) + 1.5 (117.6) + 1.75 (967.5)
= 2,786.4 kip-ft/girder
Strength II:
Mu = 1.25 [MDC1 + MDC2 + MDC3] + 1.5 MDW + 1.35 [M (LL+IM)P15]
Since live load moment is larger at 0.4L, it is necessary to check both 0.4L and
0.5L sections to find the critical moment demand.
At 0.4L:

Mu(LL+IM)P15 = 1.25 (290.3 + 320.3 + 93.2) + 1.50 (112.9) + 1.35 (1,340.5)

= 2,858.8 kip-ft
At 0.5L:
Mu(LL+IM)P15 = 1.25 (302.4 + 333.7 + 97.4) + 1.50(117.6) +1.35(1,328.9)
= 2,887.3 kip-ft / girder controls
Strength II governs. Mu = 2,887.3 kip-ft/girder
8.6.11.2 Calculate Nominal Flexural Resistance
Based on AASHTO 5.7.3.1 and 5.7.3.2, compute nominal flexural resistance of

the section, as shown in Figure 8.6-9.
a/2
ybtsybts
de
dp
2-#5
@ 5.5
cg rebars
cg tensile
reinf CGS
2-#5 @ 3.5
Figure 8.6-9 Bridge Section at Midspan
Determine average prestressing steel stress at ultimate:

In most applications, the average prestressing steel stress at ultimate
can be easily determined from AASHTO Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1, applicable to
typical PC girder sections that use bonded tendons and have an effective
stress with fpe 0.5 fpu. If more precise calculations are required,
conditions of equilibrium and strain compatibility can be used
(AASHTO 5.7.3.2.5).
For this example, the effective prestress (after all losses),
fpe = 160.2 ksi > 0.5 fpu= 135 ksi, thus Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1 is applicable.

c
f ps f pu 1 k (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-1)
d p

For low relaxation strand, fpy/fpu = 0.9 (Table C5.7.3.1.1-1), thus the
value k is determined as follows:
2 1.04 (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-2)
= 2(1.04 0.9) = 0.28

Assuming the compressive stress lies solely within the deck
(rectangular stress block develops at ultimate), the neutral axis depth, c,
is determined from the following:
Aps f pu As f s A's f ' s

c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1 4)
f
0.85 f c' 1b kA ps pu
d p
where:
Aps = area of prestressing steel = 3.472 in.2
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel = 270 ksi
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel = 243 ksi
As = area of mild steel tension reinforcement
= four #5 for longitudinal steel requirement
= 4 (0.31) = 1.24 in.2
Note that there are four #5 longitudinal bars added to the bottom
bulb of the girder as illustrated in Section 8.6.15.
As = area of mild steel compression reinforcement = 0
fs = stress in the mild steel tension reinforcement at nominal
flexure resistance = 60 ksi
fs = stress in the mild steel compression reinforcement at nominal
flexure resistance
b = effective width of flange in compression (deck) = 72 in.
fc = compressive strength in deck concrete at midspan = 3.6 ksi
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber (deck) to centroid of
prestressing tendon
= 50 4 = 46 in.

From AASHTO 5.7.2.2,

for fc 4 ksi
1 = 0.85
for fc > 4 ksi
0.85 0.05(fc 4) 0.65
fc = 3.6 ksi
Therefore, 1 = 0.85
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis
assuming tendon prestressing steel has yielded (in.)
Assuming that mild reinforcement has also yielded, c is calculated as
follows:
3.472 ( 270 ) 1.24 (60 )
c
270
0.85(3.6)( 0.85)( 72 ) 0.28( 3.472 )
46
= 5.24 in. < 7 in. (deck thickness)
Because compressive stresses lie entirely within the slab thickness,
the assumption of rectangular section behavior is valid.
5 .24
f ps 270 1 ( 0 .28 )
46
= 261.4 ksi
Determine factored flexural resistance, Mr
Mr = Mn (AASHTO 5.7.3.2.1-1)
where:
Mr = factored flexural resistance
= resistance factor per AASHTO 5.5.4.2
Mn = nominal flexural resistance
a a
M n A ps f ps d p A s f s d s
2 2
where:
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber (deck) to centroid of
mild steel
= 50 4.5 = 45.5 in.
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, in.

= 1 (c) = 0.85(5.24) = 4.46 in.
4.46 4.46
M n 3.472( 261.4) 46 1.26(60) 45.5
2 2
= 42,944 kip-in. = 3,578.7 kip.-ft
Determine resistance factor, :
According to the AASHTO C5.7.3.3.1 and Figure C5.5.4.2.1-1 of
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014) as shown in Figure 8.6-10 if the
net tensile strain, t 0.005, then the section is defined as tension-
controlled and =1 for flexure.
Figure 8.6-10 Variation of with Net Tensile Strain, t, for Grade 60 Reinforcement and
Prestressed Members (Figure C5.5.4.2.1-1, California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014)
The net tensile strain is calculated using similar triangles based on the
assumed strain distribution through the depth of the section at ultimate,
as shown in Figure 8.6-11.
cu = 0.003
de-c
Figure 8.6-11 Assumed Strain Distribution through Section Depth at Ultimate

Variables in Figure 8.6-11 are defined as follows:

de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement (in.) (AASHTO
5.7.3.3.1)
cu = failure strain of concrete in compression (in./in.) (AASHTO
C5.7.3.1.2 and 5.7.4.4)
t = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at nominal resistance
(in./in.) (AASHTO C5.5.4.2.1)
Aps f ps d p As f y d s
de
0 Aps f ps As f y
3.472 261.4 (46) + 1.24(60)(45.5)
=
3.472(261.4) + 1.24(60)
= 45.96 in.
By similar triangles:
cu
t
c de c
cu 0.003
t = de - c = 45.96-5.24 = 0.023 0.005
c 5.24
Therefore, the section is tension-controlled, and thus, = 1.
Check flexural capacity of section:
Mr = Mn = 1 (3,578.7) = 3,578.7 kip-ft > Mu = 2,877.3 kip-ft (OK)
8.6.12 Check Reinforcement Limits
8.6.12.1 Maximum Reinforcement
AASHTO Art. 5.7.3.3.1, which defined a maximum limit for flexural tension
reinforcement to prevent over-reinforced sections, was eliminated in the 2006
interims. As of 2012, the current approach involves reducing the flexural resistance
factor when the net tensile strain in the extreme reinforcement is less than 0.005.
Although this approach permits sections with less ductility than previous editions if a
smaller resistance factor is applied, sections with a net tensile strain less than 0.004
are not recommended because they have a reduced ductility and are generally
uneconomical. Rather, superstructure members shoud be designed for a net tensile
strain of at least 0.004, preferrably 0.005 (for which the resistance factor is 1). The
net tensile strain can alternatively be checked, ensuring that the c/dt (or c/de) ratio for
the section is not greater than 0.375 (which corresponds to a net tensile strain of
0.005).

8.6.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement
To prevent a brittle failure at intial flexural cracking, AASHTO Article 5.7.3.3.2

(2012) requires that all flexural components have sufficient amount of prestressed
and non-prestressed tensile reinforcement to develop a factored flexural resistance,
Mr, at least equal to the lesser of: (i) 1.33Mu and (ii) Mcr
where:
Mu = controlling factored moment demand
Mcr = cracking moment as defined in Eqn. 5.7.3.3.2-1
For this example,
(i) The controlling factored moment occurs at midspan due to Strength II
combination.
Mu = 2,887.3 kip-ft
1.33 Mu = 3,849.0 kip-ft
S
(ii) M cr 3 1 f r 2 f cpe S c M dnc c 1 (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1)
S nc
where:
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article 5.4.2.6
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces
only (after allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of
section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
(ksi)
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the noncomposite
section (kip-in.)
Sc = section modulus for extreme the fiber of the composite section
where tensile is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
Snc = section modulus for extreme the fiber of the noncomposite section
where tensile is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
= 1.6 for other than PC segmental structures
= 1.1 for bonded tendons
3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile
strength of reinforcement
= 1 for prestressed concrete structures
f r 0 . 24 f c' 0 . 24 6 0 . 588 ksi (AASHTO 5.4.2.6)

Pf Pf (e )
c
cpe = +
Ag Sb
556.2 556.2 16

474 4,770
= 3.039 ksi
Mdnc = MDC1 + MDC2 = 302.4 + 333.7 = 636.1 kip-ft = 7,633 kip-in.
Sc = SBC = 7,735 in.3
Snc = Sb = 4,770 in.3
7,735
Mcr = 1 1.6 0.558 + 1.1 3.039 7,735 - 7,633 -1
4,770
= 28,389 kip-in. = 2,366 kip-ft
Since 1.33Mu (= 3,849 kip-ft) > Mcr (= 2,366 kip-ft) Mcr controls.
Mn = 3,578.7 kip-ft Mcr = 2,366 kip-ft (OK)
Shear design of PC girders in this example is performed using the sectional

design method of Article 5.8.3 (AASHTO 2012). However, the General Procedure
for Shear Design with Tables is used to determine and , per Appendix B5 of
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and California Amendment 5.8.3.4.2
(Caltrans, 2014). A design flow chart is provided in Figure CB5.2-5 of Appendix B5
of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012).
Note: California Amendment 5.8.3.4.3 (Caltrans, 2014) prohibits the use of LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) Article 5.8.3.4.1, Simplified Procedure for
Nonprestressed Sections, for both prestressed and nonprestressed sections.
PC girders are designed by comparing the factored shear force (envelope value)
and the factored shear resistance at a number of sections along their length, typically
at tenth points along the member length and at additional locations near supports. Per
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), the shear resistance, Vn, may be taken to
consist of the sum of three components:
Concrete component, Vc, that relies on tensile stresses in the concrete
Steel component, Vs, that relies on the tensile stresses in the transverse
reinforcement
Prestressing component, Vp, the vertical component of the prestressing
force for harped strands
This example illlustrates shear design only at the critical section.
8.6.13.1 Determine Critical Section for Shear Design
For the common situation near supports where the reaction force in the direction
of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of a member, Article

5.8.3.2 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) allows the location of the critical
section for shear to be taken at a distance, dv, the effective shear depth, from the
internal face of the support.
Determine effective shear depth, dv :
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces due to flexure
= de a/2, but not less than the greater of (0.9de, 0.72h)(AASHTO 5.8.2.9)
where:
h = hc, overall depth of composite section
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tensile
reinforcement = hc - ybts
where:
ybts = centroid of all tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block (taken at midspan for simplicity)
Because harped strands are used, de varies near the ends. Thus, either initially
assume de based on the straight strands or a location equal to 0.05L for dv to calculate
d e.
Using the latter approach:
dv = 0.05 (70) = 3.5 ft from face of internal support.
The centroid of the tensile reinforcement from the bottom fiber, including both
prestressing steel (straight strands only) and mild reinforcement, is calculated based
on the following, Figure 8.6-12 and Table 8.6-11:
a/2
de
dv
hc Centroid of tensile
PS Steel
reinforcement
2 - #5 @5.5 ybts
2 - #5 @ 3.5
Figure 8.6-12 Definitions of ybts, de, and dv at Section Located Near Support

Table 8.6-11 Centroid of Tensile Reinforcement

As yi (As)(yi)
Layer
(in.2) (in.) (in.3)
1 Two #5 = 0.62 3.5 2.2
2 Two #5 = 0.62 5.5 3.4
3 12(0.217)(270/60) = 11.72 3.5* 41
Total 12.96 - 46.6
*Centroid of 12 straight strands on the tension side.
46.6
ybts 3.6 in.
12.96
de = hc - ybts = 50 3.6 = 46.4 in.
The depth of compression block, a, at dv can be computed using the procedure
presented in the flexure design section. It is found that a = 4.46 in.
a 4.46
2.23 in.
2 2
d e a / 2 46.4 2.2 44.2 in.

d v max 0.9d e 0.946.4 41.8 in.
0 .7 h 0.7250.0 36.0 in.

dv = 44.2 in.= 3.7 ft
Because 3.7 ft is larger than the initially assumed value of 3.5 ft, it is
conservative to simply use the smaller value for dv (and larger shear) rather than
continue iteration. Also, because the bearing pad size has not yet been determined at
this stage, it is conservative to assume that the support width equals zero.
Therefore, use dv = 3.5 ft from centerline of the support.
8.6.13.2 Determine Shear Force Demand
Determine factored shear force demand and corresponding factored moment

demand at dv away from the face of the support, which is taken as 3.5 ft from the
centerline of the support.
Table 8.6-12 Unfactored Shear Forces and Associated Moments at dv from Face of
Support
Shear VDC1 VDC2 VDC3 VDW V(LL+IM)HL93 V(LL+IM)P15
(kip) 15.6 17.2 5 6 65.7 102.2
Associated Moment MDC1 MDC2 MDC3 MDW M(LL+IM)HL93 M(LL+IM)P15
(kip-ft) 57.5 63.4 18.5 22.3 199 304
Table 8.6-3 Table 8.6-4 Table 8.6-5

Apply Strength I and Strength II Load Combinations to determine which governs

for Vu:
Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(VDC1 + VDC2 + VDC3) + 1.5 VDW + 1.75 V(LL+IM)HL93
= 1.25(15.6 + 17.2 + 5) + 1.5(6) +1.75(75.7)
= 171.2 kips
Strength II:
Vu = 1.25(VDC1 + VDC2 + VDC3) + 1.5 VDW + 1.35 V(LL+IM)P15
= 1.25(15.6 + 17.2 + 5) + 1.5(6) +1.35(102.2)
= 194.2 kips controls
Corresponding Strength II factored moment:
Mu = 1.25 [57.5 + 63.4 +18.5] + 1.5[22.3] + 1.35[304]
= 618.1 kip-ft
8.6.13.3 Determine Contribution of Concrete
The concrete contribution to shear resistance is determined from the following

equation:
Vc =0.0316 bv dv (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3)
where:
= factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit
tension and shear
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth, dv
(in.)
For the General Procedure of LRFD Specifications Appendix B5 (AASHTO
2012), the value of is based on the net longitudinal tensile strain, x, at the middepth
of the section for the normal case in which code-minimum transverse reinforcement
is provided. This is because such members have the capacity to redistribute shear
stresses.

Figure 8.6-13 Shear Parameters for Section Containing at Least Minimum Amount of
Transverse Reinforcement, Vp = 0 (Figure B5.2-1 (AASHTO, 2012)
Determine x:
For the General Procedure, the longitudinal strain, , at middepth of the
section is typically determined using one of the two equations:
o Eq. B5.2-1 when the strain is tensile (positive)
o Eq. B5.2-3 when the strain is compressive (negative)
The value of 0.5 cot may be taken equal to 1 (i.e., may be taken as
26.6) initially during iterations for and , and may also be assumed
constant to avoid iterations, without significant loss of accuracy
(AASHTO, 2012).
Note that for some situations (e.g., PC girders made continuous for live
load), using Eq. B5.2-1 may be overly conservative when applied near
supports because the prestressing strands will be located on the flexural
compression side. In such cases, Eq. CB5.2-1 may be used for greater
accuracy (AASHTO, 2012).
|Mu |
+ 0.5Nu + 0.5 Vu - Vp cot - Aps fpo
dv
x =
2 Es As + Ep Aps
where:
| Mu | = absolute value of factored moment corresponding to the factored
shear force, not to be taken less than | Vu Vp | dv
= maximum of (618.1 k-ft, | Vu Vp | dv)
Vu = factored shear force =194.2 kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective
prestressing force; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip)
Pf = total strand force = 556.2 kips (Section 8.6.9.2, Pfg, non-
transformed section)

= angle of harped strands, from Figure 8.6-14

10 - 4
= tan-1 =1.02o
28 x 12
Critical Section
dv Centroid of
prestressing steel

CG =
10
CG = 4
28'-0"
Figure 8.6-14 Girder Elevation Near Support and Critical Section for Shear
(Ignoring Bearing Pad)
Vp = 556.2 sin (1.02) = 9.9 kips

| Vu Vp | dv = |194.2 9.9 | 3.5 = 645.2 kip-ft > 618.1 kip-ft
Therefore, | Mu | = 645.1 kip-ft = 7,741 kip-in.
Nu = factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile and negative is
compressive
= 0 kips
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= 26.5 initially assumed, based on taking 0.5 (cot ) = 1
multiplied by the locked-in difference in strain between the
prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete. For the usual
levels of prestressing, a value of 0.7fpu is appropriate for
pretensioned members.
= 0.7 (270) = 189 ksi
Aps = area of prestressing strands on flexural tension side at section
= 3.472 in.2
As = 1.24 in.2

7,741
0.5 (0) 0.5 194.2 9.9 cot( 26.5) 3.472 (189 )
x 42
2 [29,000 (1.24) 28,500 (3.472 )]

288 1.07 x 10 3
269 ,820
Since x is negative at this location at middepth, the section is in
compression. Therefore, x must be calculated using Eq. B5.2-3, which
accounts for the presence of concrete in compression.
Mu
0.5N u 0.5 Vu V p cot Aps f po
d
x v
2( Ec Ac Es As E p Aps )
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side

= 6 (19) + 0.5 (2) (6) (6) + 7 (50/2-6)
= 283 in.2
h = 50"
h/2 = 25"
= Ac
Figure 8.6-15 Definition of Ac
7,741
0.5(0) 0.5 194.2 9.9 cot( 26.6) 3.472(189 )
42
x
2[4,696( 283) 29,000(1.24 ) 28,500(3.472 )]

288 0.098 x 10 3
2,927 ,760

Determine and
For sections with transverse reinforcement equal to or larger than
minimum transverse reinforcement, the value of (factor for concrete
shear contribution) and (angle of inclination of diagonal compressive
stresses) are estimated through iteration from Table B5.2-1 of LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), shown as Table 8.6-13. To use this, the
ratio (vu / fc) is required in addition to x.
Using = 0.9 for shear per LRFD Specifications,
Vu V p
vu
bv d v
194.2 0.9 (9.9)

0.700 ksi
0.9 (7) (42)
vu 0.700
0.117
f 'c 6
Table 8.6-13 Values of and for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement (Table B5.2-1
(AASHTO 2012)
x 1,000
vu
f c
0.2 0.1 0.05 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
0.075 22.3 20.4 21 21.8 24.3 26.6 30.5 33.7 36.4
6.32 4.75 4.1 3.75 3.24 2.94 2.59 2.38 2.23
0.1 18.1 20.4 21.4 22.5 24.9 27.1 30.8 34 36.7
3.79 3.38 3.24 3.14 2.91 2.75 2.5 2.32 2.18
0.125 19.9 21.9 22.8 23.7 25.9 27.9 31.4 34.4 37
3.18 2.99 2.94 2.87 2.74 2.62 2.42 2.26 2.13
0.15 21.6 23.3 24.2 25 26.9 28.8 32.1 34.9 37.3
2.88 2.79 2.78 2.72 2.6 2.52 2.36 2.21 2.08
0.175 23.2 24.7 25.5 26.2 28 29.7 32.7 35.2 36.8
2.73 2.66 2.65 2.6 2.52 2.44 2.28 2.14 1.96
0.2 24.7 26.1 26.7 27.4 29 30.6 32.8 34.5 36.1
2.63 2.59 2.52 2.51 2.43 2.37 2.14 1.94 1.79
0.225 26.1 27.3 27.9 28.5 30 30.8 32.3 34 35.7
2.53 2.45 2.42 2.4 2.34 2.14 1.86 1.73 1.64
0.25 27.5 28.6 29.1 29.7 30.6 31.3 32.8 34.3 35.8
2.39 2.39 2.33 2.33 2.12 1.93 1.7 1.58 1.5
From Table 8.6-13 with x = -0.098 10-3 and vu / fc = 0.117, the values
of and could be determined. Although the values to be selected fall
between two choices (boxes) in the table, for hand calculations, it is

normally simpler and conservative to use the value of in the lower row
(larger vu / fc ) and value of in column to the right (larger x) of the
computed value in the table.
For this design example, first iteration yields:
= 22.8
= 2.94
The angle was initially assumed to be 26.5, significantly larger than
22.8. Therefore, another iteration is performed using the angle of 22.8.
7,741
0.5(0) 0.5 194.2 9.9 cot( 22.8) 3.472(189 )
42
x
2[4,696( 283) 29,000(1.24 ) 28,500(3.472 )]

253 0.086 x 10 3
2,927 ,760
From Table 8.6-13, Iteration 2 yields the same values for and .
Therefore, no further iteration is required and the following values are
used in design at this section:
= 22.8
= 2.94
Compute concrete contribution to shear resistance, Vc :
Vc 0.0316 f ' c bv d v (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3)
0.0316 ( 2.94 ) 6 (7) ( 42 )

= 66.9 kips
8.6.13.4 Requirement for Transverse Reinforcement
Check if shear reinforcement is required, i.e., when Vc 0.5 (Vc Vp)

Vu = 194.2 kips > 0.5 (0.9) (66.9 + 9.9) = 34.6 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement is required at the critical section.
8.6.13.4.1 Required Area of Transverse Reinforcement
The required area of transverse reinforcement is based on satisfying the

following design relationship:
Vn = Vc + Vp + Vs (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)

Solving this equation for Vs leads to:

Vu
Vs = Vc Vp

Therefore, the required contribution of the transverse reinforcement, Vs, is:
194.2
Vs = - 66.9 - 9.9 = 139 kips
0.9
The required area of transverse reinforcement can conveniently be expressed in
design as an area per length, i.e., (Av/s) based on rearrangement of AASHTO Eq.
5.8.3.3-4:
Av fy dv cot + cot sin
Vs =
s
Av Vs
=
s fy dv cot + cot sin
where:
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal reinforcement
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90 for vertical stirrups
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement
Av 139
=
s 60(42) cot 22.8o + cot 90o sin 90o
in.2
= 0.023
in.
Using #5 double-leg stirrups for transverse reinforcement,
Av = 0.31 (2) = 0.62 in.2
0.62
Spacing, s = = 27 in.
0.023
Using # 5 double-leg stirrups at 12 in. on center (s = 12 in.) near supports.
Note: Larger spacing, up to the maximum permitted by LRFD Specifications, may be
selected for section beyond 4 ft at the discretion of the designer.
This corresponds to a contribution of transverse reinforcement, Vs, to nominal
shear resistance:
0.62(60)(42) cot 22.8o
Vs,provided = = 309.7 kips
12
Vn = Vc + Vp + Vs

Vu
Vn = 66.9 + 9.9 + 309.7 = 386.5 kips > = 215.8 kips (OK)

8.6.13.5 Determine Maximum Spacing for Transverse Reinforcement
Per Article 5.8.2.7 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), the spacing of

transverse reinforcement, s, cannot exceed the maximum permissible spacing, smax
(i.e., s smax). The maximum spacing, smax, depends on the level of shear stress, vu.
From previous calculation,
Vu - Vp
vu = = 0.700 ksi
bv dv
If vu < 0.125 fc, smax = 0.8 dv 18 in. (CA 5.8.2.7-1)
0.125 fc = 0.126 (6) = 0.75 ksi > vu = 0.7 ksi
smax = 0.8 dv = 33.6 in.
smax = 18 in. controls
Therefore, smax = 18 in.
Spacing provided s = 6 in. < 18 in. (OK)
Note that tighter spacing per Eq. 5.8.2.7-2 applies for cases in which
vu 0.125fc.
8.6.13.6 Check Minimum Transverse Reinforcement
The area of transverse reinforcement, Av, provided cannot be less than that
required by Eq. 5.8.2.5-1:
0.0316 fcbv s
Av (AASHTO 5.8.2.5-1)
fy
For s = 12 in. as provided:
7(12)
Av = 0.62 in.2 > 0.03166 = 0.108 in.2
60
Therefore, #5 double-leg stirrups at 12 in. on center satisfy the minimum
transverse reinforcement requirement.
8.6.13.7 Check Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
To ensure that the web concrete will not crush prior to yielding of transverse
reinforcement, LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) requires that the nominal
shear resistance, Vn, be limited to the smaller of Eq. 5.8.3.3-1 and Eq. 5.8.3.3-2:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp = 386.5 kips (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
Vn = 0.25 fcbvdv + Vp = 0.25 (6) (7) (42) + 9.9 = 450.9 kips (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
Therefore, the nominal shear resistance is 386.5 kips.

Using the above procedure, the transverse reinforcement along the entire girder
can be similarly determined.
8.6.14 Design for Interface Shear Transfer between Girder and Deck
The interface shear transfer between precast concrete girder and cast-in-place
deck shall be designed according to AASHTO Article 5.8.4. The interface resistance
shall satisfy
Vri = Vni Vui (AASHTO 5.8.4.1-1 & 5.8.4.1-2)
where
Vri = factored interface shear resistance (kip)
Vni = nominal interface shear resistance (kip)
Vui = factored interface shear (kip)
= resistance factor = 0.9
Using AASHTO Eq. (C5.8.4.2-7), the factored interface shear can be taken as:
Vu
Vhi Vui
dv
where
Vu = factored vertical shear under Strength Limit State
dv = effective depth for shear
All sections along the entire length of the girder are required to satisfy the Article
5.8.4 requirement. For this example, the interface shear design is only demonstrated
at the dv (= 42 in.) location from face of support.
From Section 8.6.13.2, the factored shear Vu = 194.2 kips at dv. The factored
interface shear,
194 .2
V ui 4 .62 kip/in.
42

Vni cAcv Avf Pc (AASHTO 5.8.4.1-3)
Acv = bvi Lvi (AASHTO 5.8.4.1-6)

where
c = cohesion factor from AASHTO Art 5.8.4.3 (ksi)
Acv = area of concrete engaged in interface shear transfer (in.2)
Avf = area of interface shear reinforcing crossing the shear plane within Acv (in.2)
fy = yield stress of interface shear reinforcement (ksi)
Pc = permanent compressive force (kip)
bvi = interface width (in.)

Lvi = interface length (in.)

For CIP concrete slab on clean concrete girder surfaces, free of laitance and with
surface roughened to an amplitude of 0.25 in.:
c = 0.28 ksi (AASHTO Art 5.8.4.3)
=1 (AASHTO Art 5.8.4.3)
Acv = 19 (1) = 19 in.2
The amount of vertical shear reinforcement provided at dv is #5 bar, double legs,
at 6 in. spacing (Sect. 8.6.13), acting as interface shear reinforcement extended into
the deck.
0.31
Avf = = 0.052 in.2 in.
6
Vni = 0.28(19) + 1[(0.052)(60) + 0] = 8.44 kip/in.
Vni= 0.9 (8.44) = 7.6 kip/in. > Vui = 4.62 kip/in. (OK)
8.6.14.1 Check Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
The minimum interface shear reinforcement required is

0.05Acv 0.05(19)
Avf, min = = 0.016 in.2 in.
fy 60
Provided Avf = 0.052 in.2 in. > 0.016 in.2 in.
Therefore minimum interface shear reinforcement requirement is met.
8.6.14.2 Check Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
The maximum nominal shear resistance used in design shall be the lesser of the
two:
Vni K1 fc Acv (AASHTO 5.8.4.1-4)
Vni K2 Acv (AASHTO 5.8.4.1-5)
where:
fc = concrete compressive strength of deck slab (ksi)
K1 = fraction of concrete strength available to resist shear
K2 = limiting interface shear resistance
For CIP concrete slab on clean concrete girder surfaces, free of laitance with
surface roughened to an amplitude of 0.25 in.:
K1 = 0.3 (AASHTO Article 5.8.4.3)
K2 = 1.8 ksi for normal weight concrete (AASHTO Article 5.8.4.3)
Vni 0.3 (3.6) (19) = 20.5 kip/in. controls

Vni 1.8 (19) = 34.2 kip/in.

The Vni provided = 8.44 kip/in. < 20.5 kip/in. (OK).
8.6.15 Check Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement
The minimum longitudinal reinforcement (including both prestressed and non-

prestressed reinforcement on the flexural tension side) at all locations along the
girder shall be proportioned to satisfy:
Mu Nu V
A ps f ps As f y 0 .5 u V p 0.5V s cot
d v f c
c
(AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1)
At dv from the face of the support:
Mu = 618.1 kip-ft
Vu = 194.2 kips
Vu
Vs = 309.7 kips, but not to exceed
v
where:
Vu 194.2
= = 218.5 kips
v 0.9
Therefore, Vs = 215.8 kips
Vp = 9.9 kips
Nu = 0 kips
dv = 42 in.
= 22.8
fps = fpe = 160.2 ksi (from Section 8.6.9.2)
The determination of minimum longitudinal reinforcement at dv from face of
support is illustrated below.
|Mu | Nu Vu
0.5 - Vp -0.5Vs cot
dv f c v
618.2(12) 0.0 194.2

0.5 9.9 0.5218.5 cot 22.8 o 409.7 kips
(42)(1.0) 1. 0 0. 9
Transfer length, Lt, from girder end is taken as 30(strand diameters) = 30(0.6) =
18 in. This is less than the distance dv from the end. Therefore, the strands have
developed the full prestressing force and the effective prestress fps = 160.2 ksi is used.
Aps = area of 12 straight strands = 12(0.217) = 2.604 in.2

As = area of four #5 rebar = 4(0.31) = 1.24 in.2

Aps fps + As fy = 2.604(160.2) + 1.24(60) = 491.6 kips > 409.7 kips
Therefore, the minimum reinforcement requirement is satisfied.
Note that the minimum reinforcement requirement needs to be satisfied in all
locations along the girder. Eq. 5.8.3.5-2 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012)
must also be satisfied at the inside edge of bearing of simple end supports to the
section of critical shear
8.6.16 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
Splitting resistance:
Article 5.10.10.1 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) requires the
following vertical reinforcement be provided within the distance h/4
from the end of the girder to provide splitting resistance to bursting
stresses.
Pr f s As (AASHTO 5.10.10.1-1)
where:
fs = stress in steel not to exceed 20 ksi
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance h/4
from end of beam (in.2)
h = overall dimension (height) of the precast I girder in the direction in
which splitting resistance is being evaluated (in.)
Pr = factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage zone
provided by transverse reinforcement (kip), not less than 4% of
prestressing force at transfer, Pi
Pr = 0.4 (Pi) = 0.04 (0.75) (270) (3.472) = 28.1 kips
28.1
As 1.41 in.2
20
Using #5 bars with 2 vertical legs,
1.41
Number of bars required = 2.3
1.31(2)
Therefore, use three #5 double legs within h/4 (42/4 = 10.5 in.) from end
of girder.
Confinement reinforcement:
Article 5.10.10.2 of LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) requires
reinforcement be placed to confine the prestressing steel in the bottom
flange, over the distance 1.5d from the end of the girder, using #4 rebar
with spacing not to exceed 6 in. and shaped to enclose the strands.

Place #4 rebar at no more than 6 in. on center over the distance

1.5h = 1.5(42) = 63 in. (conservative) from the end of the girder to
confine the prestressing strands in the bottom flange.
#5 stirrup
#4 confinement
reinforcement
4-#5 cont.
(longitudinal reinforcement)
Note: See XS Sheet XS1-120 for standard reinforcement (not shown).
Figure 8.6-16 Transverse, Longitudinal, and Confinement Reinforcement

Details
8.6.17 Deflection and Camber
The following three aspects of deflection and camber are addressed in this design
example:
Determine and specify unfactored instantaneous girder deflections due to
deck and rail for plan sheets
Check live load deflection against AASHTO LRFD deflection criteria
Determine and specify minimum haunch thickness at supports for plan
sheets
Total deflection of the girder is estimated as the sum of the short-term and long-
term deflections. Short-term deflections are immediate and are based on an estimate
of the modulus of elasticity and the effective moment of inertia. Girder and deck slab
self-weight are carried non-compositely by the girder alone, while dead loads such as
barriers and overlays as well as live loads are carried by the composite girder-deck
system. Long-term deflections consist of long-term deflections at erection and long-
term deflection at final stage (may be assumed to be approximately 20 years).

8.6.17.1 Calculate Girder Deflections due to Deck and Rail
In this section, the instantaneous, unfactored girder camber and deflections due to
prestressing force and self-weight of the deck, haunch, barrier, and future wearing
surface are calculated for the contract plans.
Initial camber due to prestressing force at midspan can be estimated
using case (4) of Table 8.4-1. After simplifying, the deflection, p, is
expressed as,
Pi ec L2 e' (bL)2
p
EciI 8 6
where:
Pi = total prestressing force immediately in prestress strands after
transfer (kips)
= Pj ES = (202.5 16.84) (3.472) = 644.6 kips
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at initial (ksi) = 4,200 ksi
I = initial gross (non-transformed) moment of inertia of the girder (in.4)
= 95,400 in.4
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strands at midspan (in.) = 20 4 = 16 in.
e' = difference between eccentricity of prestressing strands at midspan
and at end of girder (in.) = 10 4 = 6 in.
L = girder length = 71(12) = 852 in.
bL = distance from end of girder to harped point (in.) = 28(12) = 336 in.
644.6 16.0(852) 2 6.0(336) 2

p 2.15 in. (upward)
4,200(95,400) 9 6

Immediate deflection due to girder self-weight at midspan:
The equation for deflection of a simply supported girder with a
distributed load:
5 wg L
4
g
384 Eci I

where:
wg = distributed weight of the girder= 0.494 kip/ft = 0.041 kip/in.
Deflection due to beam self weight to be used in computing deflection at
erection (with span = 70 ft = 840 in.),

5 0.041 840 4
g = = 0.66 in. (downward)
384 4,200 95,400
Immediate deflection due to weight of deck and haunch at midspan (non-
composite section):
ws = 0.525 + 0.02 = 0.545 kip-ft = 0.045 kip-in.
Ec = 4,696 ksi
5 0.045 840 4
s = = 0.65 in. (downward)
384 4,696 95,400
Immediate deflection due to barrier weight at midspan (composite
section):
wbr = 0.159 kip-ft = 0.013 kip-in.
Ec = 4,696 ksi, and I = 249,148 in.4 (gross composite section)
5 0.013 840 4
br = = 0.07 in. (downward)
384 4,696 249,184
Immediate deflection due to future wearing surface at midspan
(composite section):
wfw = 0.195 kip-ft = 0.016 kip-in.
Ec = 4,696 ksi, and I = 249,148 in.4 (gross composite section)
5 0.016 840 4
fw = = 0.09 in. (downward)
384 4,696 249,184
Immediate deflections for plans (deck and haunch; barrier rails and
future wearing surface):
The following unfactored instantaneous girder deflection values at
midspan should be shown on the contract plans.
o Deck: Unfactored instantaneous girder deflection due to deck and
haunch = s = 0.65 in.
o Rail: Unfactored instantaneous girder deflection due to barrier rail
and future wearing surface = brfw= 0.07 + 0.09 = 0.16 in.
8.6.17.2 Compare Live Load Deflection to AASHTO LRFD Limit
Girder live load deflection check is estimated using composite section properties
and concrete strength at service, and compared to the AASHTO LRFD limit per
Section 2.5.2.6.2. It should be noted that the deflection criteria in LRFD Section
2.5.2.6.2 is optional for California bridges. However, for specific situations, such as
bridge widening where the deflection may impair the minimum vertical clearance,
the deflection must be accounted for in the design.

The instantaneous live load deflection for a simple span bridge occurs at midspan
due to the HL-93 truck axles placed in the location shown below in Figure 8.6-17,
together with the HL-93 lane load (not shown).
32 kips 32 kips
8 kips
14- 0" 14'-0"
2- 4"
Midspan
Figure 8.6-17 Position of Truck to Produce Maximum Moment
The live load for each lane can be obtained from any structural analysis software
program, such as CT Bridge. The deflection for each girder is calculated by
multiplying the deflection per lane by the ratio of (number of lanes/number of
girders). This ratio can also be estimated using the moment distribution factor (DFM)
shown in Sec. 8.6.7.3, which is the simpler way.
Since the deck concrete and girder concrete differ in strength, transformed
properties are used to calculate the live load deflection. As shown in Sec. 8.6.7.3, the
DFM for this bridge is 0.571.
LL = DFM (LL per lane) = 0.571 (LL per lane)
From structural analysis software, LL per lane = 1.01 in. (downward)
LL = 0.571 (1.01) = 0.58 in. (downward)
This instantaneous live load deflection is compared to the AASHTO LRFD
recommended limitation of L/800 for general vehicular loading.
70(12)
1.05 in.
800 800
The live load deflection is less than the AASHTO limit and therefore acceptable.
8.6.17.3 Determine Minimum Haunch Thickness
The minimum haunch thickness at supports is intended to help ensure that the
specified haunch at midspan is achieved in the field. (See Section 8.4.5.1 for
discussion on importance of the haunch.)

The midspan haunch thickness is first specified by the designer (note that this is
no recommended minimum value). Based on this, the designer would calculate the
minimum haunch thickness at the supports. Both the minimum haunch thickness at
the supports and the designer-specified midspan haunch thickness should be shown
on the plans.
At erection, the net upward camber of the girder at midspan due to prestressing
force plus self-weight, g,erect, is calculated based on the instantaneous deflection
components multiplied by the PCI factors. These factors account for the time-
dependent effects between girder casting and erection.
g,erect = (MPCIerect p MPCIerect g)
where:
g,erect = camber at midspan at erection, due to long-term effects of
prestressing force and girder self-weight (in.)
MPCIerect = PCI multiplier for long-term effects at erection (Table 8.4-2)
p = immediate camber of girder at transfer due to prestressing force (in.)
g = immediate deflection of girder at midspan at transfer due to self -
weight (in.)
As shown in Figure 8.6-18, the minimum haunch thickness at the supports, THsup,
is then calculated as the difference (at the centerline of the girder) between the long-
term camber at midspan at erection, g,erect and the instantaneous deflection of the
girder at midspan due to the weight of the deck and haunch, plus the designer-
specified haunch at midspan, THmid.
TH sup g , erect s TH mid
where:
THsup = haunch thickness at supports
g,erect = camber at midspan at erection, due to long-term effects of prestressing
force and girder self-weight (in.)
s = immediate deflection at midspan due to deck weight (in.)
THmid = designer-specified haunch thickness at midspan (in.)

Bottom of
Deck THmid
s
Top of THsup
Girder
g,erect
Camber after deck

placement
Midspan
Legends:
Un-deformed shape
Deformed shape (before deck placement)
Deformed shape (after deck placement)
Figure 8.6-18 Relationship between Specified Haunch Thickness

at Midspan and Minimum Haunch Thickness at Supports
For this example:

g,erect = 1.8p 1.85g = 1.8 (2.15) 1.85 (0.66) = 2.65 in. (upward)
Specifying a haunch thickness of 1 in. at midspan, the minimum haunch
thickness required at the supports is determined as follows:
THsup = g,erect + s + THmid = 2.65 + (-0.65) + 1 = 3 in.
Therefore, the following should be specified on contract plans:
Haunch thickness at midspan: 1 in.
Minimum haunch thickness at supports: 3 in.
Note that the deck cross slope and girder top flange width do not affect the
specified midspan haunch thickness. For situations where the cross slope is relatively
large and/or the top flange is very wide (such as the wide flange girders), thickness of
the haunch at midspan on both sides of the girder flange must be carefully
considered.

NOTATION
a = depth of equivalent rectangular compression stress block (in.) (8.6.11.2)
A = area of stringer, beam, or component (in.2) (8.2.2)
Ac = concrete area of composite section (8.6.5.3)
Acv = area of concrete engaged in interface shear transfer (in.2) (8.6.14)
Ag = gross area of girder section (in.2) (8.4.2.2)
Ai = area of individual component (Table 8.6-2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (in2) (8.4.2.2)
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (in.2) (8.4.6.1)
As = area of compression reinforcement (in.2) (8.6.11.2)
Atf = area of transformed section, at final (8.6.10.3)
Ati = (8.6.10.2)
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within distance s (in.2) (8.6.13.5)
Avf = area of interface shear reinforcing crossing the shear plane within Acv (in.2)
(8.6.14)
ADL = added dead load (kips) (8.2.2)
b = width of the compression face of a member (in.) (8.6.11.2)
beff = effective flange width (in.) (8.6.5.2)
bL = distance from end of girder to harped point (in.) (8.6.17.1)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width, measured parallel to the
neutral axis, between resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure; this value lies within the depth, dv (in.) (8.6.13.3)
bvi = interface width (in.) (8.6.14)
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (in.) (8.6.11.2);
cohesion factor from AASHTO Art 5.8.4.3 (ksi) (8.6.14)
cg = center of gravity
CGC = center of gravity of the concrete section (8.2.2)
CGS = center of gravity of the strands (8.2.2)
D = structure depth (ft) or height of standard shape of PC girder given in BDA 6-1
(in.) (8.2.1)
DC = weight of supported structures (kip) (8.2.2)
db = nominal strand diameter (in.) (8.6.10.2)
force in the tensile reinforcement (in.) (8.6.7.1)

DFDL = dead load distribution factor (8.6.7.1)

DFM = live load moment distribution factor (8.6.7.3.1)
DFV = live load shear distribution factor (8.6.7.3.2)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing
tendons (in.) (8.6.11.2)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centriod of the nonprestressed
tensile reinforcement (in.) (8.6.11.2)
Ds = superstructure depth (ft) (8.6.2)
dt = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of tensile
reinforcement (8.6.12.1)
dv = the effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure (in.) (8.6.13.1)
DW = superimposed dead load (kip) (8.2.2)
e = eccentricity of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to the
centroid of the cross section; always taken as positive (ft); also the base of
Napierian logarithms (8.2.1)
e' = difference between eccentricity of prestressing steel at midspan and at end (in.)
(8.6.17.1)
EB, Ec = modulus of elasticity of girder material (ksi) (8.6.5.3)
ec = eccentricity of strands measured from center of gravity of girder at midspan
(in.) (8.6.8)
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at initial time (ksi) (8.6.4)
Ect = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer or time of load application (ksi)
(8.4.2.1)
Ecu = failure strain of concrete in compression (in./in.) (8.6.11.2)
ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (ksi) (8.6.5.3)
eg = distance between centers of gravity of girder and deck (in.) (8.6.7.3.1)
em = eccentricity at midspan (8.6.9.1)
Ep, Eps = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons (ksi) (8.4.2.1)
Es = modulus of elasticity of mild reinforcing steel (ksi) (8.6.4)
etf = distance between centers of gravity of strands and concrete section at time of
service (8.6.10.1)
eti = distance between centers of gravity of strands and concrete section at time of
transfer (in.) (8.6.10.1)
fb = concrete flexural stress at extreme bottom fiber (8.6.10.3)

fc = specified compressive strength of concrete used in design (ksi) (8.1)

prestressing (ksi); nominal concrete strength at time of application of tendon
force (ksi) (8.1)
fcgp = concrete stress at the center of gravity of prestressing tensonds that results from
the prestressing force at either transfer or jacking and the self-weight of the
member at sections maximum moment (ksi) (8.4.2.1)
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads (ksi) (8.6.12.2)
fg = stress in the member from dead load (ksi) (8.6.9.2)
fpbt = stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer (8.6.9.1)
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (8.6.9.2)
fpi = prestressing steel stress immediately prior to transfer (ksi) (8.4.2.2)
fpj = stress in prestressing steel at initial jacking (ksi) (8.6.4)
the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the
surrounding concrete (ksi) (8.6.13.3)
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance
is required (ksi) (8.6.11.2)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (8.6.4)
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel (8.6.4)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete (ksi) (8.6.12.2)
fs = stress in mild tension reinforcement at nominal flexural resistance (ksi)
(8.4.6.1)
fs = stress in the mild steel compression reinforcement at nominal flexure resistance
(8.6.11.2)
FT = required tension capacity provided by reinforcement (8.6.10.2)
ftg = concrete stress at top of precast girder (ksi) (8.6.10.3)
fy = yield strength of mild steel (ksi) (8.6.11.2)
fy = specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcment (ksi) (8.6.4)
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity (percent) (8.4.2.2)
h = web dimension of PC girder (in.) (8.2.1)
hc = overall depth of composite section (in.) (8.6.13.1)
I = initial gross (non-transformed) moment of inertia of the girder (in.4) (8.6.17.1)

Ic = moment of inertia of composite section about centroidal axis, neglecting

reinforcement (in.4) (8.6.5.3)
Icg, Ig = moment of inertia of the girder concrete section about the centroidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement (in.4) (8.6.5.1)
ICt = moment of inertia of composite transformed section (in.4) (8.6.10.1)
Ie = effective moment of inertia (in.4) (8.4.5)
Ig = gross moment of inertia of girder (in.4) (8.6.5.1)
Io = moment of inertia of individual component (in.4) (Table 8.6-2)
Iti = moment of inertia of concrete section at initial stage, transformed (in.4)
(8.6.10.1)
K1 = fraction of concrete strength available to resist shear (8.6.14.2)
K2 = limiting interface shear resistance (8.6.14.2)
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter (in.4) (8.6.7.3.1)
L = span length or girder length (ft) (8.1)
LL = live load (kip) (8.6.7.3.2)
Mcr = cracking moment (kip-in.) (8.6.12.2)
MADL = moment due to added dead loads (kip-ft) (8.2.2)
MDC1 = moment due to self-weight of beam (kip-ft) (8.6.8)
MDC2 = moment due to self-weight of deck (kip-ft) (8.6.8)
MDC3 = moment due to self-weight of barrier (kip-ft) (8.6.8)
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment action on the monolithic or noncomposite
section (kip-ft) (8.6.12.2)
MDW = moment due to future wearing surface (kip-ft) (8.6.8)
Mg = midspan moment due to self-weight of girder (8.2.2)
MHL93 = moment due to enveloped HL-93 trucks (kip-ft) (8.6.8)
MLL = moment due to live loads (8.2.2)
Mn = nominal flexure resistance (kip-in.) (8.6.11.2)
MP15 = moment due to enveloped P15 truck (8.6.11.1)
MPCIerect = PCI Multipliers for camber/deflection at time of erection (8.6.17.3)
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending (kip-in.) (8.6.11.2)
Mslab = moment due to weight of deck slab (8.2.2)
Mu = controlling factored moment demand (8.6.11.1)
Mx = moment at location x (kip-ft) (8.6.7.2)
n = modular ratio between beam and deck (8.6.5.3)

Nb = number of beams, stringers, or girders (8.6.7.1)

Nu = factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile and negative is compressive
(kip) (8.6.13.3)
P, Pe = Effective force in prestress strands after all losses (kip) (8.2.2)
Pc = permanent compressive force (kip) (8.6.14)
Pf = force in prestress strands after losses (kip) (8.6.13.3)
Pfg = effective force in prestress strands after all losses for gross section design (kip)
(8.6.9.2)
Pi = force in prestress strands after elastic shortening loss (kip) (8.6.17.1)
Pj = force in prestress strands before losses (kip) (8.6.8)
Pr = factored bearing resistance of anchorages (kip) (8.4.6.1)
r = radius (in.) (8.6.5.1)
S = spacing of girders or webs (ft) (8.2.2)
S = surface of girder section (8.4.2.2)
s = spacing of reinforcing bars (in.)
Sb = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the girder where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads (in.3) (8.6.8)
SBC = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the composite section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3) (8.6.5.3)
SBCt = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the composite section -
transformed (in. 3) (8.6.10.1)
SBtf = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the composite section -
transformed, at service stage (in. 3) (8.6.10.3)
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite sections where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3) (8.6.12.2)
Snc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the monolithic or noncomposite
sections where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
(8.6.12.2)
St = section modulus for the top extreme fiber of the sections where tensile stress is
caused by externally applied loads (in.3) (8.6.5.1)
Stc = section modulus for the top extreme fiber of the composite sections where
STDCt = section modulus for the top extreme fiber of the composite sections at top of
deck level, at service, transformed (in.3) (8.6.10.1)
STGCt = section modulus for the top extreme fiber of the composite sections at top of
girder level, at service, transformed (in.3) (8.6.10.1)

STtf = section modulus for the top extreme fiber of the composite sections at top of
girder level, at service, transformed (in.3) (8.6.10.3)
STti = section modulus for the top extreme fiber precast girder, at initial, transformed
(in.3) (8.6.10.2)
T = tensile stress in concrete (ksi) (8.2.2)
ts = thickness of concrete deck slab (in.) (8.6.7.3.1)
th = haunch thickness at midspan (in.) (8.6.2)
THmid = haunch thickness at midspan (in.) (8.6.17.3)
THsup = haunch thickness at support (in.) (8.6.17.3)
w = uniform dead load, k/ft (8.6.7.2)
wbr = uniform dead loadweight of barrier (klf) (8.6.6.1)
wfw = uniform dead loadweight of future wearing surface (klf) (8.6.6.1)
wg = uniform dead loadweight of girder (klf) (8.6.6.1)
wh = uniform dead loadweight of haunch (klf) (8.6.6.1)
ws = uniform dead loadweight of deck slab (klf) (8.6.6.1)
V = volume of girder (in.3) (8.4.2.2)
(8.6.13)
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered (kip) (8.6.13)
Vni = nominal interface shear resistance (kip) (8.6.14)
Vri = factored interface shear resistance (kip) (8.6.14)
force; positive if resisting the applied shear (kip) (8.6.13)
Vs = shear resistance provided by the transverse reinforcement at the section under
investigation as given by AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4, except Vs shall not be less than
Vu/ (kip) (8.6.13)
Vu = factored shear force (kip) (8.6.13.3)
vu = average factored shear stress on the concrete (ksi) (8.6.13.3)
Vui = factored interface shear resistance (kip/in.) (8.6.14)
x = distance from left end of girder (ft) (8.2.1)
Y = distance from the neutral axis to a point on individual component (in.)
(Table 8.6-2)
yb = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme bottom fiber of PC girder (in.)
(8.2.1)

YBC = distance from the centroid to extreme bottom fiber of composite section (in.)
(8.6.5.3)
YBCt = section modulus for the bottom extreme fiber of the composite, at service,
transformed (in.3) (8.6.10.1)
YBtf = section modulus for bottom extreme fiber of PC girder, at service, transformed
(in.3) (8.6.10.1)
YBti = section modulus for bottom extreme fiber of PC girder, at initial, transformed
(in.3) (8.6.10.1)
ybts = centroid of all tensile reinforcement (in.) (8.6.13.1)
yi = distance from centroid of section i to centroid of composite section (8.6.5.3)
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme top fiber of PC girder (in.) (8.2.1)
YTC = distance from the centroid to extreme top fiber of composite section (in.)
(8.6.5.3)
Ytg = distance from centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the
PC girder (in.) (8.6.10.1)
YTGCt = distance from centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the
PC girder (in.) (8.6.10.1)
YTti = distance neutral axis to the extreme top fiber of the PC girder, transformed (in.)
(8.6.10.1)
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis () total
angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking end to a point under
investigation (rad) (8.6.13.4.2)
= factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete, as
(unitless) (8.6.13.3)
assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
(5.7.2.2) (8.6.11.2)
br = deflection due to barrier weight (in.) (8.6.17.1)
g = camber at midspan at erection due to girder self-weight (in.) (8.6.17.3)
g,erect = camber at midspan at erection due to long-term effects of prestressing force
and girder self-weight (in.) (8.6.17.3)
ES = change in length due to elastic shortening (8.1)
fpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of
application of prestress and/or external loads (ksi) (8.4.2)
fpLT = losses due to long-term shrinkage and creep of concrete and relaxation of
prestressing steel (ksi) (8.4.2)

fpR = an estimation of relaxation loss taken as 2.4 ksi for low relaxation strand, 10
ksi for stress relieved strand, and in accordance with manufacturers
recommendation for other types of strand (ksi) (8.4.2.2)
fpT = total change in stress due to losses (ksi) (8.4.2)
fw = deflection due to future wearing surface (in.) (8.6.17.1)
p = camber at midspan due to prestressing force at release (in.) (8.6.17.3)
s = instantaneous deflection due to weight of deck slab (in.) (8.6.17.3)
cu = failure strain of concrete in compression (in./in.) (8.6.11.2)
(8.6.11.2)
x = longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the
member (in./in.) (8.6.13.3)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (8.6.13.3)
1 = flexural cracking variability factor (8.6.12.2)
2 = prestress variability factor (8.6.12.2)
reinforcement (8.6.12.2)
h = correction factor for relative humidity of ambient air. (8.4.2.2)
st = correction factor for specified concrete strength time at of prestress transfer to
concrete member (8.4.2.2)
= resistance factor (8.6.11.2)
= coefficient of friction (unitless) (8.6.14)
= angle of harped strands (8.6.13.3)
c = unit weight of concrete (kcf) (8.6.4)

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, 6th Edition, Washington, D.C.
Sixth Edition 2012, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
3. Caltrans, (2014). Memos to Designers 11-8 Design of Precast, Prestressed Girders,
California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
4. Caltrans, (2013). Memos to Designers 10-20 Attachment 1: Deck Slab Reinforcement
Details, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
5. Caltrans, (2012). Bridge Design Aids Chapter 6-1: Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders,
6. Caltrans, (2010). Memos to Designers 11-3 Designers Checklist for Prestressed Concrete,
7. Caltrans, (2008a). Memos to Designers 10-20 Deck and Soffit Slabs, California Department
8. Caltrans, (2008b). Memos to Designers 10-20 Attachment 2: Deck Slab Thickness and
Reinforcement Schedule, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
9. Caltrans, (2008c). Memos to Designers 10-20 Attachment 3: Soffit Slab Reinforcement
Details, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
10. Caltrans, (2001). Memos to Designers 20-6 Attachment 2: Capacity Procedure (Metric),
11. Caltrans, (1990). Bridge Design Aids Chapter 10: Type Selection, California Department of
12. Castrodale, R. W. and White, C. D. (2004). National Cooperative Highway Research
Program (NCHRP) Report 517: Extending Span Ranges of Precast Prestressed Concrete
Girders, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
13. Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D. (1991). Prestressed Concrete Structures, Response
Publications, Toronto, Canada
14. Holombo, J., Priestley, M. J. N., and Seible, F. (2000). Continuity of Precast, Prestressed
Spliced-Girder Bridges Under Seismic Loads. PCI Journal, 45(2), 40-63.
15. Ma, J. and Schendel, R. (2009). New California Precast LRFD Standard Drawings.
16. Mast, R. F. (1993). Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete BeamsPart 2. PCI
Journal, 38(1), 70-88.
17. Naaman, A. E. (2004). Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: FundamentalsSecond
Edition, Techno Press 3000, Ann Arbor, MI.
18. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, (2011). PCI Bridge Design ManualThird Edition,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.

19. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, (2010). PCI Design Handbook: Precast and
Prestressed ConcreteSeventh Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL.
20. Pritchard, B. (1992). Bridge Design for Economy and Durability, Thomas Telford House,
London, England.
21. Snyder, R. (2010). Seismic Performance of an I-girder to Inverted-T Bent Cap Bridge
Connection, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
22. Tadros, M. K., Al-Omaishi, N., Seguirant, S. J., and Galt, J. G. (2003). National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 496: Prestress Losses in
Pretensioned High-Strength Concrete Bridge Girders, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C.

CHAPTER 9
STEEL PLATE GIRDERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1

9.2 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ........................................................................................... 1
9.2.1 Structural Steel ...................................................................................................... 1
9.2.2 Concrete ................................................................................................................ 2
9.3 SPAN AND FRAMING ARRANGEMENT ...................................................................... 2
9.3.1 Span Configuration ............................................................................................... 2
9.3.2 Girder Spacing....................................................................................................... 2
9.3.3 Diaphragms and Cross Frames .............................................................................. 3
9.3.4 Lateral Bracing ...................................................................................................... 5
9.3.5 Field Splice Locations ........................................................................................... 5
9.3.6 Expansion Joints and Hinges ................................................................................. 5
9.4 SECTION PROPORTION .................................................................................................. 6
9.4.1 Depth to Span Ratios ............................................................................................. 6
9.4.2 Webs ...................................................................................................................... 6
9.4.3 Flanges .................................................................................................................. 7
9.4.4 Stiffeners ............................................................................................................... 8
9.5 STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS .............................................................. 8
9.6 DESIGN LIMIT STATES AND PROCEDURES .............................................................. 9
9.6.1 Design Limit States ............................................................................................... 9
9.6.2 Design Procedure .................................................................................................. 9
9.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE - THREE-SPAN CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE PLATE
GIRDER BRIDGE ........................................................................................................... 11
9.7.1 Steel Girder Bridge Data ..................................................................................... 11
9.7.2 Design Requirements .......................................................................................... 12
9.7.3 Select Girder Layout and Sections ...................................................................... 13
9.7.4 Perform Load and Structural Analysis ................................................................ 18
9.7.5 Calculate Live Load Distribution Factors ........................................................... 22
9.7.6 Determine Load and Resistance Factors and Load Combinations ...................... 25
9.7.7 Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Strength Limit States....................... 26
Chapter 9 - Steel Plate Girders 9-i

9.7.8 Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Fatigue Limit States ........................ 28
9.7.9 Calculate Factored Moments Service Limit State II ........................................ 30
9.7.10 Design Composite Section in Positive Moment Region at 0.5 Point of Span 2 .. 31
9.7.11 Design Noncomposite Section in Negative Moment Region at Bent 3 .............. 45
9.7.12 Design Shear Connectors for Span 2 ................................................................... 64
9.7.13 Design Bearing Stiffeners at Bent 3 .................................................................... 67
9.7.14 Design Intermediate Cross Frames...................................................................... 70
9.7.15 Design Bolted Field Splices ................................................................................ 77
9.7.16 Calculate Deflection and Camber........................................................................ 98
9.7.17 Identify and Designate Steel Bridge Members and Components ...................... 100
NOTATION ................................................................................................................................ 101
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 105
Chapter 9 - Steel Plate Girders 9-ii

CHAPTER 9
STEEL PLATE GIRDERS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Girder bridges are structurally the simplest and the most commonly used on short
to medium span bridges. Figure 9.1-1 shows the Central Viaduct in San Francisco.
Steel I-section is the simplest and most effective solid section for resisting bending
and shear. In this chapter straight composite steel-concrete plate girder bridges are
discussed. Design considerations for span and framing arrangement, and section
proportion are presented. A design example of the three span continuous composite
plate girder bridge is given to illustrate the design procedure. For a more detailed
discussion, reference may be made to texts by Chen and Duan (2014), Baker and
Puckett (2013), FHWA (2012), and Taly (2014).
Figure 9.1-1 Central Viaduct in San Francisco
9.2 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
9.2.1 Structural Steel
ASTM A 709 or AASHTO M 270 (Grades 36, 50, 50S, 50W, HPS 50W, HPS
70W and 100/100W) structural steels are commonly used for bridge structures.
Chapter 6 provides a more detailed discussion.
Chapter 9 - Steel Plate Girders 9-1

9.2.2 Concrete
Concrete with 28-day compressive strength f c = 3.6 ksi is commonly used in
concrete deck slab construction. Caltrans MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008) provides
concrete deck slab thickness and reinforcement. The transformed area of concrete is
used to calculate the composite section properties. For normal weight concrete of
f c = 3.6 ksi, the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete,
n = E/Ec = 8 is recommended by AASHTO (2012).
For unshored construction, the modular ratio n is used for transient loads applied
to the short-term composite sections, and the modular ratio 3n is used for permanent
loads applied to the long-term composite sections.
9.3 SPAN AND FRAMING ARRANGEMENT
9.3.1 Span Configuration
Span configuration plays an important role in the efficient and cost-effective use
of steel. For cases where pier locations are flexible, designers should optimize the
span arrangement. Two-span continuous girders/beams are not the most efficient
system because of high negative moments. Three- and four-span continuous girders
are preferable, but may not always be possible. For multi-span continuous girders, a
good span arrangement is to have the end span lengths approximately 70 to 80
percent of the interior span lengths. Equal interior span arrangements are also
relatively economical. A span configuration with uplift due to live load plus impact
should be avoided.
The use of simply supported girders under construction load and continuous
girders through steel reinforcement for live load can be an economical framing
method (Azizinamini, 2007). This type of framing presents possible advantages over
continuous beam designs by eliminating costly splices and heavy lifts during girder
erection. The potential drawbacks are that more section depth may be required and
the weight of steel per unit deck area may be higher. This framing method needs to
be investigated on a case-by-case basis to determine whether it can be economically
advantageous.
When simply supported span configurations are used, special attention should be
given to seismic performance detailing.
9.3.2 Girder Spacing
As a general rule, the most economical superstructure design can be achieved

using girder spacing within an 11 ft. to 14 ft. range. For spans less than 140 ft., 10 ft.
to 12 ft. spacing is preferred. For spans greater than 140 ft., 11 ft. to 14 ft. spacing is
recommended. The use of metal deck form panels will limit the spacing to about 16
ft. Girder spacings over 16 ft. may require a transversely post-tensioned deck system.
Parallel girder layout should be used wherever possible.

9.3.3 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
The terms diaphragm and cross frame are synonymous. Figure 9.3-1 shows
typical types of diaphragms and cross frames used in I-shaped plate girder and rolled
beam spans. The K-frames and X-frames usually include a top strut as shown in
Figure 9.3-1. Intermediate cross frames provide bracing against lateral torsional
buckling of compression flanges during erection and deck concrete placement, and
for all loading stages in negative flexure regions. They also provide lateral bracing
for wind loads. End cross frames or diaphragms at piers and abutments are provided
to transmit lateral wind loads and seismic loads to the bearings.
9.3.3.1 Spacing
Arbitrary 25 ft. spacing limit for diaphragms and cross frames was specified in
the AASHTO Standard Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2002) and the Caltrans
Bridge Design Specifications (Caltrans, 2000). The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012), however, no longer specify a limit on the cross
frame spacing, but instead require rational analysis to investigate needs for all stages
of assumed construction procedures and the final conditions. Spacing should be
compatible with the transverse stiffeners.
Figure 9.3-1 Typical Diaphragms and Cross Frames

9.3.3.2 Orientation
Intermediate cross frames shall be placed parallel to the skew up to a 20o skew
and normal to the girders for a skew angle larger than 20o. On skewed bridges with
cross frames placed normal to the girders, there may be situations where the cross
frames are staggered or discontinuous across the width of the bridge. At these
discontinuous cross frames, lateral flange bending stresses may be introduced into the
girder flanges and should be considered. Install stiffeners on the back side of
connection plates if staggered cross frames are used. Horizontally curved girders
should always have the cross frames placed on radial lines.
A good economical design will minimize the number of diaphragms with varying
geometries. Superelevation changes, vertical curves, different connection plate
widths, and flaring girders all work against this goal.
9.3.3.3 Connections
Cross frames are typically connected to transverse stiffeners. The stiffeners shall
have a positive connection to the girder flange and may either be bolted or welded,
although welding is preferred.
For bridges built in stages or with larger skew angles, differential deflections
between girders due to slab placement can be significant. If differential deflections
are significant, slotted holes and hand tight erection bolts with jamb nuts shall be
provided during concrete placement, and permanent bolts fully tensioned or field
welded connections shall be installed after the barriers are placed. The bolt holes can
be field drilled to insure proper fit. Intermediate cross frames between stages shall be
eliminated if possible.
9.3.3.4 Design Guidelines
The diaphragm or cross frame shall be as deep as practicable to transfer

lateral load and to provide lateral stability. They shall be at least 0.5 of the
beam depth for rolled beams and 0.75 of the girder depth for plate girders
(AASHTO 6.7.4.2).
Cross frames should be designed and detailed such that they can be erected
as a single unit, and all welding during fabrication should be done from one
side to minimize handling costs. As a minimum, cross frames shall be
designed to resist lateral wind loads. A rational analysis is preferred to
determine actual lateral forces.

End diaphragms and cross frames at bearings shall be designed to resist all
lateral forces transmitted to the substructure. Unless they are detailed as
ductile elements, the end diaphragms or cross frames shall be designed to
resist the overstrength shear capacity of the substructures. Shear connectors
should be provided to transfer lateral loads from the deck to the end
diaphragm in accordance with the Caltrans Guide Specifications for Seismic
Design of Steel Bridges (Caltrans 2014). When an expansion joint occurs at a
support, the end diaphragm shall be designed to resist truck wheel and impact
loads.
Effective slenderness ratios (KL/r) for compression diagonals shall be less
than or equal to 120 and 140 for horizontally curved girders and straight
girders, respectively (AASHTO 6.9.3); and for tension members (L/r) less
than or equal to 240 (AASHTO 6.8.4).
Cross frame members and gussets consisting of single angle or WT shapes
should be designed for the eccentricity inherent at the gusset connections.
Use rectangular gusset plates in lieu of multi-sided polygons.
Steel plate, I girder, and concrete diaphragms may be used at abutments and
piers. The use of integral abutments, piers, and bents is encouraged.
9.3.4 Lateral Bracing
Bottom chord lateral bracing should be avoided because the bracing creates
fatigue-sensitive details and is costly to fabricate, install, and maintain. Flange sizes
should be sufficient to preclude the need for bottom flange lateral bracing.
9.3.5 Field Splice Locations
Field splices shall preferably be located at points of dead load contraflexure and
at points of section change and spaced more than 50 ft. apart. The splice locations are
also dependent on shipping and fabrication limits. The length of shipping piece is
usually less than 125 ft. and weight less than 40 tons. It is not necessary to locate the
splices at the exact contraflexure point, but they should be reasonably close. Field
splices are sometimes required to be placed near points of maximum moment in
longer spans in order to meet erection requirements. Field splices should always be
bolted. Welded field splices shall not be used (CA 6.13.6.2). Adjacent girders should
be spliced in approximately the same location.
9.3.6 Expansion Joints and Hinges
In-span hinges are generally not recommended for steel bridges since there are
not many acceptable solutions for the design of hinges to resist seismic loads. Steel
bridges have been designed without expansion joints and hinges at lengths up to 1200
ft. When dropped cap bents are utilized, the superstructure may be separated from the

substructure with expansion bearings to prevent undue temperature effects on the

substructure.
9.4 SECTION PROPORTION

9.4.1 Depth to Span Ratios
Figure 9.4-1 shows a typical portion of a composite I-girder bridge consisting of

a concrete deck and built-up plate girder I-section with stiffeners and cross frames.
The first step in the structural design of a plate girder bridge is to initially size the
web and flanges.
Figure 9.4-1 Components of Typical I-Girder Bridge
For straight girders, AASHTO Table 2.5.2.6.3-1 specifies the minimum ratio of
the depth of steel girder portion to the span length is 0.033 for simply supported
spans and 0.027 for continuous spans; the minimum ratio of the overall depth
(concrete slab plus steel girder) to span length is 0.04 for simply supported spans and
0.032 for continuous spans. Caltrans traditionally prefers that the minimum ratio of
overall depth to span length is 0.045 for simply supported spans and 0.04 for
continuous spans. For horizontally curved girders, the minimum depth will more
than likely need to be increased by 10 to 20%.
9.4.2 Webs
The web mainly provides shear strength for the girder. Since the web contributes
little to the bending resistance, its thickness should be as small as practical to meet
the web depth to thickness ratio limits D/tw 150 for webs without longitudinal
stiffeners, and D/tw 300 for webs with longitudinal stiffeners, respectively
(AASHTO 6.10.2.1). It is preferable to have web depths in increments of 2 or 3 in.

for convenience. Web depths greater than 120 in. will require both longitudinal and
vertical splices.
The web thickness is preferred to be not less than inch. A thinner plate is
subject to excessive distortion from welding. The thickness should be sufficient to
preclude the need for longitudinal stiffeners. Web thickness should be constant or
with a limited number of changes. A reasonable target would be one or two web sizes
for a continuous girder and one web size for a simple span. Web thickness
increments should be 1/l6 in. or 1/8 in. for plate thicknesses up to 1 inch, and inch
increments for plates greater than 1 inch.
9.4.3 Flanges
The flanges provide bending strength. Flanges should be at least l2 in. wide. A
constant flange width for the entire length of the girder is preferred. If the flange area
needs to be increased, it is preferable to change the flange thickness. If flange widths
need to be changed, it is best to change the width at field splices only. Width
increments should be in multiples of 2 or 3 inches. For horizontally curved girders,
the flange width should be about one-fourth of the web depth. For straight girders, a
flange width of approximately one-fifth to one-sixth of the web depth should be
sufficient.
For straight girders, the minimum flange thickness should be 3/4 inch. For curved
girders, l in. thickness is a practical minimum. The desirable maximum flange
thickness is 3 inches. Grade 50 and HPS 70W steels are not available in thicknesses
greater than 4 inches. Flange thickness increments should be 1/8 in. for thicknesses
up to 1 in., 1/4 in. from 1 to 3 in., and 1/2 in. from 3 to 4 inches. At the locations
where the flange thickness is changed, the thicker flange should provide about 25
percent more area than the thinner flange. In addition, the thicker flange should be
not greater than twice the thickness of the thinner flange.
Both the compression and tension flanges shall meet the following proportion
requirements (AASHTO 6.10.2.2) as follows:
bf
12 (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-1)
2t f
D
bf (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-2)
6
t f 1.1tw (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-3)
I yc
0.1 10 (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-4)
I yt
where bf and tf are full width and thickness of the flange (in.); tw is web thickness
(in.); Iyc and Iyt are the moment of inertia of the compression flange and the tension
flange about the vertical axis in the plane of web, respectively (in.4); D is web depth

(in.). Equation AASHTO 6.10.2.2-1 ensures the flange will not distort excessively
when welded to the web. Equation AASHTO 6.10.2.2-2 ensures that stiffened
interior web panels can develop post-elastic buckling shear resistance by the tension
field action. Equation AASHTO 6.10.2.2-3 ensures that flanges can provide some
restraint and proper boundary conditions to resist web shear buckling. Equation
AASHTO 6.10.2.2-4 ensures more efficient flange proportions and prevents the use
of sections that may be difficult to handle during construction. It also ensures that the
lateral torsional buckling formulas used in AASHTO are valid.
9.4.4 Stiffeners
Intermediate transverse stiffeners together with the web are used to provide post-
elastic shear buckling resistance by the tension field action and are usually placed
near the supports and large concentrated loads. Stiffeners without connecting cross
frames/diaphragms are typically welded to the girder web and shall be welded to the
compression flange and fitted tightly to the tension flange (CA 6.10.11.1.1). Stiffener
plates are preferred to have even inch widths from the flat bar stock sizes.
Bearing stiffeners are required at all bearing locations. Bearing stiffeners shall be
welded or bolted to both sides of the web. Bearing stiffeners should be thick enough
to preclude the need for multiple pairs of bearing stiffeners to avoid multiple-stiffener
fabrication difficulties. AASHTO 6.10.11.2 requires that the stiffeners shall extend
the full depth of the web and as close as practical to the edge of the flanges.
Longitudinal stiffeners are required to increase flexure resistance of the web by

controlling lateral web deflection and preventing the web bending buckling. They
are, therefore, attached to the compression portion of the web. It is recommended that
sufficient web thickness be used to eliminate the need for longitudinal stiffeners as
they can cause difficulty in fabrication and create fatigue-prone details.
9.5 STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS

Steel girder bridges are commonly modeled as beam elements and analyzed as
unshored construction. Flexural stiffness of composite section is assumed over the
entire bridge length even though the negative moment regions may be designed as
non-composite for the section capacity. Longitudinal reinforcing steel in the top mat
of the concrete deck within the effective deck width is generally not included in
calculating section properties.
In the preliminary analysis, a constant flexural stiffness may be assumed. In the

final analysis of composite flexural members, the stiffness properties of the steel
section alone for the loads applied to noncomposite sections, the stiffness properties
of the long-term composite section for permanent loads applied to composite
sections, and the stiffness properties of the short-term composite section properties
for transient loads, shall be used over the entire bridge length (AASHTO 6.10.1.5),
respectively.

Dead loads are usually distributed to the girders based on tributary area. Live
loads distribution is dependent on the girder spacing S, span length L, concrete slab
depth ts, longitudinal stiffness parameter Kg, and number of girders Nb (AASHTO
4.6.2.2.1).
The more refined analysis using the finite element method may be used in
analyzing complex bridge systems such as skewed and horizontally curved bridges.
9.6 DESIGN LIMIT STATES AND PROCEDURES

9.6.1 Design Limit States
Steel girder bridges shall be designed to meet the requirements for all applicable
limit states specified by AASHTO (2012) and the California Amendments (Caltrans
2014) such as Strength I, Strength II, Service II, Fatigue I and II, and extreme events.
Constructability (AASHTO 6.10.3) must be considered. See Chapters 3, 4, and 6 for
more detailed discussion.
9.6.2 Design Procedure
The steel girder design may follow the flowchart as shown in Figure 9.6-1.

Start
Select girder layout, framing system, and

sections
Perform load and structural analysis
Determine LRFD load combinations

(CA Table 3.4.1-1)
Perform Flexure Design for the Limit States - Strength

(AASHTO 6.10.6.2), Service (AASHTO 6.10.4),
Fatigue (AASHTO 6.10.5.1), and
Constructibility (AASHTO 6.10.3.2)
Perform Shear Design for the Limit States -

Strength (AASHTO 6.10.6.3), Fatigue (AASHTO
6.10.5.1), and Constructibility (AASHTO 6.10.3.3)
Perform Shear Connector Design (AASHTO 6.10.10)
Perform Bearing Stiffener Design (AASHTO 6.10.11.2)
Perform Cross Frame Design
Perform Bolted Field Splices Design

(AASHTO and CA 6.13.6)
Calculate Deflection and Camber
Girder Design
Completed
Figure 9.6-1 Steel I-Girder Design Flowchart

9.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE THREE-SPAN CONTINUOUS

COMPOSITE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE
9.7.1 Steel Girder Bridge Data
A three-span continuous composite plate girder bridge has spans of 110 ft 165
ft 125 ft. The superstructure is 58 ft wide. The elevation and plan are shown in
Figure 9.7-1.
Structural steel: A 709 Grade 50 for web, flanges and splice plates Fy = 50 ksi
A 709 Grade 36 for cross frames and stiffeners, etc. Fy = 36 ksi
Concrete: f c = 3600 psi; Ec = 3,640 ksi; modular ratio n = 8
Deck: Concrete deck slab thickness = 9.125 in.
Construction: Unshored construction
(a) Elevation
(b) Plan
Figure 9.7-1 Three-span Continuous Steel Plate Girder Bridge

Perform the following design portions for an interior plate girder in accordance
with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th Edition (AASHTO 2012)
with the California Amendments (Caltrans 2014).
Select Girder Layout and Sections

Perform Load and Structural Analysis
Calculate Live Load Distribution Factors
Determine Load and Resistance Factors and Load Combinations
Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Strength Limit States
Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Fatigue Limit States
Calculate Factored Moments Service Limit State II
Design Composite Section in Positive Moment Region at 0.5 Point of Span 2
Design Noncomposite Section in Negative Moment Region at Bent 3
Design Shear Connectors for Span 2
Design Bearing Stiffeners at Bent 3
Design Intermediate Cross Frames
Design Bolted Field Splices
Calculate Camber and Plot Camber Diagram
Identify and Designate Steel Bridge Members and Components
The following notation is used in this example:
AASHTO xxx denotes AASHTO Article xxx

AASHTO xxx-x denotes AASHTO Equation/Table xxx-x
CA xxx denotes California Amendment Article xxx
CA xxx-x denotes California Amendment Equation/Table xxx-x
MTD xxx denotes Caltrans Bridge Memo to Designers Article xxx

9.7.3 Select Girder Layout and Sections
9.7.3.1 Select Girder Spacing
A girder spacing of 12 ft is selected as shown in Figure 9.7-2a.
9.7.3.2 Select Intermediate Cross Frame Spacing
Cross frames at spacing of 27.5 ft and 25 ft are selected as shown in Figure 9.7-3
to accommodate transverse stiffener spacing for web design and to facilitate a
reduction in required flange thickness of the girder section at the bent.
9.7.3.3 Select Steel Girder Section for Positive Flexure Regions
The cross section is usually proportioned based on past practice and proportion
limits specified in AASHTO 6.10.2. Interior girder section is shown in Figures 9.7-2b
and 9.7-4. Haunch depth shall be carefully selected by considering road slope, top
flange thickness, correction of sagging and cambers, embedment of shear connectors
as discussed in MTD 12-4 (Caltrans, 2004a).
Top Compression Flange
The maximum transported length of a steel plate girder is generally limited to a

length of about 120 ft and a weight of about 180 kips and may vary due to the
locations. It is common practice that the unsupported length of each shipping piece
divided by the minimum width of compression flange should be less than or equal to
about 85 (AASHTO C 6.10.3.4). For a length of 120 ft, the width of compression
flange is preferably larger than (12012)/85 = 17 in. Try top compression flange bfc
tfc = 18 1 (in. in.).
Web
AASHTO Table 2.5.2.6.3-1 specifies that for composite girders, the minimum
ratio of the depth of steel girder portion to the length of span is 0.033 for simple span
and 0.027 for continuous spans. For this design example, the depth of steel girder
shall be larger than 0.027(165) = 4.46 ft. = 53.5 in. Try web D tw = 78 0.625 (in.
in.).
Bottom Tension Flange
Try bottom tension flange bft tft = 18 1.75 (in. in.).

(a) Bridge Cross Section
(a) Bridge Cross Section

9 1/8
1-11/4
(b) Interior Girder Section

Figure 9.7-2 Typical Cross Sections
Figure 9.7-3 Framing Plan

(Skew not Shown)
For convenience in this example, the ends of the girder have been assumed to
match the BB and EB locations.
Figure 9.7-4 Elevation of Interior Girder

Check Section Proportion Limits
Web without longitudinal stiffeners

D 78
124.8 150 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw 0.625
Compression flange
b fc 18
9 12 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-1)
2t fc 2 1.0
D 78
b fc 18 13 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-2)
6 6
t fc 1.0 in. 1.1tw 1.1 0.625 0.69 in. OK.

(AASHTO 6.10.2.2-3)
Tension flange
b ft 18
5.14 12 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-1)
2t ft 2 1.75
D 78
b ft 18 13 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-2)
6 6
t ft 1.75 in. 1.1tw 1.1 0.625 0.69 in. OK.

(AASHTO 6.10.2.2-3)
Flanges Ratio
The flange shall meet the requirement of 0.1 I yc / I yt 10 , where Iyc

and Iyt are the moment of inertia of the compression flange and the tension
flange about the vertical axis in the plane of web, respectively. This limit
ensures more efficient flange proportions and prevents the use of sections
that may be difficult to handle during construction. It also ensures that the
lateral torsional buckling formulas are valid.
I yc 1183 / 12
0.1 0.57 10 O.K.
I yt 1.75183 / 12
(AASHTO 6.10.2.2-4)

9.7.3.4 Select Steel Girder Section for Negative Flexure Regions
Flanges
In the negative moment region, non-composite symmetric steel section is

generally used. Try flange plates bf tf = 18 2 (in. in.).
Web
It is more cost effective to use one thickness plate for the web through whole
bridge. Try web D tw = 78 0.625 (in. in.).
Check Section Proportion Limits
Web without longitudinal stiffeners:

D 78
124.8 150 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw 0.625
Compression and tension flanges
bf 18
4.5 12 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-1)
2t f 2 2.0
D 78
b f 18 13 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-2)
6 6
t f 2.0 in. 1.1tw 1.1 0.625 0.69 in.

O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-3)
Flange ratio
I yc 2 18 3 / 12
0.1 1.0 10
I yt 2 18 3 / 12
O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.2-4)
9.7.3.5 Select Transverse Stiffeners
It is normal to use stiffener width of 7.5 in. to provide allowances for gusset plate
connections of cross frames. Try a pair of stiffeners bt tp = 7.5 0.5 (in. in.)
9.7.3.6 Select Bolted Splice Locations
For flexural members, splices shall preferably be made at or near points of dead
load contraflexure in continuous spans and at points of the section change. As shown
in Figure 9.7-3, splices locations for Spans 1 and 3 are selected approximately at 0.7
and 0.3 points, respectively, and for Span 2 are selected approximately at 0.3 and 0.7
points.

9.7.4 Perform Load and Structural Analysis
9.7.4.1 Calculate Permanent Loads for an Interior Girder
The permanent load or dead load of an interior girder includes DC and DW. DC
is dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments. DW is dead load
of wearing surface. For design purposes, the two parts of DC are defined as, DC1,
structural dead load, acting on the non-composite section, and DC2, nonstructural
dead load, acting on the long-term composite section.
DC1 usually consists of deck slab concrete (unit weight 150 lbs/ft3), steel girder
including bracing system and details (estimated weight 460 lbs/ft for each girder),
and an additional 10 percent of deck weight between girders to compensate for the
use of permanent steel deck forms as specified in MTD 8-7 (Caltrans, 2015) for
bridges designed that are over vehicular or rail traffic in Climate Areas I and II. DC1
is assumed to be distributed to each girder by the tributary area. The tributary width
for the interior girder is 12 feet.
DC1 1.19.125 / 1212 1.5 1.513.25 1.5 / 120.15 0.46 2.0 kip/ft
DC2 usually consists of the barrier rails and specified utility. Type 732 Concrete
Barriers (0.41 kips/ft and bottom width = 1.43 ft) are used and no utility is considered
for this bridge. DC2 is assumed to be distributed equally to each girder.
DC2 = 20.41 / 5 0.164 kip/ft
A future wearing surface 35 psf as specified in MTD 15-17 (Caltrans 1988) is

assumed. DW is assumed to be distributed equally to each girder.
DW = (deck width - barrier width) (wearing surface pressure)/5
= [58 - 2(1.43)] (0.035)/5 = 0.386 kip/ft
9.7.4.2 Determine Live Load and Dynamic Load Allowance
The design live load LL is the AASHTO HL-93 (AASHTO 3.6.1.2) and Caltrans
P15 vehicular live loads (CA 3.6.1.8). To consider the wheel-load impact from
moving vehicles, the dynamic load allowance IM = 33% for the Strength I Limit
State, 25% for the Strength II Limit State, and 15% for the Fatigue Limit States are
used (CA Table 3.6.2.1-1).
9.7.4.3 Perform Structural Analysis
A structural analysis for three-span continuous beams shall be performed to

obtain moments and shear effects due to dead loads and live loads including impact.
In the preliminary analysis, a constant flexural stiffness may be assumed. In the final
analysis of composite flexural members, the stiffness properties of the steel section
alone for the loads applied to noncomposite sections, the stiffness properties of the
long-term composite section for permanent loads applied to composite sections and

the stiffness properties of the short-term composite section properties for transient
loads, shall be used over the entire bridge length (AASHTO 6.10.1.5), respectively.
In this design example, the analysis is performed by the CT-Bridge computer
program and checked by the CSiBridge program. A constant flexural stiffness is
assumed for simplicity.
Unfactored dead load for an interior girder and live load moments, shears, and
support forces for one lane loaded are listed in Tables 9.7-1, 9.7-2, and 9.7-3,
respectively. Unfactored moment and shear envelopes for one lane loaded in Span 2
are plotted in Figures 9.7-5 and 9.7-6, respectively.
Table 9.7-1 Unfactored Dead and Live Load Moments

Dead Load Live Load
Span Point (Interior Girder) (One Lane)
DC1 DC2 DW (LL+IM)HL-93 (LL+IM)P15
x/L M_dc1 M_dc2 M_dw +M -M +M -M
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 693 57 135 1143 -249 1937 -576
0.2 1144 94 223 1960 -498 3236 -1152
0.3 1353 111 264 2465 -747 4118 -1728
0.4 1329 108 258 2713 -996 4564 -2304
1 0.5 1045 86 204 2702 -1245 4473 -2880
0.6 528 43 103 2470 -1495 4092 -3457
0.7 -231 -19 -45 1995 -2104 3136 -4033
0.8 -1232 -101 -240 1317 -2404 1758 -4609
0.9 -2474 -203 -483 585 -2796 931 -5185
1.0 -3959 -325 -772 489 -3426 1035 -5782
0.0 -3959 -325 -772 489 -3426 1035 -5782
0.1 -1555 -128 -303 638 -1802 623 -2877
0.2 304 25 59 1585 -961 2442 -1857
0.3 1619 133 316 2586 -838 4883 -1537
0.4 2389 196 466 3236 -751 6316 -1216
2 0.5 2615 215 510 3455 -727 6897 -1218
0.6 2297 188 448 3274 -886 6410 -1669
0.7 1434 118 280 2660 -1045 5021 -2119
0.8 26 2 5 1663 -1220 2661 -2570
0.9 -1926 -158 -376 643 -1998 687 -3075
1.0 -4422 -363 -862 360 -3563 705 -5981
0.0 -4422 -363 -862 360 -3563 705 -5981
0.1 -2574 -211 -502 574 -2663 635 -4821
0.2 -1038 -85 -202 1417 -2237 2058 -4285
0.3 186 15 36 2245 -1623 3814 -3750
0.4 1097 90 214 2832 -1391 5068 -3214
3 0.5 1695 139 331 3136 -1159 5723 -2678
0.6 1981 162 386 3168 -927 5737 -2143
0.7 1955 160 381 2893 -696 5167 -1607
0.8 1616 133 315 2303 -464 4112 -1071
0.9 964 79 188 1344 -232 2419 -536
1.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 9.7-2 Unfactored Dead and Live Load Shears

Dead Load Live Load
Span Point (Interior Girder) (One Lane)
x/L V_DC1 V_DC2 V_DW +V -V +V -V
(kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
0.0 74.0 6.1 14.4 116.2 -22.6 210.2 -52.4
0.1 52.0 4.3 10.1 100.8 -23.1 176.1 -52.4
0.2 30.0 2.5 5.9 83.8 -25.6 137.8 -52.4
0.3 8.0 0.7 1.6 67.9 -37.9 105.3 -62.9
0.4 -14.0 -1.1 -2.7 53.4 -52.0 77.4 -83.7
1 0.5 -36.0 -3.0 -7.0 38.2 -66.7 50.0 -109.2
0.6 -58.0 -4.8 -11.3 28.6 -81.2 35.7 -138.5
0.7 -80.0 -6.6 -15.6 18.5 -96.0 21.0 -170.9
0.8 -102.0 -8.4 -19.9 10.7 -110.6 10.8 -200.1
0.9 -124.0 -10.2 -24.2 5.2 -124.9 9.4 -227.7
1.0 -146.0 -12.0 -28.5 4.5 -136.8 9.4 -262.5
0.0 162.2 13.3 31.6 147.1 -12.9 325.5 -27.3
0.1 129.2 10.6 25.2 130.7 -13.3 279.2 -27.4
0.2 96.2 7.9 18.8 112.0 -16.4 225.5 -27.3
0.3 63.2 5.2 12.3 93.2 -27.7 173.9 -33.5
0.4 30.2 2.5 5.9 74.8 -41.4 127.8 -57.2
2 0.5 -2.8 -0.2 -0.5 55.5 -57.2 86.5 -88.2
0.6 -35.8 -2.9 -7.0 41.4 -74.4 58.5 -124.0
0.7 -68.8 -5.6 -13.4 27.4 -92.7 34.2 -169.5
0.8 -101.8 -8.3 -19.9 15.8 -111.7 19.4 -220.6
0.9 -134.8 -11.1 -26.3 10.3 -130.5 19.4 -274.3
1.0 -167.8 -13.8 -32.7 9.9 -147.2 19.4 -321.0
0.0 160.4 13.2 31.3 141.9 -2.9 290.1 -5.6
0.1 135.4 11.1 26.4 129.3 -4.5 249.7 -5.6
0.2 110.4 9.1 21.5 114.2 -10.0 205.7 -11.1
0.3 85.4 7.0 16.6 98.9 -18.3 175.3 -21.8
0.4 60.4 5.0 11.8 83.4 -28.6 142.1 -37.5
3 0.5 35.4 2.9 6.9 65.9 -40.7 103.5 -58.1
0.6 10.4 0.9 2.0 52.9 -54.3 78.9 -83.4
0.7 -14.6 -1.2 -2.9 38.3 -69.5 56.4 -114.4
0.8 -39.6 -3.2 -7.7 24.6 -86.1 42.9 -151.3
0.9 -64.6 -5.3 -12.6 19.0 -104.1 42.9 -193.5
1.0 -89.6 -7.3 -17.5 18.6 -120.8 42.9 -233.7
Table 9.7-3 Unfactored Support Forces

Dead Load Live Load
Location (Interior Girder) (One Lane)
R_DC1 R_DC2 R_DW +R +R
(kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
Abutment 1 74.0 6.1 14.4 116.2 210.2
Bent 2 308.2 25.3 60.1 244.5 445.3
Bent 3 328.2 27.0 64.0 249.2 447.0
Abutment 4 89.6 7.3 17.5 120.8 233.7

8000
6316 6897
6000 6410
4883 5021
4000 3455
3236 3274
2586 2615 2661

2442 2389 2297
2000 2660
1585
1619 1663
Moments (kip-ft)
623 1434
1035 510 643
316 466 448 687 705
489 638 304 280 26 360
0 59
25 133 196 215 188 118
-128 2 -158
-325 -303 -751 -727 -886 5 -376 -363
-961 -838 -1045
-772 -862
-1555 -1220
-1802 -1216 -1218
-2000 -1537 -1926
-1998
-1857 -1669
-2119
-2570
-3426 -2877 -3075 -3563
-4000 -3959
-4422
DC1 DW
-5782 + (LL+IM)HL-93 - (LL+IM)HL-93

-6000 -5981
+ (LL+IM)P15 - (LL+IM)P15
DC2
-8000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
x/L
Figure 9.7-5 Unfactored Moment Envelopes for Span 2

400
325.5
300
279.2
225.5
200
147.1
162.2 129.2 173.9
130.7
112.0
96.2 127.8 86.5
100 63.2 74.8 58.5
93.2 55.5 34.2
19.4
Shears (kip)
19.4 19.4
31.6 25.2 27.4 15.8 10.3
-13.3 18.8
13.3 10.6 -16.4
7.9 12.3 30.2 2.5
5.2 5.9
-0.5 41.4-7.0 9.9
0
-12.9 -27.7 -41.4 -0.2
-2.8 -2.9 -13.4
-5.6 -8.3 -26.3
-19.9 -11.1 -13.8
-57.2 -32.7
-27.3 -27.4 -27.3 -33.5 -35.8-74.4
-57.2 -68.8
-92.7
-100 -88.2 -101.8
-111.7 -134.8 -147.2
-124.0 -130.5 -167.8
-200 DC1 DW
-169.5
+ (LL+IM)HL-93 - (LL+IM)HL-93 -220.6
-300 + (LL+IM)P15 - (LL+IM)P15 -274.3
-321.0
DC2
-400
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
x/L
Figure 9.7-6 Unfactored Shear Envelopes for Span 2

9.7.5 Calculate Live Load Distribution Factors
9.7.5.1 Check Ranges of Applicability of Live Load Distribution Factors
For beam-slab bridges, the distribution of live load is dependent on the girder
spacing S, span length L, concrete slab depth ts, longitudinal stiffness parameter Kg,
and number of girders Nb. This example is categorized Type a (AASHTO Table
4.6.2.2.1-1).
The preliminary section shown in Table 9.7-4 is assumed to estimate the
longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg (AASHTO 4.6.2.2.1-1) for the positive moment
region in Span 2.
Table 9.7-4 Preliminary Section Properties
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yNCb Ai(yi yNCb)2 Io
Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Top flange 18 1 18.00 80.25 1,444.5 45.05 36,531 1.5
Web 78 0.625 48.75 40.75 1,986.6 5.55 1,502 24,716
Bottom flange 31.50 0.875 27.6 -34.325 37,113 8.04
18 1.75
98.25 - 3,458.7 - 75,146 24,726
y NCb
Ai yi
3, 458.7
35.2 in.
Ai 98.25
y NCt 1.75 78 1 35.2 45.55 in.

eg
yNCt
C.GNC
Io Ai yi yNCb
2
I NC
yNCb 24,726 75,146 99,872 in.4
9.125
eg 45.55 1.0 13.25 53.24 in.
2

K g n I NC Aeg2 8 99,872 98.25 53.24 3,026,891 in.4

2

Check ranges of applicability of AASHTO Tables 4.6.2.2.2b-1 and 4.6.2.2.3a-1

for Type a structure.
Girder spacing: 3.5 ft < S = 12 ft < 16 ft

Span length: 20 ft < L = (110, 165 and 125 ) ft < 240 ft
Concrete deck: 4.5 in. < ts = 9.125 in. < 12.0 in.
Number of girders: Nb = 5 > 4
Stiffness parameter: 10,000 in.4 < Kg = 3,026,891 in.4 < 7,000,000 in.4

It is seen that the girder satisfies the limitation of ranges of applicability of the
approximate live load distribution factors specified in AASHTO Tables 4.6.2.2.2b-1
and 4.6.2.2.3a-1. Section type a (AASHTO Table 4.6.2.2.1-1) will be used.
For preliminary design, the term K g /(12 Lt s3 ) may be taken as 1.0. Although the
Kg term varies slightly along the span and between spans, the distribution factor is
typically not sensitive to the value of Kg. For simplicity, the Kg of Span 2 is used for
all spans of this example.
9.7.5.2 Determine Span Length for Use in Live Load Distribution Equations
AASHTO Table C4.6.2.2.1-1 recommends the L for use in live load distribution
equations as shown in Table 9.7-5.
Table 9.7- 5 Span Length for Use in Live Load Distribution Equations
Force Effects L (ft)

Positive Moment The length of the span for which
Negative MomentOther than near interior moment/shear/reaction is being
supports of continuous spans calculated
Shear
Exterior Reaction
Negative MomentNear interior supports of The average length of the two
continuous spans from point of contraflexure to adjacent spans
point of contraflexure under a uniform load on all
spans
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span
9.7.5.3 Calculate Live Load Distribution Factors

Live load distribution factors are calculated and listed in Tables 9.7-6 and 9.7-7
in accordance with AASHTO Tables 4.6.2.2.2b-1 and 4.6.2.2.3a-1.
One design lane loaded
0.3 0.1
S
0.4
S Kg S
DFm 0.06
3
; DFv 0.36
14 L
12 Lts 25
Two or more design lanes loaded
0.2 0.1
S
0.6
S Kg S S
2
DFm 0.075 3
; DFv 0.2
9.5 L 12 Lts 12 35
Kg = 3,026,891 in.4
S = 12 ft
ts = 9.125 in.

Table 9.7-6 Live Load Distribution Factors for Interior Girder

for Strength Limit State
Moment DFm (Lane) Shear DFv (Lane)

Span Lane loaded One Two or More One Two or More
1* L = 110 ft 0.600 0.900 0.840 1.082
1 & 2** L = 137.5 ft 0.554 0.846 0.840 1.082
2* L = 165 ft 0.519 0.805 0.840 1.082
2 & 3** L = 145 ft 0.544 0.834 0.840 1.082
3* L = 125 ft 0.573 0.869 0.840 1.082
Note:
* The span length for which moment is being calculated for positive
moment, negative momentother than near interior supports of continuous
spans, shear, and exterior reaction.
** Average span length for negative momentnear interior supports of
continuous spans from point of contraflexure to point of contraflexure under
a uniform load on all spans, and interior reaction of continuous span.
Multiple lane presence factors have been included in the above live load distribution
factors.
It is seen that live load distribution factors for the case of two or more lanes
loaded control the strength and service limit states. For the fatigue limit states, since
live load is one HL-93 truck or one P9 truck as specified CA 3.6.1.4.1, multiple lane
presence factor of 1.2 should be removed from above factors for the case of one lane
loaded (AASHTO 3.6.1.1.2).
Table 9.7-7 Live Load Distribution Factors for Interior Girder

for Fatigue Limit State
Moment DFm (Lane) Shear DFv (Lane)

Span Lane loaded One One
1* L = 110 ft 0.500 0.700
1 & 2** L = 137.5 ft 0.462 0.700
2* L = 165 ft 0.433 0.700
2 & 3** L = 145 ft 0.453 0.700
3* L = 125 ft 0.478 0.700
Note:
* The span length for which moment is being calculated for positive
moment, negative momentother than near interior supports of continuous
spans, shear, and exterior reaction.
** Average span length for negative momentnear interior supports of
continuous spans from point of contraflexure to point of contraflexure under
a uniform load on all spans, and interior reaction of continuous span.

9.7.6 Determine Load and Resistance Factors and Load Combinations
A steel girder bridge is usually designed for the Strength Limit State, and
checked for the Fatigue Limit State, Service Limit State II, and Constructibility.
9.7.6.1 Determine Design Equation
AASHTO 1.3.2.1 requires that following design equation shall be satisfied for all
limit states:
ii Qi Rn Rr (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-1)
where i is load factor and is resistance factor; Qi represents force effect; Rn is
nominal resistance; i is load modifier factor related to ductility, redundancy, and
operational importance and is defined as follows when a maximum value of i is
used:
i D R I 0.95 (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-2)
where D, R , and I are ductility and redundancy and operational factors,
respectively. CA 1.3.3, 1.3.4 and 1.3.5 specify that they are all taken to 1.0 for all
limit states. Therefore, i = 1.0. For this example, the design equation becomes:
i Qi Rn Rr
9.7.6.2 Determine Applicable Load Factors and Load Combinations
According to CA Table 3.4.1-1, considering live load distribution factors for the
interior girder and denoting (LL+IM) as unfactored force effect due to one design
lane loaded, the following load combinations are obtained as:
Strength I: 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(DF)(LL+IM)HL-93
Strength II 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.35(DF)(LL+IM)P15
Service II: 1.0(DC) + 1.0(DW) + 1.30(DF)(LL+IM)HL-93
Fatigue I: 1.75(DF)(LL+IM)HL-93
Fatigue II: 1.0(DF)(LL+IM)P9
where DF is the live load distribution factor.
9.7.6.3 Determine Applicable Resistance Factors
According to AASHTO 6.5.4.2, the following resistance factors are used for the
strength limit states in this example.
For flexure f = 1.00
For shear v = 1.00
For axial compression c = 0.90
For tension, fracture in net section u = 0.80
For tension, yielding in gross section y = 0.95
For bearing on milled surfaces b = 1.00
For bolts bearing on material bb = 0.80
For shear connector sc = 0.85

For block shear bs = 0.8

For A325 bolts in shear s = 0.8
For weld metal in fillet weld
shear in throat of weld metal e2 = 0.8
9.7.7 Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Strength Limit States
Using live load distribution factors in Table 9.7-6, factored moments, shears, and
support forces for strength limit states I and II are calculated and listed in Tables 9.7-
8, 9.7-9 and 9.7-10, respectively.

Strength II: 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.35(DF)(LL+IM)P15
Table 9.7-8 Factored Moment Envelopes for Interior Girder
Dead Load Live Load Load Combination
Span Point DC1 DC2 DW (LL+IM)HL-93 (LL+IM)P15 Strength I Strength II
x/L M_DC1 M_DC2 M_DW +M -M +M -M +M -M +M -M
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 866 71 203 1800 -392 2354 -700 2940 748 3494 440
0.2 1430 118 335 3087 -784 3932 -1400 4969 1098 5814 482
0.3 1691 139 396 3882 -1177 5004 -2100 6108 1049 7230 126
0.4 1661 135 387 4273 -1569 5545 -2800 6456 615 7728 -617
1 0.5 1306 108 306 4256 -1961 5434 -3500 5975 -241 7154 -1780
0.6 660 54 155 3890 -2355 4972 -4200 4759 -1486 5840 -3331
0.7 -289 -24 -68 3142 -3115 3811 -4606 2762 -3495 3431 -4986
0.8 -1540 -126 -360 2074 -3559 2136 -5264 48 -5585 110 -7290
0.9 -3093 -254 -725 921 -4139 1131 -5922 -3149 -8210 -2939 -9992
1.0 -4949 -406 -1158 770 -5072 1257 -6604 -5743 -11585 -5256 -13117
0.0 -4949 -406 -1158 689 -5072 1124 -6604 -5824 -11585 -5389 -13117
0.1 -1944 -160 -455 899 -2668 677 -3286 -1659 -5226 -1882 -5844
0.2 380 31 89 2233 -1354 2654 -2018 2733 -854 3154 -1518
0.3 2024 166 474 3643 -1181 5307 -1670 6307 1483 7971 994
0.4 2986 245 699 4559 -1058 6864 -1322 8489 2872 10794 2608
2 0.5 3269 269 765 4867 -1024 7495 -1324 9170 3278 11797 2979
0.6 2871 235 672 4612 -1248 6966 -1814 8390 2530 10744 1965
0.7 1793 148 420 3747 -1472 5456 -2303 6107 888 7816 57
0.8 33 3 8 2343 -1719 2891 -2793 2385 -1676 2934 -2751
0.9 -2408 -198 -564 906 -2916 747 -3462 -2263 -6085 -2422 -6631
1.0 -5528 -454 -1293 507 -5200 767 -6734 -6767 -12474 -6508 -14008
0.0 -5528 -454 -1293 547 -5200 828 -6734 -6727 -12474 -6447 -14008
0.1 -3218 -264 -753 873 -3887 745 -5428 -3361 -8121 -3489 -9662
0.2 -1298 -106 -303 2155 -3265 2414 -4825 448 -4972 708 -6532
0.3 233 19 54 3414 -2468 4475 -4399 3719 -2163 4780 -4094
0.4 1371 113 321 4307 -2115 5946 -3771 6112 -311 7751 -1966
3 0.5 2119 174 497 4769 -1763 6714 -3142 7558 1026 9503 -353
0.6 2476 203 579 4818 -1410 6730 -2514 8075 1848 9988 744
0.7 2444 200 572 4400 -1058 6061 -1885 7615 2157 9276 1330
0.8 2020 166 473 3502 -706 4824 -1257 6161 1953 7482 1402
0.9 1205 99 282 2044 -353 2838 -628 3630 1233 4424 957
1.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 9.7-9 Factored Shear Envelopes for Interior Girder

Span Point DC1 DC2 DW (LL+IM)HL-93 (LL+IM)P15 Strength I Strength II
x/L V_DC1 V_DC2 V_DW +V -V +V -V +V -V +V -V
(kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
0.0 92.5 7.6 21.6 220.0 -42.8 307.0 -76.5 341.7 78.9 428.7 45.2
0.1 65.0 5.4 15.2 190.9 -43.7 257.2 -76.5 276.4 41.8 342.8 9.0
0.2 37.5 3.1 8.9 158.7 -48.5 201.3 -76.5 208.2 1.0 250.8 -27.0
0.3 10.0 0.9 2.4 128.6 -71.8 153.8 -91.9 141.8 -58.5 167.1 -78.6
0.4 -17.5 -1.4 -4.1 101.1 -98.5 113.1 -122.2 78.2 -121.4 90.2 -145.1
1 0.5 -45.0 -3.8 -10.5 72.3 -126.3 73.1 -159.5 13.1 -185.5 13.8 -218.8
0.6 -72.5 -6.0 -17.0 54.2 -153.8 52.1 -202.3 -41.3 -249.2 -43.3 -297.8
0.7 -100.0 -8.3 -23.4 35.0 -181.8 30.7 -249.7 -96.6 -313.4 -101.0 -381.3
0.8 -127.5 -10.5 -29.9 20.3 -209.4 15.7 -292.3 -147.6 -377.3 -152.1 -460.2
0.9 -155.0 -12.8 -36.3 9.8 -236.5 13.7 -332.6 -194.2 -440.5 -190.3 -536.6
1.0 -182.5 -15.0 -42.8 8.5 -259.0 13.7 -383.5 -231.7 -499.3 -226.5 -623.7
0.0 202.8 16.6 47.4 278.5 -24.4 475.5 -39.9 545.3 242.3 742.3 226.9
0.1 161.5 13.3 37.8 247.5 -25.2 407.8 -40.0 460.0 187.4 620.4 172.6
0.2 120.3 9.9 28.2 212.1 -31.1 329.3 -39.9 370.4 127.3 487.6 118.4
0.3 79.0 6.5 18.5 176.5 -52.4 254.0 -48.9 280.4 51.5 357.9 55.1
0.4 37.8 3.1 8.9 141.6 -78.4 186.7 -83.5 191.4 -28.7 236.4 -33.8
2 0.5 -3.5 -0.3 -0.8 105.1 -108.3 126.4 -128.9 100.6 -112.8 121.9 -133.4
0.6 -44.8 -3.6 -10.5 78.4 -140.9 85.5 -181.2 19.5 -199.8 26.6 -240.1
0.7 -86.0 -7.0 -20.1 51.9 -175.5 49.9 -247.5 -61.2 -288.6 -63.2 -360.6
0.8 -127.3 -10.4 -29.9 29.9 -211.5 28.4 -322.2 -137.6 -379.0 -139.1 -489.7
0.9 -168.5 -13.9 -39.5 19.5 -247.1 28.4 -400.7 -202.3 -468.9 -193.5 -622.5
1.0 -209.8 -17.3 -49.1 18.7 -278.7 28.4 -468.9 -257.3 -554.8 -247.7 -745.0
0.0 200.5 16.5 47.0 268.7 -5.5 423.8 -8.2 532.6 258.5 687.7 255.7
0.1 169.3 13.9 39.6 244.8 -8.5 364.7 -8.2 467.6 214.2 587.4 214.5
0.2 138.0 11.4 32.3 216.2 -18.9 300.4 -16.3 397.9 162.7 482.1 165.4
0.3 106.8 8.8 24.9 187.3 -34.7 256.0 -31.8 327.7 105.7 396.4 108.6
0.4 75.5 6.3 17.7 157.9 -54.2 207.5 -54.8 257.4 45.3 306.9 44.6
3 0.5 44.3 3.6 10.4 124.8 -77.1 151.1 -84.9 183.0 -18.8 209.3 -26.7
0.6 13.0 1.1 3.0 100.2 -102.8 115.3 -121.8 117.3 -85.7 132.4 -104.7
0.7 -18.3 -1.5 -4.4 72.5 -131.6 82.4 -167.1 48.4 -155.7 58.3 -191.2
0.8 -49.5 -4.0 -11.6 46.6 -163.0 62.6 -221.1 -18.5 -228.1 -2.5 -286.1
0.9 -80.8 -6.6 -18.9 36.0 -197.1 62.6 -282.7 -70.3 -303.4 -43.7 -389.0
1.0 -112.0 -9.1 -26.3 35.2 -228.7 62.6 -341.3 -112.2 -376.1 -84.8 -488.7
Table 9.7-10 Factored Support Forces for Interior Girder

Factored Support Forces
Location (Interior Girder) (LL+I)HL-93 (LL+I)P15 Strength I Strength II
R_DC1 R_DC2 R_DW +R +R +R +R
(kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
Abutment 1 92.5 7.6 21.6 220.0 307.0 341.7 428.8
Bent 2 385.3 31.6 90.2 463.0 650.4 970.0 1157.4
Bent 3 410.3 33.8 96.0 471.9 652.9 1011.9 1192.9
Abutment 4 112.0 9.1 26.3 228.7 341.4 376.1 488.7

9.7.8 Calculate Factored Moments and Shears Fatigue Limit States
For load-induced fatigue consideration (CA Table 3.4.1-1), the fatigue moment
and shear force ranges are caused by live load only and are calculated by the
following equations:
Fatigue I (HL-93 Truck): (F) = 1.75 (DF)(LL+IM)HL-93
Fatigue II (P-9 Truck): (F) = 1.0(DF)(LL+IM)P9
Using live load distribution factors in Table 9.7-7, fatigue limit moment and
shear ranges for an interior girder are calculated and listed in Tables 9.7-11 and 9.7-
12. Vu, shear due to the unfactored dead load plus the factored fatigue load (Fatigue I)
is also calculated for checking the special fatigue requirement for webs as required by
AASHTO 6.10.5.3.
Vu Vdc1 Vdc2 Vdw 1.75 DFv LL IM HL93
Table 9.7-11 Fatigue I Limit State - Moment and Shears for Interior Girder
Fatigue Moment Fatigue Shear
Span Point (LL+IM)HL-93 Factored (LL+IM)HL-93 (LL+IM)HL -93 Factored (LL+IM)HL-93
(One Lane) (Interior Girder) (One Lane) (Interior Girder)
x/L +M -M +M -M M_sr +V -V +V -V V_sr +V_u -V_u
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0 64.6 -11.1 79.2 -13.6 92.8 173.7 80.9
0.1 624 -122 546 -107 653 56.7 -11.1 69.4 -13.6 83.1 135.8 52.8
0.2 1081 -245 946 -214 1160 47.3 -11.1 57.9 -13.6 71.5 96.3 24.8
0.3 1306 -367 1143 -321 1464 38.3 -15.2 46.9 -18.6 65.4 57.2 -8.3
0.4 1397 -489 1222 -428 1650 29.8 -23.1 36.4 -28.3 64.7 18.6 -46.1
1 0.5 1358 -611 1189 -535 1724 20.5 -32.6 25.1 -40.0 65.1 -20.9 -86.0
0.6 1264 -734 1106 -642 1748 14.7 -41.8 18.0 -51.2 69.1 -56.1 -125.3
0.7 1016 -856 889 -692 1581 9.2 -50.5 11.3 -61.8 73.1 -90.9 -164.0
0.8 640 -978 560 -791 1351 5.5 -58.5 6.7 -71.7 78.4 -123.6 -202.0
0.9 246 -1101 216 -890 1105 2.3 -66.0 2.9 -80.8 83.7 -155.5 -239.2
1.0 257 -1223 224 -989 1213 2.3 -71.5 2.9 -87.5 90.4 -183.6 -274.0
0.0 257 -1223 194 -989 1183 74.8 -6.8 91.6 -8.3 99.9 298.7 198.8
0.1 303 -596 229 -482 712 68.3 -6.8 83.7 -8.3 92.0 248.7 156.7
0.2 843 -509 639 -385 1024 59.9 -6.8 73.3 -8.3 81.6 196.2 114.6
0.3 1338 -421 1014 -319 1333 50.6 -12.8 62.0 -15.7 77.7 142.7 65.0
0.4 1638 -333 1241 -252 1494 40.9 -21.1 50.1 -25.8 75.9 88.7 12.8
2 0.5 1715 -302 1299 -229 1528 30.0 -30.2 36.8 -37.0 73.8 33.3 -40.5
0.6 1656 -413 1255 -313 1568 21.9 -39.9 26.8 -48.9 75.7 -18.9 -94.6
0.7 1375 -525 1042 -398 1440 13.4 -49.6 16.5 -60.8 77.2 -71.3 -148.6
0.8 891 -637 675 -482 1157 6.9 -59.0 8.4 -72.3 80.7 -121.6 -202.3
0.9 323 -748 245 -593 838 5.3 -67.7 6.5 -82.9 89.4 -165.7 -255.1
1.0 193 -1139 147 -903 1049 5.3 -74.4 6.5 -91.1 97.6 -207.8 -305.4
0.0 193 -1139 162 -903 1065 73.4 -1.6 89.9 -1.9 91.8 294.8 203.0
0.1 267 -1025 223 -813 1036 68.0 -2.2 83.3 -2.7 86.0 256.2 170.2
0.2 719 -911 601 -722 1324 60.7 -5.4 74.4 -6.6 81.0 215.4 134.4
0.3 1156 -797 967 -667 1634 52.8 -9.2 64.6 -11.3 75.9 173.6 97.7
0.4 1456 -683 1218 -572 1790 44.1 -15.4 54.1 -18.9 72.9 131.3 58.3
3 0.5 1586 -569 1327 -476 1803 33.5 -22.7 41.1 -27.8 68.9 86.3 17.4
0.6 1628 -456 1362 -381 1743 25.4 -30.7 31.1 -37.7 68.8 44.4 -24.4
0.7 1525 -342 1276 -286 1561 16.1 -39.4 19.8 -48.3 68.0 1.1 -67.0
0.8 1215 -228 1017 -191 1207 10.0 -48.6 12.3 -59.5 71.8 -38.2 -110.0
0.9 728 -114 609 -95 704 9.1 -58.2 11.2 -71.3 82.5 -71.3 -153.8
1.0 0 0 0 0 0 9.1 -66.6 11.2 -81.5 92.7 -103.2 -195.9

Table 9.7-12 Fatigue II Limit State - Moment and Shears for Interior Girder
Fatigue Moment Fatigue Shear

Span Point (LL+IM)P9 Factored (LL+IM)P9 (LL+IM)P9 Factored (LL+IM)P9
(One Lane) (Interior Girder) (One Lane) (Interior Girder)
x/L +M -M +M -M M_sr +V -V +V -V V_sr
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0 178.6 -35.4 125.0 -24.8 149.8
0.1 1686 -390 843 -195 1038 153.2 -35.4 107.3 -24.8 132.1
0.2 2749 -779 1375 -390 1764 123.7 -35.4 86.6 -24.8 111.4
0.3 3579 -1169 1789 -584 2374 96.0 -35.4 67.2 -24.8 92.0
0.4 3904 -1558 1952 -779 2731 71.2 -52.6 49.9 -36.8 86.7
1 0.5 3885 -1948 1942 -974 2916 46.0 -74.7 32.2 -52.3 84.5
0.6 3476 -2337 1738 -1169 2907 32.8 -102.9 23.0 -72.0 95.0
0.7 2725 -2727 1363 -1260 2622 19.3 -131.6 13.5 -92.1 105.6
0.8 1542 -3116 771 -1440 2211 9.9 -160.8 6.9 -112.5 119.5
0.9 714 -3506 357 -1620 1977 7.2 -188.1 5.0 -131.7 136.7
1.0 793 -3895 397 -1800 2196 7.2 -208.9 5.0 -146.2 151.3
0.0 793 -3895 344 -1800 2143 229.2 -20.9 160.4 -14.7 175.1
0.1 531 -1796 230 -830 1060 205.0 -20.9 143.5 -14.7 158.2
0.2 2188 -1532 948 -663 1611 174.9 -20.9 122.4 -14.7 137.1
0.3 3793 -1267 1642 -549 2191 143.1 -28.7 100.2 -20.1 120.3
0.4 4795 -1003 2076 -434 2511 111.1 -50.4 77.8 -35.3 113.1
2 0.5 5144 -933 2228 -404 2632 76.7 -77.5 53.7 -54.3 108.0
0.6 4857 -1279 2103 -554 2657 52.5 -108.0 36.7 -75.6 112.3
0.7 3909 -1624 1693 -703 2396 30.1 -139.9 21.1 -97.9 119.0
0.8 2339 -1970 1013 -853 1866 16.0 -171.8 11.2 -120.3 131.5
0.9 599 -2315 259 -1049 1308 16.0 -202.4 11.2 -141.7 152.9
1.0 582 -3626 252 -1643 1895 16.0 -227.2 11.2 -159.0 170.2
0.0 582 -3626 278 -1643 1921 220.3 -4.7 154.2 -3.3 157.5
0.1 524 -3264 250 -1478 1729 199.7 -4.7 139.8 -3.3 143.1
0.2 1792 -2901 857 -1314 2171 173.0 -10.2 121.1 -7.2 128.3
0.3 3189 -2538 1524 -1213 2738 144.2 -20.0 100.9 -14.0 115.0
0.4 4119 -2176 1969 -1040 3009 113.6 -34.5 79.5 -24.2 103.7
3 0.5 4639 -1813 2217 -867 3084 80.0 -53.5 56.0 -37.4 93.4
0.6 4689 -1450 2242 -693 2935 57.7 -76.3 40.4 -53.4 93.8
0.7 4305 -1088 2058 -520 2578 35.4 -102.8 24.8 -71.9 96.8
0.8 3330 -725 1592 -347 1938 29.0 -131.4 20.3 -92.0 112.3
0.9 2023 -363 967 -173 1140 29.0 -161.9 20.3 -113.3 133.6
1.0 0 0 0 0 0 29.0 -188.6 20.3 -132.0 152.4

9.7.9 Calculate Factored Moments Service Limit State II
Using live load distribution factors in Table 9.7-6, factored moments for an
interior girder at the Service Limit State II are calculated and listed in Table 9.7-13.
Service II: 1.0(DC) + 1.0(DW) + 1.30(DF)(LL+IM)HL-93
Table 9.7-13 Factored Moments for Interior Girder

Service Limit State II
Dead Load Live Load

DC1 DC2 DW (LL+IM)HL-93
Span Point M_DC1 M_DC2 M_DW +M -M
x/L (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 693 57 135 1337 -291
0.2 1144 94 223 2293 -583
0.3 1353 111 264 2884 -874
0.4 1329 108 258 3174 -1165
1 0.5 1045 86 204 3161 -1457
0.6 528 43 103 2890 -1749
0.7 -231 -19 -45 2334 -2314
0.8 -1232 -101 -240 1541 -2644
0.9 -2474 -203 -483 684 -3075
1.0 -3959 -325 -772 572 -3768
0.0 -3959 -325 -772 512 -3768
0.1 -1555 -128 -303 668 -1982
0.2 304 25 59 1659 -1006
0.3 1619 133 316 2706 -877
0.4 2389 196 466 3386 -786
2 0.5 2615 215 510 3616 -761
0.6 2297 188 448 3426 -927
0.7 1434 118 280 2784 -1094
0.8 26 2 5 1740 -1277
0.9 -1926 -158 -376 673 -2166
1.0 -4422 -363 -862 377 -3863
0.0 -4422 -363 -862 407 -3863
0.1 -2574 -211 -502 648 -2887
0.2 -1038 -85 -202 1601 -2425
0.3 186 15 36 2536 -1834
0.4 1097 90 214 3199 -1571
3 0.5 1695 139 331 3543 -1309
0.6 1981 162 386 3579 -1047
0.7 1955 160 381 3268 -786
0.8 1616 133 315 2602 -524
0.9 964 79 188 1518 -262
1.0 0 0 0 0 0

9.7.10 Design Composite Section in Positive Moment Region at 0.5 Point of Span 2
For midspan sections, design is normally governed by the bending moments. In

following, only flexural design for 0.5 Point Section is illustrated. A similar shear
design procedure is shown in Section 9.7.11.
9.7.10.1 Illustrate Calculations of Factored Moments Strength Limit States
Factored force effects are calculated and summarized in Section 9.7.7. Table 9.7-
14 illustrates detailed calculations for factored moments at 0.5 Point of Span 2.
Table 9.7-14 Factored Moments at 0.5 Point of Span 2
Load Unfactored Factored Moment

Type Moment (kip-ft)
(kip-ft)
DC1 2,615 MDC1 = 1.25(2,615) = 3,269
(applied to steel section alone)
DC2 215 MDC2 = 1.25(215) =269
(applied to long-term composite section 3n = 24)
DW 510 MDW = 1.5(510) = 765
(applied to long-term composite section 3n = 24)
(LL+IM)HL-93 3,455 M(LL+IM)HL-93 = 1.75(0.805)(3,455) = 4,867
(one lane) (applied to short-term composite section n = 8)
(LL+IM)P15 6,897 M(LL+IM)P15 = 1.35(0.805)(6,897) = 7,495

(one lane) (applied to short-term composite section n = 8)
Controlling Mu = 3,269+ 269 + 765 + 7,495 = 11,798
DC+DW+(LL+I
M)

9.7.10.2 Calculate Elastic Section Properties

Determine Effective Flange Width
According to the CA 4.6.2.6, the effective flange width is dependent on the girder
spacing to span length ratio (S/L). In this design example, S = 12 ft and L = 165 ft.
For the interior girder in Span 2, the effective flange width is as:
S / L 12 / 165 0.073 0.32
(CA 4.6.2.6.1-2)
beff b 12 ft 144 in.

Calculate Elastic Section Properties
Elastic section properties for the steel section alone, the steel section and deck
slab longitudinal reinforcement, the short-term composite section (n = 8), and the
long-term composite section (3n = 24) are calculated and shown from Table 9.7-15 to
9.7-18.
Table 9.7-15 Properties of Steel Section Alone
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yNCb Ai(yi yNCb)2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Top flange 18 1 18.00 80.25 1,444.5 45.05 36,531 1.5
Web 78 0.625 48.75 40.75 1,986.6 5.55 1,502 24,716
Bottom flange 18 31.50 0.875 27.6 -34.325 37,113 8.04
1.75
98.25 - 3,458.7 - 75,146 24,726
Ai yi 3,458.7
y NCb 35.2 in.
Ai 98.25
yNCt
yt
y NCt 1.75 78 1 35.2 45.55 in.
C.GNC
Io Ai yi yNCb
2
I NC
yNCb yw 24,726 75,146 99,872 in.4
yb I NC 99,872
S NCb 2,837 in.3
y NCb 35.2
I NC 99,872
S NCt 2,193 in.3
y NCt 45.55

Properties of the steel section alone may be conservatively used for calculating
stresses under negative moments. In this example, properties of the steel section and
deck slab longitudinal reinforcement are used for calculating stresses due to negative
moments (AASHTO 6.10.1.1.1c). Assume the total area of longitudinal
reinforcement in the deck slab is 1% of concrete deck slab area, we have As as
follows:
As 0.0112 12 9.125 13 .14 in. 2
Table 9.7-16 Properties of Steel Section and Deck Slab Reinforcement
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yNSb Ai y i y NSb 2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Top 13.14 88.44 1162.1 46.96 28,977 0
Reinforcement
Steel section 98.25 35.2 3,458.4 -6.28 3,875 99,872
111.39 - 4,620.5 - 32,852 99,872
Ai yi 4,620.5
y NSb 41.48 in.
Ai 111.39
y NSt 1 78 1.75 41.48 39.27 in.
yNSrb
y NSrb 88.44 41.48 46.96 in.

yNSt
yrb I NS I o Ai yi y NSb 2
C.GNS
99,872 32,852 132,724 in.4
C.GNC I 132,724
S NSb NS 3, 200 in.3
yNSb yNSb 41.48
yNCb
I 132,724
S NSt NS 3,380 in.3
yNSt 39.27
I 132,724
S NSrb NS 2,826 in.3
yNSt 46.96

Table 9.7-17 Properties of Short-term Composite Section (n = 8)
Ai yi Aiyi yi - ySTb Ai y i y STb 2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4)
(in.4)
Steel section 98.25 35.2 3,458.4 -33.31 109,014 99,872
Concrete Slab
144/8 9.125 164.25 88.44 14,526.3 19.93 65,241 1,140
262.5 - 17,984.7 - 174,255 101,012
Ai y i 17 ,984.7
y STb 68.51 in.
Ai 262.5
ySTt 1.75 78 1 68.51 12.24 in.
yc
ySTt I ST I o Ai y i y STb
2
C.GST
101,012 174 ,255 275,267 in.4
I ST 275 ,267
S STb 4 ,018 in.3
ySTb C.GNC y STb 68.51
yNCb I ST 275,267
S STt 22,489 in.3
y STt 12.24
Table 9.7-18 Properties of Long-term Composite Section (3n = 24)
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yLTb Ai ( y i y LTb ) 2 Io

Component (in. )2
(in.) (in. )3
(in.) (in. )4
(in.4)
Steel section 98.25 35.2 3,458.4 -19.05 35,655 99,872
Concrete Slab
144/24 9.125 54.75 88.44 4,842.1 34.19 64,000 380
153 - 8,300.5 - 99,655 100,252
Ai yi 8,300.5
y LTb 54.25 in.
Ai 153
y LTt 1.75 78 1 54.25 26.5in.
yc I LT I o Ai yi y LTb 2
yLTt
C.GLT 100,252 99,655 199,907 in.4
I 199,907
S LTb LT 3,685 in.3
C.GNC yLTb 54.25
yLTb
yNCb I 199,907
S LTt LT 7,544 in.3
yLTt 26.5
It should be pointed out that the concrete haunch is ignored in calculating

composite section properties.

9.7.10.3 Design for Flexure Strength Limit State
General Requirement
At the strength limit state, the composite compact section in positive moment
regions shall satisfy the requirement as follows:
1
M u fl S xt f M n (AASHTO 6.10.7.1.1-1)
3
In this example of the straight bridge, flange lateral bending stress for interior girders
fl = 0. The design equation, therefore, is simplified as follows:
Mu f Mn
Check Section Compactness
For composite sections in the positive moment region, it is usually assumed that
the top flange is adequately braced by the hardened concrete deck. There is no
requirement for the compression flange slenderness and bracing for compact
composite sections at the strength limit state. Three requirements (AASHTO
6.10.6.2.2) for a compact composite section in straight bridges are checked as
follows:
Specified minimum yield strength of flanges:
Fyf 50 ksi 70 ksi O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.2)
D
Web: 124.8 150 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw
2 Dcp E
Section: 3.76 (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.2-1)
tw Fyc
where Dcp is depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment state and is
determined in the following.
Compressive force in concrete slab:

Ps 0.85 fc beff ts 0.85 3.6144 9.125 4,021 kips
in which ts is thickness of concrete slab
Yield force in the top compression flange:

Pc A fc Fyc 18 150 900 kips
Yield force in the web:

Pw Aw Fyw 78 0.62550 2,438 kips

Yield force in the bottom tension flange:

Pt Aft Fyt 181.75 50 1,575 kips
Ps Pc 4,021 + 900 4,921 kips Pw Pt 2,438 +1,575 4,013 kips
Plastic neutral axis is within the top compression flange and Dcp is equal to
zero.
2Dcp E
0.0 3.76 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.6.2.2-1)
tw Fyc
The nominal flexural resistance, Mn, of the composite compact section is,
therefore, computed in accordance with AASHTO 6.10.7.1.2.
Calculate Plastic Moment Mp
At the plastic moment state, the compressive stress in the concrete slab of a
composite section is assumed equal to 0.85 f c , and tensile stress in the concrete slab
is neglected. The stress in reinforcement and steel girder section is assumed equal to
Fy. The reinforcement in the concrete slab is neglected in this example. The plastic
moment Mp is determined using equilibrium equations and is the first moment of all
forces about the plastic neutral axis (AASHTO D6.1).
Determine Location of Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA)

As calculated above, the plastic neutral axis (PNA) is within the top flange of
steel girder. Denote that y is the distance from the top of the compression flange to
the PNA as shown in Figure 9.7-7, we obtain:
Ps Pc1 Pc2 Pw Pt
where
Pc1 y b fc Fyc
Pc2 t fc
y bfc Fyc
in which bfc and tfc are width and thickness of top flange of steel section,
respectively; Fyc is yield strength of top compression flange of steel section.
Substituting above expressions into the equilibrium equation for y , obtain
t fc Pw Pt Ps
y 1
2 Pc
1 2,438 + 1,575 - 4,021
y + 1 0.496 in. < t fc = 1.0 in. O.K.
2 900

Figure 9.7-7 Plastic Moment Capacity State
Calculate Plastic Moment M p

Summing all forces about the PNA, obtain:
y tcf y
M p M PNA Ps d s Pc1 Pc 2 P d P d

2 2 w w t t

Ps d s b fc Fyc

y2 t y2
cf
2 Pw d w Pt d t

where
9.125
ds 4.125 1 0.496 8.18 in.
2
78
dw + 1 - 0.496 = 39.50 in.
2
1.75
dt + 78 + 1 - 0.496 = 79.38 in.
2
2
1 0.496 2
4,0218.18 1850
0.496
Mp
2

2,43839.5 1,57579.38
254,441 kip - in. = 21,203 kip - ft

Calculate Yield Moment My
The yield moment M y corresponds to the first yielding of either steel flange. It is
obtained by the following formula (AASHTO D6.2):
M y M D1 M D2 M AD (AASHTO D6.2.2-2)
From Section 9.7.10.1, factored moments, MD1 and MD2 are as follows:
M D1 M DC1 3,269 kip - ft
M D 2 M DC 2 M DW 269 765 1,034 kip - ft
Using section moduli SNC, SST and SLT as shown in Section 9.7.10.2 for the non-
composite steel, the short-term and the long-term composite section, we have:
M M
M AD S ST Fy D1 D 2
S NC S LT
For the top flange:
3,26912 1,03412
M AD 22,489 50
2,193 7,544
685,182 kip - in. = 57,099 kip - ft
For the bottom flange:
3,26912 1,03412
M AD 4,018 50
2,837 3,685 (Control)
131,813 kip - in. = 10,984 kip - ft
M y 3,269 1,034 10,984 15,287 kip - ft
Calculate Flexural Resistance
In this example, it is assumed that the adjacent interior-bent sections are non-
compact non-composite sections that do not satisfy requirements of AASHTO B6.2.
The nominal flexural resistance of the composite compact section in positive flexure
is calculated in accordance with AASHTO and CA 6.10.7.1.2:
M p for D p 0.1 Dt

My D p / Dt 0.1
M n min M p 1 1 for D p 0.1 Dt M p
Mp
0.32

1.3 Rh M y for a continous span
(AASHTO and CA 6.10.7.1.2-1,2, 3)
where Rh is hybrid factor (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.1) and equal to 1.0 for this example;
Dp is the depth from the top of the concrete deck to the PNA; Dt is total depth of the
composite section.

The compact and noncompact sections shall satisfy the following ductility
requirement to ensure that the tension flange of the steel section reaches significant
yielding before the crushing strain is reached at the top of concrete deck.
Dp 0.42 Dt (AASHTO 6.10.7.3-1)
Dp 13.25 - 1 + 0.496 = 12.75 in.
Dt 1.75 + 78 +13.25 = 93 in.
Dp 12.75 in. 0.42Dt 0.42 93 = 39.06 in. O.K.
Dp 12.75 in. 0.1Dt 9.3 in.
M y D p / Dt 0.1
M n 1 1

M p

M p 0.32
15,287 12.75 / 93 0.1
1 1 21,203 20,517 kip - ft
21,203 0.32
1.3Rh M y 1.31.015,287 19,873 kip - ft
Use M n = 19,873 kip-ft
Check Design Requirement

M u 11,798 kip - ft f M n 1.019,873 19,873 kip - ft OK.
(AASHTO 6.10.7.1.1-1)
9.7.10.4 Illustrate Calculations of Fatigue Moment Ranges
Fatigue moment ranges are calculated and summarized in Section 9.7.8. For 0.5
Point of Span 2, using live load distribution factor DFm = 0.433 (Table 9.7.7), fatigue
moment ranges are as follows:
Fatigue I:
M DFm LL IM HL 1.75 0.433 LL IM HL93
+M = (1.75)(0.433)(1,715) = 1,299 kip-ft
-M = (1.75)(0.433)(-302) = -229 kip-ft
Fatigue II:
M DFm LL IM P9 1.0 0.433 LL IM P9
+M = (1.0)(0.433)(5,144) = 2,227 kip-ft
-M = (1.0)(0.433)(-933) = -404 kip-ft

9.7.10.5 Check Typical Girder Details Fatigue Limit States
For load-induced fatigue consideration, the most common types of details in a

typical plate girder are (AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1) listed in Table 6.8-1 and
nominal fatigue resistance for those typical details are shown in Table 6.8-2 in
Chapter 6.
For a section in the positive moment region within mid-span, such as the section
at 0.5 Point of Span 2, flexural behavior usually dominates the design. Positive live
load moments are applied to the short-term composite section and negative live load
moments are applied to the steel section and deck slab longitudinal reinforcement
(AASHTO 6.10.1.1.1c). Fatigue stress ranges at the bottom flanges and the top
flanges are checked as follows:
Fatigue I - HL-93 Truck for Infinite Life:
Flexural fatigue stress ranges at the bottom flange:
M M 1,299 12 229 12
f +
S STb S NCb 4,018 3,200
12.0 ksi O.K. for Category C
3.88 + 0.86 = 4.74 ksi
16.0 ksi O.K. for Category B
Flexural fatigue stress ranges at the top flange:
M M 1,299 12 229 12
f +
S STt S NCt 22,489 3,380
0.69 + 0.81 = 1.50 ksi 12.0 ksi O.K. for Category C
Fatigue II - P-9 Truck for Finite Life:
Flexural fatigue stress ranges at the bottom flange:
M M 2,227 12 404 12
f +
S STb S NCb 4,018 3,200
6.65 + 1.52 = 8.17 ksi
Flexural fatigue stress ranges at the top flange:

M M 2,227 12 404 12
f +
S STt S NCt 22,489 3,380
1.19 + 1.43 = 2.62 ksi 21.58 ksi O.K. for Category C
9.7.10.6 Check Requirements - Service Limit State
General Requirements
Service Limit State II is to control the elastic and permanent deflections under
the design live load HL-93 (AASHTO 6.10.4). Live load deflection may not
exceed L/800 (AASHTO 2.5.2.6.2) and is calculated and checked in Section 9.7.16.
Illustrate Calculations of Factored Moments - Service Limit State II
It is noted that for unshored construction, DC1, DC2+DW, and live load are
applied to the non-composite (steel section alone), long-term and short-term
composite sections, respectively. Factored moments at the Service Limit State II are
calculated and summarized in Table 9.7.13. The calculation of factored moments for
0.5 Point of Span 2 are illustrated as follows:
MDC1 = 2,615 kip-ft (applied to steel section alone)
MDC2 + MDW = 215 + 510 = 725 kip-ft (applied to long-term composite section)
M(LL+IM)HL-93 = (1.3)(0.805)(3,455)
= 3,616 kip-ft (applied to short-term composite section)
Check Flange Stresses
In this example, fl = 0 for this interior girder. The requirement becomes:

M DC 1 M DC 2 M DW M ( LL IM ) HL 93
ff 0.95Rh Fyf
S NC S LT S ST
0.95 1.0 50 47.5 ksi
For the top flange

261512 72512 3,61612

ff
2,193 7,544 22,489
14.31 1.15 1.93 17.39 ksi 47.5 ksi
O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-1)
For the bottom flange
261512 72512 3,61612
ff
2,837 3,685 4,018
11.06 2.36 10.80 24.22 ksi 47.5 ksi
O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-2)
For the compression flange
AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2 states that for composite sections in positive flexure in

which the web satisfies the requirement of AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1, i.e., D/tw
150, satisfying AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-4 is not required. In this example,
D 78
=124.8 < 150 (AASHTO 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw 0.625
The compression flange check is not required.
9.7.10.7 Check Requirements - Constructibility
At construction stages, steel girders of Span 2 with an unbraced compression

flange length Lb = 330 in. carry out the construction load including dead load (self-
weight of steel girders and concrete deck slab) and other loads acting on the structure
during construction. To prevent nominal yielding or reliance on post-buckling
resistance of the steel girder during critical stages of construction, the following
AASHTO 6.10.3 requirements for flexural stresses are checked. For 0.5 Point
Section, shear effects are very small and shear strength check is not illustrated. A
similar design procedure is shown in Section 9.7.11.
Calculate Factored Moment Constructibility
In the constructibility check, all loads shall be factored as specified in AASHTO

3.4.2. In this example, no other construction load is assumed and only factored dead
loads are applied on the noncomposite section. The compression flange is discretely
braced with an unbraced length Lb = 330 in. within Span 2. The factored moment at
0.5 Point of Span 2 is:
Mu = MDC1 = 1.25(2,615) = 3,269 kip-ft

Check Compression Flange
Web Compactness
Limiting slenderness ratio for a noncompact web:
E 29,000
rw 5.7 5.7 137.3 (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.2-4)
Fyc 50
Dc = yNCt - tfc = 45.55 - 1.0 = 44.55 (See Table 9.7-15)
2Dc 2 44.55
142.6 rw 137.3
tw 0.625
The web is slender, and AASHTO Equations 6.10.3.2.1-2 and 6.10.3.2.1-3
shall be checked.
Calculate Flange-Strength Reduction Factors Rh and Rb
Since homogenous plate girder sections are used for this example, hybrid
factor Rh is taken as 1.0 (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.1).
When checking constructibility according to AASHTO 6.10.3.2, web load-

shedding factor Rb is taken as 1.0 (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.2).

Nominal flexural resistance of the compression flange is the smaller of the
local buckling resistance (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2) and the lateral torsional
buckling resistance (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3)
Local buckling resistance
b fc 18 E 29,000
f =9 pf 0.38 0.38 9.15
2t fc 2 1 Fyc 50
Fnc FLB Rb Rh Fyc 1.01.0 50 50 ksi (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-1)
Lateral torsional buckling resistance

b fc 18
rt 4.22 in.
1 Dc tw 1 44.55 0.625
12 1 12 1
3 b fct fc 3 181.0

(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-9)
E 29, 000
L p 1.0 rt 1.0 4.22 101.6 in.
Fyc 50
0.7 Fyc 0.7 50

Fyr smaller 35 ksi 0.5Fyc 25 ksi
Fyw 50
Use Fyr = 35 ksi
E 29, 000
Lr rt 4.22 381.6 in. (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-5)
Fyr 35
Lp 101.6 in. Lb 330 in. Lr 381.6 in.
Fyr Lb L p
Fnc LTB Cb 1 1 Rb Rh Fyc
Rh Fyc Lr L p
35 330 101.6
1.0 1 1 1.0 1.050
1. 0 50 381.6 101 . 6
37.8 ksi Rb Rh Fyc 1.0 1.0 50 50 ksi
(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-2)
Use Fnc(LTB) = 37.8 ksi
It should be pointed out that Cb factor is taken as 1.0 conservatively for 0.5 Point
of Span 2. The nominal flexural resistance of the compression flange is:

Fnc min Fnc FLB , Fnc LTB min 50, 37.8 37.8 ksi
Mu 3,26912
f bu 17.9 ksi
S NCt 2,193 O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-2)
f Fnc 37.8 ksi

Calculate Web Bend-buckling Resistance
2
D 78
2
k 9 =9 = 27.59 (AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-2)
Dc 44.55
0.9 E k 0.9 29,000 27.59
Fcrw 2
2
46.2 ksi
D 78

tw 0.625
Rh Fyc 1.0 50 50 ksi

smaller 50 ksi
Fyw / 0.7 50 / 0.7 71.4 ksi
(AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-1)
Use Fcrw = 46.2 ksi
fbu 17.9 ksi f Fcrw 46.2 ksi O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-3)
Check Tension Flange
M u 3,269 12
fbu 13.8 ksi f Rh Fyt 50 ksi
S NCb 2,837
O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.2-1)
9.7.11 Design Noncomposite Section in Negative Moment Region at Bent 3
In this example, steel girder sections in negative moment regions are designed as
noncomposite sections. When shear connectors are provided in negative moment
regions according to AASHTO 6.10.10, sections are considered as composite
sections.
9.7.11.1 Illustrate Calculations of Factored Moments and Shears Strength Limit States
Factored moments and shears are calculated and summarized in Section 9.7.7.
Tables 9.7-19 and 9.7-20 illustrate detailed calculations for the section at Bent 3.

Table 9.7-19 Factored Moments at Section of Bent 3
Load Type Unfactored Factored Moment

Moment (kip-ft)
(kip-ft)
DC1 -4,422 MDC1 = 1.25(-4,422) = -5,527.5
DC2 -363 MDCs = 1.25(-363) = -453.8
DW -862 MDW = 1.5(-862) = -1,293.0
(LL+IM)HL-93 -3,563 M(LL+IM)HL-93 =1.75(0.834)(-3,563)
(one lane) = -5,200.2
(LL+IM)P15 -5,981 M(LL+IM)P15 = 1.35(0.834)(-5,981) = -6,734.0
(one lane)
Controlling Mu = -5,527.5 +(- 453.8)+(-1,293.0)+( -6,734.0)
DC+DW+(LL+IM) = -14,008
Table 9.7-20 Factored Shears at Section of Bent 3
Load Unfactored Factored Shear

Type Shear (kip) (kip)
DC1 -167.8 VDC1 = 1.25(-167.8) = -209.75
DC2 -13.8 VDC2 = 1.25(-13.8) = -17.25
DW -32.7 VDW = 1.5(-32.7) = -49.05
(LL+IM)HL-93 -147.2 V(LL+IM)HL-93 = 1.75(1.082)(-147.2) = -278.72
(one lane)
(LL+IM)P15 -321.0 V(LL+IM)P15 = 1.35(1.082)(-321.0) = -468.89
(one lane)
Controlling Vu = -209.75 +(-17.25)+( - 49.05)+( - 468.89)
DC+DW+(LL+IM) = -745.0
9.7.11.2 Calculate Elastic Section Properties
In order to calculate the stresses, deflection, and camber for this continuous
composite girder, the elastic section properties for the steel section alone, the steel
section and the deck slab longitudinal reinforcement, the short-term composite
section, and the long-term composite section are calculated in Tables 9.7-21, 9.7-22,
9.7-23 and 9.7-24, respectively.

Table 9.7-21 Properties of Steel Section Alone
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yNCb Ai y i y NCb Io

2
Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Top flange 18 2 36.0 81.0 2,916.0 40.0 57,600 12
Web 78 0.625 48.75 41.0 1,998.75 0 0 24,716
Bottom flange 36.0 1.0 36.0 -40.0 57,600 12
18 2
120.75 - 4,950.75 - 115,200 24,740
y NCb
Ai yi 4,950.75 41.0 in.
yNCt yt Ai 120.75
yNCt 2 +78 +2 - 41.0 = 41.0 in.
C.GNC
Io Ai yi yNCb
2
I NC
24,740 + 115,200 = 139,940 in.4
yNCb yw I 139,940
S NCb NC = 3,413 in.3
yNCb 41.0
yb
I NC 139,940
S NCt = 3,413 in.3
yNCt 41.0
Assuming the total area of longitudinal reinforcement is 1% of the concrete area

at the interior supports, As = 0.01(12 12)(9.125) = 13.14 in.2, elastic section
properties of the steel section and deck slab longitudinal reinforcement are calculated
in Table 9.7-22 as follows.

Table 9.7-22 Properties of Steel Section and Deck Slab Reinforcement
Ai yi Aiyi yi - yNSb Ai yi y NSb 2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Top reinforcement 13.14 88.69 1,165.4 43.01 24,307 0
Steel section 120.75 41.0 4,950.8 -4.68 2,645 139,940
133.89 - 6,116.15 - 26,952 139,940
Ai yi 6,116.15
y NSb 45.68 in.
Ai 133.89
yNSrb y NSt 2 78 2 45.68 36.32 in.
y NSrb 88.69 45.68 43.01 in.
yNSt yrb I NS I o Ai yi y NSb 2
C.GNS 139,940 26,952 166,892 in.4
I NS 166,892
C.GNC S NSb 3,654 in.3
y NSb 45.68
yNSb I 166,892
yNCb S NSt NS 4,595 in.3
y NSt 36.32
I NS 166,892
S NSrb 3,880 in.3
y NSrb 43.01
Table 9.7-23 Properties of Short-term Composite Section (n = 8)
Ai yi Aiyi yi - ySTb Ai yi y STb 2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Steel section 120.75 41.0 4,950.8 -27.48 91,184 139,940
Concrete slab
144/8 9.125 164.25 88.69 14,567.3 20.21 67,087 1,140
285.0 - 19,518.1 - 158,271 141,080
Ai y i
19 ,518.1
y STb 68.48 in.
Ai 285.0
ySTt
yc ySTt 2 78 2 68.48 13.52in.
C.GST I ST Io Ai yi ySTb 2
141,080 158,271 299,351in.4
I 299 ,351
S STb ST 4 ,371 in.3
C.GNC y STb 68.48
ySTb yNCb I ST 299,351
S STt 22,141 in.3
y STt 13 .52

Table 9.7-24 Properties of Long-term Composite Section (3n = 24)
Ai yi Aiyi yi yLTb Ai yi y LTb 2 Io

Component
(in.2) (in.) (in.3) (in.) (in.4) (in.4)
Steel section 120.75 41 4,950.8 -14.88 26,736 139,940
Concrete slab
144/24 9.125 54.75 88.69 4,855.8 32.81 58,938 380
175.5 - 9.806.6 - 85,674 140,320
Ai yi 9,806.6
y LTb 55.88 in.
Ai 175.5
ySTt 2 78 2 55.88 26.12 in.
I ST I o Ai yi yLTb 2
yLTt yc 140,320 85,674 225,994 in.4
C.GLT I LT 225,994
S LTb 4,044 in.3
yLTb 55.88
yLTb I 225,994
C.GNC S LTt LT 8,652 in.3
yNCb y LTt 26.12
It should be pointed out that the concrete haunch is ignored in calculating

composite section properties.
9.7.11.3 Design for Flexure - Strength Limit States
For composite I-sections in negative flexure and non-composite I-sections with

compact or non-compact webs in straight bridges, it is strongly recommended to use
provisions in AASHTO Appendix A6. In this example of the straight bridge, flange
lateral bending stress for interior girders fl = 0. The design equations, therefore, are
simplified as follows:
Mu f Mnc
Mu f Mnt
Check Section Compactness
Three requirements for noncompact sections are checked as follows:

Specified minimum yield strength of the flanges and web:
Fy 70 ksi (AASHTO A6.1)

2 Dc 78 E 29, 000
Web: 124.8 rw 5.7 5.7 137.3
tw 0.625 Fyc 50
(AASHTO A6.1-1)
I yc

218 / 12
3
1.0 0.3
Flange ratio: (AASHTO A6.1-2)
I yt 2183 / 12
Since the section at Bent 3 is noncompact, nominal flexural resistance of the I-
section is calculated in accordance with AASHTO Appendix A6. It is the smaller of
the local buckling resistance (AASHTO A6.3.2) and the lateral torsional buckling
resistance (AASHTO A6.3.3).
Calculate Flange-Strength Reduction Factors Rh and Rb
Since homogenous plate girder sections are used for this example, hybrid factor
Rh is taken as 1.0 (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.1). As shown above, the web is noncompact
and web load-shedding factor Rb is taken as 1.0 (AASHTO 6.10.1.10.2).
Calculate Flexural Resistance Based on Compression Flange
Nominal flexural resistance based on the compression flange is the smaller of the
local buckling resistance (AASHTO A6.3.2) and the lateral torsional buckling
resistance (AASHTO A6.3.3).
Calculate Local Buckling Resistance

b fc 18 E 29 ,000
f 4 .5 pf 0.38 0.38 9.15
2t fc 22 F yc 50
M nc FLB R pc M yc (AASHTO A6.3.2-1)
Mp = 2[(18x2)(50)(40)+(39x0.625)(50)(19.5)]
= 191,532 kip in. = 15,961 kip ft
M yc S x Fyf 3,41350 170,650 kip - in. 14,221 kip - ft
Dcp = Dc = 39 in. (Section is symmetric about neutral axis)
E 29,000
rw 5.7 5.7 137.3
Fyc 50
29, 000
50 Dcp
pw 90.43 rw 137.3
Dcp 15,961
2
Dc
0.54 0.09
1.0 14, 221

2 Dcp

2 39 124.8

tw 0.625
pw Dcp 90.43 (AASHTO A6.2.1-1)
and w 124.8 rw 137.3 (AASHTO A6.2.2-1)

Therefore, for a symmetric section in this example, web is non-compact and
web plastification factor is calculated as follows:
D
pw D pw D c 90.43 rw 137.3
c cp Dcp (AASHTO A6.2.2-6)
Rh M y w pw D M p
R pc 1 1 c
M
p rw
My
pw Dc

1.0 14,221 124.8 90.43 15,961
1 1 (AASHTO A6.2.2-4)
15,961 137.3 90.43 14,221
1.033
M nc FLB R pc M yc 1.03314,221 14,690 kip - ft

(AASHTO A6.3.2-1)
Calculate Lateral Torsional Buckling Resistance
In negative moment regions, the bottom compression flange is braced by

the cross frame with a spacing of Lb = 330 in. at Span 2 side.
h = depth between centerline of flanges = (1.0 + 78 + 1.0) = 80 in.

b fc 18
rt 4.7 in.
1 Dctw 1 39 0.625
12 1 12 1
3 b fc t fc 3 18 2.0

E 29,000
L p 1.0 rt 1.0 4.7 113.2 in.
Fyc 50
Ignoring rebar, from Table 9.7-21 we have Sxc = Sxt = SNCb = SNCt = 3,413 in.3
0.7 Fyc 0.7 50 35

Fyr smaller Rh Fyt S xt / S xc 1.0 50 1.0 50 35 ksi 0.5Fyc 25ksi

Fyw 50
(AASHTO A6.3.3)

Use Fyr = 35 ksi
D tw3 b fc t fc b ft t 3ft
3
t fc t ft
J 1 0.63 1 0.63
3 3 b fc 3 b ft
(AASHTO A6.3.3-9)
78 0.625 3
18 2 3
2
2 1 0.63 95.6 in.
3
3 3 18
2
E J Fyr S xc h
Lr 1.95 rt 1 1 6.76
Fyr S xc h E J (AASHTO A6.3.3-5)
35 3, 413 80
2
29, 000 95.6
Lr 1.95 4.7 1 1 6.76
35 3, 413 80 29, 000 95.6

449.7 in.
(AASHTO A6.3.3-5)
It is noted that a conservative Lr can be obtained by AASHTO Equation

6.10.8.2.3-5 as follows:
E 29,000
Lr rt 4.7 425.0 in. (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-5)
Fyr 35
In this example, Lr = 449.7 in. is used.
Since Lb = 330 in. > Lp = 113.2 in., Cb, an equivalent uniform moment factor for
lateral torsional buckling which has a minimum value of 1.0 under the uniform
moment condition, needs to be calculated. The use of the moment envelope values at
both brace points will be conservative for both single and reverse curvature. In this
example, the moments M1 and M2 at braced points are estimated from the factored
moment envelope shown in Table 9.7-8. At Bent 3, Mu = -14,008 kip-ft and at 0.8
Point with a distance of 33 ft = 396 in. from Bent 3, Mu = -2,751 kip-ft. At braced
point with a distance of 27.5 ft. = 330 in. from Bent 3 (Figure 9.7-8), we obtain:

Braced Point Braced Point

0.8L 0.9L Bent 3
-14,008 kip-ft
-2,751 kip-ft -6,631 kip-ft

-4,044 kip-ft
66" 132" 198"
396"
Figure 9.7-8 Factored Moment Envelope at Bent 3
66
M1 2,751 6,631 2,751 4,044 kip - ft
198
2 2
M M 4,044 4,044
Cb 1.75 1.05 1 0.3 1 1.75 1.05 0.3
M2 M2 14,008 14,008
1.47 2.3
(AASHTO A6.3.3-7)
Use Cb = 1.47
Lp 113.2 in. Lb 330 in. Lr 449.7 in.

Fyr S xc Lb L p
M nc LTB Cb 1 1 R pc M yc
Rh M yc Lr L p

1.47 1 1
353,413 330 113.2 1.03314,221

1.014,22112 449.7 113.2
17,421 kip - ft R pc M yc 14,690 kip - ft
(AASHTO A6.3.3-2)
Use Mnc(LTB) = 14,690 kip-ft
Determine Flexural Resistance

M nc min M nc FLB , M nc LTB min 14,690, 14,690 14,690 kip - ft

Calculate Flexural Resistance Based on Tension Flange
Since the section is symmetric, Rpt = Rpc, Myt = Myc
M nt R pt M yt 1.03314,221 14,690 kip - ft (AASHTO A6.4-1)
For both compression and tension flanges:
M u 14,009 kips - ft. f M nc f M nt 14,690 kip - ft O.K.

(AASHTO A6.1.1-1 & A6.1.2-1)
9.7.11.4 Design for Shear Strength Limit State
Select Stiffener Spacing
AASHTO C6.10.2.1.1 states that by limiting the slenderness of transversely-

stiffened webs to D/tw 150, the maximum transverse stiffener spacing up to 3D is
permitted. For end panels adjacent to simple supports, stiffener spacing do shall not
exceed 1.5D (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.3).
Try interior stiffener spacing do = 165 in. < 3D = 3(78) = 234 in. and end panel
stiffener spacing do = 110 in. (for Span 1) and 100 in. (for Span 3) < 1.5D = 1.5(78)
= 117 in.
Calculate Shear Resistance
Shear resistance for a stiffened interior web is as follows:
For do = 165 in.

5
k 5 6.12
165 / 78 2
D 78 Ek 29,000 6.12
124.8 1.4 1.4 83.41
tw 0.625 Fyw 50
Ek
1.57 1.57 29,000 6.12
C
2F
0.358
D / tw yw 124.82 50
Vp 0.58FywDtw 0.58 50 78 0.625 1,413.8 kips
Vcr CVp 0.3581,413.8 506.1 kips
2 Dtw 2 78 0.625
1.35 2.5
b fct fc b ft t ft 18 2 18 2


0.871 C 0.8710.358
Vn Vp C 1,413.8 0.358 843.6 kips
2 2
1 o
d / D 1 165/ 78
Vu 745.1 kips vVn 1.0 843.6 843.6 kips O.K
It is noted that for a web end panel adjacent to the simple support, do for the first
stiffener adjacent to the simple support shall not exceed 1.5D (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.3).
In order to provide an anchor for the tension field in adjacent interior panels, nominal
shear strength of a web end panel shall be taken as:
Vn Vcr CVp (AASHTO 6.10.9.3.3-1)
Check Transverse Stiffener
The transverse stiffeners consist of plates welded or bolted to either one or both
sides of the web and are required to satisfy the following requirements (AASHTO
6.10.11.1):
Projecting width
D 78
bt 7.5 in. 2.0 2.0 4.6 in. O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.2-1)
30 30
16t p 16 0.5 8 in. bt 7.5 in. b f / 4 18 / 4 4.5 in. O.K.
(AASHTO 6.10.11.1.2-2)
Moment of inertia
For the web panels adjacent to Bent 3, Vu = 745.1 kips > vVcr = (1.0)(506.1) =
506.1 kips, the web tension-field resistance is required in those panels. The moment
of inertia of the transverse stiffeners shall satisfy the limit specified in AASHTO
6.10.11.1.3.
It1 b tw3 J (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.3-3)
1.5
D 4 t1.3 Fyw
It 2 (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.3-4)
40 E
where It is the moment of inertia for the transverse stiffener taken about the edge in
contact with the web for single stiffeners and about the mid-thickness of the web for
stiffener pairs; b is the smaller of do and D; do is the smaller of the adjacent web
panel widths.

2 .5
J 2 . 0 0 .5 (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.3-5)
d o / D 2
t is the larger of Fyw /Fcrs and 1.0
0.31E
Fcrs Fys (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.3-6)
bt / t p
2
Fys is specified minimum yield strength of the stiffener

2.5
J 2.0 1.441 0.5 Use J 0.5
165 / 782
b = smaller (do = 165 in. and D = 78 in.) = 78 in.
0.31 29, 000
Fcrs 39.96 ksi Fys 36 ksi Use Fcrs = 36 ksi
7.5 / 0.5 2
t = larger (Fyw /Fcrs = 50/36 = 1.39; 1.0) = 1.39
It1 btw3 J 780.6253 0.5 9.52 in.4
784 1.391.3
1.5
D 4 t1.3 Fyw
1.5
50
It 2 101.6 in.4
40 E 40 29000
7.53 0.5 0.625
2
It 2 7.5 0.5 3.75 158.94 in.4
12 2

It 2 101.6 in.4 It1 9.52 in.4
V V
I t 158.94 in.4 I t1 I t 2 I t1 u v cr
vVn vVcr
745.1 - 506.1
9.52 101.6 9.52 74.73 in.
4
843.6 - 506.1
O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.11.1.3-9)
9.7.11.5 Illustrate Calculations of Fatigue Moments and Shears
For bridge details, fatigue moment and shear ranges are calculated and
summarized in Section 9.7.8. For the section at Bent 3, live load moments and shears
are applied to the steel section only. Fatigue moment and shear ranges are as follows:
Fatigue I:
M DFm LL IM HL 1.75 0.478 LL IM HL 0.837 LL IM HL
M DFm LL IM HL 1.75 0.453 LL IM HL 0.793 LL IM HL
V DFv LL IM HL 1.75 0.7 LL IM HL 1.225 LL IM HL

+M = (0.837)(193) = 162 kip-ft

-M = (0.793)(-1,139) = -903 kip-ft
(M) = 162 + 903 = 1065 kip-ft
(V) = 1.225(74.4 + 5.3) = 97.6 kips
Fatigue II:
M DFm LL IM P9 1.0 0.478 LL IM P9 0.478 LL IM P9
M DFm LL IM P9 1.0 0.453 LL IM P9 0.453 LL IM P9
V DFv LL IM P9 1.0 0.7 LL IM P9 0.7 LL IM P9
+M = (0.478)(582) = 278 kip-ft
-M = (0.453)(-3,626) = -1,643 kip-ft
(M) = 278 + 1,643 = 1,921 kip-ft
(V) = 0.7(16 + 227.2) = 170.2 kips
For special fatigue requirement for the web, factored shear, Vu due to the
unfactored dead loads plus the factored fatigue load of Fatigue I for infinite life is
calculated as follows:
Vu Vdc1 Vdc 2 Vdw 1.75 DFv LL IM HL
167.8 13.8 32.7 1.75 0.7 74.4 305.4 kips
9.7.11.6 Check Typical Girder Details and Web - Fatigue Limit States
Check Typical Girder Details
From CA Table 6.6.1.2.5-2, the number of stress-range cycles per truck passage
for sections near interior support, n = 1.5 for Fatigue I and 1.2 for Fatigue II Limit
States. Nominal fatigue resistances are calculated in Table 9.7-25 as follows:
Fatigue I: ADTT = 2,500; N = (365)(75)(1.5)(0.8)(2,500) = 0.8213(10)8 > NTH
Fn F TH (AASHTO 6.6.1.2.5-1)
Fatigue II: ADTT = 20, N = (365)(75)(1.2)(0.8)(20) = 525,600 < NTH

1
Fn
A 3
(AASHTO 6.6.1.2.5-2)
N

Table 9.7-25 Nominal Fatigue Resistance
Detail Constant A Fatigue II Fatigue I

Category ( 108 ) 1
Fn A
3
(ksi)
Fn F TH
(ksi3) N (ksi)
B 120.0 28.37 16.0
C 44.0 20.31 10.0
C 44.0 20.31 12.0
E 11.0 12.79 4.5
The bending stress ranges for typical girder details Category B (Butt weld for
tension flange and bolted gusset plate for lateral bracing) and Category C (Toe of
weld for transverse stiffener) are checked as follows:
Fatigue I - HL-93 Truck for infinite life:
M 1,065 12 12.0 ksi O.K. for Category C

f 3.74
S NC 3, 413 16.0 ksi O.K. for Category B
Fatigue II - P-9 Truck for finite life:

M 1,92112 20.31 ksi O.K. for Category C
f 6.75
S NC 3, 413 28.37 ksi O.K. for Category B
It should be pointed out that the above stresses are calculated at the extreme fiber
of the top flange for Category B and can be conservatively used for Category C. If
the calculation is made at the toe of weld for the transverse stiffeners (Category C),
the stress ranges will be smaller than the stress ranges calculated for Category B.
AASHTO 6.10.11.1.1 states that the distance between the end of the web-to-
stiffener weld and the near edge of the adjacent web-to-flange weld or longitudinal
stiffener-to-web weld shall not be less than 4tw, but not exceed the lesser of 6tw and
4.0 in. We take this distance = 4tw = 4(0.625) = 2.5 in. and assume web-to-flange
weld size of 0.375 inch. The distance between the toe of the weld for the transverse
stiffeners to the neutral axis is equal to (41 2 0.375 2.5) = 36.125 in., therefore,
stress ranges at the toe of the weld are as follows:
M Ctoe 1,065 1236.125

f 3.30 12.0 ksi O.K. for Category C
I NC 139,940


M Ctoe 1,9211236.125
f 5.95 20.31 ksi O.K. for Category C
I NC 139,940
Check Special Fatigue Requirement for Web
This requirement is to ensure that significant elastic flexing of the web due to
shear is not to occur and the member is able to sustain an infinite number of smaller
loadings without fatigue cracking due to the shear.
Vcr CVp 0.3581,413.8 506.1 kips Vu 305.4 kips

O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.5.3-1)
9.7.11.7 Design Flange-to-Web Welds
Typical flange-to-web welds shown in Figure 9.7-9 are designed for Strength
Limit State. The shear flow at the flange-to-web welds is:
su
Vu Q

745.118240 7.67 kip/in.
I 139,940
Q is the first moment of the steel flange about the neutral axis of the steel girder
section. According to AASHTO Table 6.13.3.4-1, the minimum size of fillet weld
for plate thickness larger than 3/4 in. is 5/16 in., but need not exceed the thickness of
the thinner part jointed. Use two fillet welds tw = 3/8 in.
18
2
0.625
40
Neutral Axis
I = 139,940 in.4
Fillet Weld
Figure 9.7-9 Flange-to-Web Welds

Shear resistance of fillet welds (AASHTO 6.13.3.2.4b) is

Rr 0.6e 2 Fexx (AASHTO 6.13.3.2.4b-1)
Fexx is classification strength specified of the weld metal. Using E70XX weld metal,
Fexx = 70 ksi.
Rr 0.6e 2 Fexx 0.60.870 33.6 ksi
For two fillet welds t w = 3/8 in., shear flow resistance is

sr 2 t w 0.707 Rr
2 0.375 0.707 33.6 17.82 kip/in. su 7.67 kip/in.
O.K.
Use two flange-to-web welds t w = 3/8 in.
Shear resistance of the base metal of the web is

Rr 0.58v Ag Fy (AASHTO 6.13.5.3-1)
For web of tw = 0.625 in., shear flow resistance is

sr t w 0.58v Fy
O.K.
0.6250.581.0 50 18.13 kip/in. su 7.67 kip/in.
9.7.11.8 Check Requirements Service Limit State
Calculate Moment at Service II
For the section at Bent 3, dead load, DC1, DC2, DW, and live load are applied to
the noncomposite section. The factored moments at Service II for Bent 3 are as
follows:
M DC1 4,422 kip - ft
M DC 2 M DW 363 ( 862) 1,225 kip - ft
M ( LL IM ) 1.30.834 3,563 3,863 kip - ft
Calculate Web Bend-buckling Resistance

2
D 78
2
k 9 9 36 (AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-2)
Dc 39

0.9 E k 0.9 29,000 36

Fcrw 2
2
60.3 ksi
D 78

tw 0.625

smaller 50 ksi
Fyw / 0.7 50 / 0.7 71.4 ksi
(AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-1)
Use Fcrw = 50 ksi
Check Flange Stress
In this example, fl = 0 for this interior girder. The requirement becomes:
M DC1 M DC2 M Dw M( LLIM )

ff 0.80Rh Fyf 0.8 1.0 50 40.0 ksi
SNC
(AASHTO 6.10.4.2.2-3)
For both compression and tension flanges
4,422 (1,225) (3,863)
f f 12 33.4 ksi 40.0 ksi

3,413
O.K.
For the compression flange
fc 33.4 ksi Fcrw 50.0 ksi O.K.
9.7.11.9 Check Requirements - Constructibility
Calculate Factored Moment and Shear - Constructibility
Factored moment and shear at the section of Bent 3 is as:

Mu = MDC1 = 1.25(-4,422) = -5,528 kip-ft
Vu = VDC1 = 1.25(-167.8) = -209.8 kips
Check Compression Flange
Check Web Compactness

2 Dc 78 E 29, 000
124.8 rw 5.7 5.7 137.3
tw 0.625 Fyc 50
(AASHTO 6.10.1.10.2-4)

The web is noncompact and AASHTO Equations 6.10.3.2.1-1 and 6.10.3.2.1-2

need to be satisfied.
Rh = 1.0; Rb = 1.0
Nominal flexural resistance of the compression flange is the smaller of local

buckling resistance (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2) and the lateral torsional buckling
resistance (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3).
(1) Local buckling resistance

b fc 18 E 29, 000
f 4.5 pf 0.38 0.38 9.15
2t fc 2 2 Fyc 50
Fnc FLB Rb Rh Fyc 1.01.0 50 50.0 ksi (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.2-1)
(2) Lateral torsional buckling resistance
From Section 9.7.11.3, we have

b fc
rt 4.7 in. (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-9)
1 Dc tw
12 1
3 b fc t fc

E
L p 1.0 rt 113.2 in. (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-4)
Fyc
Fyr 35 ksi
E
Lr rt 425.0 in. (AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-5)
Fyr
L p 113.2 in. Lb 330 in. Lr 425.0 in.
Fyr Lb L p
Fnc LTB Cb 1 1 R R F R R F

Rh Fyc Lr L p b h yc b h yc

(AASHTO 6.10.8.2.3-2)
35 330 113.2
Fnc LTB 1.0 1 1
1.0 50 425 113.2
1.0 1.0 50

39.6 ksi Rb Rh Fyc 50 ksi
Use Fnc(LTB) = 39.6 ksi

It should be pointed out that the Cb factor is taken as 1.0 conservatively in the
constructibility check.
(3) Nominal flexural resistance

Fnc min Fnc FLB , Fnc LTB min 50.0, 39.6 39.6 ksi
M u 5,528 12
fbu 19.4 ksi f Fnc 39.6 ksi O.K.
S NCb 3,413
(AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-2)
Calculate Web Bend-Buckling Resistance
2
D 78
2
k 9 9 36 (AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-2)
Dc 39
0.9 E k 0.9 29, 000 36
Fcrw 2
2
60.3 ksi
D 78

tw 0.625 (AASHTO 6.10.1.9.1-1)
smaller
Fyw / 0.7 50 / 0.7 71.4 ksi
Use Fcrw = 50 ksi
fbu 19.4 ksi f Fcrw 50 ksi O.K. (AASHTO 6.10.3.2.1-3)
Check Tension Flange

M u 5,528 12
fbu 19.4 ksi f Rh Fyt 50 ksi
S NCt 3, 413
O.K (AASHTO
6.10.3.2.2-1)
Check for Shear
From Section 9.7.11.4, we obtain:
C = 0.358, Vp = 0.58FywDt = 1,413.8 kips

Vcr CV p 0.3581,413.8 506.1 kips
Vu 209.8 kips vVcr 1.0506.1 506.1 kips O.K.

(AASHTO 6.10.3.3-1)

9.7.12 Design Shear Connectors for Span 2
The shear connectors are provided in the positive moment regions and usually
designed for fatigue and checked for strength.
9.7.12.1 Design for Fatigue
The range of horizontal shear flow, Vsr, is as follows:

Vf Q
Vsr
I ST
where Vf is the factored fatigue vertical shear force range as calculated in Tables 9.7-
11 and 9.7-12, IST is the moment of inertia of the transformed short-term composite
section, and Q is the first moment of transformed short-term area of the concrete deck
about the neutral axis of the short-term composite section.
From Table 9.7-17, IST = 275,267 in.4
Q Ac / n yc ySTb 164.2588.44 68.51 3,274 in.3

V f Q 3, 274V f
Vsr 0.012V f
I ST 275, 267
Try d = 7/8 inch diameter stud, 3 per row, the fatigue shear resistance of an
individual stud shear connector, Zr is as follows:
Fatigue I: ADTT = 2500
N 365 751.0 0.8 2500 0.5475 10 5.966 10

8 6
Zr 5.5d 2 5.5 0.875 4.21 kips

2
(AASHTO 6.10.10.2-1)
Fatigue II: ADTT = 20
N 365 751.0 0.8 20 438,000 5.966 10

6
34.5 4.28 log N 34.5 4.28 log 438,000 10.35 (AASHTO 6.10.10.2-3)
Zr d 2 10.35 0.875 7.93kips
2
(AASHTO 6.10.10.2-2)
For 3 - d = 7/8 inch diameter studs, the required pitch of shear connectors, p is
obtained as:
n Zr 3Z
p r (AASHTO 6.10.10.1.2-1)
Vsr Vsr

For the positive moment region (0.2L to 0.8L) of Span 2, the detailed calculation
is shown in Table 9.7-26.
Table 9.7-26 Pitch of Shear Connectors for Span 2
Fatigue I - HL-93 Truck for infinite Fatigue II - P-9 Truck for

x/L life finite life
Vf Vsr = 0.012 Vf p Vf Vsr = 0.012 Vf p
(kip) (kip/in.) (in.) (kip) (kip/in.) (in.)
0.2 81.6 0.98 12.9 137.1 1.65 14.4
0.3 77.7 0.93 13.6 120.3 1.44 16.5
0.4 75.9 0.91 13.9 113.1 1.36 17.5
0.5 73.8 0.89 14.1 108.0 1.30 18.3
0.6 75.7 0.91 13.9 112.3 1.35 17.6
0.7 77.2 0.93 13.6 119.0 1.43 16.6
0.8 80.7 0.97 13.0 131.5 1.58 15.1
Select 37/8" diameter shear studs with Fu = 60 ksi (AASHTO 6.4.4) at spacing
of 12" for the positive moment regions, and 24" for the negative moment regions as
shown in Figure 9.7-10. Total number of shear studs from 0.2L to 0.8L Points in Span
2, n = (3)(99+1) = 300 are provided.
3-7/8@24 3-7/8@12 3-7/8@24

33 99 33
Bent 2 0.2L 0.8L Bent 3
Figure 9.7-10 Pitch of Shear Studs
AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 requires that the base metal shall be checked for
Category C when the shear studs are attached by fillet welds to the girders. From
Section 9.7.10.5, it is seen that this requirement is satisfied.

9.7.12.2 Check for Strength
In this example of straight bridge, the number of shear connectors between the
point of maximum positive moment and each adjacent point of zero moment shall
satisfy the following requirement:
P
n (AASHTO 6.10.10.4.1-2)
Qr
0.85 fc bts 0.85 3.6 144 9.125 4,021
P smaller 4,021 kips
As Fy 98.25 50 4,913
(AASHTO 6.10.10.4.2-2) and (AASHTO 6.10.10.4.2-3)
The factored shear resistance of a single d = 7/8 in. shear stud connector is as:
Ec w3/2 33 fc 150 33
3/2
3,600 3.64 106 psi 3,640 ksi
(AASHTO 5.4.2.4-1)
Qn 0.5 Asc f cEc 0.5

0.875 2 3.6 3, 640
4

34.4 kips Asc Fu 0.875 2 60 36.1 kips
4
(AASHTO 6.10.10.4.3-1)
Use Qn = 34.4 kips
300 P 4,021
n 150 137.5 O.K.
2 sc Qn 0.85 34.4
9.7.12.3 Determine Shear Connectors at Points of Contraflexure
AASHTO 6.10.10.3 requires that for members that are noncomposite for
negative moment regions in the final condition, additional connectors, nac shall be
placed within a distance equal to one-third of the effective concrete deck width on
each side of the point of permanent load contraflexure.
As f sr
nac (AASHTO 6.10.10.3-1)
Zr
where fsr is fatigue stress range in the slab reinforcement over the interior support
under the Fatigue I load combination for infinite fatigue life.
As calculated in Section 9.7.11.5, factored Fatigue I moment range at Bent 3,

(M) = 1,065 kips-ft. Using the elastic section property of the steel section and
deck slab reinforcement calculated in Table 9.7-22, we obtain:

M 1, 065 12
f sr 3.3 ksi
S NSrb 3,880
It is noted that fsr can be conservatively taken as the fatigue stress range in the top
flange as calculated in Section 9.7.11.6. In the past AASHTO Standard
Specifications, fsr was assumed as 10 ksi.
As f sr 13.14 3.3
nac 10.3 studs; Use 12 studs
Zr 4.21
9.7.13 Design Bearing Stiffeners at Bent 3
The bearing stiffeners consist of one or more plates welded to each side of the
web and extend the full height of the web. The purpose of bearing stiffeners is to
transmit the full bearing forces from factored loads. The bearing stiffeners shall be
designed for axial resistance of a concentrically loaded column (AASHTO
6.10.11.2.4) and for bearing resistance (AASHTO 6.10.11.2.3).
9.7.13.1 Illustrate Calculations of Factored Support Forces at Bent 3
Factored support forces for four supports at the strength limit states are
summarized in Table 9.7-10. The calculations of factored support forces at Bent 3 are
illustrated as follows:
Dead Load
RDC1 = 1.25(328.2) = 410.3 kips
RDC2 = 1.25(27) = 33.8 kips
RDW = 1.5(64) = 96.0 kips
Live Load
R(LL+IM)HL-93 = 1.75(1.082)(249.2) = 471.9 kips
R(LL+IM)P15 = 1.35(1.082)(447) = 652.9 kips
Controlling Support Force
Ru = 410.3 + 33.8 + 96.0 + 652.9 = 1,193 kips
9.7.13.2 Select Stiffeners
For a short column, assume Pr = 0.85FysAs = 0.85(36)As = 30.6As and we obtain

the initial effective column area as:
Ru 1,193
As 38.99 in.2
30.6 30.6
Try two stiffeners, 1.875" 8" PL as shown in Figure 9.7-11.

9.7.13.3 Check Projecting Width

E 29,000
bt 8 in. 0.48t p 0.48 1.875 25.54 in. O.K.
Fys 36
(AASHTO 6.10.11.2.2-1)
9.7.13.4 Check Bearing Resistance
Factored bearing resistance is as:

Rsb r b Rsb n 1.01.4Apn Fys (AASHTO 6.10.11.2.3-1 and 6.10.11.2.3-2)
Assuming 1.5 in. cope on bearing stiffeners, the bearing area is:
A pn 2 8 1.51.875 24.375 in.2

Rsb r 1.01.424.37536 1,228.5 kips Ru 1,193 kips O.K.
Center of Bent 3 Bearing Stiffener

y-y
8"
x-x
16.625"
18"
0.625"
Web t /2 + 9t w t /2 + 9t w
Flange
13.125"
Figure 9.7.11 Bearing Stiffeners
9.7.13.5 Check Axial Resistance
According to AASHTO 6.10.11.2.4b, for stiffeners welded to the web, the

effective column section consists of stiffener plates and a centrally loaded strip of the
web extending not more than 9tw on each side of the stiffeners.
Stiffener area: Ast = (2)(8)(1.875) = 30 in.2

Aweb 18 tw t p t w 18 0.625 1.875 0.625
Web area:
13.125 0.625 8.20 in.2

Total effective column area: As 30 8.20 38.2 in.2

18 0.625 0.6253 1.875 2 8 0.625
3
I x x 718 in.4
12
I x x 718
rs 4.34 in.
As 38.2
Use effective length factor K = 0.75 for the weld end connection (AASHTO
6.10.11.2.4a), unbraced length for the bearing stiffeners l = D = 78 in.
Kl 0.75 78
13.5 120 O.K. (AASHTO 6.9.3)
rs 4.34
Axial resistance is calculated in accordance with AASHTO 6.9.4.1 as follows:
2E 2 29,000
Pe As 38.2 59,992.0 kips (AASHTO 6.9.4.1.2-1)
Kl
2
13.52

rs
Po QFys As 1.03638.2 1,375.2 kips (Q is taken equal to 1.0 for
bearing stiffeners in accordance with AASHTO 6.9.4.1.1)
Pe 59,992.0
43.62 0.44
Po 1,375.2
Po
1,375.2

Pe 59,992.0 1,375.2 1,362.1 kips
Pn 0.658 P
o 0.658

(AASHTO 6.9.4.1.1-1)
Pr c Pn 0.91,362.1 1,225.9 kips Ru 1,193 kips O.K.
Use two 1.875" 8" PL bearing stiffeners
9.7.13.6 Design Bearing Stiffener-to-Web Welds
Fillet welds are usually used for bearing stiffener-to-web connections.

According to AASHTO Table 6.13.3.4-1, the minimum size of fillet weld for thicker
plate thickness joined larger than 3/4 in. is 5/16 in., but need not exceed the thickness
of the thinner part joined. Try two fillet welds tw = 5/16 in. on each stiffener.
Shear resistance of fillet welds (AASHTO 6.13.3.2.4b) is

Rr 0.6 e2Fexx (AASHTO 6.13.3.2.4b-1)
Using E70XX weld metal, Fexx = 70 ksi.

Rr 0.6 e2Fexx 0.6 0.8 70 33.6 ksi
Total length of welds, allowing 2.5 inches for clips at both the top and bottom of
the stiffener, is:
L = 78 - 2(2.5) = 73 in.
Total shear resistance of welds connecting the bearing stiffeners to the web is:
Vr 4 0.707 tw L Rr
O.K.
4 0.707 0.3125 73 33.6 2,168 kips Vu 1,193 kips
Use two fillet welds tw = 3/8 in. on each stiffener
9.7.14 Design Intermediate Cross Frames

An intermediate cross frame consisting of single angles is selected as shown in
Figure 9.7-12.
Figure 9.7.12 A Typical Intermediate Cross Frame
9.7.14.1 Calculate Wind Load
Design wind pressure is determined as:

2
V V2
PD PB DZ PB DZ (AASHTO 3.8.1.2.1-1)
VB 10,000
PB base wind pressure 0.05 ksf (for beams) (AASHTO Table 3.8.1.2.1-1)
V Z
VDZ 2.5Vo 30 ln (AASHTO 3.8.1.1-1)
VB Zo
Assume the steel girder is 35 ft. above the low ground, and the bridge is located
in the suburban area, Z = 35 ft., Zo = 3.28 ft., Vo = 10.9 mph, V30 = VB = 100 mph
(AASHTO Table 3.8.1.1-1).

V Z 100 35
VDZ 2.5Vo 30 ln 2.5 10.9 ln 64.5 mph
VB Z o 100 3.28
V2 64.52
PD PB DZ 0.05 0.02 ksf
10, 000 10, 000
In this example, the midspan girder depth d = 80.75 in. = 6.73 ft, depth of deck
and barrier = 12.25 + 32 = 44.25 in. = 3.69 ft.
Wind load acting on the girder span is as:

WSgirder PD 3.69 6.73 0.0210.42 0.21 kip/ft 0.3 kip/ft
Use WSgirder = 0.3 kip/ft (AASHTO 3.8.1.2.1)
Wind load acting on the bottom flange is as:

WS girder d / 2 0.36.73 / 2 0.097 kip/ft
WSbf
3.69 6.73 10.42
Wind force acting on top flange (directly transmitted to the concrete deck)
Wtf 0.3 - 0.097 0.203 kip/ft
9.7.14.2 Check Flexural Resistance of Bottom Flange
For cross frame spacing, Lb = 27.5 ft, wind induced moment applied on the
bottom flange of the exterior girder is estimated as:
M WS
WSbf L2b

0.097 27.52 7.34 kip - ft (AASHTO C4.6.2.7.1-2)
10 10
For the smaller bottom flange, wind induced lateral stress is:
fl WS
M WS

7.34 12 0.93 ksi
t f b 2f /6 1.75 18 2 / 6
From CA Table 3.4.1, the load combinations Strength III and V are:
For Strength III: 1.25DC + 1.5DW + 1.4WS

For Strength V: 1.25DC + 1.5DW + 1.35DF(LL+IM)HL-93 +0.4WS
It is obvious that Strength V controls design. In this example, the section at 0.5
Point of Span 2 is checked. From Table 9.7-8, Factored moments about major axis of
the cross section are as:
MDC1 = 3,269 kip-ft; MDC2 = 269 kip-ft
MDW = 765 kip-ft; M(LL+IM)HL-93 = 1.35(0.805)(3,455) = 3,755 kip-ft

Mu = 3269 + 269 + 765 + 3,755 = 8,058 kip-ft
The factored lateral bending stress in the bottom flange due to wind load is:
fl 0.4 fl WS 0.4 0.93 0.37 ksi 0.6Fyf 30 ksi O.K.
(AASHTO 6.10.1.6-1)
At the strength limit state, the composite compact section in positive moment
regions shall satisfy the requirement as follows:
1
Mu fl S xt f M n (AASHTO 6.10.7.1.1-1)
3
where Sxt = Myt/Fyt
From Section 9.7.10.3, Myt = 15,287 kip-ft and Mn = 19,873 kip-ft

M yt 15, 287 12
S xt 3, 669 in.3
Fyt 50
f l S xt 8,058 0.37
1 1 3,669
Mu 8,096 kip - ft
3 3 12 O.K.
f M n 19,873 kip - ft
9.7.14.3 Calculate Forces Acting on the Cross Frame
In order to find forces acting in the cross frame members, a cross frame is treated
like a truss with tension diagonals only and solved using statics. The wind force in
the top strut is assumed zero because the diagonals will transfer the wind load
directly into the deck slab. The horizontal wind forces applied to the brace points are
assumed to be carried fully by the bottom strut in the exterior bays. Therefore, the
bottom strut in all bays will be conservatively designed for this force.
At Strength Limit III, factored wind force acting on the bottom strut is:
Pu 1.4WSbf Lb 1.40.09727.5 3.73 kips
Factored force acting on diagonals is:

3.73 3.73
Pu = 5.06 kips
cos 6 5.52 6 2

9.7.14.4 Design Bottom Strut
Select Section
Try L 661/2 as shown in Figure 9.7-13.
Ag = 5.77 in.2 ; Ix = Iy = 19.9 in.4; rx = ry = 1.86 in.
x = y = 1.67 in.; rz = 1.18 in. ; Tan = 1.0
Figure 9.7-13 Single Angle for Bottom Strut
Check Limiting Effective Slenderness Ratio

AASHTO 6.9.3 requires that the effective slenderness ratio, KL/r shall not
exceed 140 for compression bracing members. For buckling about minor principal
axis (Z-Z), using unbraced length Lz = 6 ft = 72 in. and effective length factor K = 1.0
for single angles regardless of end conditions (AASHTO 4.6.2.5), the effective
slenderness ratio is:
KLz

1.0 (72) 61 140 O.K.
rz 1.18
For out-plane buckling about vertical geometric axis (Y-Y), using unbraced length
Ly = 12 ft = 144 in. and effective length factor K = 1.0, the effective slenderness
ratio is:
KLy 1.0 (144)

77.4 140 O.K.
ry 1.86
Check Member Strength

Since a single angle member is connected through one leg only, the member is
subjected to combined flexural moments about principal axes due to eccentrically

applied axial load and axial compression. AASHTO Article 6.9.4.4 states that single
angles subjected to combined axial compression and flexure may be designed as
axially loaded compression members in accordance with AASHTO Articles 6.9.2.1,
6.9.4.1.1, and 6.9.4.1.2, as appropriate, using one of the effective slenderness ratios
specified by AASHTO Article 6.9.4.4, provided that: (1) end connections are to a
single leg of the angle, and are welded or use minimum two-bolt connections; (2)
angles are loaded at the ends in compression through the same one leg; and (3) there
are no intermediate transverse loads. It is obvious that the bottom strut meets those
three conditions and can be designed in accordance with AASHTO Article 6.9.4.4.
Determine Effective Slenderness Ratio
L (144)
For equal-leg angles that are individual members, 77 80
rx 1.86
KL
72 0.75 72 0.75
L 144
130 (AASHTO 6.9.4.4-1)
r eff rx 1.86
Determine Slender Element Reduction Factor, Q
b 6 E 29,000
12 k 0.45 12.8 (AASHTO 6.9.4.2.1-1)
t 0 .5 Fy 36
Q 1.0
Determine Nominal Axial Compression Strength
Axial resistance is calculated in accordance with AASHTO 6.9.4.1 as
follows:
2E 2 29,000
Pe A 5.77 97.72 kips (AASHTO 6.9.4.1.2-1)
KL
2 g
1302

rs eff
Po QFys As 1.0365.77 207.72 kips
Pe 97.72
0.47 0.44
Po 207.72
Po
207.72

Pe 97.72 207.72 85.33 kips
Pn 0.658 P 0.658
o

(AASHTO 6.9.4.1-1)
Check Compressive Strength
Pu 3.73 kips c Pn 0.985.33 76.70 kips O.K.

9.7.14.5 Design Diagonal
Select Section
Try L 445/16, Ag = 2.4 in.2 rmin = 0.781 in.
L = 5.5 6
2 2
= 8.14 ft. = 98 in.
Check Limiting Effective Slenderness Ratio

KL 1.098
123.0 140 OK (AASHTO 6.9.3)
rmin 0.791
Check Member Strength
A separate calculation similar to the above bottom strut design shows that
angle L 445/16 meets specification requirements.
9.7.14.6 Design Top Strut
Since the force in the top strut is assumed zero, we select an angle L 661/2 to
provide lateral stability to the top flange during construction and to design for 2
percent of the flange yield strength. Design calculation is similar with the above for
the bottom strut and is not illustrated here.
9.7.14.7 Design Connection of Bottom Strut
Determine Design Load
For end connections of diaphragms and cross frames in straight girder bridges,
AASHTO 6.13.1 requires that it shall be designed for the calculated member forces.
In this example, the connection of the bottom strut is designed for the calculated
member load, Pu = 3.73 kips.
Determine Number of Bolts Required

Select Bolts
Try A325 high-strength 3/4 in. diameter bolt with threads excluded from the
shear plane, with bolt spacing of 3 in. and edge distance of 1.75 in. For 3/4 in.
diameter bolts, minimum spacing of bolts is 3d = 2.25 in. (AASHTO
6.13.2.6.1) and minimum edge distance from center of standard hole to edge
of connected part is 1.25 in. for sheared edges (AASHTO Table 6.13.2.6.6-1).
Determine Nominal Resistance per Bolt
Calculate nominal shear resistance in single shear
Rn 0.48 Ab Fub Ns (AASHTO 6.13.2.7-1)

2
0.75
Ab 0.442 in.
2
2
Fub 120 ksi (AASHTO 6.4.3)
Ns = 1 (for single shear)
Rn 0.48Ab Fub Ns 0.48 0.4421201 25.5 kips (AASHTO 6.13.2.7-1)
Calculate the design bearing strength for each bolt on stiffener material
Since the clear edge distance, Lc = 1.75 (0.75 + 0.0625)/2 = 1.344 in. is less
than 2d = 1.5 in. and stiffener material is A709 Grade 36, Fu = 58 ksi.
Rn 1.2 Lc t Fu 1.21.3440.558 46.8 kips (AASHTO 6.13.2.9-2)
Determine design strength per bolt
It is obvious that shear controls and nominal shear resistance per bolt is 25.5
kips.

The number of bolts required is:
Pu 3.73
N 0.2 bolts
sRv 0.825.5
Use 2 bolts as shown in Figure 9.7-14.
Figure 9.7-14 Bottom Strut Connection

9.7.15 Design Bolted Field Splices
9.7.15.1 General Design Requirements
For flexural members, splices shall preferably be made at or near points of dead
load contraflexure in continuous spans and at points of the section change. AASHTO
6.13.6.1.4a states that bolted splices for flexural members shall be designed using
slip-critical connections as specified by AASHTO 6.13.2.1.1. The general design
requirements are:
Factored resistance of splices shall not be less than 100 percent of the smaller
factored resistances of the section spliced at the strength limit state (CA
6.13.1).
Slip shall be prevented at the service limit state II (AASHTO 6.13.2.1.1) and
during erection of the steel and during the casting or placing of the deck
(AASHTO 6.13.6.1.4a).
Base metal at the gross section shall be checked for Category B at the fatigue
limit state (AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1).
As shown in Figure 9.7-4, bolted field girder splices for Span 2 are located
approximately at 0.3 and 0.7 Points. In the following, the design of a bolted splice
(Figure 9.7-15) as a slip-critical connection at 0.7 Point will be illustrated. Oversized
or slotted holes shall not be used (AASHTO 6.13.6.1.4a). The hole diameter used in
calculation shall be 1/16 in. larger than the nominal diameter as shown in AASHTO
Table 6.13.2.4.2-1.
9.7.15.2 Design Bottom Flange Splices
Try one outer splice plate 1 in. 18 in., two inner plates 1-1/8 in. 8 in. and one
fill plate in. 18 in. as shown in Figure 9.7-16.
Try A325 high-strength d = 7/8 in. bolt threads excluded with bolt spacing of 3
in. and edge distance of 2 in. For 7/8 in. diameter bolts, the minimum spacing of bolts
is 3d = 2.625 in. (AASHTO 6.13.2.6.1) and minimum edge distance from center of
standard hole to edge of connected part is 1.5 in. for sheared edges (AASHTO Table
6.13.2.6.6-1). The standard hole size for a d = 7/8 in. bolt is 0.9375 in. (AASHTO
Table 13.2.4.2-1).
Determine Number of Bolts Required Strength Limit States

Determine Design Forces
Fcf f Fyf (CA 6.13.6.1.4c-1)
Pcu Ae Fcf Aef Fyf (AASHTO 6.13.6.1.4c)
where Ae is the smaller effective area for the flange on either side of the
splice.

Figure 9.7-15 Bolted Field Girder Splice
F
Ae u u An Ag (AASHTO 6.13.6.1.4c-2)
y Fyt

= 1.0 except that a lower value equal to (Fn/Fyf) may be used.
Try 4 7/8 in. diameter/row for the flange splices. For smaller flange, we
have:
An 18 4 0.9375 1.75 24.94 in.2
Ag 181.75 31.5 in.2
An 0.865 24.94 27.30 in.2 Ag 31.5 in.2

F
Ae u u 0.9550
f Fyt

Use Ae = 27.30 in.2
Pcu Ae f Fyf 27.301.01.050 1,365.0 kips

= 15/16
Lc = 2.0625
Lc = 1.41
Figure 9.7-16 Bottom Flange Splice

When the length between the extreme fasteners measured parallel to the line
of action of the force is less than 50 in. the nominal shear resistance for an
A325 7/8 in. diameter bolt is:
Rn 0.48Ab Fub Ns (AASHTO 6.13.2.7-1)
Ab 0.875 / 2 0.6 in.2
2
Fub 120 ksi (AASHTO 6.4.3.1)

Ns = 2 (for double shear)
Rn 0.48 0.6120 2 69.1 kips
Since the clear end distance Lc = 1.875 0.469 =1.41 in. < 2d = 1.75 in.
(Figure 9.7-16), the nominal bearing resistance for each bolt hole on flange
material is:
Rn 1.2Lct Fu (AASHTO 6.13.2.9-2)
Rn 1 .2 1 .411 .75 65 192 .5 kips

It is obvious that shear resistance controls and design resistance per bolt is
69.1 kips.
Evaluate Fill Plate Effects

AASHTO 6.13.6.1.5 specifies that fillers inch and thicker need not be
extended and developed provided that the factored shear resistance of the
bolts at the strength limit state is reduced by the reduction factor R.
R

1 A f / Ap (AASHTO 6.13.6.1.5-1)
1 2 A f / Ap
Af = sum of area of the fillers on the top and bottom of the connected
plate
Ap = smaller of either the connected plate area or the sum of the splice
plate area on the top and bottom of the connected plate
Af 0.2518 4.5 in.2
1.7518 31.5 in.2
Ap smaller of 31.5 in.
2
2 1.125 8 118 36.0 in.

2
R

1 A f / Ap

1 4.5 / 31.5
0.889

1 2 A f / Ap 1 2 4.5 / 31.5

The number of bolts required is:
Pcu 1,365.0
N 27.78 bolts
s R Rn 0.80.88969.1
Use 28 bolts as shown in Figure 9.7-16.
Check Slip Resistance of Bolts Service Limit State II and Constructibility

AASHTO 6.13.2.1.1 and 6.13.6.1.4a require that the bolted connections shall be
proportioned to prevent slip at the service limit state II and during erection of the
steel and during the casting or placing of the deck.
Determine Factored Moments
For the Service II, factored moment at 0.7 Point of Span 2 is obtained from
Table 9.7-13.
M u 1, 434 118 280 2,784 4,616 kip - ft
M u 1, 434 118 280 1,094 738 kip - ft

For constructibility, factored dead load moment during the casting of the
deck at 0.7 Point of Span 2 is obtained as:
M DL 1.0 1, 434 1, 434 kip - ft
It is clear that the Service II moment governs the design.

Check Slip Resistance
Assume a non-composite section conservatively at the splice location and use
the smaller section property for the bottom flange SNCb = 2,837 in.3 (Table
9.7-15).
fs M /S 4,616 12 / 2,837
Fs u NCb 19.28 ksi
Rh Rh 1.0
Ru Fs Ag 19.2831.5 607.3 kips
Nominal slip resistance per bolt is:
Rn Kh Ks Ns Pt (AASHTO 6.13.2.8-1)
where Kh is hole size factor and is equal to 1.0 for the standard hole
(AASHTO Table 6.13.2.8-2); Ks is surface condition factor and is taken 0.5
for Class B surface condition (AASHTO Table 6.13.2.8-3); Pt is minimum
required bolt tension and is equal to 39 kips (AASHTO Table 6.13.2.8-1).
According to AASHTO 6.13.2.2, factored slip resistance of 28 bolts is:
Rr = Rn = (1.0)(0.5)(2)(39)(28)= 1,092 kips > Ru = 607.3 kips O.K.
Check Tensile Resistance of Splice Plates

Since areas of the inner and outer plates are the same, the flange design force is
assumed to be divided equally to the inner and outer plates. In the following, splice
plates are checked for yielding on the gross section, fracture on the net section, and
block shear rupture (AASHTO 6.13.5.2).
Yielding on Gross Section
Ag 181.0 2 81.125 36 in.2
Rr y Ag Fyf 0.95 3650 1,710.0 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-1)
Rr 1,710.0 kips Pcu 1,365.0 kips O.K.

Fracture on Net Section
Inner plates:
An 2 8 2 0.9375 1.125 13.78 in.2

Rr u Fu AnU 0.8 65 13 .78 1 .0 715 .0 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-2)
P 1,365.0
Rr 715.0 kips cu 682.5 kips O.K.
2 2

Outer plate:
An 18 4 0.9375 1.0 14.25 in.2

Rr u Fu AnU 0 .8 65 14 .25 1.0 741 .0 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-2)
P
2
Block Shear Rupture
Assume bolt holes are drilled full size, reduction factor for hole, Rp is taken
equal to 1.0 (AASHTO 6.13.4). For flange splice plates, reduction factor for
block shear rupture, Ubs is taken equal to 1.0 (AASHTO 6.13.4). Bolt pattern
and block shear rupture failure planes on the inner and outer splice plates are
shown in Figure 9.7-17.
Inner plates:
Atn 2 6 1.5 1.00.9375 10.34 in.2

Avn 2 20 6.5 0.93751.125 31.29 in.2
Avg 2 20 1.125 45.0 in.2
Fu Avn 6531.29 2,033.9 kips Fy Avg 5045.0 2,250.0 kips

Rr bs R p 0.58Fu Avn U bs Fu Atn
0.8 1.00.586531.29 1.06510.34 1,481.4 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
P
Rr 1,481.4 kips cu 682.5 kips O.K.
2
Outer plate:
Atn 2 6 1.5 0.9375 1.0 9.19 in.2

Avn 2 20 6.5 0.9375 1.0 27.81 in.2
Avg 2 20 1.0 40.0 in.2

0.8 1.00.586527.81 1.0659.19 1,316.6 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
Pcu
Rr 1,316.6 kips 682.5 kips O.K.
2

Figure 9.7-17 Block Shear Rupture - Bottom Flange Splice Plates
Check Fracture on Net Section and Block Shear Rupture for Flange
Since the design force is actually based on fracture resistance on the net
section, there is no need to check.
Block Shear Rupture
Bolt pattern and block shear rupture failure planes on the bottom flange are
assumed in Figure 9.7-18.
Figure 9.7-18 Block Shear Rupture Bottom Flange

Atn 2 6 1.5 0.9375 1.75 16.08 in.2

Avn 2 19.875 6.5 0.9375 1.75 48.23 in.2
Avg 2 19.8751.75 69.56 in.2

0.8 1.00.586548.23 1.06516.08 2,290.8 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
Rr 2,290.8 kips Pcu 1,365.0 kips O.K.
Check Fatigue for Splice Plates

Fatigue stress ranges in base metal of the bottom flange splice plates adjacent to
the slip-critical connections are checked for Category B (AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-
1). Fatigue normally does not govern the design of splice plates when combined area
of inner and outer splice plates is larger than the area of the smaller flange spliced.
The fatigue moment ranges at 0.7 Point of Span 2 are obtained from Tables 9.7-11
and 9.7-12. The nominal fatigue resistance is calculated in Table 6.8.2 in Chapter 6.
The flexural stresses at the edges of the splice plates are assumed to be the same as
the flexural stresses in the girder at those locations. The gross section of the smaller
girder section is used to calculate the stresses. Properties of the steel section alone are
used conservatively. For the smaller spliced section (Table 9.7-15), SNCb = 2,837 in.3
M 1,44012
f
S NCb 2,837
6.09 ksi 16.0 ksi O.K. for Category B

M 2,396 12
f
S NCb 2,837
9.7.15.3 Design Top Flange Splices
Try one outer splice plate 5/8 in. 18 in., two inner plates 3/4 in. 8 in., and one
fill plate 1 in. 18 in. as shown in Figure 9.7-19.
As the same as the bottom flange, try A325 high-strength d = 7/8 in. bolt threads
excluded with bolt spacing of 3 in. and edge distance of 2 inches.

Figure 9.7-19 Top Flange Splice
Determine Number of Bolts Required Strength Limit State

Determine Design Forces
Try 4 7/8 in. diameter/row for the flange splices. For the smaller flange,
we have:
An 18 4 0.9375 1.0 14.25 in.2
Ag 181.0 18 in.2
An 0.865 14.25 15.60 in.2 Ag 18 in.2

F
Ae u u 0.9550
y Fyt

(AASHTO 6.13.6.1.4c-2)
Use Ae = 15.60 in.2
Pcu Ae f Fyf 15.601.01.050 780.0 kips

As calculated in Section 9.7.15.2, the nominal shear resistance per
A325 7/8 in. diameter bolt in double shear is:

Rn 69.1 kips
The nominal bearing resistance for each bolt hole on flange material is:
For exterior hole: Lc 1.875 0.469 1.41 in.
Rn 1.2 1.411 .0 65 110 .0 kips
It is obvious that shear resistance controls and design resistance per bolt is
69.1 kips.
Evaluate Fill Plate Effects

AASHTO 6.13.6.1.5 specifies that fillers inch and thicker need not be
extended and developed provided that the factored shear resistance of the
bolts at the strength limit state is reduced by the reduction factor R:
R

1 A f / Ap (AASHTO 6.13.6.1.5-1)

1 2 A f / Ap
Af 1.018 18 in.2
1.0 18 18 in.2
Ap smaller of 18 in.
2
20.758 0.62518 23.25 in.
2
R

1 A f / Ap 1 18 / 18 0.667
1 2 A f / Ap 1 2 18 / 18
The number of bolts required is
Pcu 780.0
N 21.5 bolts;
s R Rn 0.80.66769.1
N is only 5.8% over 20 bolts shown in Figure 9.7-19, say O.K for this
example. However, engineer should redesign the top flange splices for actual
projects.
Check Slip Resistance of Bolts Service Limit State II and Constructibility

From Section 9.7.15.2, the moment at Service II is 1,773 kip-ft. Assume non-
composite section conservatively at the splice location and use the smaller section
property for the top flange SNCt = 2,193 in.3 (Table 9.7-15). Slip force is calculated as
follows:
f M /S 4,616 12 / 2,193
Fs s u NCb 25.26 ksi (CA 6.13.6.1.4c-5)
Rh Rh 1.0
Ru Fs Ag 25.2618 454.7 kips

Nominal slip resistance per bolt is:

Rn Kh Ks Ns Pt (AASHTO 6.13.2.8-1)
Slip resistance of 20 bolts is:
Rr Rn 1 .0 0 .5 2 39 20 780 .0 kips Ru 454 .7 kips O.K.
Check Tensile Resistance of Splice Plates
Since areas of the inner and outer plates differ less than 10%, the flange design
force is assumed to be divided equally to the inner and outer plates. In the following,
splice plates are checked for yielding on the gross section, fracture on the net section,
and block shear rupture (AASHTO 6.13.5.2).
Yielding on Gross Section
Ag 18 0.625 2 8 0.75 23.25 in.2

Rr y Ag Fyf 0.95 23.25 50 1,104.4 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-1)
Rr 1,104 .4 kips Pcu 780 .0 kips O.K.

Inner plates:
An 2 8 2 0.9375 0.75 9.19 in.2

Rr u Fu AnU 0 .8 65 9.19 1 .0 477 .9 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-2)
P 780.0
2 2
Outer plate:
An 18 4 0.9375 0.625 8.91 in.2

Rr u Fu AnU 0 .8 65 8 .911 .0 463 .3 kips (AASHTO 6.8.2.1-2)
P
2
Block Shear Rupture
The bolt pattern and block shear rupture failure planes on the inner and outer
splice plates are assumed in Figure 9.7-20.
Inner Plates:
Atn 2 6 1.5 0.9375 0.75 6.89 in.2

Avn 2 14 4.5 0.9375 0.75 14.67 in.2
Avg 2 14 0.75 21.0 in.2

Fu Avn 6514.67 953.6 kips Fy Avg 5021.0 1,050.0 kips

0.8 1.00.586514.67 1.0656.89 800.7 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
Pcu
Rr 800.7 kips 390.0 kips O.K.
2
Figure 9.7-20 Block Shear Rupture Top Flange Splice Plates
Outer plate:
Atn 2 6 1.5 0.9375 0.625 5.74 in.2
Avn 2 14 4.5 0.9375 0.625 12.23 in.2
Avg 2 14 0.625 17.5 in.2
Fu Avn 6512.23 795.0 kips Fy Avg 5017.5 875.0 kips
0.8 1.00.586512.23 1.0655.74 667.3 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
P
2

Check Fracture on Net Section and Block Shear Rupture for Flange
Since the design force is actually based on fracture resistance on the net
section, there is no need to check.
Block Shear Rupture
Figure 9.7-21 Block Shear Rupture Top Flange
Atn 2 6 1.5 0.9375 1.0 9.19 in.2

Avn 2 13.875 4.5 0.9375 1.0 19.31 in.2
Avg 2 14 1.0 28.0 in.2
0.8 1.00.586519.31 1.0659.19 1,060.3 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
Rr 1,060.3 kips Pcu 780.0 kips O.K.
Check Fatigue for Splice Plates
Fatigue stress ranges in base metal of the top flange splice plates adjacent to the
slip-critical connections are checked for Category B (AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1).
The fatigue moment ranges at 0.7 Point are obtained from Tables 9.7-11 and 9.7-12.
The nominal fatigue resistance is calculated in Table 9.7-25. The flexural stresses at
the edges of the splice plates are assumed to be the same as the flexural stresses in the
girder at those locations. Gross section of the smaller girder section is used to
calculate the stresses. Properties of the steel section alone are used conservatively.
For the smaller spliced section (Table 9.7-15), SNCt = 2,193 in.3.


M 1,440 12
f
S NCt 2,193
M 2,39612
f
S NCb 2,193
9.7.15.4 Design Web Splices
Try two 7/16 in. 64 in. web splice plates and A325 high-strength d = 7/8 in.
bolt threads excluded with bolt spacing of 3 in. as shown in Figure 9.7-15.
Ag 2 0.4375 64 56 in.2
Check Bolt Shear Resistance - Strength Limit States

Calculate Design Forces
The design forces for a web splice are shown in Figure 9.7-22.
(1) Shear Vuw vVn (CA 6.13.6.1.4b-1)
From Section 9.7.11.4, Vuw vVn 843.6 kips

(2) Moment induced by eccentrically loaded shear
M vw Vuw e 843.65.0 4,218 kip - in.
(3) Moment resisted by the web
Case I Positive Bending
At the strength limit state, the smaller section at the point of splice is a
composite compact section.
tw Fyw
M uw f D 2 4 yo2 (CA C6.13.6.1.4b-1a)
4
yo is distance from the mid-depth of the web to the plastic neutral axis. From
Section 9.7.10.3, since the plastic neutral axis is located in the top flange
(Figure 9.7-7), yo = dw = 39.5 in. > D/2 = 39 in. and all the web is in tension,
Equation CA-C6.13.6.1.4b-1a is no longer valid and Muw = 0.
Case II Negative Bending
At the strength limit state, the smaller section at the point of splice is a
noncompact section.

Figure 9.7-22 Design Forces for Web Splices
M uw f
tw D 2
12
Fnc Fyw (CA C6.13.6.1.4b-1b)
For bottom flange, assume Fnc = Fyf = Fyw = 50 ksi conservatively
M uw f
tw D 2

Fnc Fyw 1.0
0.625782 50 50
12 12
31,687.5 kip - in.
(4) Horizontal force resultant in the web
Since the whole web is in tension, Equation CA C6.13.6.1.4b-2a is no longer
valid. Use the following:

Huw f tw DFyw 1.0 0.625 78 50 2,437.5 kips

Assume Fnc = Fyf = Fyw = 50 ksi, we have:

tw D 2
H uw f
2

Fyw Fnc 0 (CA C6.13.6.1.4b-2b)
(5) Web design forces

Total moment M u M uw M vw 0 4,218 4,218 kip - in.
Horizontal force Huw 2,437.5 kips
Vertical shear Vuw 843.6 kips

Total moment M u M uw M vw 31,687.5 4,218 35,906 kip - in.
Horizontal force Huw 0
Vertical shear Vuw 843.6 kips
As calculated in Section 9.7.15.2, the nominal shear resistance per

A325 7/8 in. diameter bolt in double shear is:
Rn 69.1kips
The nominal bearing resistance for each bolt hole on web material is:
For exterior hole: Lc 1.875 0.469 1.41 in.
Rn 1.2 1 .410 .625 65 68 .7 kips
It is obvious that bearing resistance controls and nominal resistance per bolt
is 68.7 kips. It is noted that AASHTO 6.13.2.7 specifies that the nominal
shear resistance of a fastener in connections greater than 50 in. in length shall
be taken 0.8 times the value given by AASHTO 6.13.2.7-1 and 6.13.2.7-2.
Although the vertical length of web splices is greater than 50 in., shear
resistance of the bolt is not reduced because the resultant shear applied to the
bolts is mainly induced by horizontal force.
Calculate Polar Moment of Inertia Ip of Bolts With Respect to Neutral Axis

of Web Section
It can be seen that the upper and lower right corner bolts are the most highly
stressed and will be investigated. The Vector method is used to calculate
shear force R on the top right bolt.

I p x2 y2

2 3 30 2 27 2 24 2 212 182 152 12 2 9 2 6 2 32
2 213 21,168 in.
2 2
Check Shear Resistance of Lower Right Corner Bolt

Case I - Positive Bending
Factored shear force applied on the lower right corner bolt is:
Mu y 4, 218 30
Rx 5.98 kips ( )
Ip 21,168
Mu x 4, 218 3
Ry 0.60 kips ()
Ip 21,168
Vuw 843.6
Rv 13.39 kips ()
3 21 63
H uw 2, 437.5
Rh 38.69 kips ( )

3 21 63
Rbolt Rh
Rx 2 Rv R y 2
38.69 5.982 13.39 0.62
46.81 kips bb Rn 0.868.7 54.96 kips O.K.
Case II - Negative Bending
Factored shear forces applied on the lower right corner bolt is:
M y 35,906 30
Rx u 50.89 kips ( )
Ip 21,168
Mu x 35,906 3
Ry 5.09 kips ()
Ip 21,168
Vuw 843.6
Rv 13.39 kips ( )
3 21 63
H uw
Rh 0
3 21
Rbolt Rh
Rx 2 Rv R y 2
0 50.892 13.39 5.092
54.14 kips bb Rn 0.868.7 54.96 kips
O.K.

Check Slip of Bolts Service Limit State II and Constructability

Determine Factored Moment and Shear
From Section 9.7.15.2, factored moment at 0.7 Point of Span 2 at Service II
is:
M u 1, 434 118 280 2,784 4,616 kip - ft
From Table 9.7-2, it is obtained

Vu VDC1 VDC 2 VDW 1.3DFv LL IM HL 93
68.8 5.6 13.4 1.31.082 92.7 218.2 kips
Moment due to eccentrically loaded shear is:
M vu Vu e 218.25 1,091.0 kip - in.
Moment resisted by the web at Service II
tw D 2
M uw f s fos (CA C6.13.6.1.4b-1c)
12
fs is maximum flexural stress due to Service II at the extreme fiber of the
flange and fos is flexural stress due to Service II at the extreme fiber of the
other flange concurrent with fs. Assume non-composite section at the splice
location, we have
Mu 4,61612
fs 25.26 ksi (Compression)
S NCt 2,193
Mu 4,61612
f os 19.52 ksi (Tension)
S NCb 2,837
tw D 2
M uw f s f os
12

0.625782 25.26 19.52 14,189.7 kips - in.
12
Horizontal force at web
H uw
tw D
f s fos
2
(CA C6.13.6.1.4b-2c)

0.62578 25.26 19.52 139.9 kips
2
Calculate Factored Shear Forces Applied on Upper Right Corner Bolt
Rx
M vw M uw y
1,091.0 14,189.7 30 21.66 kips ()
Ip 21,168

Ry
M vw M uw x
1,091.0 14,189.7 3 2.17 kips ()
Ip 21,168
Vu 218.2
Rv 3.46 kips ( )
321 63
H uw 139.9
Rh 2.22 kips ( )
321 63
Ru Rh
Rx 2 Rv R y 2
2.22 21.662 3.46 2.17 2
24.53 kips
Check Slip Resistance
From Section 9.7.15.2, slip resistance of one bolt is:

Rr Rn 1 .0 0 .5 2 39 39 .0 kips Ru 24 .53 kips O.K.
Check Splice Plates

Check Shear Resistance
(1)Yielding on the gross section:

Vr v 0.58 A g Fw 1.0 0.58 2 0.4375 64 50 O.K.
1,624 kips Vuw 843.6 kips
(2) Fracture on net section:
An 2 64 21 0.9375 0.4375 38.77 in.2

Vr u 0.58 Fu An 0.80.58 65 38.77 O.K.
1,169 .3 kips Vuw 843 .6 kips
(3) Block shear rupture
Atn 2 8 2.5 0.9375 0.4375 4.95 in.2
Avn 2 62 20.5 0.9375 0.4375 37.43 in.2

Avg 2 62 0.4375 54.25 in.2


0.8 1.00.586537.43 1.0504.95 1,326.9 kips
(AASHTO 6.13.4-1)
Rr 1,326.9 kips Vuw 843.6 kips O.K.
Check Flexural Resistance
Moment of inertia of the splice plates about N.A. of the web section is:
0.4375 64 3
I w 2 19,115 in.4
12

M C 4,218 32
fb u 7.06 ksi Fy 50 ksi O.K.
I sp 19,115
Figure 9.7-23 Block Shear Rupture Web Splice Plates
Check Fatigue Stress Ranges
From AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1, Category B shall be used for base metal at the
gross section of the high-strength bolted slip-critical resistant section. Similar
assumptions used for flange splices are used for the web splice plates. Flexural stress
ranges at the web splice plates are induced by the positive-negative fatigue moments
and moments due to the eccentricity of the fatigue shear forces from the centerline of
the splices to the center of gravity of the web-splice bolt group. Positive moments are
assumed to be applied to the short-term composite section and negative moments are
assumed to be applied to the steel section alone in the splice location. Eccentric

moments of the fatigue shear forces are assumed to be applied to the gross section of
the web splice plates. For the smaller spliced section, INC = 99,872 in.4 (Table 9.7-
15), and IST = 275,267 in.4 (Table 9.7-17). Refer to Tables 9.7-15 and 9.7-17, and
Figure 9.7-22, at the locations of the edges of the web splice plates, elastic section
modulus for the short-term composite section, the steel section, and the web splice
plates are calculated as follows:
I ST 275,267 275,267
SST wb 4,606 in.3
Csplicebot
ySTb tbf 7
68.511.75 7
I ST 275,267 275,267
SST wt 64,921 in.3
Csplicetop ySTt ttf 7 12.24 1.0 7
I NC 99,872 99,872
S NC wb 3,776 in.3
Csplicebot yNCb tbf 7 35.2 1.75 7
I NC 99,872 99,872
S NC wt 2,660 in.3
Csplicetop yNCT ttf 7 45.55 1.0 7
S w splice 2
0.4375642
597 in.3
6
It is seen that the bottom edge of the web splice plate obviously controls design
and is, therefore, checked. Flexural stress ranges due to fatigue moments (Tables 9.7-
11 and 9.7-12) and eccentric moments of the fatigue shear forces (Tables 9.7-11 and
9.7-12) are:
f
M

M

V V e
S ST wb S NT wb S w splice

1,042 12

39812 16.5 60.85
4,606 3,776 597
2.71 1.26 0.65 4.62 ksi 16.0 ksi O.K. for Category B
f
M

M

V V e
S ST wb S NT wb S w splice

1,69312
70312 21.1 97.95
4,606 3,776 597
4.41 2.23 1.00 7.64 ksi 30.15 ksi O.K. for Category B

9.7.16 Calculate Deflection and Camber
9.7.16.1 Determine Stiffness of Girders
AASHTO 2.5.2.6.2 specifies that for composite design, the stiffness of the design
cross-section used for the determination of deflection should include the entire width
of the roadway and the structurally continuous portions of the railing, sidewalks, and
median barriers. AASHTO C6.10.1.5 states that the stiffness properties of the steel
section alone for the loads applied to noncomposite sections, the stiffness properties
of the long-term composite section for permanent loads applied to composite sections
and the stiffness properties of the short-term composite section properties for
transient loads, shall be used over the entire bridge length, respectively.
In this example, section properties of the steel section alone, the short-term
section and the long-term composite sections are calculated in Tables 9.7-15 to 9.7-
18, and Tables 9.7-21 to 9.7-24.
9.7.16.2 Calculate Vehicular Load Deflections
AASHTO 2.5.2.6.2 specifies that the maximum absolute deflection of the straight
girder systems should be based on all design lanes loaded by HL93 including
dynamic load allowance (Service I load combination) and all supporting components
deflected equally.
Number of traffic lanes = (deck width - barrier width)/12

= [58 - 2(1.42)]/12 = 4.596
Number of design traffic lanes = 4
For this five-girder bridge, each girder will carry 0.8 design traffic lane equally.
Assume that the exterior girders have the same section properties as the interior
girders, and use properties of the short-term composite sections of interior girder as
shown in Tables 9.7-17 and 9.7-18, vehicular live load deflections are calculated and
listed in Table 9.7-27. Comparisons with the AASHTO 2.5.2.6.2 requirement of the
vehicular load deflection limit L/800 are also made in Table 9.7-27.
Table 9.7-27 Live Load Deflections for Interior Girder
Span L Vehicular Load AASHTO Deflection Check

(ft) Deflection (in.) Limit L/800 (in.)
1 110 0.211 1.650 O.K.
2 165 0.305 2.475 O.K
3 125 0.468 1.875 O.K.

9.7.16.3 Calculate Camber
Camber of a structural member is defined as the difference between the shape of

the member (the final geometric profile/grade of the member) under full dead load
and normal temperature, and its shape at the no-load condition and shop temperature
as discussed in MTD 12-3 (Caltrans, 2004b). For a steel-concrete composite girder,
camber is the curvature/deformation induced by a fabrication process to compensate
for dead load deflections.
Camber of a steel-concrete composite girder includes three components: Deck

Slab Dead Load, Steel Girder Dead Load, and Added Dead Load. Each camber
component has the same magnitude and opposite direction with its respective
deflection component.
Deck Slab Dead Load and Steel Girder Dead Load deflections are due to the
weight of the deck slab, stay-in-place deck form and steel girder, respectively. For
unshored construction, it is assumed that all deck concrete is placed at once and deck
slab dead load and steel girder dead load are applied to the steel girder section alone
(Tables 9.7-15 and 9.7-21). An additional 10% more deflection shall be added to the
deck slab dead load deflection to consider deflection induced by concrete shrinkage
effects as specified in MTD 12-3 (Caltrans, 2004b). Added Dead Load deflection is
due to weight of the curb, railing, utilities, and future AC overlay. Added dead load is
applied to the long-term composite section girder (Tables 9.7-18 and 9.7-24).
Camber diagram for each girder shall be presented in the design plan. Figure 9.7-
24 shows the camber diagram of the interior girder.
C Abut 1 C Bent 2 C Bent

Bent2 3 C Abut 34
1/4 1/2 3/4 1/4 1/2 3/4 1/4 1/2 3/4

4 Equal Spaces 4 Equal Spaces 4 Equal Spaces
Ordinates Span 1 Span 2 Span 3

Camber Component 1/4 1/2 3/4 1/4 1/2 3/4 1/4 1/2 3/4
Interior Deck Slab Dead Load (in.) 0.34 0.33 0.03 1.12 1.86 1.05 0.30 0.83 0.75
Girder Steel Girder Dead Load (in.) 0.12 0.11 0.02 0.41 0.70 0.38 0.10 0.31 0.28
Added Dead Load (in.) 0.03 0.06 0.00 0.11 0.42 0.11 0.03 0.16 0.07
Total Camber (in.) 0.49 0.50 0.05 1.64 2.98 1.54 0.43 1.30 1.10
Figure 9.7-24 Camber Diagram of Interior Girder

9.7.17 Identify and Designate Steel Bridge Members and Components
It is the bridge designers responsibility to identify Fracture Critical Members

(FCMs), Main Members, Secondary Members and Primary Components of
Main Members in designing a new steel bridge and to designate or tabulate them
explicitly on the contract documents (plans and/or special provisions). MTD 12-2
(Caltrans 2012) provides guidelines for identification of steel members for steel
bridges. Figure 9.7-25 shows the member designations of steel girders for this
bridge.
Notes:
T Denotes Main Tension Member (Non-Fracture Critical Member)
C Denotes Main Compression Member
Primary Components of Main Members flanges, webs, splice plates and cover plates,
longitudinal stiffeners, bearing stiffeners and connection stiffeners
Secondary Members All members not designated as T, or C
Figure 9.7-25 Member Designations

NOTATION
A = fatigue detail category constant

ADTT = average daily truck traffic in one direction over the design life
ADTTS L = single lane ADTT life
Ae = effective area (in.2)
An = net cross section area (in.2)
Arb = reinforcement area of bottom layer in concrete deck slab (in.2)
Art = reinforcement area of top layer in concrete deck slab (in.2)
Atg = gross area along the cut carrying tension stress in block shear (in.2)
Atn = net area along the cut carrying tension stress in block shear (in.2)
Avg = gross area along the cut carrying shear stress in block shear (in.2)
Atn = net area along the cut carrying shear stress in block shear (in.2)
bc = width of compression steel flange (in.)
bf = full width of the flange (in.)
bfc = full width of a compression flange (in.)
bft = full width of a tension flange (in.)
bs = width of concrete deck slab (in.)
bt = width of tension steel flange (in.)
C = ratio of the shear-buckling resistance to the shear yield strength;
D = web depth (in.)
Dcp = web depth in compression at the plastic moment (in.)
Dp = distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the composite
sections at the plastic moment (in.)
d = total depth of the steel section (in.)
do = transverse stiffener spacing (in.)
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DC1 = structural dead load, acting on the non-composite section
DC2 = nonstructural dead load, acting on the long-term composite section

DFm = live load distribution factor for moments

DFv = live load distribution factor for shears
DW = dead load of wearing surface
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (ksi)
Fcrw = nominal bend-buckling resistance of webs (ksi)
Fexx = classification strength specified of the weld metal
Fyc = specified minimum yield strength of a compression flange (ksi)
Fyr = compression-flange stress at the onset of nominal yielding including residual
stress effects, taken as the smaller of 0.7Fyc and Fyw but not less than 0.5Fyc (ksi)
Fyrb = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcement of bottom layers (ksi)
Fyrt = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcement of top layers (ksi)
Fys = specified minimum yield strength of a stiffener (ksi)
Fyw = specified minimum yield strength of a web (ksi)
f c = specified minimum concrete strength (ksi)
fbu = flange stress calculated without consideration of the flange lateral bending (ksi)
fos = flexural stress due to Service II at the extreme fiber of the other flange concurrent
with fs (ksi)
fl = flange lateral bending stress (ksi)
fc = longitudinal compressive stress in concrete deck without considering flange
lateral bending (ksi)
fs = maximum flexural stress due to Service II at the extreme fiber of the flange (ksi)
fsr = fatigue stress range (ksi)
I = moment of inertia of a cross section (in.4)
IST = moment of inertia of the transformed short-term composite section (in.4)
It = moment of inertia for the transverse stiffener taken about the edge in contact with
the web for single stiffeners and about the mid-thickness of the web for stiffener
pairs (in.4)

Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange about the vertical axis in the plane
of web (in.4)
Iyt = moment of inertia of the tension flange about the vertical axis in the plane of web
(in.4)
K = effective length factor of a compression member
Ka = surface condition factor
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter
Kh = hole size factor
Lp = limiting unbraced length to achieve RbRhFyc (in.)
Lr = limiting unbraced length to onset of nominal yielding (in.)
MAD = additional live load moment to cause yielding in either steel flange applied to the
short-term composite section (kip- in.)
MD1 = moment due to factored permanent loads applied to the steel section alone (kip-
in.)
MD2 = moment due to factored permanent loads such as wearing surface and barriers
applied to the long-term composite section (kip-in.)
Mp = plastic moment (kip-in.)
My = yield moment (kip-in.)
N = number of cycles of stress ranges; number of bolts
Nb = number of girders
NTH = minimum number of stress cycles corresponding to constant-amplitude fatigue
threshold, (F)TH
n = number of stress-range cycles per truck passage
p = fraction of truck traffic in a single lane
Q = first moment of transformed short-term area of the concrete deck about the
neutral axis of the short-term composite section (in.3)
Qi = force effect
Rh = hybrid factor
Rn = nominal resistance

Rp = reduction factor for hole

S = girder spacing (in.); elastic section modulus (in.3)
SLT = elastic section modulus for long-term composite sections, respectively (in.3)
SNC = elastic section modulus for steel section alone (in.3)
SST = elastic section modulus for short-term composite section (in.3)
Sxt = elastic section modulus about the major axis of the section to the tension flange
taken as Myt/Fyt (in.3)
tc = thickness of compression steel flange (in.)
tf = thickness of the flange (in.)
tfc = thickness of a compression flange (in.)
tft = thickness of a tension flange (in.)
tt = thickness of tension steel flange (in.)
tw = thickness of web (in.)
ts = thickness of concrete deck slab (in.)
Ubs = reduction factor for block shear rupture
U = reduction factor to account for shear lag
Vcr = shear-buckling resistance (kip)
Vn = nominal shear resistance (kip)
Vp = plastic shear force (kip)
f = slenderness ratio for compression flange = bfc/2tfc
pf = limiting slenderness ratio for a compact flange
rf = limiting slenderness ratio for a noncompact flange
i = load factor
D = ductility factor
R = redundancy factor
I = operational factor
(F)TH = constant-amplitude fatigue threshold (ksi)
(F)n = fatigue resistance (ksi)
f = resistance factor for flexure
c = resistance factor for axial compression
u = resistance factor for tension, fracture in net section

y = resistance factor for tension, yielding in gross section

b = resistance factor for bearing on milled surfaces
bb = resistance factor for bolt bearing on material
sc = resistance factor for shear connector
bs = resistance factor for block shear rupture
s = resistance factor for bolts in shear
e2 = resistance factor for shear in throat of weld metal in fillet weld
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary US Units,
Washington, DC.
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. Azizinamini, A., (2007). Development of a Steel Bridge System Simple for Dead Load
and Continuous for Live Load, Volume 1: Analysis and Recommendations, National
Bridge Research Organization, Lincoln, NE.
4. Barker, R. M. and Puckett, J. A., (2013). Design of Highway Bridges - Based on

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, NY.
5. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

Specifications Sixth Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
6. Caltrans, (2012). Bridge Memo to Designers 12-2: Guidelines for Identification of Steel
Bridge Members, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (2008). Bridge Memo to Designers 10-20: Deck and Soffit Slab, California
8. Caltrans, (2004a). Bridge Memo to Designers 12-4: Criteria for Control Dimension Y
on Steel Girders, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
9. Caltrans, (2004b). Bridge Memo to Designers 12-3: Camber of Steel-Concrete Composite

Girders, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.

10. Caltrans, (2000). Bridge Design Specifications, LFD Version, April 2000, California
11. Caltrans, (2015). Bridge Memo to Designers 8-7: Stay-in-Place Metal Forms for Cast-in-
Place Concrete Decks in Precast Concrete and Steel Superstructures, California
12. Caltrans, (1988). Bridge Memo to Designers 15-17: Future Wearing Surface, California
13. Chen, W.F., and Duan, L., (2014). Bridge Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition:
Superstructure Design, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
14. FHWA, (2012). Steel Bridge Design Handbook, FHWA NHI-12-052, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/steel/pubs/if12052/
15. Taly, N., (2014). Highway Bridge Superstructure Engineering: LRFD Approaches to
Design and Analysis, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

CHAPTER 10
CONCRETE DECKS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 10-1

10.2 CONCRETE DECK TYPES ......................................................................................... 10-1
10.2.1 Cast-In-Place Concrete Decks....................................................................... 10-1
10.2.2 Precast Concrete Decks ................................................................................. 10-2
10.3 DESIGN APPROACH .................................................................................................. 10-2
10.3.1 Structural Behavior of Concrete Decks......................................................... 10-2
10.3.2 Limit State ..................................................................................................... 10-3
10.3.3 Methods of Analysis ..................................................................................... 10-4
10.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................................... 10-6
10.5 DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 10-6
10.5.1 Reinforcement Details................................................................................... 10-6
10.5.2 Skewed Decks ............................................................................................... 10-7
10.5.3 Deck Drains and Access Openings ............................................................... 10-8
10.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE DECK ...................... 10-8
10.6.1 Concrete Deck Data ...................................................................................... 10-8
10.6.2 Design Requirements .................................................................................... 10-9
10.6.3 Determine Minimum Deck Thickness and Cover ......................................... 10-9
10.6.4 Compute Unfactored Dead Load Moments .................................................. 10-9
10.6.5 Compute Unfactored Live Load Moments ................................................. 10-10
10.6.6 Calculate the Factored Design Moments .................................................... 10-11
10.6.7 Positive Flexure Design .............................................................................. 10-12
10.6.8 Negative Flexure Design ............................................................................. 10-14
10.6.9 Check for Crack Control under Service Limit State ................................... 10-16
10.6.10 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................ 10-18
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................. 10-21
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 10-23
Chapter 10 Concrete Decks 10-i

Chapter 10 Concrete Decks 10-ii

CHAPTER 10
CONCRETE DECKS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Bridge decks are an integral part of the bridge structure by providing the direct
riding surface for motor vehicles. In addition, bridge decks directly transfer load from
the moving traffic to the major load-carrying members. This chapter provides a general
description of the various concrete deck types, a discussion of the basic structural
behavior of concrete decks, and an overview of major design and detailing
considerations. Finally, a design example for a reinforced concrete bridge deck is
provided. The example illustrates bridge deck design in accordance with the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and the California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014).
10.2 CONCRETE DECK TYPES

There are two main types of concrete decks, cast-in-place, and precast. The most
common type used in Caltrans is the cast-in-place reinforced concrete deck. The other
type is used depending on the various conditions like location, traffic, cost, seismicity
schedule, and aesthetics (Chen and Duan, 2014).
10.2.1 Cast-In-Place Concrete Decks
A cast-in-place concrete deck is a thin concrete slab, either using normal

reinforcement or prestressing steel, usually between 7 and 12 inches, with reinforcing
steel interspersed transversely and longitudinally throughout the slab. There are several
advantages to using a reinforced concrete deck. One of the major advantages is its
relatively low cost. Other advantages are ease of construction and extensive industry
use.
Even though cast-in-place concrete decks have advantages, there are disadvantages
using this particular type of deck, such as cracking, rebar corrosion, and tire noise. A
large cost of bridge maintenance is in maintaining the riding surface (Fu, et al., 2000).
Lack of deck crack control can lead to rebar corrosion and increased life cycle cost,
not to mention a poor riding surface for the public.
Chapter 10 Concrete Decks 10-1

10.2.2 Precast Concrete Decks
Precast concrete decks consist of either precast reinforced concrete panels or

prestressed concrete panels. These panels can either serve as the final deck surface or
as a temporary deck to allow placement of a final cast-in-place concrete deck. The
advantage of a precast concrete deck is in the acceleration of the construction schedule.
Precast panels allow for quicker placement, which, in principle, speeds up overall
bridge construction.
10.3 DESIGN APPROACH

10.3.1 Structural Behavior of Concrete Decks
It is accepted and widely known that the primary structural behavior of a concrete
deck is not pure flexure, but a complex behavior known as internal arching. Concrete
slabs behave quite differently than concrete beams under a given load. Research has
shown that when a concrete slab starts to crack, the load is initially resisted by a
combination of flexure stresses and membrane stresses as shown in Figure 10.3-1
(Csagoly, et al., 1989). The stresses and strain create cracks in three dimensions around
the wheel footprint. The way internal arching works is as cracks develop in the bottom
of the slab and the slabs neutral axis shifts upward, compressive stresses develop
above the neutral axis to resist further opening of the cracks. The concrete portion
above the crack is in a purely elastic state. Therefore, what results is a domed shaped
compression zone around the load.
The compressive membrane stresses do not resist the loading completely. There is
a small flexural component that also resists the loading as well. But the controlling
structural mechanic is the membrane compressive stresses created in the upper parts of
the slab.
For the deck to fail, as the load is increased the deflection also increases. The
section around the load becomes overstrained and this results in a cone-shaped section
of failed concrete. Therefore, the primary failure mode is punching shear.
Figure 10.3-1 Concrete Deck Showing Flexure and Membrane Forces

10.3.2 Limit State
10.3.2.1 Service Limit State
Concrete decks are designed to meet the requirements for Service I limit state
(AASHTO Article 9.5.2). Service limit state is used to control excessive deformation
and cracking. According to the California amendment (CA Article 9.5.2), deck slabs
shall be designed for Class 2 exposure, therefore,
e 0.75 (AASHTO Article 5.7.3.4)
10.3.2.2 Strength Limit State
Concrete decks must be designed for Strength I limit state. Because concrete deck
slabs are usually designed as tension-controlled reinforced concrete components, the
resistance factor is 0.9 (AASHTO Article 5.5.4.2). Strength II limit state typically
is not checked for deck designs. The permit vehicle axle load does not typically control
deck design (CA Article C3.6.1.3.3).
10.3.2.3 Extreme Event Limit State
Most bridge decks include an overhang with a concrete barrier attached. Therefore,
the deck overhang has to be designed to meet the requirements for Extreme Event II.
The AASHTO (2012) requires bridge deck overhangs to be designed for the following
cases (AASHTO Appendix A13.4):
Design Case 1: The transverse and longitudinal forces specified in AASHTO

Appendix A13.2 - Extreme Event Load Combination II limit state.
Design Case 2: The vertical forces specified in AASHTO Appendix A13.2 -

Extreme Event Load Combination II limit state.
Design Case 3: The loads, specified in AASHTO Article 3.6.1, that occupy the
overhang- Load Combination Strength I limit state.
10.3.2.4 Fatigue Limit State
Concrete decks supported by multi-girder systems are not required to be

investigated for fatigue (AASHTO Article 9.5.3).

10.3.3 Methods of Analysis
10.3.3.1 Approximate Method of Analysis
Caltrans traditionally designs concrete bridge decks as transverse strips as a flexure

member. This method is called the Approximate Method of Analysis (AASHTO
Article 4.6.2.1). The concrete deck is assumed to be transverse slab strips, which is
supported by the girders. To simplify the design, it is assumed that the girders are rigid
supports. The AASHTO specifications allow the maximum positive moment and the
maximum negative moment to apply for all positive moment regions and all negative
moment regions in the slab, respectively.
The width of an equivalent strip (interior strip) is dependent on the type of deck
used, the primary direction of the strip relative to the direction of traffic, and the sign
of the moment. AASHTO Table 4.6.2.1.3-1 only applies for interior strips and not for
overhangs.
10.3.3.2 Refined Methods of Analysis
The Refined Methods of Analysis (AASHTO Article 4.6.3) as listed in AASHTO

4.4 are acceptable methods for analyzing concrete bridge decks. But these various
methods are not typically used to analyze a standard bridge deck. A refined analysis
method would be better suited for a more complex deck slab structure, which would
require a more detailed analysis.
10.3.3.3 Empirical Method of Analysis
Empirical Design (AASHTO Article 9.7.1) is a method of deck slab design based
on the concept of internal arching action within concrete slabs. But, until further
durability testing of this design method is completed, the empirical design method is
not permitted for concrete bridge deck design in California (CA Article 9.7.2.2).

AASHTO Table 4.6.2.1.3-1 Equivalent Strips

Type of Deck Direction of Primary Width of Primary Strip (in.)
Strip Relative to Traffic
Concrete:
Cast-in-place Overhang 45.0 + 10.0X
Either Parallel or +M: 26.0 + 6.6S
Perpendicular -M: 48.0 +3.0S
Cast-in-place with stay-in- Either Parallel or +M: 26.0 + 6.6S

place concrete formwork Perpendicular -M: 48.0 +3.0S
Precast, post-tensioned Either Parallel or +M: 26.0 + 6.6S

Perpendicular -M: 48.0 +3.0S
Steel:
Open grid Main Bars 1.25 P + 4.0 Sb
Filled or partially filled grid Main Bars Article 4.6.2.1.8 applies
Unfilled, composite grids Main Bars Article 4.6.2.1.8 applies
Wood:
Prefabricated glulam
Non interconnected Parallel Perpendicular 2.0 h + 30.0
2.0 h + 40.0
Interconnected Parallel Perpendicular 90.0 + 0.84L

4.0 h + 30.0
Stress-laminated Parallel Perpendicular 0.8 S + 108.0

10.0 S + 24.0
Spike-laminated
Continuous decks or Parallel Perpendicular 2.0 h + 30.0
Interconnected panels 4.0 h + 40.0
Non interconnected panels Parallel Perpendicular 2.0 h + 30.0

2.0 h + 40.0
S = spacing of supporting components (ft)

h = depth of deck (in.)
L = span length of deck (ft)
P = axle load (kip)
Sb = spacing of gird bars (in.)
+M = positive moment
-M = negative moment
X = distance from load to point of support (ft)


Concrete decks are primarily designed for flexure in the transverse direction;
therefore, the spacing of adjacent girders is important. AASHTO Table A4-1 provides
a listing of design moments for S (girder spacing) values between 4 ft and 15 ft.
When S exceeds 15 ft, special design is required.
The designer needs to consider required deck thickness. According to CA 9.7.1.1

(Caltrans, 2014), the minimum deck thickness is to conform to the deck design
standards developed by Caltrans. For the typical deck slab, MTD 10-20 (Caltrans,
2008) provides the minimum deck slab thicknesses and reinforcement schedule for
various girder types. The typical deck slab thickness varies from 7 in. to 10 3/8 in.
depending on the girder type and spacing.
The minimum concrete cover is determined in accordance with CA 5.12.3.

Extreme environments can have a negative effect on the service life of a concrete deck
slab. Corrosion of the reinforcing steel should be a major concern when designing a
bridge deck in an extreme environment. There are various ways for the designer to
protect against corrosion of the bridge deck. See MTD 10-5 (Caltrans, 2010) for more
information on protecting against corrosion.
For design purposes, the minimum compressive concrete strength f c' =3.6 ksi shall
be used for reinforced concrete (CA Article 5.4.2.1).
10.5 DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS

10.5.1 Reinforcement Details
Typical reinforced concrete decks are detailed as part of the superstructure typical
section. The designer should use MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008) for required minimum
reinforcement and Standard Plan B0-5 for transverse reinforcement spacing diagrams.
It is important to check main longitudinal reinforcement spacing and cover to ensure
reinforcing steel can fit within slab thickness.
For variable width girders it is important for the designer to specify reinforcement
spacing and type that differs from the standard superstructure bay. See BDD 8-34
(Caltrans, 1986) for more information on acceptable reinforcement detailing in
variable bays. Limits of epoxy-coated reinforcement shall also be specified.

10.5.2 Skewed Decks
Designers must give special consideration to detailing reinforcement for skewed

bridge decks. For skews less than 20 the transverse deck reinforcement is parallel to
the centerline of the abutment. For skew angles greater than 20 the transverse deck
reinforcement is normal to the center line of the girder. Special corner details are
usually required to clarify the deck reinforcement and diaphragm connections. BDD
8-36 (Caltrans, 1971) provides examples of the correct way to detail skewed deck
corners as shown in Figure 10.5-1.
Figure 10.5-1 BDD 8-36 Skewed Deck Corner Reinforcement

10.5.3 Deck Drains and Access Openings
After determination of the type of deck drain and the deck drain location, it is
important to ensure that the drain fits the location specified. Depending on the type of
deck drain used it may be necessary to provide additional reinforcement to secure the
drain assembly in place.
Deck openings are discouraged. Soffit openings are the preferred method to
provide access into the bridge bays. If deck openings are used then Standard Plan
B7-11 Utility Details provide additional reinforcement for openings.
10.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE

DECK
10.6.1 Concrete Deck Data
A typical section of a reinforced concrete box girder bridge is shown in

Figure 10.6-1.
Max. Girder Spacing: S = 12 ft.

Number of Girders: N = 5
Concrete compressive strength: f c' = 3.6 ksi (CA 5.4.2.1)
Reinforcement strength: fy = 60 ksi
Type 732 Concrete Barrier weight: w732 = 0.410 klf
Future wearing surface, wfws = 0.140 kcf (AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1)
(Assume 3 thick asphalt section were, wfws = 0.140 kcf 0.25ft = 0.035 ksf)
Reinforced Concrete unit weight, wrc = 0.150 kcf (AASHTO C3.5.1)
Figure 10.6-1 Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridge Typical Section

Design the concrete bridge deck supported by the girders using the Approximate
Method of Analysis (AASHTO Article 4.6.2) in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) with the California Amendments
(Caltrans, 2014).
10.6.3 Determine Minimum Deck Thickness and Cover
According to CA Article 9.7.1.1 (Caltrans, 2014), the minimum deck thickness

must conform to the deck design standards specified by MTD 10-20 (Caltrans, 2008).
The minimum deck thickness varies depending on the girder type and the centerline to
centerline spacing. Therefore, for a reinforced concrete box girder bridge,
S = 12.00 ft assumes a minimum thickness t = 9 1/8 in.
The minimum concrete cover is determined according to CA Table 5.12.3-1. For

the top surface of the bridge deck in a non-corrosive atmosphere the minimum cover
is specified as:
Deck Top Cover: Ctop = 2.0 in.
The minimum cover specified for the bottom surface of the deck slab is:
Deck Bottom Cover: Cbottom = 1.0 in.
10.6.4 Compute Unfactored Dead Load Moments
The dead load moments for the deck slab, barrier and future wearing surface are
computed for a one-foot wide section of the bridge deck using any approved structural
analysis method. This can include the continuous beam equations, moment
distribution, or an acceptable computer analysis program. Table 10.6-1 lists the
tabulated unfactored dead load moments for each bay given in tenth points using a
finite element analysis.

Table 10.6-1 Unfactored Dead Load Moments

Slab Dead Load-DC1 Barrier Load-DC2 Future Wearing Surface Dead
(kip-ft/ft) (kip-ft/ft) Load-DW (kip-ft/ft)
Distance Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Bay 4 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Bay 4 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Bay 4
0 -1.62 -1.30 -1.40 -1.30 -1.81 0.51 -0.25 0.51 -0.26 -0.46 -0.40 -0.46
0.1 -0.84 -0.57 -0.65 -0.60 -1.56 0.43 -0.18 0.28 -0.05 -0.23 -0.18 -0.22
0.2 -0.24 -0.01 -0.07 -0.05 -1.35 0.36 -0.10 0.05 0.11 -0.05 -0.01 -0.02
0.3 0.21 0.40 0.35 0.33 -1.11 0.28 -0.02 -0.18 0.21 0.08 0.11 0.13
0.4 0.05 0.63 0.61 0.55 -0.88 0.21 0.05 -0.42 0.27 0.16 0.18 0.22
0.5 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.60 -0.65 0.13 0.13 -0.65 0.27 0.20 0.20 0.27
0.6 0.55 0.61 0.63 0.48 -0.42 0.05 0.21 -0.88 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.27
0.7 0.33 0.35 0.40 0.21 -0.18 -0.02 0.28 -1.11 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.21
0.8 -0.05 -0.07 -0.01 -0.24 0.05 -0.10 0.36 -1.35 -0.02 -0.01 -0.05 0.11
0.9 -0.60 -0.65 -0.57 -0.84 0.28 -0.18 0.43 -1.56 -0.22 -0.18 -0.23 -0.05
1 -1.30 -1.40 -1.30 -1.62 0.51 -0.25 0.51 -1.81 -0.46 -0.40 -0.46 -0.26
10.6.5 Compute Unfactored Live Load Moments
The unfactored live load moments are determined from AASHTO Appendix A4,
Table A4-1. This table can be used for decks supported on at least three or more girders,
in which the minimum superstructure width, between centerline to centerline of
exterior girders, cannot be less than 14-0. The moments are calculated using the
equivalent strip method (AASHTO Article 4.6.2.1.3) for concrete slabs supported on
parallel girders. The values given in the table include multiple presence factors and the
dynamic load allowance. To be conservative use the largest span length between
girders to find the maximum live load force effect.
AASHTO Table A4-1 Maximum Live Load Moments Per Unit Width, kip-ft/ft
NEGATIVE MOMENT
Distance from CL of Girder to Design Section for
Positive Negative Moment
S Moment 0.0 in. 3 in. 6 in. 9 in. 12 in. 18 in. 24 in.
11 -9 7.88 10.01 9.12 8.24 7.36 6.47 5.40 5.05
12 -0 8.01 10.28 9.40 8.51 7.63 6.74 5.56 5.21
12 -3 8.15 10.55 9.67 8.78 7.90 7.02 5.75 5.38
12 -6 8.28 10.81 9.93 9.04 8.16 7.28 5.97 5.54
12 -9 8.41 11.06 10.18 9.30 8.42 7.54 6.18 5.70
From the table, use a maximum spacing of 12-0 for the girder spacing. The
positive live load moment is 8.01 kip-ft/ft. The maximum negative moment is given in
relationship to the distance from the centerline of the girder to the design section. In
the design example, the girder width is 8 inches. The maximum negative moment
design section is 4 in., which is the distance from the girder centerline to the edge of
the girder (AASHTO Article 4.6.2.1.6). The closest value to 4 in. in the Table is 3 in.
Therefore, the corresponding maximum negative moment is 9.40 kip-ft/ft.

10.6.6 Calculate the Factored Design Moments
Concrete decks are designed for strength, service and extreme limit states
according to AASHTO Article 9.5. Fatigue and fracture limit states need not be
investigated for concrete decks supported by multiple girders (AASHTO Article 5.5.3).
Therefore,
Strength I Load Combination

M u [ DC M DC DW M DW (m)(1 IM )( LL )(M LL )]
1.0 (Note: Per CA 1.3.4, = 1.0 until its application is better defined.)
For the slab and barrier (DC):
DC 1.25 Maximum factor
For future wearing surface (DW):
DW 1.50 Maximum factor
Multiple Presence Factor, m =1.20 for one lane of vehicular live load. This
value is included in the tabulated moments provided in Table A4-1.
Dynamic Load Allowance, IM, is also included in Table A4-1 tabulated
moments.
LL 1.75 , for Strength I Load Combinations.
10.6.6.1 Maximum Positive Factored Moments
Based on Table 10.6-1, the maximum unfactored positive moment due to the slab,
barrier, and future wearing surface is located in Bay 2 or 3 at a distance of 0.5S. The
maximum positive moment equals 8.01 kip-ft/ft, as shown in Section 10.6.5.
Therefore, the maximum positive factored moment is
Mu = 1.0[(1.25)(0.70+0.13)+(1.5)(0.20)+(1.75)(8.01)] = 15.36 kip-ft/ft
10.6.6.2 Maximum Negative Factored Moments
The maximum unfactored negative moment due to the slab, barrier and future
wearing surface is located in Bay 1 at a distance of 0 (center of exterior girder). The
negative moment can be reduced at the face of the girder. The negative moment can be
interpolated between 0.0S and 0.1S. Based on the reduced negative moments at the
interior face of the girder, the maximum negative factored moment is
Mu = 1.0[(1.25)(1.29+1.71)+(1.5)(0.17)+(1.75)(9.40)] = 20.46 kip-ft/ft

10.6.7 Positive Flexure Design
To design for the maximum positive moment, first, assume an initial bar size. From
this initial bar size, the required area of steel can be calculated. Then the reinforcement
spacing can be determined. For this example the assumed initial reinforcing steel size
is #5.
For a #5-bar,
Bar area = 0.31 in2
Bar diameter = 0.625 in.
Next, determine the effective depth, de , which is equal to the total slab thickness
minus the bottom cover, Cbottom , and minus half the bar diameter. Figure 10.6-2 shows
the relationship between the effective depth and the slab thickness.
(bar_ diameter) (0.625)

d e t C bottom 9.125 1.0 7.813 in.
2 2
Figure 10.6-2 Simple Rectangular Concrete Section with Tension Reinforcement
For a rectangular section, assume a 2t , where a is the depth of the equivalent

stress block, and t is the deck thickness. Solve for the required amount of
reinforcement, as follows:
z 4M u
As 1 1
2 f y d e z

where,
1.7 f c' bd e
z
fy
0.9 (Assume tension control) (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)
b = 12 in.
Therefore,
z = 9.56 in.2
As = 0.459 in.2
t
Check a ,
2
As f y
a 0.75 in 4.56 in.
0.85 f ' c b
Next, determine the required bar spacing,
12 bar _ area 12 0.31

bar _ spacing 8.10 in. use, 8 in. spacing for #5 bar.
As 0.459
To verify that tension controls the section design and that the proper resistance
factor is used to check the strain in the extreme tension reinforcing steel (CA Article
5.7.2.1). The strain, stress and force diagrams for a rectangular concrete section are
Figure 10.6-3 Development of Bending Strain, Stress, and Force Actions in a Section

Calculate the tension force and the area of concrete.
12(0.31)
#5 @ 8" As 0.465 in.2
8
T As f y 0.465(60) 27.9 kips
T 27.9
T Ac (0.85) f c' Ac '
9.12 in.2
0.85 f c 0.85(3 .6)
Determine concrete compression block depth, a
Ac 9.12
a 0.76 in.
b 12
Determine c from the equation a 1 c
a 0.76
c 0.89
1 0.85
Check if steel yields,
y (7.813 0.89)
s (0.003) (0.003) 0.023 0.004
c 0.89
The steel yields and the section is tension controlled, therefore, the proper
resistance factor was used.
Finally, check maximum spacing for primary reinforcement (AASHTO Article

5.10.3.2). The spacing of the slab reinforcement shall not exceed 1.5 times the
thickness of the slab or 18.0 in. In this case the maximum spacing equals 8.0 in., which
is less than either case.
10.6.8 Negative Flexure Design
Designing for the maximum negative flexure reinforcement is similar to designing

for the maximum positive moment reinforcement. These bars are the primary
reinforcing steel over the girders as shown in Figure 10.6-4.

Figure 10.6-4 Negative Reinforcement over a Typical Girder
Assuming #6 bar size.

Bar area = 0.44 in.2
Bar diameter = 0.750 in.
The effective depth, de , for the negative moment is equal to the total slab thickness
minus the top cover, Ctop , and half the bar diameter.
(bar _ diameter) (0.750)

d e t Ctop 9.125 2.0 6.75 in.
2 2
Based on the maximum negative moment

z = 8.262 in.2
As = 0.840 in.2
t
Check a ,
2
As f y
a 1.209 in. 4.56 in.
0.85 f ' c b
Required bar spacing is
12 bar _ area 12 0.44

bar _ spacing 7.14 in.2 , use 7.0 in. spacing.
As 0.740

Verify that tension controls the section design and that the proper resistance factor
is used to check the strain in the extreme tension reinforcing steel (CA Article 5.7.2.1).
Finally, check maximum spacing for primary reinforcement per AASHTO Article
5.10.3.2.
10.6.9 Check for Crack Control under Service Limit State
Concrete cracking is controlled by the spacing of flexure reinforcement. To

improve crack control in the concrete deck, the reinforcement has to be well distributed
over the area of maximum tension. Therefore, AASHTO requires steel reinforcement
spacing to satisfy the following:
700 e
s 2d c (AASHTO 5.7.3.4-1)
s f ss
In which,
dc
s 1
0.7 (h d c )
where:
e = 0.75 for Class 2 exposure conditions (CA 5.7.3.4 & 9.5.2)

d c = 2 1/2 in. for bridge decks (CA 5.7.3.4)
f ss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at service limit state (ksi)
h = overall thickness of deck (in.)
10.6.9.1 Determine Maximum Loading under Service Limit State
Service I Load Combination
M s 1.0 [1.0M DC 1.0M DW (m)(1 IM )1.0(M LL )]
Positive moment due to service loading:
M positive 1.0 [(1.0)(0.70 0.13) (1.0)(0.20) (1.0)(8.01)] 9.04 kip-ft/ft
Negative moment due to service loading:
M negative 1.0 [(1.0)(1.29 1.71) (1.0)(.17) (1.0)(9.40)] 12.57 kip-ft/ft
Negative Service Loading Controls.

10.6.9.2 Determine Maximum Required Spacing for Crack Control
Determine the neutral axis location, y, based on the transformed section properties.
b 2
y nAs y nAs d e 0
2
Let
b
A
2
B nAs
C nAs d e
Therefore,
B B 2 4 AC
y
2A
12
As = bar area = 0.754 in.2
7. 0
n=8
b 12
A 6
2 2
B nAs 8 0.754 6.03
C nAs d e (8 0.754 6.75) 40.72
B B 2 4 AC
y = 2.151 in.
2A
Calculate the crack moment of inertia, Icr , for the transformed section.
by 3
I cr nAs (d e y ) 2 167.44 in.4
3
Next, calculate the tensile stress, fss , in the steel reinforcement at service limit state.
nM s (d e y )
f ss 33.15 ksi
I cr
Finally, determine s, and then input that value into the formula to calculate the
maximum spacing, s, of the reinforcement that would satisfy the LRFD crack control
requirement.

dc 2.5
s 1 1 1.539
0.7(h d c ) 0.7 (9.125 2.5)
700 e 700 (0.75)

s 2d c (2) (2.5) 5.29 in.
s f ss (1.539) (33.15)
Figure 10.6-5 shows Caltrans Standard Plan for transverse deck reinforcement
spacing. To convert the required spacing to Caltrans Standard Plan Bridge Details
5-11 or 5-10, you must multiply the spacing by 2. This is due to the fact that the
transverse deck reinforcement spacing diagrams add an extra top bar for the given
spacing. Therefore, if the required calculated spacing is 5.29 in., then the spacing
shown on the typical section would be 10.58 in. In the design example case, we would
specify #6 @ S = 10 1/2 in.
Figure 10.6-5 Standard Plan Spacing Details
10.6.10 Minimum Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement is needed in the slab to distribute the load across the slab,
for shrinkage, and temperature change. For the typical slab design, AASHTO (2012)
requires distribution reinforcement for the top of the slab and the bottom of the slab.

10.6.10.1 Top of Slab Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
The top slab reinforcement is for shrinkage and temperature changes near the
surface of the exposed concrete slab. The area of reinforcement has to meet the
following requirements:
1.3bh
As (AASHTO 5.10.8-1)
2( b h ) f y
0.11 As 0.60 (AASHTO 5.10.8-2)
where:
As = area of reinforcement in each direction and each face (in.2/ft)

b = least width of component section (in.)
h = least thickness of component section (in.)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars 75 ksi
For the design example slab:
1.3bh 1.3(12)(9.125) 2
As 0.056in.
2(b h) f y 2(12 9.125)(60) ft
As 0.056 0.11 , therefore, As = 0.11 as a minimum.
Use #4 bars in top slab.
Bar area = 0.2 in.2

12(0.2)
Bar spacing = 21.8 in. use maximum 18.0 in.
0.11
10.6.10.2 Bottom of Slab Distribution Reinforcement
The reinforcement in the bottom of the slab is a percentage of the primary deck
reinforcement. The primary deck reinforcement is perpendicular to the direction of
traffic, therefore, the requirement is 220 S 67 percent, where S is the effective span
length (ft) as specified in Article 9.7.2.3. For the design example, the effective span
length is the clear distance from face of girder to face of girder, which is 11 ft.
220 S 220 11 66% 67%

2
Arequired 0.66 1.01 0.67 in.
ft

To facilitate better lateral load distribution, Caltrans Reinforced Concrete

Technical Committee recommends that the bottom deck reinforcement be placed
within the center half of the deck span. Therefore,
1 11
S 5.5 ft
2 2
2
5.5 0.67 in. 3.685 in.2 0.31 in.2 11.89 12 bars
ft
Twelve bars are distributed within 1/2 the effective span length. Compared this
with the standard Deck Slab Reinforcement Details G bars and D bars per MTD
Table 10-20.1(a):
The required G bars for 12-0 girder spacing are 5 - #4 bars

The required D bars for 12-0 girder spacing are 13 - #5 bars
Figure 10.6-6 Shows the detailed deck reinforcement for the design example.
Figure 10.6-6 Bridge Deck Reinforcement Detail

NOTATION
As = area of tension reinforcement (in.2)

a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block (in.)
b = with of the compression fact of the member (in.)
Cbottom = required concrete cover over bottom deck reinforcing steel (in.)
Ctop = required concrete cover over top deck reinforcing steel (in.)
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar
(in.)
force in the tension reinforcement (in.)
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete for use in design (ksi)
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars (ksi)
fss = tensile stress in mild steel reinforcement at the service limit state (ksi)
h = overall thickness of deck (in.)
IM = dynamic load allowance
Ms = moment due to service loads (kip-ft)
Mu = factored moment at the section (kip-ft)
m = multiple presence factor
N = number of girders
n = modular ratio = Es/Ec
S = center to center spacing of girder (ft.); effective span length (ft)
t = thickness of slab (in.)
w = uniform load (k/ft)
y = distance from neutral axis location to the extreme tension fiber (in.)
e = crack control exposure condition factor
DC = load factor for permanent dead load
DW = load factor for component dead load

LL = load factor for live load

= load modifier
= resistance factor

REFERENCES
(6th Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 4th
Edition, Washington, D.C.

3. Caltrans, (2008). Bridge Memo to Designers (MTD) 10-20: Deck and Soffit Slabs,
4. Caltrans, (2010). Bridge Memo to Designers (MTD) 10-20: Protection of Reinforcement

Against Corrosion Due to Chlorides, Acids Sulfates, California Department of
5. Caltrans, (2002). Bridge Memo to Designers (MTD) 10-5: Protection of Reinforcement

Against Corrosion Due to Chlorides, Acids and Sulfates, California Department of
6. Caltrans, (1986). Bridge Design Details (BDD) 8-34: Variable Bay Transverse
Reinforcement, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (1971). Bridge Design Details (BDD) 8-36: Skewed Deck Corner Reinforcement,
8. Caltrans, (2015). Standard Plans, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento,

CA.
9. Chen, W. F., and Duan, L. (2014). Bridge Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL.
10. Csagoly, P. and Lybas, J. (1989). Advance Design Method for Concrete Bridge Deck
Slabs, Concrete International, ACI. Vol.11.
11. Fu, G. K., et al, (2000). Effect of Truck Weight on Bridge Network Costs, NCHRP:
Report 495, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.


BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE FEBRUARY 2015 B
CHAPTER 12
CONCRETE BENT CAPS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 12-1

12.1.1 Types of Bent Caps .......................................................................................... 12-2
12.1.2 Member Proportioning ................................................................................... 12-11
12.2 LOADS ON BENT CAPS ........................................................................................... 12-12
12.2.1 Permanent Loads ............................................................................................ 12-12
12.2.2 Transient Loads .............................................................................................. 12-13
12.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................... 12-18
12.3.1 Flexural Design .............................................................................................. 12-18
12.3.2 Design for Shear ............................................................................................. 12-30
12.3.3 Check Longitudinal Steel for Tension (Shear-Flexure Interaction) ............... 12-33
12.3.4 Design for Seismic ......................................................................................... 12-35
12.4 DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................ 12-36
12.4.1 Construction Reinforcement........................................................................... 12-36
12.4.2 Side Face Reinforcement................................................................................ 12-37
12.4.3 End Reinforcement ......................................................................................... 12-38
12.4.4 Other Detailing Considerations (Skew).......................................................... 12-38
12.5 DESIGN EXAMPLES ................................................................................................ 12-39
12.5.1 Integral Bent Cap ........................................................................................... 12-39
12.5.2 Drop Bent Cap ................................................................................................ 12-71
NOTATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 12-96
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 12-100
Chapter 12 Concrete Bent Caps 12-i

Chapter 12 Concrete Bent Caps 12-ii

CHAPTER 12
CONCRETE BENT CAPS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
A bent consisting of columns and a bent cap beam is an intermediate support
between bridge spans that transfers and resists vertical loads and lateral loads such as
earthquake and wind from the superstructure to the foundation. The bent cap beam
supports the longitudinal girders and transfers the loads to the bent columns.
Concrete bent cap beams may be cast-in-place or precast and may be either
conventionally reinforced or prestressed.
A typical elevation view of a concrete bent integrally connected with the
superstructure is shown in Figure 12.1-1.
Figure 12.1-1 A Typical Integral Concrete Bent
Bents can be classified as a single-column, a two-column, or a multicolumn bent

Chapter 12 Concrete Bent Caps 12-1

Figure 12.1-2 Typical Bents
12.1.1 Types of Bent Caps
The main types of bent caps are:

Drop bent cap
Integral bent cap
Inverted tee cap
These bent caps may be configured in conventional bent types as shown in
Figure 12.1-2, and may possess asymmetric column configurations. Also, they may
be utilized in unusual bent types, such as "C" bents, and outrigger bents.
12.1.1.1 Drop Bent Cap
A drop bent cap, as shown in Figure 12.1-3, supports the superstructure girders
directly on its top. This type of bent cap is generally used when the superstructure
consists of precast concrete or steel girders.

Figure 12.1-3 Overview of Drop Bent Cap
Drop bent caps may have different types of connection to the superstructure
diaphragm: fixed, pinned, or isolated. Figures 12.1-4 to 12.1-6 show each type of
bent cap.
Figure 12.1-4 Drop Cap with Pinned Connection

Figure 12.1-5 Drop Cap with Isolated Connection

Figure 12.1-6 Drop Cap with Fixed Connection

12.1.1.2 Integral Bent Cap
An integral bent cap, shown in Figure 12.1-7, is cast monolithically with the
superstructure girders, and typically has the same depth as the superstructure. The
superstructure girders are framed into the bent cap and are supported indirectly by the
bent cap. This type of bent cap is commonly used in cast-in-place concrete box girder
construction. The load from the girders is transmitted as point loads along the length
of the bent cap.
Figure 12.1-7 Integral Bent Cap
As a monolithic connecting element to columns and girders, reinforcement

details in integral bent caps can be challenging. Figures 12.1-8 to 12.1-12 show three-
dimensional schematics of bar reinforcement belonging to components from the
superstructure that must be accommodated by the integral bent cap. Engineers must
also consider the integration of bar reinforcement from the columns.
Figure 12.1-8 Integral Bent Cap Top Slab Reinforcement

Figure 12.1-9 Integral Bent Cap Bottom Slab Reinforcement
Figure 12.1-10 Integral Bent Cap Girder Reinforcement

Note: For clarity, post-tensioning ducts are not shown.

Figure 12.1-11 Bent Cap Reinforcement of Integral Bent Cap

Figure 12.1-12 Integral Bent Cap Cross Section

12.1.1.3 Inverted Tee Cap
Inverted tee cap, as shown in Figure 12.1-13, is typically used with precast
concrete girders to increase vertical clearance and to enhance aesthetic appearance.
However, from a design standpoint, it is difficult to satisfy seismic demands, and the
reinforcement of the ledge of the tee cap presents special challenges in shear, flexure,
and bar anchorage.
bledge = ledge width dledge = ledge depth

bstem = stem width dstem = stem depth
bf = flange width hcap = bent cap depth
Figure 12.1-13 Inverted Tee Bent Cap

12.1.2 Member Proportioning
The bent cap depth should be deep enough to develop the column longitudinal
reinforcement without hooks in accordance with SDC 7.3.4 and 8.2.1 (Caltrans,
2013). For integral bent caps, the minimum bent cap width required by SDC 7.4.2.1
(Caltrans, 2013) for adequate joint shear transfer shall be the column sectional width
in the direction of interest, plus two feet.
Drop caps that support superstructures with expansion joints must have sufficient
width to prevent unseating. In accordance to SDC 7.3.2.1 (Caltrans, 2013), the
minimum width for non-integrated bent caps is determined by considering
displacement of the superstructure due to prestress shortening, creep and shrinkage,
thermal expansion and contraction, and earthquake displacement demand.
For inverted tee bent caps, the stem must be a minimum three inches wider than
the column to allow for the extension of column reinforcement into the cap. Similar
to the integral and drop caps, the depth of the inverted tee cap must be adequate to
develop the column bar reinforcement without hooks. The ledge width (bledge) must
be adequate for the primary flexural reinforcement to develop fully.
A bent cap may be evaluated as a conventional beam or a deep beam in
accordance with AASHTO LRFD Article 5.6.3.1 (AASHTO, 2012) to estimate the
internal forces of the bent cap. AASHTO Articles 5.6.3.1 and 5.8.1.1 specify that if
either of following two cases is satisfied, then a strut-and-tie model may be used:
Case 1:
Lv,zero < 2d
where:
Lv,zero = distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support (in.)
d = distance from the compression face to the centroid of tension
reinforcement (in.)
Case 2:
A load causing more than of the shear at a support is closer than 2d from the
face of the supports.
In the past, bent caps were typically designed as "conventional beams" in
accordance with the Load Factor Design (LFD) method in Caltrans Bridge Design
Specifications (Caltrans, 2000), which was applicable until 2008. The LFD code for
flexural design is based on the assumption that plane sections remain plane after
loading and that the longitudinal strains vary linearly over the depth of the beam.
Furthermore, it assumes that the shear distribution remains uniform. In bent caps,
these assumptions may not always be valid. However, the sectional beam method has
proved to be acceptable as it generally yields more conservative designs in regions
near discontinuities. Furthermore, historical data does not suggest design
inadequacies for bent caps. Caltrans will continue to use the sectional method except
in very irregular beam geometries.

12.2 LOADS ON BENT CAPS

This section discusses the type of loads that bent caps must be designed to resist
and support.
Permanent loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, either constant or
varying over a long time interval upon completion of construction.
For bent cap design, the permanent loads to consider include:

Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC):
Bridge weight: In cast-in-place box girder superstructures,
normal weight concrete is 150 pcf, including the weight of bar
reinforcing steel and lost formwork
Weight of barrier
Any other type of permanent attachment, such as sound walls or
sign structures
Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW), including all dead
loads added to the bridge after it is constructed:
For new bridges, and in accordance with MTD 15-17 (Caltrans,
1988), 35 pounds per square foot must be applied on the bridge
deck between the faces of barrier rails to account for three inches
of future wearing surface.
Weight from utilities: For example, a 24-inch water line would
consist of a uniformly distributed load from the pipe, hardware,
and support blocks, as well as the water conveyed in the line.
Force effects due to creep (CR): CR are a time-dependent phenomenon
of concrete structures due to sustained compression load. As such, bent
caps are generally not affected by the displacement-generated loads
unless they are prestressed.
Force effects due to shrinkage (SH): The SH of concrete structures are a
time-dependent phenomenon that occurs as the concrete cures. The
effects of shrinkage are typically not considered unless the bent cap is
unusually long (wide structures). Shrinkage, like creep, also affects
prestressed bent caps by creating a loss in prestress force as the structural
member shortens beyond the initial elastic shortening.
Secondary forces from post-tensioning (PS): The primary post-
tensioning forces counteract dead and live load demands. However, PS

forces introduce load into the members of statically indeterminate bent

caps as the cap beams shorten elastically toward the point of no
movement.
Miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting from construction
processes (EL)
Generally, DC and DW are distributed by tributary area (or width) for precast
prestressed I-girder, steel girder, and bulb T girder bridges. In other types of
structures, DC and DW may be distributed equally to each girder despite varying
girder spacing. Those types of structures, such as cast-in-place prestressed concrete
box girder sections, are so stiff that dead loads are distributed nearly equally to each
girder. The self-weight of the bent cap, DCbent cap, however, is distributed along the
length of the bent cap as a tributary load.
12.2.2 Transient Loads
Transient Loads are loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, varying over
a short time interval. A transient load is any load that will not remain on the bridge
indefinitely. For bend cap design, this includes vehicular live loads (LL) and their
secondary effects including dynamic load allowance (IM), braking force (BR), and
centrifugal force (CE). Additionally, there may be pedestrian live load (PL), force
effects due to uniform temperature (TU), and temperature gradient (TG), force effects
due to settlement (SE), water load and stream pressure (WA), wind load on structure
(WS), wind on live load (WL), friction force (FR), ice load (IC), vehicular collision
force (CT), vessel collision force (CV), and earthquake load (EQ).
The primary transient load that the bent cap must support is live load. Force
effects from live loads are determined similarly to the methods used for the
longitudinal girder analysisthrough the use of an analytical process that may
involve influence lines. The process of calculating wheel line loads to apply to the
bent cap model involves extraction of the unfactored bent reactions for each design
vehicle class from the longitudinal analysis model. Note that the reactions are
generated for a single truck or lane load for each of the three vehicle classes: LRFD
HL-93, Caltrans permit vehicles (P-load) (Caltrans, 2014), and fatigue vehicle.
12.2.2.1 Number of Live Load Lanes
Live load lanes (Figure 12.2-1) are not the same as the striped lanes on bridges.
For bent design, force effects from a single lane of vehicular live load are acquired
from the longitudinal frame analysis. To perform an analysis at the bent, various
configurations of a single lane or multiple lanes are considered. Fractional lanes are
not allowed for bent cap design, meaning only whole numbers of 12-ft lanes are
employed.

Figure 12.2-1 Number of Live Load Lanes
Maximum number of live load lanes within a bridge, N, is determined by

following equation:
N = Integer part of {[width of bridge (ft) barrier widths (ft)] 12 ft} (12.2-1)
Per AASHTO Article 3.6.1.1.1, future changes to clear roadway width should be
considered. The lane load is considered uniformly distributed over a 10-ft width.
However, designers may simplify the analysis by combining the HL-93 lane load
with the HL-93 truck wheel line load. Note that, per AASHTO 3.6.1.2.4, the
dynamic load allowance, IM, shall be applied only to the truck load.
12.2.2.2 Multiple Presence Factors, m
Multiple presence factors, m, as specified in AASHTO Table 3.6.1.1.2-1, are

used to account for the improbability of fully loaded trucks crossing the structure
simultaneously and are applied to the vehicular live loading.
12.2.2.3 Vehicular Live Load Positioning
An important consideration in the design of bent caps is to determine the

maximum or critical force effects by positioning live load lanes. The location of the
truck and lane, as shown in Figure 12.2-1, has an important bearing on the force

effect on the bent cap. Whether the truck is at midspan of a bent cap or at the support,
it has an effect on the value of the moment and shear on the bent cap.
AASHTO LRFD requires that one truck be placed in each lane transversely: If
the bridge can fit four lanes, then up to four trucks can be placed on the bridge, one in
each lane.
Lanes are placed to produce the maximum force effects in the bent cap.
However, one must consider the effect of the multiple presence factor, m, as it is not
always evident that placing the maximum number of trucks will garner the maximum
force effects in the bent cap. For example, for closely spaced columns within a bent
cap, two HL-93 lanes may result in greater shear demand than four HL-93 lanes
because the latter case would require a multiple presence factor of 0.65.
The designer must also consider that a certain configuration, and number, of live
load lane positions may result in maximum shear effects but not necessarily
maximum moment effects. For a bent cap supported by multiple columns, it is
advisable to use a structural analysis program that is capable of generating
combinations of lane configurations, as well as influence lines from moving live
loads. CsiBridge, and CTBridge are such programs.
12.2.2.4 HL-93 Design Vehicular Live Load Positioned Transversely
HL-93 consists of design truck, or design tandem, and design lane load. Figure
12.2-2 shows one of two alternatives for a design truck, or wheel lines, transversely
placed within a 12-ft live load lane. The other alternative is a mirror image of this
graphic depiction. The wheel lines may move anywhere within the 12-ft lane as long
as AASHTO 3.6.1.3.1 is satisfied. Lanes and wheel lines shall be placed to produce
maximum force effects in the bent cap.
Figure 12.2-2 HL-93 Design Truck Positioned Transversely
When multiple lanes are applied to the bent cap, the wheel lines may be
positioned as shown in Figure 12.2-3:

Figure 12.2-3 Wheel Line Spacing for Four HL-93 Trucks
Figure 12.2-4 shows a 10-ft wide HL-93 lane load placed in 12-ft wide lanes.
Figure 12.2-4 HL-93 Lane Loads Positioned Transversely

12.2.2.5 Permit Trucks Positioned Transversely
Per CA 3.4.1 (Caltrans 2014), for bent cap design, a maximum of two permit
trucks shall be placed in lanes that are positioned to create the most severe condition.
Figure 12.2-5 shows two permit trucks occupying two adjacent lanes. However, the
lanes may be positioned apart if that results in maximum bent cap force effects.
Figure 12.2-5 Permit Trucks Positioned Transversely


This section presents the typical design procedure for cast-in-place concrete bent
caps. Topics include design for flexure, shear, and shear-flexure interaction.
12.3.1 Flexural Design
Reinforced concrete bent caps shall be designed to satisfy the strength, service,
and fatigue limit states.
The goal of flexural design under the strength limit state is to provide enough
resistance to satisfy the strength limit state conditions. This may be achieved by using
bar reinforcing steel or prestressing in the cast-in-place concrete bent cap.
12.3.1.1 Flexural Design Process
The flexural design process for bent caps consists of 12 primary steps,
summarized below:
1) Calculate factored moments for Strength I and II limit states
2) Calculate minimum cracking moment, then determine minimum design
moment, Mmin
3) Determine the factored moment demand, Mu
4) Assume an initial value for area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement,
As
5) Calculate net tensile strain, t, and determine resistance factor,
6) Determine whether the section is rectangular or flanged
7) Calculate the average stress in prestressing steel, ps, if the bent cap is post-
tensioned
8) Calculate the nominal flexural resistance, Mn
9) Calculate the factored flexural resistance, Mr
10) Iterate steps 4 through 9 until Mr Mu and the design assumptions are
verified
11) Check for serviceability
12) Check for fatigue

12.3.1.1.1 Determine the Factored Moment from Strength I and Strength II Limit States
Per CA table 3.4.1-1, both Strength I and Strength II limit states are used to
calculate Mu for bent caps. For simplicity, Strength III through V, are not being
considered as Strength I and II will govern in most bent cap designs. For additional
simplicity, moment demand from prestressing, creep, shrinkage, stream pressure,
uniform temperature change, temperature gradient, and settlement are not being
considered:
Strength I
Mu(HL93) = 1.25(MDC) + 1.5(MDW) + 1.75(MHL93) (12.3.1-1)
Strength II
Mu(P-15) = 1.25(MDC) + 1.5(MDW) + 1.35(MP 15) (12.3.1-2)
where:
Mu(HL93) = factored moment demand at the section from HL93 Vehicle
Mu(P-15) = factored moment demand at the section from the Permit Vehicle
MDC = unfactored moment demand at the section from dead load of
structural components and nonstructural attachments
MDW = unfactored moment demand at the section from dead load of
wearing surfaces and utilities
From the above two limit states, the larger of the two values is the controlling
moment. It is possible to have different limit states control at different locations
along the bent cap.
12.3.1.1.2 Calculate Minimum Reinforcement Design Moment, Mmin
The minimum reinforcement requirement ensures that the flexural design of the
bent cap provides either enough post-cracking ductility of the member or a modest
margin of safety over Mu:
S

M cr 3 1 f r 2 f cpe S c M dhc c 1 (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1)
S nc
Ig
Sc (12.3.1-3)
Yt
where:
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite section where

Ig = moment of inertial of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis,
neglecting the reinforcement (in.4)
Yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (in.)
fr = modulus of rupture of the concrete (ksi)
allowance for all prestress losses) not including the effects of secondary
moment, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (ksi)
3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of the
reinforcement
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic or
noncomposite section (kip-in.)
section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
Mdnc and Snc typically apply to precast girders before and after the girder become
composite with the deck. Therefore, the terms do not typically apply to cast-in-place
bent cap design and will be disregarded. Since the design examples are of non-
prestressed bent caps, remove fcpe from the equation, and reduce the formula to:
Mcr = 3 (1 fr) Sc (12.3.1-4)
Per AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2, the minimum factored moment demand is:
Mmin = min (Mcr, 1.33Mu) (12.3.1-5)
12.3.1.1.3 Determine the Factored Moment Demand, Mu
The maximum value of Mu is:

Mu = max(Mu(HL93), Mu(P-15), Mmin) (12.3.1-6)
12.3.1.1.4 Determine the Resistance Factor,
The AASHTO code requires that factored loads be less than or equal to factored
resistances, as shown below:

Figure 12.3-1 General Equation of LRFD Methodology
For flexure design, the AASHTO LRFD code specifies a variable resistance
factor. The relationship between and the steel net tensile strain, t, is provided in the
design specifications. To determine the resistance factor for flexure design of the bent
cap, the designer must first calculate the steel net tensile strain.
12.3.1.1.5 Calculate the Section's Net Tensile Strain, t
The net tensile strain, t, is the tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at
nominal flexural strength.
The nominal flexural strength is reached when the concrete strain in the extreme
compression fiber reaches the assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. The following
graphic shows a rectangle section with linear strain distribution along the section.
Figure 12.3-2 Strain Diagram for Rectangular Section
where:
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis
dt = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of extreme
tension steel

cu = failure strain of concrete in compression

Based on AASHTO 5.7.2.1, the strain along the section is a linear distribution or
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. Using the similar triangle
method, the steel net tensile strain can be determined as:
dt d
t cu 0.003 t (12.3.1-7)
c 1 c 1
The following graph from CA C5.5.4.2.1-1 shows how the resistance factor, ,
varies with the section's net tensile strain t.
Figure 12.3-3 Variation of with Net Tensile Strain, t
Note that the variation of has three distinct linear regions. These regions
describe ranges of t that denote whether a section is compression-controlled,
tension-controlled, or a transition section.
Compression-controlled section
If t 0.002, the section is defined as a compression-controlled section.
Under external load action, a compression-controlled member fails in a
brittle manner with little warning. To avoid this scenario, the design code
requires a more conservative resistance factor, = 0.75.
Tension-controlled section
If t 0.005, the section is defined as a tension-controlled section.
Failure of a tension controlled member is more ductile and is considered
to have sufficient warning before failure by means of deflection and
cracking. Therefore, the design specifications specifies a relatively large
resistance factor for tension-controlled members.

Transition section
If t is located between the above two limits (0.002 < t < 0.005), the
section is defined as a transition section. Under this condition, the
resistance factor will vary linearly with t.
The following figure illustrates the net tensile strain limits:
Figure 12.3-4 Net Tensile Strain Limits.

Note: Per CA C5.7.2.1, the net tensile strain for a reinforced (non-prestressed)
concrete flexural member, such as a bent cap, shall not be less than 0.004.
12.3.1.1.6 Determine the Factored Flexural Resistance, Mr
The factored flexural resistance is:

Mr = Mn (12.3.1-8)
12.3.1.1.7 Determine whether the Section is Rectangular or Flanged
For monolithic integral bent caps, it is Caltrans' practice to consider part of the
deck and soffit slab to be working with the solid bent cap section as a flanged cross-
section as shown in Figure 12.3-5.

Figure 12.3-5 Flanged Cross Section
Figure 12.3-6 Geometric Model

where :
a = distance from the center of gravity (CG) of the superstructure to the bottom
of column = height of the column + depth to CG of the bent cap
b = top width of superstructure
c = distance from the centerline (CL) of the columns to the edge of deck (e + f)
d = distance between the CL of columns
e = distance from the CL of exterior girder to the edge of deck (EOD)
f = distance from the CL of the column to the CL of the exterior girder
In the geometrical model shown in Figure 12.3-6, the flanged cross-section spans
from the centerline of the left exterior girder to the centerline of the right exterior
girder at the CG of the bent. The rectangular cross-sections span from the centerline
of the exterior girder to the edge of deck. These sections are assumed as rectangular
in order to simplify the analytical model.
For drop bent caps, the section is rectangular for the full length of the bent cap.
Although the terms "flanged section" and "rectangular section" describe the
geometric section, it is important to note that they are not necessarily accurate
depictions of the analytical section. A "flanged section" may be analyzed as a
"rectangular section." The scenario exists when the depth of the compression zone,
i.e, distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, c, is less than the
thickness of the compression flange, h (c h). If the depth of the compression zone
is greater than the thickness of the compression flange (c > h), then the section will
exhibit "flanged section" behavior.
If the section is a rectangular section, then determine c as follows:
A ps f pu As f s As' f s'
c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-4)
f pu
0.85 f c' 1b kA ps
dp

If the section is a flanged section, then determine c as follows:
A ps f pu As f s As' f s' 0.58 f c' (b bw )h f

c (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-3)
f pu
0.85 f c' 1bw kA ps
dp

where:
c = distance from extreme compressive fiber to the neutral axis (in.)

dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of prestressing

tendons (in.)
As = area of mild steel tension reinforcement (in.2)
fs = stress in the mild steel tension reinforcement at nominal flexural
resistance (ksi)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of non-
prestressed tensile reinforcement (in.)
fs = stress in the mild steel compression reinforcement at nominal flexural
resistance (ksi)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of compression
reinforcement (in.)
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi) at 28 days, unless another
age is specified (ksi)
b = width of the compression face of the member (in.)
bw = web width or diameter of a circular section (in.)
hf = compression flange depth of an I or T member (in.)
1 = stress block factor specified in AASHTO Article 5.7.2.2
For fc 4 ksi, 1 = 0.85
For fc 4 ksi, 1 is reduced at a rate of 0.05 for each 1 ksi of strength in
excess of 4 ksi, except 1 0.65
fps = average stress in prestressing steel; value is often zero for non-prestressed
bent caps
The average stress in prestressing steel, f ps , may be taken as:
c
f ps f pu 1 k (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-1)
dp

k = constant that depends on the type of tendon used:
f py
k 21.04 (AASHTO 5.7.3.1.1-2)
f
pu
Alternatively, the following table can be used:

AASHTO Table C5.7.3.1.1-1 Value of k

f py
Type of Tendon Value of k
f pu
Low relaxation strand 0.9 0.28
Stress-relieved strand 0.85 0.38
Type 1 highstrength bar 0.85 0.38
Type 2 highstrength bar 0.8 0.48
Figure 12.3-7 Flexural Resistance Calculation Flowchart
Mn is the nominal resistance, which can be calculated by:
a a a a hf
2 2 2
( )
M n = Aps f ps d p - + As f s ds - - As f s ds - + 0.85 fc b - bw h f -
2 2
(AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2-1)
where:

fps = average stress in prestressing steel at nominal bending resistance (ksi)

dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of prestressing
tendons (in.)
As = area of mild steel tension reinforcement (in.2)
fs = stress in the mild steel tension reinforcement at nominal flexural resistance
(ksi)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of non-
prestressed tensile reinforcement (in.)
resistance (ksi)
ds = resistance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of compression
reinforcement (in.)
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi) at 28 days, unless another
age is specified (ksi)
b = width of the compression face of the member (in.)
bw = web width or diameter of a circular section (in.)
hf = compression flange depth of an I or T member (in.)
a = c1; depth of the equivalent stress block (in.)
1 = stress block factor specified in AASHTO Article 5.7.2.2
The graphic below shows the variables that comprise each component of the
formula:
Figure 12.3-8 Components of Flexural Moment
For non-prestressed cast-in-place bent caps, in which compression reinforcement

is ignored, the term for Mn can be reduced to:

a a hf
M n As f s d s 0.85 f c b bw h f
2
(12.3.1-9)
2 2
12.3.1.2 Check for Serviceability
Cracks occur in concrete components due to:

Loading conditions
Thermal effects
Deformations
Cracks occur whenever tension stress in the member exceeds the modulus of
rupture of concrete. The severity of flexural cracking in a concrete bent caps can be
controlled by providing optimized tension reinforcement layouts, limiting bar sizes,
and providing tighter spacing.
Per AASHTO 5.7.3.4, the spacing, s, of mild steel reinforcement in the layer
closest to the tension face is given by:
700 e
s 2d c (AASHTO 5.7.3.4-1)
s f ss
where:
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center
of the closest flexural reinforcement (in.)
e = exposure factor
= 1.00 for Class 1 exposure condition
= 0.75 for Class 2 exposure condition
dc
s 1 (12.3.1-10)
0.7h d c
h = overall thickness or depth of the component (in.)
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state (ksi)
Note: In the above equation, the spacing, s, of the bar reinforcing steel is inversely
proportional to the stress in the reinforcing steel.
Also, per CA 5.7.3.4:
Class 1 exposure condition applies when cracks can be tolerated due to
reduced concerns for appearance and/or corrosion.
Class 2 exposure condition applies when there are increased concerns for
appearance and/or corrosion (for example; in areas where de-icing salts
are used). Class 2 exposure condition applies to all bridge deck.

12.3.1.3 Check for Fatigue
As per AASHTO 5.5.3.1, the stress range in reinforcing bars due to the fatigue
load combination shall satisfy:
(f) (F)TH (AASHTO 5.5.3.1-1)
(F)TH = 24 0.33 fmin (AASHTO 5.5.3.2-1)
where:
= load factor for Fatigue I
f = live load stress range (ksi)
fmin = minimum live load stress resulting from the Fatigue I load
combination, combined with more serve stress from either the
permanent loads or the permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep-induced
external loads; . positive if tension, negative if compression (ksi)
For the fatigue check:
The fatigue load combination is given in CA Table 3.4.1-1 and features a
load factor of 1.75 for the infinite fatigue life.
Apply the IM factor to the fatigue load.
Check both top and bottom reinforcement to ensure that the stress range
in the reinforcement under the fatigue load stays within the range
specified in the above equation.
The shear design of bent caps involves:

Determining the stirrup bar size along the length of the bent cap
Determining stirrup spacing along the bent cap
Checking shear-flexure interaction
The LRFD shear design method is based on the Modified Compression Field
Theory. Contrary to the traditional shear design methodology, it assumes a variable
angle truss model instead of the 45 truss analogy. The LRFD method also accounts
for interaction between shear, torsion, flexure, and axial load, as well as residual
tension in concrete after cracking, which was neglected in the traditional method of
shear design. California Amendments Article 5.8.3.4.2 specifies that shear resistance
of all prestressed and nonprestressed sections shall be determined by AASHTO
Appendix B5.
The LRFD design code notes that shear design may be considered to the distance,
dv, from the face of support (AASHTO 5.8.3.2). However, Caltrans' practice is to
evaluate shear to the face of support. See Chapter 5 for detailed discussion.

Factored shear resistance, Vr, is given by:

Vr = Vn (AASHTO 5.8.2.1-2)
The nominal shear resistance, Vn, is the lesser of:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
or
Vn = 0.25fcbvdv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
If if the procedures of AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1 or 5.8.3.4.2 are used
Vc 0.0316 f c bv d v (AAAHTO 5.8.3.3-4)
Av f y d v cot cot sin

Vs (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4)
s
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi)
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (ksi)
force (kip); positive if resisting the applied shear; typically zero for
conventionally reinforced bent caps
bv = effective web width (in.) taken as the minimum web width within the depth
dv
s = spacing of stirrups (in.)
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
and shear
= angle of inclination () of diagonal compressive stresses
= angle of inclination () of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis;
typically 90
Av = area of shear reinforcement (in.2) within a distance s
The main shear equation may be rearranged and simplified for design purposes,
as such:
Vu
Vs Vc (12.3.2-1)

Per AASHTO C5.8.2.4, transverse reinforcement must be provided in all regions
where there is a significant chance of diagonal cracking. Transverse reinforcement
must be provided where:
Vu > 0.5 (Vc + Vp) (AASHTO 5.8.2.4-1)
Determine the effective shear depth, d.

As specified in AASHTO 5.8.2.9, the effective shear depth, dv, is taken as the
distance, measured perpendicular to the neutral axis, between the resultants of the
tensile and compressive forces due to flexure.
The effective shear depth, dv, is given by:
a
dv de (12.3.2-2)
2
where:
dv needs not be taken to be less than the greater of 0.9de or 0.72h where h is the
overall thickness or depth of a member
12.3.2.1 Determine Factor and Angle
Using shear stress ratio, vu / fc, and longitudinal strain, x, to find values of and
from AASHTO Table B5.2-1.
For non-prestressed concrete bent cap,
Vu
vu (AASHTO 5.8.2.9-1)
bv d v
where:
Vu = factored shear (kip)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width (in.)
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compression force due
to flexure, it need not be taken to be less than the greater of 0.9de or 0.72h
(in.)
The longitudinal strain at the middepth of member x, shall be determined by:
| Mu |
0.5 N u 0.5 | Vu V p | cot A ps f po
x
dv

2 E s As E p A ps (AASHTO B5.2-1)
where:
M u = absolute value of the factored moment, not to be taken less than
Vu V p d v (kip-in.)
Nu = factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile and negative if

compressive (kip)

Vu = factored shear force (kip)

multiplied by the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing
tendons and surrounding concrete (ksi)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars (ksi)
Note: The longitudinal strain is a function of the desired angle of compression strut,
. This necessitates an iterative procedure to solve for the longitudinal strain, x, and
. Thus, it may be useful to assume that the term (0.5cot) equals 1.0 and reduce the
number of iterations.
12.3.2.2 Determine the Amount of Shear Stirrups, Av, and Spacing, s
Knowing, Vu, Vc, and , the demand on shear stirrups, Vs , can be determined:
Vu
Vs Vc (12.3.2-1)

Av
Knowing Vc, the term can be determined:
s
Av Vs
=
( )
(12.3.2-2)
s f y dv cot q + cot a sina
Check for minimum shear reinforcement:
Av f c bv
0.0316 (AASHTO 5.8.2.5-1)
s mim fy
Check for maximum spacing:

For vu / fc < 0.125, smax = 0.8dv 18 in. (CA 5.8.2.7-1)
For vu / fc 0.125, smax = 0.4dv 12 in. (AASHTO 5.8.2-7-2)
Repeat for other points along bent cap span (typically at tenth point) and obtain
Av and s.
12.3.3 Check Longitudinal Steel for Tension (Shear-Flexure Interaction)
The effect of shear forces on the longitudinal reinforcement is determined and the
adequacy of the reinforcement is checked using the AASHTO interaction equation
5.8.3.5-1. Longitudinal reinforcement along with the vertical steel stirrups and the
compression strut in concrete constitute the truss mechanism that carries the applied
loads.

The check of the adequacy of the longitudinal reinforcement may result in added
length of the longitudinal bar reinforcing and/or added amount of longitudinal
reinforcement. The former occurs if the original bar reinforcement is curtailed, and
the latter occurs in case of indirect loading/support such as the case of box girders
framing into bent caps. Figure 12.3-9 shows the concept of direct/indirect loading
and support, along with the demand on the longitudinal steel from flexure (solid line)
and shear (dashed line).
Direct Loading
Indirect Loading
Flexure
Shear
Figure 12.3-9 Direct Versus Indirect Loading/Support
As can be seen from Figure 12.3-9, the amount of longitudinal steel need not
exceed the maximum amount due to flexure demands in the case of direct
loading/support. The additional shear demands on the longitudinal steel can be
overcome by extending the length of the longitudinal bar reinforcement. However, in
the case of girders framing onto other girders at equal depth or height, the shear
demand is likely to result in an additional amount of longitudinal steel beyond what
is needed to meet the maximum flexure demands.

A direct loading/support case is typical for drop bent cap beams. Precast and steel
girders are applying the load atop the bent cap. Columns are also directly supporting
the cap. Since Caltrans practices no curtailment of the longitudinal reinforcement
(due to nature of seismic loading), there is no need to check for shear-flexure
interaction. Indirect loadings/supports are often encountered in box girder
construction. At location of box girders framing onto the cap, the amount of bent cap
longitudinal reinforcement needs to be checked using the shear-flexure interaction
equation. Similar to drop bent caps, the columns are directly supporting the cap and
no added longitudinal reinforcement is required at the face of column support.
The tension capacity of the longitudinal reinforcement is determined on the
flexural tension side using fully developed steel and at locations of applied
concentrated loads (on integral bent caps).
At every location, the following three possible load conditions shall be checked:
Maximum shear and associated moments
Maximum positive moments and associated shear
Maximum negative moments and associated shear
The longitudinal steel must satisfy:
Mu N u Vu
A ps f ps As f y 0.5 V p 0.5Vs cot
dv f
c v

(AASHTO 5.8.3.5-1)
For the typical case of no prestressing and axial force in bent cap, the above
equation reduces to:
Mu V
As f y u 0.5Vs cot (12.3.3-1)
dv f
v
where:
f = resistance factor for moment
c = resistance factor for axial load
Vu
Note: Vs shall not be taken more than .

12.3.4 Design for Seismic
For seismic design, resistance factor shall be taken as = 1.0 (CA 5.5.5).

12.4 DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to the main top and bottom longitudinal steel for flexure and vertical
stirrups for shear, reinforcement is required for side-face and end reinforcement for
crack control, as well as for construction purposes.
12.4.1 Construction Reinforcement
This reinforcement is only needed for box girder construction. Concrete for the
box girder is usually placed in two stages. The first stage includes placing the soffit
slab and the girder stems. It is commonly known as the stem and soffit pour since
the deck slab is not included. The second stage consists of constructing the top three
to four inches of the stem and the deck slab as shown in Figure 12.4-1.
Figure 12.4-1 Concrete Pour Stage
The two-stage pouring of concrete results in a construction joint at the bent cap at
the top of the girder stem. At this stage (after first pour), the girders are not stressed,
longitudinal bottom steel is in place, and the entire bridge is supported on falsework.
If falsework underwent any settlement or failed unexpectedly due to impact by an
errant vehicle, the bent cap will be subjected to a bending moment similar to that
shown in Figure 12.4-2. As shown, there is negative moment at and near the supports
(columns) with no top steel to resist this moment.

As such, it is Caltrans practice to provide additional top longitudinal steel, also

commonly referred to as construction reinforcement, underneath the construction
joint for the potential loss or settlement of the falsework supporting the bridge. A 10-
ft length of the exterior stem girder on each side of the bent cap is assumed to act as
dead load weight in addition to the bent cap own weight. Detailed weight calculations
and design consideration for construction reinforcement are shown in Section 12.5.1,
Integral Bent Cap Example. See Figure 12.4-3.
Figure 12.4-2 Potential Moment Diagram after First Pour
Figure 12.4-3 Construction Reinforcement
12.4.2 Side Face Reinforcement
Caltrans SDC 7.4.4.3 (Caltrans, 2013) requires side face reinforcement in

quantity that amounts to 10 percent of the maximum amount of longitudinal
reinforcement of the bent cap. The maximum amount of longitudinal reinforcement
will come from either the top or bottom steel. The side face reinforcement, shown in
Figure 12.4-4, is placed along the two vertical faces of the bent cap and shall have a
maximum spacing of 12 inches.
It is permissible to include the construction reinforcement to satisfy part of this
requirement.

Figure 12.4-4 Side-Face Reinforcement
12.4.3 End Reinforcement
The end reinforcement is provided along the end face of the bent cap, as shown
in Figure 12.4-5, as a crack control measure. There are two basic types of end
reinforcement, Z-bars and U-bars as shown in Figure 12.4-5.
Figure 12.4.3-1
Figure 12.4-5 End
End Reinforcement in the
Reinforcement in theBent
BentCap
Cap
The U-bars (horizontal plane) are typically designed using the shear friction
concept to resist the dead and live load of the exterior girder. The number of U-bars
per set depends on whether the bent cap width is less than or more than seven feett.
12.4.4 Other Detailing Considerations (Skew)
If the skew angle of the bent is 20 or less, the deck and soffit slab reinforcement
are placed parallel to the centerline of bent cap. This bar reinforcement configuration
allows the bent cap longitudinal reinforcement to be placed as far from the extreme
compression fiber as possible to optimize flexural capacity. When the bent cap skew
angle is greater than 20, the deck and soffit slab reinforcement are typically placed
perpendicular to the centerline of the bridge and the bent cap top longitudinal steel
must be placed below the deck reinforcement or above the soffit reinforcement.
Details of bent cap reinforcement for different skew angles can be found in BDD 7-
45 and 7-43 (Caltrans, 1986).

12.5 DESIGN EXAMPLES

The section contains two design examples including a reinforced concrete
integral bent cap and a drop bent cap to illustrate the main design process of using the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and California
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014). Figure 12.5-1 shows a general design flowchart for a
bent cap.
It should be noted that the examples do not constitute a complete bent cap design.
Only selected work has been done to demonstrate design methods. For example,
tension steel has not been designed for every span of the bent cap as it would be done
for an actual bent cap design. Additionally, there are other design considerations not
considered in examples. For instance, seismic design will not been addressed. It is
hoped, however, that the example will provide good foundation for design of bent
caps.
The information contained in this section should not be used as a design guide in
place of reading the specifications. There are often several ways to solve a design
problem. It is recommended that prior to applying any formula or procedure
contained within this section, the designer should read the appropriate Articles of the
Caltrans currently adopted AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications and
California Amendments to be certain that the described formula or procedure is
appropriate for use.
12.5.1 Integral Bent Cap
The integral bent cap example shown on the following page is used in a three-
span cast-in-place prestressed concrete box girder bridge.

Figure 12.5-1 Bent Cap Analysis and Design Flowchart

12.5.1.1 Bent Cap Data
Integral bent cap is supported by two column bent as shown in Figure 12.5-2.
The box girder has four cells of depth 6.75 ft with a skew angle is 20. Concrete column
diameter is 6 ft. diameter columns.
Figure 12.5-2 Two Column Bent
Note: These dimensions are perpendicular to the centerline (CL) of the roadway and
are not actual dimensions of the bent since the bent is skewed at an angle to the
roadway.
12.5.1.2 Design Requirements
Perform the structural analysis, flexural, and shear design as shown in Figure
12.5-1 in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th
Edition (AASHTO, 2012) with California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014).
12.5.1.3 Step 1: Determine Geometry of Bent
Bent dimensions along the skew are shown in Figure 12.5-3. Ranges of bent
cross section types are shown in Figure 12.5-4.

Figure 12.5-3 Bent Dimensions along the Skew
Figure 12.5-4 Bent Cross Section Types

where :
a = distance from the centroid of gravity of the superstructure to the bottom of
column
b = top width of superstructure
c = distance from the CL of the columns to the edge of deck (e + f)

d = distance between the CL of columns

e = distance from the CL of exterior girder to the edge of deck (EOD)
For the example bridge, assume that CG of the bent cap is at mid-depth of the
cap beam.
12.5.1.3.1 Rectangular Cross Section
The rectangular cross section spans from the CL of the exterior girder to the
EOD. These sections are assumed as rectangular in order to simplify the stick model.
The dimension e in the geometric model is the distance from the CL of exterior
girder to the EOD along the skew, as shown in Figure 12.5-5.
Figure 12.5-5 Rectangular Cross Section

28.5
ep
1
(13.4) 34.5 60 81 in.
2 69
81
e (alongskew) 86.2 in. 7.18 ft
cos(20)
f = c e = 14.3 - 7.18 = 7.12 ft
12.5.1.3.2 Flanged Cross Section
Range of flanged cross section is shown in Figure 12.5-6.

Minimum bent cap width = column width + 2 ft (SDC 7.4.2.1)
Width of bent cap, Bcap = 6 + 2 = 8 ft

Figure 12.5-6 Range of Flanged Cross Section

Effective bent cap flange or overhang width = width of bent cap + 2 (width of
overhang at each side), as shown in Figure 12.5-7.
Width of overhang is: (AASHTO 4.6.2.6.5)
Least of -6 (least soffit slab thickness) = 6 (8.25) = 49.5 in.
0.1(span length of the bent cap) = 0.1(34) = 3.4 ft = 40.8 in
0.1(2 length of cantilever span) = 0.1 (214.3) = 2.86 ft = 34.3 in.
Total effective flange width = 8 + 2.86 + 2.86 = 13.72 ft = 164.64 in.
Figure 12.5-7 Effective Flange Width

12.5.1.4 Step 2: Determine Material Property
A706 Steel reinforcement with fy = 60 ksi and Es = 29,000 ksi, and concrete
with fc = 4 ksi and Ec = 3,645 ksi, are used in design example.
12.5.1.5 Step 3: Determine Bent Reactions due to Permanent and Live Load
Bent reactions due to permanent and live load are calculated as follows.
12.5.1.5.1 Reactions due to Permanent Loads
The permanent loads are comprised of:

Dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments (DC)
Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
Self-weight of bent cap
The unfactored bent reactions for DC and DW obtained from a longitudinal
analysis are shown in Table 12.5-1.
12.5.1.5.2 Self-Weight of the Bent Cap
The self-weight of the bent cap is modeled as a uniformly distributed load

Figure 12.5-8 Permanent Load on Bent Cap

Self-weight of bent cap = (cross-sectional area of the bent cap solid section)
(average length of bent cap) (unit weight of concrete)
Average length = 7.12 + 34 + 7.12 = 48.24 ft
Box cell area = 217.9 ft2
Bent cap self-weigh = (217.90) (8) (0.15) = 261.48 kips
Self-weight modeled as uniform load = 261.48 / 48.24 = 5.42 kips/ft
Note: While calculating the self-weight of the bent cap, be careful not to include the
portion of the deck, soffit slab, and girder thicknesses at the bent cap if they have
already been included in the longitudinal analysis of the bridge.
Table 12.5-1 Unfactored Reactions due to DC, DW, HL-93, P-15, and
Fatigue Vehicles
Bent Reactions Dynamic Final Bent
(kip ) Allowance Factor Reactions (kip)
DC 2,651.5 NA 2,651.5
DW 325 NA 325
Self-Weight 261.48 NA 261.48
HL-93 Vehicle Truck 114.82 1.33
252
Lane 99.34 1
Permit Vehicle 360.77 1.25 451
Fatigue Vehicle 70.66 1.15 81.25
For both DC and DW, these bent reactions obtained from the longitudinal
analysis are modeled as concentrated load acting at the CL of each girder framing
into the bent cap.
Reaction due to DC on the bent cap for each girder (kip)
= 2651.5 / 5 = 531 kips
Reaction due to DW on the bent cap for each girder (kip)
= 325 / 5 = 65 kips
12.5.1.5.3 Live Load as Two Wheels
Vehicular live loads as two wheels are applied on the bent caps as shown in
Figure 12.5-9.
HL-93 vehicle: 252 / 2 = 126 kips
Permit vehicle: 451 / 2 = 226 kips
Fatigue vehicle : 82 / 2 = 41 kips

HL-93 Load
Permit Load
Fatigue Load
Figure 12.5-9 Bent Reaction due to Live Loads

The HL-93 vehicle live loads can be one, two, three, or four lanes.
Figure 12.5-10 shows different HL-993 truck placement for transverse analysis
using CSiBridge. Figure12.5-11 shows placement of two HL-93 lanes.
Figure 12.5-10 Possible Scenarios for Placement of Live Load

Figure 12.5-11 Two Scenarios for Two Truck Case
Permit vehicle live load may be only one or two lanes as shown in Figure 12.5-
12.
Figure 12.5-12 Permit Trucks
Fatigue vehicle live load is only one truck as shown in Figure 12.5-13.
Figure 12.5-13 Fatigue Truck

12.5.1.6 Step 4: Perform Transverse Analysis
The goal of the transverse analysis is to obtain force effect envelopes of all
possible live load cases.
The example bridge has four design lanes. Each of the different live load trucks
can be placed in these design lanes. The number and placement of these trucks
depends on the type of load:
HL-93 vehicle
Permit truck
Fatigue truck
Since there may be many live load cases to consider, computer software is
usually used to determine:
Maximum moment (negative or positive) and associated shear
Maximum shear and associated moment
Available computer programs for transverse analysis are:
CSiBridge
VBENT
LEAP Bridge - RCPIER
CTBridge
For this example bridge, results are obtained by performing transverse analysis
with CSiBrdge.
The results from the transverse analysis are obtained at every tenth point or at
selected points. These results are shown separately for DC, DW, HL-93, permit, and
fatigue loads. Table 12.5-2 and 12.5-3 list the controlling unfactored moments.
Note: Bent transverse analysis using CsiBridge is not covered under this chapter.
Please refer to the following URL for step-by-step procedures to generate the bent
cap model in CSiBridge for transverse analysis:
http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/des/sd/SD_training/intro.html
12.5.1.7 Step 5: Perform Flexural Design
The design equation is as follows:

Mu Mr = Mn (12.5-1)

12.5.1.7.1 Calculate Controlling Unfactored Moment
Table 12.5-2 shows unfactored controlling moments including impact for the
bent cap, obtained from the transverse analysis of the bridge using CSiBridge.
Table 12.5-2 Unfactored Moments

Moment at Moment at
Load and Moment Mid-Span Face of Column
(kip-ft) (kip-ft)
DC, MDC 3,377 -1,760
DW, MDW 339 -217
HL-93 Vehicle, MHL-93 2,683 -1,859
Permit Vehicle, MP-15 4,571 -3,336
12.5.1.7.2 Check Positive Moment at Midspan
Factored moments are as follows:
Strength I
M u 1.25M DC 1.5M DW 1.75M HL 93
1.253,377 1.5339 1.752,683 9,425 kip - ft
Strength II
M u 1.25M DC 1.5M DW 1.35M P15
1.253,377 1.5339 1.354,571 10,901 kip - ft
For the example bent cap, fcpe = 0. The bent cap is designed for the monolithic
section to resist all loads. substitute Snc for Sc and cracking moment is calculated by:
Mcr = 3 ( (1 fr) Sc (12.5-2)
f r 0.24 f c 0.24 4 0.48 ksi (AASHTO 5.4.2.6)
1.60 (for concrete structure, AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
(for A706, Grade 60 reinforcement, AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
Ig (flanged section) = 280.5 ft4; Yt = 40.30 in.; Yb = 40.70 in.
Ig 280.5
Sc 82.70 kip - ft
Yb 40.70 / 12
M cr Sc f r 0.75 [ (1.60)(0.48) 82.70] 122 6,860 kip ft

1.0M cr
M u (min) Lesser of
1.33M u
1.0 (6,860) 6,860 kip - ft
Lesser of 6,860 kip - ft
1.33 (10,901) 14,498 kip - ft
Therefore, the controlling factored moment at mid-span is:

Mu = 10,901 kip-ft
For the bent section without prestressing steel and with neglecting the effect of
compression reinforcement, the Mn equation reduces to:
a a h
2
( )
M n = As s ds - + 0.85c b - bw h - (12.5-2)
2 2
Assuming the neutral axis lies in the compression flange (rectangular section
behavior), nominal flexural resistance Mn is calculated by:
a
M n As f s d s (12.5-3)
2
where:
Mn = nominal flexural resistance (kip-in.)
fs = 60 ksi
ds = 81 (5.70 + 1.63) = 73.67 in. (assuming vertical bundles of #11)
b = 164.64 in.
bw = 96 in.
hf = 9 in.
= 0.9 (AASHTO 5.5.4.2)
a = c
where:
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2)
As f s
a
0.85 f cb
As f s
c
0.85 f cb

Rearrange and substitute design parameters into Eq. (12.5-1) to obtain:

Mu A f 1
As f s d s s s
0.9 0.85 f cb 2
10,91012 As 60 1
As 6073.67
0.9 . 164.64 2
0.854
Solving for As for positive moment region
As 33.71 in.2
Provide 22- #11 as bottom reinforcement: As = 34.32 in.2
As fs
c=
34.32 60 ( )
= 0.85 (4)(0.85)(164.64) = 4.33in. < 9 in.
0.85 f cbb ( )
Assumption of the neutral axis within in the flange is correct.
c

M r 0.9 M n 0.9 As f y d s
2
(4.33)0.85
0.9 34.32(60) 73.67
2
133,120 kip - in.
11,093 kip - ft M u 10,901 kip - ft
O.K.
Strain diagram is shown in Figure 12.5-14:
cu = 0.003
c
ds
Figure 12.5-14 Strain Diagram

cu t
c d c
s

0.003 t

4.33 73.67 4.33
Since t = 0.048 > 0.005, assumption of is correct.
12.5.1.7.3 Check Negative Moment at the Face of Column
Factored moments are as follows:
Strength I
M u 1.25M DC 1.5M DW 1.75M HL 93
1.25 1,760 1.5 217 1.75 1,859 5,779 kip - ft
Strength II
M u 1.25M DC 1.5M DW 1.35M HL 93
1.25 1,760 1.5 217 1.35 3,336 7,029 kip - ft
For the example bent cap, fcpe = 0. Also, the bent cap is designed for the
monolithic section to resist all loads, substitute Snc for Sc and cracking moment is
calculated by:
Mcr = 3 ( (1 fr) Sc (12.5-2)
where :
f r 0.24 f c 0.24 4 0.48 ksi (AASHTO 5.4.2.6)
1.60 (for concrete structure, AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
(for A706, Grade 60 reinforcement, AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
Ig (flanged section) = 280.5 ft4; Yt = 40.30 in.; Yb = 40.70 in.
Ig 280.5
Sc 83.52 ft 2
Yb 40.30 / 12
M cr S c f r 0.75[(1.60)(0.48) 83.52]122 6,928 kip - ft
1.0M cr
M u (min) Lesser of
1.33M u
1.0(6,928) 6,928 kip - ft
Lesser of 6,928 kip - ft
1.33 (7,029) 9,349 kip - ft
Therefore, the controlling factored negative moment at the face of column is:
M u 7,029 kip - ft

Assuming the neutral axis is within the compression flange (rectangular section
behavior), nominal flexural resistance Mn is calculated by:
a
M n As s d s
2
where:
fs = 60 ksi
bw = 96 in.
b = 164.64 in.
ds = 81 (5 + 1.63) = 74.37 in. (assuming vertical bundles of #11)
= 0.90 (AASHTO 5.5.4.2)
a = c where (AASHTO 5.7.2.2)
Rearrange and substitute design parameters into Eq. (12.5-1) to obtain:

Mu As f y 1
As f y d s

0.9 0.85 f c b 2
( )
7,029 12
( )

As 60 74.37 -
As 60 ( )
1

0.9 ( )( )
0.85 4 164.64 2
Solving for As for negative moment at the face of the support:

As = 21.33 in.2
Provide 14 - #11 as Top reinforcement (As = 21.84 in.2)
c
As f s

21.8460 2.75 in. 8.25in.
0.85 f cb 0.8540.85161.64
Assumption of the neutral axis within the flange, is correct

M r M n 0.9 As f y d s
c

2
2.750.85
0.9 21.84(60) 74.37
2
86,331 kip - in.
7,194 kip - ft M u 7,029 kip - ft
O.K.

Strain in steel:
cu t

c d s c
0.003 t

2.75 74.37 2.75
Therefore assumption of is correct.
12.5.1.8 Step 6: Check for Serviceability
Cracks occur whenever the tension in the gross section exceeds the cracking
strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete. One can control or avoid flexural cracking
in a concrete component by providing tension reinforcement at certain specified
spacing.
The spacing, s, of mild steel reinforcement in the layer closest to the tension face:
700 e
s 2d c (AASHTO 5.7.3.4-1)
s f ss
in which:
dc
s 1
0.7h d c
where:
e = exposure factor taken as 0.75 by considering Class 2 exposure condition
(CA 5.7.3.4)
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to
center of the flexural reinforcement located closest thereto (in.)
= 1.5 + 0.69 + 0.69 / 2 = 2.54 in.
h = overall thickness or depth of the component (in.) = 81 in.
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service time limit state (ksi)
Tensile stress in steel reinforcement may be calculated based on the transformed
section by the following procedure valid for both rectangular and flanged sections
(Figure 12.5-15).

Figure 12.5-15 A Typical Flanged Section

Note: Given b, bw, hf, d, d, As, As, n = Es / Ec, M = applied moment
If h 0 and b
2
nd h f As n 1h f
d As , then set bw = b
h 2f
Set B
1
bw

h f b bw nAs n 1As
Set C
2 2
bw

h f b bw / 2 ndAs n 1d As
x = B2 + C - B (assumes x d)
1 1
( )( ) + nA ( d - x ) + ( n -1) A ( x - d )
3 2 2
I = b x 3 - b - bw x - h f s s
3 3
Mx
f c = = stress in top fiber of compression flange
I
f s =
(
nM x - d ) = nf 1- d = stress in compression steel
c
I x
fs =
(
nM d - x ) = nf d - 1 = stress in tension steel
c
I x

12.5.1.8.1 Bottom Reinforcement
For service load combination, the permit loads are not considered.
Mser = 3,377 + 339 + 2,683 = 6,399 kip-ft
Bent cap section:
be = 13.72 ft = 164.64 in.
bw = 96 in.
hf = 9.125 in.
Es = 29,000 ksi
Ec = 3,645 ksi
n = Es / Ec = 7.96
Assume #16-5 as crack control reinforcement.
Effective, As1 = (0.31)(16) cos (20) = 4.66 in.2
Tension reinforcement (bottom), As2 = 1.56 (22) = 34.32 in.2
Compression reinforcement (top), As = 1.56 (14) = 21.84 in.2
where:
de1 = effective depth from extreme comp fiber to the centroid of the crack control
reinforcement
= 81 (1.5 + 0.69 + 0.69/2) = 78.47 in.
de2 = effective depth from extreme comp fiber to the centroid of tension
reinforcement (bottom)
= 81 (5.7 + 1.63) = 73.67 in.
d = effective depth from extreme comp fiber to the centroid of compression
reinforcement (top)
= 5 + 1.63 = 6.63 in.
be h 2f
If
2

n 1As h f d nAs d h f , then neutral axis, y,

lies in the flange.
(
164.64 9
) ( )2

2
( ) ( )
+ 7.96 -1 (21.84) 9 - 6.63 =7,028

< (7.96) (4.66) (78.47 9) + (7.96) (34.32) (73.67 9) = 20,244

Therefore, the neutral axis is within web and the compression block has T-
section shape.
h f bw y 2
( )
be - bw h f y - + ( ) ( ) ( )(
+ n-1 As y - d = nAs d - y )
2 2
(164.64 - 96) (9) (y 9/2) + 96 (y2/2) + (7.96 1) (21.84) (y 6.63)
= 7.96 (4.66) (78.47 y) + 7.96 (34.32) (73.67 - y)
Solving for y:
y = 14.93 in.

b y 3 be bw y h f 3
I e n 1As y d 2 nAs d y 2
3 3
164.6414.933 164.64 9614.93 9.0
3
7.96 1(21.84)(14.93 6.63) 2
3 3
2
7.964.6678.47 14.932 7.9634.3273.67 14.93

1,289,972 in.4 62.21 ft 4
nM (d y ) 7.966,3991278.47 14.93
f ss 30.6 ksi
I 62.21124
2.54
bs = 1+ = 1.046
(
0.7 81- 2.54 )
7000.75
s 2 2.54 11.32 in.
1.046(30.6)
12.5.1.8.2 Top Reinforcement
Calculations for crack reinforcement at top of bent cap are not shown. Designer
can use WinCONC or similar computer program to check serviceability of section.
Flexural reinforcements are shown in Figure 12.5-16.

Figure 12.5-16 Bent Cap Cross Section
12.5.1.9 Step 7: Check for Fatigue
Unfactored fatigue moments at midspan are listed in Table 12.5-3.
Table 12.5-3 Unfactored Fatigue Load Moments at Midspan.

Max. and Min. Moment at Max. and Min. Moment at
Load Mid-span (kip-ft) Face of Column (kip-ft)
+Positive -Negtive +Positive -Negative
DC 3,377 0 0 -1,760
DW 339 0 0 -217
Fatigue Vehicle I 789 -264 144 -504
For Fatigue I load combination, a load factor of 1.75 shall be used.

Mu(max) = 3,377 + 339 + 1.75(789) = 5,096.8 kip-ft
Mu(min) = 3,377 + 339 + 1.75(-264) = 3,254 kip-ft
I = 69.5 ft4, y = 14.96 in.
nM (d y )
fs
I
fs(max) = 7.96 (5,096.8)(12) (78.47 14.96)/(69.5)(124) = 21.45 ksi
fs(min) = 7.96 (3,254)(12) (78.47 14.96)/(69.5)( 124) = 13.70 ksi

(f) = fs(max) - fs(min) = 21.45 13.70 = 7.75 ksi

(F)TH = 24 0.33 fmin = 24 0.33(13.7) = 19.48 ksi
(f) = 7.75 ksi < (F)TH = 19.48 ksi OK
Fatigue requirement at the midspan is met.
The following critical locations shall be checked for fatigue requirement:
At maximum difference in positive moment region (bottom steel)

At maximum difference in negative moment region (top steel)
Moment reversal (top and bottom steel)
Calculations for fatigue check at top of bent cap not shown. Designer can use
WinCONC or similar computer program to check fatigue limit state of the section.
12.5.1.10 Step 8: Perform Shear Design
The shear design equation is as follows:

Vu Vr = Vn (12.5-2)
Shear design is performed for critical section located at the face of support.
12.5.1.10.1 Calculate Factored Shear
Table 12.5-4 lists unfactored shears including impact from CSiBridge analysis:
Table 12.5-4 Unfactored Shear at Face of Support

Assoc. Max. Assoc
Max. Shear
Load Moment Moment Shear
(kip)
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip)
DC -888 -1760 -1760 -888
DW -98 -217 -217 -98
Design Vehicle -338 588 -1860 -66
Permit Vehicle -607 1054 -3335 -119
Strength I: Vu(max)
Vu = 1.25(-888) + 1.5(-98) + 1.75(-338) = -1,849 kips
Mu(assoc) = 1.25(-1,760) +1.5 (-217) +1.75(558) = -1,549 kip-ft

Strength II: Vu(max)

Vu = 1.25(-888) + 1.5(-98) + 1.35(-607) = -2,076 kips
Mu(assoc) = 1.25(-1,760) +1.5(-217) +1.35(1,054) = -1,102 kip-ft
12.5.1.10.2 Determine and
Using AASHTO-LRFD Table B5.2-1 for sections with minimum amount of

transverse reinforcement.
bv = 8 ft = 96 in.
dv, using results from flexural analysis:
dv de
a
74.37
0.852.75 73.20 in.
2 2
0.9d e 0.974.37 66.93 in.
d v 73.20 in. larger
0.72h 0.7281 58.3 in.
Use dv = 73.2 in.
Shear stress:
Vu 2,076
vu 0.328 ksi
bv d v 0.9 9673.2

Shear stress factor:
vu 0.328
0.082
f c 4
Determine x at mid-depth
| Mu |
0.5 N u 0.5 | Vu V p | cot Aps f po
x v
d

2 Es As E p Aps (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-4)
As there is no prestressing force and axial force in bent cap, the above equation
reduces to:
Mu
0.5Vu cot
x
dv
(12.5-3)
2E s As
As = area of fully developed steel on flexural tension side of member = 28.08 in.2
Assuming 0.5cot = 1 and use absolute values for Mu and Vu for strain
calculation.

1,10212
2,076
x 0.001386 1.386103
73.2
229,00028.08
AASHTO Table B5.2-1 lists values of and as function of shear stress factor
vu / fc and strain at mid-depth of the bent cap x:
AASHTO Table B5.2-1 Values of and for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
vu x 1,000
vu / fc
0.2 f c0.1 0.05 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
22.3 20.4 21 21.8 24.3 26.6 30.5 33.7 36.4
0.075
6.32 4.75 4.1 3.75 3.24 2.94 2.59 2.38 2.23
18.1 20.4 21.4 22.5 24.9 27.1 30.8 34 36.7
0.1
3.79 3.38 3.24 3.14 2.91 2.75 2.5 2.32 2.18
19.9 21.9 22.8 23.7 25.9 27.9 31.4 34.4 37
0.125
3.18 2.99 2.94 2.87 2.74 2.62 2.42 2.26 2.13
21.6 23.3 24.2 25 26.9 28.8 32.1 34.9 37.3
0.15
2.88 2.79 2.78 2.72 2.6 2.52 2.36 2.21 2.08
23.2 24.7 25.5 26.2 28 29.7 32.7 35.2 36.8
0.175
2.73 2.66 2.65 2.6 2.52 2.44 2.28 2.14 1.96
24.7 26.1 26.7 27.4 29 30.6 32.8 34.5 36.1
0.2
2.63 2.59 2.52 2.51 2.43 2.37 2.14 1.94 1.79
26.1 27.3 27.9 28.5 30 30.8 32.3 34 35.7
0.225
2.53 2.45 2.42 2.4 2.34 2.14 1.86 1.73 1.64
27.5 28.6 29.1 29.7 30.6 31.3 32.8 34.3 35.8
0.25 2.39 2.39 2.33 2.33 2.12 1.93 1.7 1.58 1.5
From above table:

= 2.18
= 36.7
12.5.1.10.3 Determine Shear Reinforcement
Concrete contribution to shear resistance:
Vc 0.0316 f c bv d v 0.03162.18 4 9673.2 968 kips
Demand on shear stirrups:

Vu 2,076
Vs Vc 968 1,339 kips
0.7

Required shear stirrups:

Av 6073.2
Vs 1,339
Av f y d v
s
cot
s

cot 36.7 o
Av
0.227 in.2 /in.
s
Minimum shear reinforcement:
Av f c 4
s = 0.0316 f bv = 0.0316 60 (96) = 0.1 in. /in.
2
min y
Required stirrups spacing:

Av = use six legs #5
Av = 0.31 (6) = 1.86 in.2
1.86
Required s 8.19 in.
0.227
Use s = 6 in.
12.5.1.10.4 Check Maximum Spacing
vu
For < 0.125 , Smax = 0.8dv 18 in.
f c
vu
For 0.125 , Smax = 0.4dv 12 in.
f c
At this particular section:
vu 0.328
0.082 , Smax = 0.8(73.2) = 58.56 in. but not greater than 18 in.
f c 4
Maximum spacing allowed = 18 in.
Six legs #6 at 6 in. at the face of column meet this requirement.
Note: Place bent cap stirrups parallel to girders. (BDD 7-45.1)
12.5.1.10.5 Check Tenth Points along Bent Cap
For Vu, Mu, , , Vc, Vs, S, Avmin, and Smax, Figure 12.5-17 shows stirrup spacing
along the bent cap length.

Figure 12.5.1-19 shows stirrup spacing along bet cap length
35
Face of column
30
Stirrups Spacing, in. 25
20
Max Spacing = 18
15
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
length along beam

Figure 12.5.1-15 Stirrup Spacing of Bent Cap
Figure 12.5.1-19 Stirrup Spacing along Bet Cap Length

Figure 12.5-17 Stirrup Spacing along Bent Cap Length
12.5.1.10.6 Check Longitudinal Reinforcement (Shear-Flexural Interaction)
For a bent cap without prestressing steel and axial force, the longitudinal steel
must satisfy:
Mu V
As f y u 0.5Vs cot (12.3.3-1)
dv f
v
Note: In practice, after the design is complete, engineer must check seismic design
requirements as per SDC and check the longitudinal steel in the bent cap to handle
seismic moments.
To determine the tension in the longitudinal steel (the shear-flexure interaction),
check at every location, usually at the 10th point of the span and at concentrated load:
Maximum shear and associated moments
Maximum positive moments and associated shear
Maximum negative moments and associated shear
Longitudinal reinforcement at the first interior girder locations is checked in this
example.
Table 12.5-5 lists unfactored shears including impact from CSiBridge
analysis at the location of the first interior girder:

Table 12.5-5 Unfactored Shears at Location of First Interior Girder

Assoc. Max. Assoc.
Max. Shear
Moment Moment Shear
(kip)
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip)
DC -878 -373 -373 -878
DW -98 -64 -64 -98
Design
-315 990 -1756 -66
vehicle
Permit
-565 1,776 -3,149 -119
vehicle
Strength I
Maximum shear and associated moments:
Vu = 1.25(-878) + 1.5(-98) + 1.75(-315) = -1,796 kips
Mu(assoc) = 1.25(-373) + 1.5(-64) + 1.75(990) = 1,170 kip-ft
Maximum moment and associated shear:
V u(assoc) = 1.25(-878) + 1.5(-98) + 1.75(-66) = -1,360 kips
Mu(max) = 1.25(-373) + 1.5(-64) + 1.75(-1,756) = -3,635 kip-ft
Strength II
Maximum shear and associated moments:
Vu = 1.25(-878) + 1.5(-98) + 1.35(-565) = -2,007 kips
Mu(assoc) = 1.25(-373) + 1.5(-64) + 1.35(1,776) = 1,835 kip-ft
Maximum moment and associate shear:
Vu(assoc) = 1.25(-878) + 1.5(-98) + 1.35(-119) = -1,405 kips
Mu(max) = 1.25(-373) + 1.5(-64) + 1.35(-3,149) = -4,813 kip-ft
Check case of maximum shear and associated moment:
Vu(max) = -2,007 kips
Mu(assoc) = 1,835 kip-ft
Compute x and for this particular location under this loading:
As(bot) = 37.44 in.2
dv = 73.67 (0.85)(4.33)/2 = 71.83 in.
nu
= 0.0876 ; x = 0.001077; = 36.55o
f c

1.866071.83
Vs
Av f y d v
s
cot
6
cot 36.55o
Vu 2,007
1,802.3 kips 2,230 kips
0.9
As f y
1,83512 2,007 0.51,663.5 cot36.55o

0.971.83 0.9
As 60 340.62 1,886.18 2,226.8 kips
As ( req) 37.11 in.2 As (bot) 37.44 in.2 OK
Check case of maximum negative moment and associated shear

Mu(max) = -4,813 kip-ft
Vu(assoc) = -1,405 kips
Compute x and for this particular location under this loading:
As(top) = 28.08 in.2
dv = 73.2 in.
nu
= 0.0607 ; x = 0.00139; = 36.4o
f c
1.866073.2
Vs
Av f y d v
s
cot
6

cot 36.4 o
Vu 1,405
1,846.7 kips 1,561 kips
0.9
Provide 22 - # 11 (As = 34.32 in.2) as top reinforcement
Check case of maximum positive moment and associated shear
Mu(max) = 1,835 kip-ft
Vu(assoc) = -2,007 kips
Moment and shear in this case is similar to maximum shear and
associated moment case.
Note: Using the same process, one can determine the size and spacing of the
stirrups at other locations.

12.5.1.11 Determine Additional Details
Additional details are discussed as follows.
12.5.1.11.1 Construction Reinforcement
As shown in Figure 12.5-18, the concrete in the superstructure is poured in two

stages during the construction process. It is a Caltrans practice to assume that 10 ft of
the soffit on each side of the bent cap contributes to this dead load:
Stage 1 (first pour) includes the soffit slab and the girder stems. The deck
slab is not included.
Stage 2 (second pour) includes the deck slab.
Height of the Stage 1 pour = (6.75)(12) 9 3 = 69 in. = 5.75 ft
Width of the bent cap = 8 ft
Dead load due to exterior girder stem
DL = [(5.75 - 8.25/12) / cos 26.6 (1)] (10 +10) (0.15) = 17 kips
Dead load due to cap and soffit
Width of soffit slab causing negative moment = 10 + 10 = 20 ft
DL = {(5.75)(8) + (20)(8.25/12)}(0.15) = 9 kip/ft
Effective column diameter = 5.32 ft
Negative moment at the face of the column
Mu = 1.25 {[17 (7.12 5.32/2) + 9 (7.12 5.32/2)2 / 2 }
= 207 kip-ft
Note: Assume a reduced value for fc as the concrete has not reached its specified
compressive strength at the Stage 1 pour. Hence, use fc = 2.5 ksi. Caltrans standard
practice is to provide four #10 bars as minimum construction reinforcement in the
bent cap.
Since there is no prestressing steel or compression reinforcement, for simplicity
of calculations, the overhangs will be neglected and nominal moment is calculated
by:
a a h
2
( )
M n = As s ds - + 0.85c b - bw h - (12.5-4)
2 2
b = 96 in.
ds = 69 3 = 66 in.
As = 1.27(4) = 5.08 in.2


c = (5.08)(60) / [(0.85)( 2.5)(0.85)(96)] = 1.76 in.
a = c = 1.494
Mn = 5.08 (60)(66-1.494/2) = 19,889 kip-in. = 1,657 kip-ft
Mr = Mn = 1,491 kip-ft > 1.33Mu = 275 kip-ft
Provide 4 # 10 (As = 5.08 in.2) as construction reinforcement.
Second Pour
First Pour
Figure 12.5-18 Concrete Pour Stages

12.5.1.11.2 Side Face / Skin Reinforcement
The Caltrans standard practice is to provide side face reinforcement, which is

10 percent of the maximum longitudinal reinforcement.
Maximum longitudinal reinforcement, As(bot) = 37.44 in.2
Side face reinforcement = 0.1(37.44) = 3.74 in.2
Provide 10 #6 bars. Since the construction reinforcement is also provided, two
#10 bars would also count as side-face reinforcement. So, provide four #6 bars on
each side of the bent cap.
Spacing = {(5.75)(12) (5.7+ 1.63) 3} / 5 = 11.73 in. < 12 in. OK
12.5.1.11.3 End Reinforcement
End reinforcements as shown in Figure 12.5-19 should be provided as a crack

control measure, as discussed in Section 12.4.3 in accordance with BDD 7 (Caltrans,
1986).
U-bars in the Bent Cap
Figure 12.5-19 End Reinforcements
The U-bars are designed for shear friction. Depending on whether the bent cap
width is less than or more than 7 ft, designer to use one or two loops of the U-bars, as
shown in Figure 12.5-20. Length of U-bars shall extend a development length beyond
the inside face of the exterior girder.

Figure 12.5-20 Length of End Reinforcements
12.5.1.11.4 Bent Cap Reinforcement
Since the bent cap skew = 20, bent cap reinforcement shall be detailed as shown
in Figure 12.5-21. A dropped deck section may be required if main cap bars are
bundled vertically. Distribution bars and bottom transverse bars may have to be
terminated farther from the bent cap than three in. (standard) to allow vertical
clearance for main bent bars .
Slab reinforcement parallel to skew
Bent cap reinforcement as high as possible
Figure 12.5-21 Bent Cap Reinforcement (Skew 20)

2.5.2 Drop Bent Cap
A three-span bridge with reinforced concrete drop bent cap is shown in Figures
12.5-22 through 12.5-25.
Figure 12.5-22 Elevation
Figure 12.5-23 Plan

Figure 12.5-24 Typical Section
Figure 12.5-25 Side View

12.5.2.1 Member Proportioning
The bent cap depth should be deep enough to develop the column longitudinal
reinforcement without hooks (SDC 7.3.4 and SDC 8.2.1). The minimum bent cap
width required for adequate joint shear transfer shall be column sectional width in the
direction of interest, plus two feet (SDC 7.4.2.1).
dcap = 6 ft
wcap = 5.5 + 2 = 7.5 ft
12.5.2.2 Classification of Bent Cap (AASHTO 5.8.1.1)
Bent caps may fall under the classification of flexural beam or deep beam. The
classification dictates the type of analytical theory that would most accurately
estimate the internal forces of the bent cap.
If either of these two cases is satisfied, then the bent cap may be considered a
deep beam:
Lv_zero < 2de
If any girder produces more than half the bent cap shear at the support and is
located less than 2de from the face of support, follow this:
Lv_zero = 8.25 ft
de = dcap 2.5 = 69.5 in., assume 2 in. clear and an additional 0.5 in. to the
centroid of flexural bar reinforcing
2de = 11.6 ft
Both deep beam criteria are met for this example drop cap, so it should be
evaluated using the strut-and-tie method per the AASHTO LRFD design
specifications.
Bent caps have typically been designed by using the sectional method which has
been proved to be acceptable as historical data does not suggest design inadequacies
in Caltrans. This design example will follow the sectional method for its
conservativeness and ease of application. Caltrans will continue to use the sectional
method until the strut-and-tie method is adopted agency-wide.
12.5.2.3 Material Properties
Material properties are as follows:

fc = 4 ksi
fy = 60 ksi
Es = 29,000 ksi

12.5.2.4 Loads
CTBridge, LEAP Bridge, or other computer analysis programs can be used to

determine the dead and live loads along the length of the bridge. For the bent cap
design, the analysis is performed with only a single lane and/or truck so that wheel
line loads may be generated and subsequently implemented in the frame analysis of
the bent cap.
Generally, dead loads such as DCsuperstructure and DW are distributed by tributary
area (or width) for PC/PS I girder, steel girder, and bulb T girder bridges. DCbent_cap,
however, is distributed along the length of the bent cap as a tributary load. In very
stiff superstructures, such as cast-in-place prestressed concrete box girders,
DCsuperstructure and DW may be distributed equally despite varying girder spacing. For
this drop cap example, the deck, girders, bent cap, and columns will be modeled as
individual elements.
Based on the longitudinal analysis, the following dead loads are applied to bent
cap analytical model as shown in Figure 12.5-26.
PDC_barrier = 46.5 kips
wDC_deck = 12.8 kip/ft
wDW = 4.4 kip/ft
PDC_girder = 178 kips
wDC_bent_cap = 7.2 kip/ft
Force effects, on the bent cap, from live loads are determined similarly to the
methods used for the longitudinal analysis. The live loads are discretized into wheel
line loads with fixed and variable spacing to represent spacing between wheel lines,
as well as spacing between trucks and lanes. Influence lines are generated to
determine the governing force effects on the bent cap element. We will begin this
process by generating wheel line loads from CTBridge program results.

Legend:
1 = DCbarrier 2 = DW
3 = DCdeck 4 = DCgirders
5 = DCbent cap
Figure 12.5-26 Dead Loads in Elevation View
12.5.2.4.1 Unfactored Bent Reactions from Longitudinal Analysis
For each design vehicular live load, the unfactored bent reactions at the bent can
be obtained from the output of the longitudinal analysis. Results shown in Figures
12.5-27 to 12.5-29 are due to a single truck or lane load. The location designating
"Col Bots" and "Col Tops" are the force effects to the bottoms and tops of all
columns from the single truck or lane load. Results from three live loads, LRFD
design vehicle (also known as HL-93), LRFD permit vehicle, and the LRFD fatigue

vehicle are shown in Figures 12.5-27 to 12.5-29, respectively. The LRFD design
vehicle consists of a truck and a lane. We are only interested in the maximum axial
load from the truck or lane, and those values are boxed accordingly and shown as
follows:
LLHL-93_truck = design truck (1 lane only) (AASHTO 3.6.1.2.2)
LLHL-93_lane = lane load (1 lane only) (AASHTO 3.6.1.2.4)
LLpermit = permit vehicle (1 lane only) (CA 3.6.1.8)
LLfatigue = fatigue vehicle (1 lane only) (AASHTO 3.6.1.4)
Figure 12.5-27 LRFD Design Vehicle

Figure 12.5-28 LRFD Permit Vehicle
Figure 12.5-29 LRFD Fatigue Vehicle

The lane load is considered uniformly distributed over a 10-ft width. However,
we will simplify the analysis by combining the HL-93 lane load with the HL-93 truck
wheel line loads. Per AASHTO 3.6.1.2.4, the IM shall be applied only to the truck
load. The dynamic load allowance is applied during the combination of the truck and
lane load are IMHL-93_truck = 1.33; and IMPermit = 1.25.
LLHL-93_single_truck = 117.24 kips
LLHL-93_single_lane = 115.19 kips
LLpermit_single_truck = 368.22 kips
LLfatigue_single_truck = 70.63 kips
LLHL93_ wheel _ line =

( )
LLHL93_single_truck IM HL93_ truck + LLHL93_single_lane
2
=
( )
117.24 1.33 + 115.19
= 135.6 kips
2
LLPermit _ wheel _ line =

(
LLPermit_single_truck IM permit ) = 368.22(1.25) = 230.1 kips
2 2
LLFatigue_single_truck 70.63
LLFatigue _ wheel _ line = = = 35.3 kips
2 2
12.5.2.4.2 Determine Number of Live Load Lanes
Maximum number of whole live load lanes is obtained as:

Clear bridge width between curbs and/or barriers = 39 ft.
N = Integer part of (w/12) = Integer part of (39/12) = 3
12.5.2.4.3 Moving Live Load Transverse Analysis for Traffic Lanes
For this drop cap example, the design vehicle variations are shown below. This is
based on the maximum number of live load lanesa total of threethat can possibly
fit in the clear roadway width. Note that the multiple presence factor, m, for one lane
of permit vehicle is 1.0 (AASHTO 3.6.1.8.2), and the factor does not apply to the
fatigue vehicle (AASHTO 3.6.1.1.2). Figure 12.5-30 shows traffic lanes with a
multiple presence factor.

Figure 12.5-30 Types and Number of Live Loads to Apply to Bent Cap
Both the design truck and the 10 ft loaded width in each lane are positioned along
the clear bridge width to produce extreme force effects. The design load is positioned
transversely such that the center of any wheel load is not closer than 2 ft from the
edge of the design lane (AASHTO 3.6.1.3.1).
For the moving load transverse analysis, the wheel lines may move anywhere
within the 12 ft lane as long as AASHTO 3.6.1.3.1 is satisfied. Figures 12.5-31 and
32 show possible wheel line placement within the same 12-ft lane configuration. The
designer must determine the placement of wheel lines that produces maximum force
effects in the bent cap.

Figure 12.5-31 Example Placement of Live Load

Figure 12.5-32 Another Example of Placement of Live Load
Additionally, the 12-ft lanes may move within the confines of the clear bridge
width as long as no 12-ft lane overlaps another 12-ft lane. The designer must place
the 12-ft lane, as well as the wheel lines, to garner the maximum force effects on the
bent cap.
The designer must consider analyzing the transverse model with one, two, and
three truck configurations since it is not entirely evident that three trucks will always
result in the maximum force effects in the bent cap. For the cap overhang, a single
vehicle placed as close to the edge of the design lane as possible may result in the
maximum negative moment demand. Note that by placing only one vehicle, the

multiple presence factor, m, is maximized and will result in a higher negative

moment demand than placing two trucks with a lower multiple presence factor. For a
bent cap supported by multiple columns, it is advisable to use a structural analysis
program, such as CSiBridge, capable of generating combinations of lane
configurations and influence lines from moving live loads. CSiBridge is used for this
example.
The geometry (Figure 12.5-36) and model (Figure 12.5-37) as shown in Figures
12.5-33 and 12.5-34 consider the deck and girders atop the bent cap. Some designers
may choose to construct a hybrid frame in which the deck, girders, and bent cap are
represented by an integrated horizontal frame member. For the purpose of
maintaining a simplified representation, we are opting to keep the members separate.
Figure 12.5-33 Geometric Model of Bent Cap

Figure 12.5-34 CSiBridge Model Showing Member Designations

For each vehicular load (HL-93, Permit, and Fatigue), the output will be
organized in the following manner:
Max M3, associated V2
Min M3, associated V2
Max V2, associated M3
Min V2, associated M3
Breaking down the demands in such a manner allows us to combine them with
dead loads and apply the appropriate load factors. The associated force effects are
necessary for checking moment-shear interaction (AASHTO 5.8.3.5).
The bent cap locations of interest will be positive moments at midspan, negative
moments at faces of column, and shear at faces of column.

12.5.2.4.4 Frame Element 33 (Max Positive Moment at Midspan)
Figures 12.5-35 to 12.5-38 are excerpts from the CSiBridge output to illustrate
how moments are extracted from the analysis.
Figure 12.5-35 Positive Moment from Dead Loads (DC and DW) at Midspan of Cap
Figure 12.5-36 Maximum Positive Moment from HL-93 at Midspan of Cap

Figure 12.5-37 Max Positive Moment from Permit Truck at Midspan of Cap
Figure 12.5-38 Max Positive Moment from Fatigue Truck at Midspan of Cap
Maximum positive moments for Frame Element 33 obtained from CSiBridge

output are summarized in Tables 12.5-6.
Table 12.5-6 Maximum Positive Moments for Frame Element 33

Live Load Live Load
Dead Loads
(M3) (Associated V2)
MDC_33 = 71.2 kip-ft MHL-93_33 = 1181.9 kip-ft VHL-93_33 = 2 kips
VDC_33 = 4.2 kips MPermit_33 = 2005.6 kip-ft VPermit_33 = 3.4 kips
VDW_33 = 73.8 kip-ft MDC_33 = 71.2 kip-ft MDC_33 = 71.2 kip-ft
MDC_33 = 71.2 kip-ft
This example calculation will evaluate the bent cap at the right face of the left
column, also referred to as the left end of Frame Element 34. Maximum negative

moments for Frame Element 34 obtained from CSiBridge are summarized in Table
12.5-7.
Table 12.5-7 Maximum Negative Moment for Frame Element 34
Live Load
Dead Loads
(M3)
MDC_34 = -1127.5 kip-ft MHL-93_34 = -904.9 kip-ft
VDC_34 = 344.5 kips MPermit_34 = -1530.7 kip-ft
MDW_34 = -82.6 kip-ft MFatigue_34 = -196.3 kip-ft
VDW_34 = 71.2 kip-ft
12.5.2.5 Design for Flexure
The software WinConc are used to design for flexure in this example. Note that
in WinConc, there are optional inputs for other loads discussed thoroughly in
AASHTO Article 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, and 3.14. Of those loads,
CR, SH, wind load on live load (WL), wind load on structure (WS), temperature
loads (TU), and differential settlement (SE) can impose force effects in the bent cap.
By virtue of experience, flexural and shear design is almost always governed by
the Strength I and Strength II limit states. Since WL and WS are not considered in
either of these load combinations (AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1), force effects from wind
are not computed. However, uniform temperature is considered in both Strength I and
Strength II limit states, but because of the relatively short distance between the two
columns, it is anticipated that the force effects generated by TU is insignificant.
Differential shrinkage pertains to strains generated between material of different
age or composition. This example drop cap will be built monolithically; therefore,
SH is not considered. Creep is a force effect that is generated by prestressed concrete
elements. This example drop cap will be conventionally reinforced with mild
reinforcement; therefore CR is also not considered.
For this example, differential settlement will not be considered. Generally, the
geotechnical engineer dictates the consideration of differential settlement. SE may
impose force effects in the bent cap if the soil profiles between the two columns
differ, thereby causing one column to settle more than the other column.
Two WinConc models were assembled: one for the design of the bottom flexure
reinforcing (positive moment) and the other for the design of the top flexure
reinforcing (negative moment). WinConc allows the user to enter the bent cap
dimensions and loads. Then, it tabulates the rebar size and quantity that satisfies the
AASHTO LRFD design specifications. Figures 12.5-39 and 12.5-40 are excerpts
from the output files to show how the results can be used

Figure 12.5-39 Partial WinConc Output for Positive Flexure Design
Figure 12.5-40 Partial WinConc Output for Negative Flexure Design

When WinConc is run in design mode, the final results show the various bar
size and spacing configurations that satisfy the strength, service, fatigue, and extreme
limit states, as well as crack control (AASHTO 5.7.3.4) and minimum reinforcement
(AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2) requirements. It is worth noting that any bar configuration
flagged with space code is undesirable because of substandard bar spacing.
The following load controls are checked, and the governing load control is
summarized in the final results:
S-As = Service I, bar spacing for crack control (AASHTO 5.7.3.4)
F-As = Fatigue I, fatigue stress in mild steel (AASHTO 5.5.3.2)
Str-I = HL-93 loads
Str-II = Permit loads
Str-III = No HL-93 loads, wind > 55 mph
Str-IV = No HL-93 loads, governs when DL to LL ratio is high
Str-V = HL-93 loads, wind = 55 mph
Ext-I = Earthquake
Ext-II = Ice, train, vehicle, or vessel collision
Arb-I = User defined load
Min1 = Minimum reinforcement requirement, Mcr
Min2 = Waiver of minimum reinforcement requirement, 1.33 Mu
For flexural design in positive bending, Min2 governed for all bar sizes except
the #18 bar. Of the available bars, #7, #8, #9, #10, and #11 provide acceptable
capacity while satisfying bar spacing requirements. A total of 16 #8 bars are used.
For flexural design in negative bending, Min2 also governed for all bar sizes
except the #18 bar. Of the available bars, #8, #9, #10, #11, and #14 provide
acceptable capacity while satisfying bar spacing requirements. We'll specify a total of
16 #10 bars, primarily so that they lineup with the 16 #8 main bottom bars. Although
16 #9 bars would suffice, some engineers believe it is good practice to specify bars
sizes that are not too similar in size when bars can potentially be mixed up during
construction.
In summary, the bar reinforcement areas corresponding to positive and negative
moments are as such:
As positive = 16 (0.79 in.2) = 12.6 in.2
As negative = 16 (1.27 in.2) = 20.3 in.2
12.5.2.6 Design for Shear
The AASHTO LRFD shear design method is based on the modified compression
field theory. Contrary to the traditional shear design methodology, it assumes a

variable angle truss model instead of the 45 truss analogy. The LRFD method
accounts for interaction between shear, torsion, flexure, and axial load.
The LRFD method notes that shear design will be considered to the distance, dv,
from the face of support (AASHTO 5.8.3.2). However, Caltrans' practice is to
evaluate shear to the face of support.
12.5.2.6.1 Calculate Factored Shear
Unfactored shears and associated moments for the left face of the left column,
Frame Element 34, extracted from CSiBridge output are summarized in Table 12.5-8.
Table 12.5-8 Maximum Shears and Associated Moments for Frame Element
34 ( Interior Face of Column)
Shear Demand Associated Moments
(V2) (M3)
VDC_34 = 344.5 kip MDC_34 = -1127.5 kip-ft
VDW_34 = 47.3 kip MDW_34 = -82.6 kip-ft
VHL-93_34 = 300.6 kip MHL-93_34 = -196.3 kip-ft
VPermit_34 = 510.1 kip MPermit_34 = 114.8 kip-ft
Two load combinations, Strength I and II typically govern for shear design of
bent caps. Factored shear demand and associated factored moments for frame
element 34 are calculated as:
Vu_34_Strength_1 = 1.25 (VDC_34) + 1.5 (VDW_34) + 1.75 (VHL-93_34) = 1,027.6 kips
Mu_34_Strength_1 = 1.25 (MDC_34) + 1.5 (MDW_34) + 1.75 (MHL-93_34) = -1,876.8 kip-ft
Vu_34_Strength_I1 = 1.25 (VDC_34) + 1.5 (VDW_34) + 1.35 (VPermit_34) = 1,190.2 kips
Mu_34_Strength_I1 = 1.25 (MDC_34) + 1.5 (MDW_34) + 1.35 (MPermit_34) = -1,378.3 kip-ft
Vu_34 =Vu_34_Strength_I1 = 1,190.2 kips Strength II governs
Mu_34 =Mu_34_Strength_I1 = -1378.3 kip-ft
12.5.2.6.2 Determine and
Cross section of the drop cap is shown in Figure 12.5-41. bv is width of web
taken as 96 in; de is effective depth taken as 69.5 in; dv is effective shear depth
taken as the max (dv1, 0.9 de, 0.72dcap); dcap is depth of cap taken as 72 in.

Figure 12.5-41 Cross Section of Drop Cap
Assuming fs = fy, we have
a
A s negaitve f y As positive fy 20.360 12.660 1.42 in.
0.85 f cbv 0.85496
a
dv1 = de - = 68.8 in.
2
dv = max (dv1, 0.9 (de), 0.72 (dcap) = 68.8 in.
Vu 34 1,190.2
vu 0.2 ksi (AASHTO 5.8.2.9-1)
v bv d v 0.99668.8
Shear stress factor:
vu 0.2
vu 0.05
f c 4
Assume (0.5cot = 1) and use absolute values for Mu and Vu for strain
calculation, we have:
M u 34 1,378.312
0.5Vu 34 cot 1,190.2
0.00121
dv 68.6
x
2 E s As negative 229,00020.3
From AASHTO Table B5.2-1, = 2.23 and = 36.4 are obtained.

Use = 36.4 and recalculate x as follows:

1,378.312
M u 34
0.5Vu 34 cot
0.51,190.2 cot 36.4 o
0.00089
dv 68.6
x
2 E s As negative 229,00020.3
Form AASHTO Table B5.2-1, = 2.23 and = 36.4 are obtained again. And
convergence is reached.
12.5.2.6.3 Determine Shear Reinforcement
Concrete contribution to shear resistance:

Vc 0.0316 f c bv d v 0.03162.23 4 9668.6 928.1 kips
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)
V 1,190.2
Vs u 34 Vc 928.1 394.3 kips
v 0.9
Required shear stirrups:
Av Vs 1,190.2
0.212 in.2 /in.
s f y d v cot 6068.6 cot 36.4 o

Check stirrup ratio with minimum allowed transverse reinforcement ratio per
AASHTO 5.8.2.5:
Av b 96
0.0316 f c v 0.0316 4 0.101 in.2 /in.
s min fy 60
Use stirrup ratio = 0.212 in.2/in.

Compute stirrup spacing:
Try four legs of #6 bar reinforcing (Ab = 0.44 in.2):
Av = 4 (0.44 in.2) = 1.8 in.2
Required spacing, s = 1.8/0.212 = 8.49 in.

Check maximum spacing requirement (AASHTO 5.8.2.7):
vu
0.05
f c'
v
smax if u' 0.125, min(18 in., 0.8d v ), min(12 in., 0.4d v ) 18 in.
f
c

For design, provide stirrup spacing of 8 in at the face of column.

Repeat the shear design steps as demonstrated above, for points along the drop
cap length and produce a shear design chart. The design chart (Figure 12.5-42) shows
the spacing requirements needed to satisfy the factored shear demand, Vu, as well as
the minimum allowed transverse reinforcing ratios along the length of the bent cap.
Figure 12.5-42 Shear Design Chart

12.5.2.7 Check Longitudinal Reinforcement (Shear-Flexural Interaction)
As discussed in Section 12.3.3, direct loading/support cases are typical for the
drop bent cap beams. Since longitudinal reinforcements are continuous in Caltrans
practice, there is no need to check shear-flexural interaction.
12.5.2.8 Detailing of Drop Cap
Additional details are discussed as follows.

12.5.2.8.1 Spacing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
The clear distance between parallel bars shall not be less than lager of
1.5(nominal diameter of bars), 1.5(maximum size of coarse aggregate) and 1.5 inches
(AASHTO 5.10.3.1.1).
slongit max = 1.5 (1.27) = 1.9 in.
The following calculation determines clear spacing between the positive flexural
reinforcement, accounting for clear cover and approximate outside diameters of the
#6 transverse reinforcement and #10 longitudinal bars:
7.5 12 2 2 0.88 0.88 241.44
slongi provided 2.2 in.
23
12.5.2.8.2 Side Face Reinforcement
AASHTO 5.7.3.4 specifies that for sections that exceed three inches deep,
longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both side faces
of the component for a distance de / 2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcing. The
area of skin reinforcing, Ask (in.2/ft), of height on each side face shall satisfy the
following equation,
AASHTO required Ask min 0.012d e 30 0.47 in.2 /ft
(AASHTO 5.7.3.4-2)
The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcing (per face) need not exceed Ask max.
Aps = 0 in.2
Our drop cap example does not contain prestressing.
max ( As positive )( As negative ) + Aps

Ask max = = 7.62 in.2
4
The maximum spacing of the skin reinforcing shall not exceed de / 6 or 12 in.
de
11.6 in.
6
Specify six #6 bars at each face. Spacing between bars will be approximately 9
inches.
SDC (SDC Equation 7.4.4.3-3) requires that the total longitudinal side face
reinforcement in the bent cap shall be at least equal to 0.1As_positive or 0.1As_negative and
shall be placed near the side faces of the bent cap with a maximum spacing of 12
inches.


SDC Required Ask min max 0.1( As positive ) 0.1( As negative ) 3.05 in.2 /ft
Bent cap reinforcements are shown in Figures 12.5-43 to 12.5-45:
Figure 12.5-43 Elevation of Drop Cap Showing Stirrup Spacing

Figure 12.5-44 Section A-A
Figure 12.5-45 Section B-B

NOTATIONS
a = distance from the center of gravity (CG) of the superstructure to the bottom of
column = height of the column + depth to CG of the bent cap (12.3.1.1.7)
a = c1; depth of the equivalent stress block (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (in.2) (12.3.1.1.7)
As = area of mild steel tension reinforcement (in.2) (12.3.1.1.7)
As = area of compression reinforcement (in.2) (12.3.1.1.7)
Av = area of shear reinforcement (in.2) within a distance s (12.3.2)
b = top width of superstructure (12.3.1.1.7)
b = width of the compression face of the member (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
bf = flange width (12.1.1.3)
bledge = ledge width (12.1.1.3)
bstem = stem width (12.1.1.3)
bv = effective web width (in.) taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv
(12.3.2)
bw = web width or diameter of a circular section (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (12.3.1.1.5)
c = distance from the centerline (CL) of the columns to the edge of deck (e + f)
(12.3.1.1.7)
d = distance between the CL of columns (12.3.1.1.7)
d = distance from the compression face to the centroid of tension reinforcement
(in.) (12.1.2)
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
the closest flexural reinforcement (in.) (12.3.1.2)
force in the tensile reinforcement (in.) (12.3.2)
dledge = ledge depth (12.1.1.3)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of prestressing tendons
(in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of non-prestressed
tensile reinforcement (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
dstem = stem depth (12.1.1.3)

dt = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of extreme tension
steel (12.3.1.1.5)
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of compression
reinforcement (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compression force due to
flexure, it need not be taken to be less than the greater of 0.9de or 0.72h (in.)
(12.3.2.1)
e = distance from the CL of exterior girder to the edge of deck (EOD) (12.3.1.1.7)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars (ksi) (12.3.2.1)
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons (ksi) (12.3.2.1)
(12.3.1.1.7)
allowance for all prestress losses) not including the effects of secondary
moment, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads (ksi) (12.3.1.1.2)
fmin = minimum live load stress resulting from the Fatigue I load combination,
combined with more serve stress from either the permanent loads or the
permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep-induced external loads; . positive if
tension, negative if compression (ksi) (12.3.1.3)
the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and
surrounding concrete (ksi) (12.3.2.1)
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at nominal bending resistance (ksi)
(12.3.1.1.7)
fr = modulus of rupture of the concrete (ksi) (12.3.1.1.2)
fs = stress in the mild steel tension reinforcement at nominal flexural resistance
(ksi) (12.3.1.1.7)
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state (ksi) (12.3.1.2)
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (ksi) (12.3.2)
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi) at 28 days (ksi) 12.3.1.1.7)
resistance (ksi) (12.3.1.1.7)
hcap = bent cap depth (12.1.1.3)
h = overall thickness or depth of the component (in.) (12.3.1.2)

hf = compression flange depth of an I or T member (in.) (12.3.1.1.7)

Ig = moment of inertial of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis,
neglecting the reinforcement (in.4) (12.3.1.1.2)
k = constant that depends on the type of tendon (12.3.1.1.7)
Lv,zero = distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support (in.) (12.1.2)
Mcr = cracking moment (kip-in.) (12.3.1.1.2)
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic or noncomposite
section (kip-in.) (12.3.1.1.2)
MDC = unfactored moment demand at the section from dead load of structural
components and nonstructural attachments (12.3.1.1.1)
MDW = unfactored moment demand at the section from dead load of wearing surfaces
and utilities (12.3.1.1.1)
Mu(HL93) = factored moment demand at the section from HL93 Vehicle (12.3.1.1.1)
Mu(P-15) = factored moment demand at the section from the Permit Vehicle (12.3.1.1.1)
Mu = absolute value of the factored moment, not to be taken less than
Vu V p d v (kip-in.) (12.3.2.1)
Nu = factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile and negative if compressive

(kip) (12.3.2.1)
s = spacing of stirrups (in.) (12.3.2)
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite section where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3) (12.3.1.1.2)
section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (in.3)
(12.3.1.1.2)
Vn = nominal shear resistance (kip) (12.3.2)
force (kip); positive if resisting the applied shear; typically zero for
conventionally reinforced bent caps (12.3.2)
Vr = factored shear resistance (kip) (12.3.2)
Vu = factored shear (kip) (12.3.2.1)
Yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (in.) (12.3.1.1.2)
= angle of inclination () of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis;
typically 90 (12.3.2)

= angle of inclination () of diagonal compressive stresses (12.3.2)
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension and

shear (12.3.2)
1 = stress block factor (12.3.1.1.7)
x = longitudinal strain at the mid-depth of member (12.3.2.1)
cu = failure strain of concrete in compression (12.3.1.1.5)
t = net tensile strain (12.3.1.1.5)
= load factor for Fatigue I (12.3.1.3)
1 = flexural cracking variability factor (12.3.1.1.2)
2 = prestress variability factor (12.3.1.1.2)
3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of the
reinforcement (12.3.1.1.2)
e = exposure factor (12.3.1.2)
= resistance factor (12.3.1.1.4)
f = resistance factor for moment (12.3.3)
c = resistance factor for axial load (12.3.3)
v = resistance factor for shear (12.3.3)
f = live load stress range (ksi) (12.3.1.3)

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Units,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. Caltrans, (2013). Caltrans Seismic Design CriteriaVersion 1.7, California Department of
4. Caltrans, (2000). Bridge Design SpecificationsLFD Version, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA,
5. Caltrans, (1988). Memo to Designers 15-17 Future Wearing Surface, California Department
6. Caltrans, (1986). Bridge Design DetailsSection 7, California Department of Transportation,
Sacramento, CA.

CHAPTER 13
CONCRETE COLUMNS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 13-1

13.2 TYPES OF COLUMNS ....................................................................................... 13-1
13.3 DESIGN LOADS............................................................................................... 13-1
13.4 DESIGN CRITERIA ......................................................................................... 13-2
13.4.1 Limit States ...................................................................................................... 13-2
13.4.2 Forces ............................................................................................................... 13-2
13.5 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS ............... 13-2
13.5.1 Moment Magnification Method ....................................................................... 13-3
13.6 COMBINED AXIAL AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH ................................... 13-5
13.6.1 Interaction Diagrams ........................................................................................ 13-5
13.6.2 Pure Compression ............................................................................................ 13-6
13.6.3 Biaxial Flexure ................................................................................................. 13-7
13.7 COLUMN FLEXURAL DESIGN PROCEDURE ............................................ 13-8
13.7.1 Longitudinal Analysis (CTBridge) ................................................................... 13-8
13.7.2 Transverse Analysis (CSiBridge) ..................................................................... 13-8
13.7.3 Column Live Load Input Procedue .................................................................. 13-8
13.7.4 Wind Loads (WS, WL) .................................................................................. 13-14
13.7.5 Braking Force (BR) ........................................................................................ 13-14
13.7.6 Prestress Shortening Effects (CR, SH) ........................................................... 13-14
13.7.7 Prestressing Secondary Effect Forces (PS) .................................................... 13-14
13.7.8 Input Loads into WinYIELD .......................................................................... 13-14
13.7.9 Column Design/Check ................................................................................... 13-14
13.8 COLUMN SHEAR DESIGN PROCEDURE.................................................. 13-15
13.8.1 Longitudinal Analysis .................................................................................... 13-15
13.8.2 Transverse Analysis ....................................................................................... 13-15
Chapter 13 Concrete Columns 13-i

13.8.3 Column Live Load Input Procedure ............................................................... 13-16
13.9 COLUMN SEISMIC DESIGN PROCEDURE ............................................... 13-18

13.10 DESIGN EXAMPLE ....................................................................................... 13-18
13.10.1 Design Column One at Bent Two .................................................................. 13-19
13.10.2 Flexural Check of Main Column Reinforcemen (As) ..................................... 13-21
13.10.3 Shear Design for Transverse Reinforcement (Av) .......................................... 13-44
NOTATION ................................................................................................................. 13-55
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 13-58
Chapter 13 Concrete Columns 13-ii

CHAPTER 13
CONCRETE COLUMNS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Columns are structural elements that support the superstructure, transfer vertical
loads from superstructure to foundation, and resist the lateral loads acting on the
bridge due to seismic and various service loads.
13.2 TYPES OF COLUMNS

Columns are categorized along two parameters (Chen, 2014 and MacGregor,
1988): shape and height:
Columns sections are usually round, rectangular, solid, hollow, octagonal,
or hexagonal.
Columns may be short or tall. The column is called either short or tall
according to its effective slenderness ratio (Klu/r).
where:
K = effective length factor
lu = unsupported length of a compression member
r = radius of gyration
13.3 DESIGN LOADS

The considered design loads as specified in AASHTO 3.3.2 are:
Dead loads (DC)
Added dead loads (DW)
Design vehicular live loads:
1. Design vehicle HL-93 shall consists of a combination of
(Truck + Lane) or (design tandem + Lane) including dynamic
load allowance (IM).
2. Permit vehicle (P15) including the dynamic load allowance (IM).
Wind loads (WS, WL)
Chapter 13 Concrete Columns 13-1

Braking force (BR)

Thermal effects (TU)
Prestress shortening effects (CR, SH)
Prestressing secondary effects (PS)
13.4 DESIGN CRITERIA

Columns are designed for Service, Strength, and Extreme Event limit states
(AASHTO, 2012 and Caltrans, 2014). The Extreme Event I limit state must be in
accordance with the current the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) version 1.7
(Caltrans, 2013). Columns should be designed as ductile members to deform
inelastically for several cycles without significant degradation of strength or stiffness
under the design earthquake demand (see SDC seismic design criteria chapters 3 and
4 for more details). Columns supporting a superstructure that is built using balanced
cantilevered construction, or other unusual construction loads, are not addressed
herein.
13.4.1 Limit States
As stated above, columns are designed for three limit states:

Strength Limit State
Service Limit State
Extreme Event Limit State
13.4.2 Forces
Bridge columns are subjected to axial loads, bending moments, and shears in
both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge.
13.5 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS

EFFECTS
The slenderness of the compression member is based on the ratio of Klu/r
(AASHTO 5.7.4.3), while the effective length factor, K (AASHTO 4.6.2.5), is to
compensate for rotational and transitional boundary conditions other than pinned
ends.
Theoretical and design values of K for individual members are given in
AASHTO Table C4.6.2.5.-1.
Slenderness s effect is ignored if:
Klu/r < 22 (members not braced against sidesway)

Klu/r < 34 12 (M1 / M2) (members braced against sidesway)

where:
M1 = smaller end moment, should be positive for single curvature flexure
M2 = larger end moment, should be positive for single curvature flexure
lu = unsupported length of a compression member
r = radius of gyration
= 0.25 times the column diameter for circular columns
= 0.3 times the column dimension in the direction of buckling for rectangular
columns
If slenderness ratio exceeds the above-mentioned limits, the moment
magnification procedure (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b) can approximate the analysis.
Note: If Klu/r exceeds 100, columns may experience appreciable lateral deflections
resulting from vertical loads or the combination of vertical loads and lateral loads.
For this case, a more detailed second-order non-linear analysis should be considered,
including the significant change in column geometry and stiffness.
13.5.1 Moment Magnification Method
The factored moments may be increased to reflect effects of deformation as

follows:
Mc = b M2b + s M2s (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b-1)
where:
Mc = magnified factored moment
M2b = moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that result
in no sideway, always positive
M2s = moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads
that result in sideway, , greater than lu/1500, always positive
b = moment magnification factor for compression member braced against
sidesway
s = moment magnification factor for compression member not braced against
sidesway
The moment magnification factors (b and s) are defined as follows:
Cm
b 1 (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b-3)
Pu
1
k Pe

1
s (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b-4)
Pu
1
k Pe
For members braced against sideway s is taken as one unless analysis indicates a
lower value.For members not braced against sideway b is to be determined as for a
braced member and s for an unbraced member.
Pu = factored axial load
Pe = Euler buckling load, which is determined as follows:
2 Ec I
Pe
( Klu ) 2
Ec = the elastic modulus of concrete

I = moment of inertia about axis under consideration
k = stiffness reduction factor; 0.75 for concrete members and 1 for steel
members
Cm = a factor, which relates the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform
moment diagram, is typically taken as one
However, in the case where the member is braced against sidesway and without
transverse loads between supports, Cm may be based on the following expression:
M 1b
C m 0.6 0.4 (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b-6)
M 2b
To compute the flexural rigidity EI for concrete column in determining Pe,
AASHTO 5.7.4.3 (AASHTO, 2012) recommends that the larger of the following be
used:
Ec I g
Es I s
EI 5 (AASHTO 5.7.4.3-1)
1 d
Ec I g
EI 2.5 (AASHTO 5.7.4.3-2)
1 d
where:
Ig = the gross moment of inertia (in.4)
Es = elastic modulus of reinforcement (ksi)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about neutral axis (ksi)
d = ratio of maximum factored permanent load moment to the maximum
factored total load moment, always positive

13.6 COMBINED AXIAL AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH
13.6.1 Interaction Diagrams
Flexural resistance of a concrete member is dependent upon the axial force acting
on the member. Interaction diagrams for a reinforced concrete section are created
assuming a series of strain distributions and computing the corresponding moments
and axial forces. The results are plotted to produce an interaction diagram as shown
in Figure 13.6-1.
c = 0.003
Po
P
c = 0.003
s y = 0.002
Compression
Controlled
s = y = 0.002
Pb
Balanced Strain Condition c = 0.003
Tension Controlled
Mo Mb Mn
s 0.005
Figure 13.6-1 Typical Strength Interaction Diagram for Reinforced

Concrete Section with Grade 60 Reinforcement
When combined axial compression and bending moment act on a member having
a low slenderness ratio and where column buckling is not a possible mode of failure,
the strength of the member is governed by the material strength of the cross section.
For this socalled short column, the strength is achieved when the extreme concrete
compression fiber reaches the strain of 0.003. In general, one of three modes of
failure will occur: tension controlled, compression controlled, or balanced strain
condition (AASHTO 5.7.2.1). These modes of failure are detailed below:

Tension controlled: Sections are tension controlled when the net tensile
strain in the extreme tension steel is equal to or greater than 0.005 just as
the concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003.
Compression controlled: Sections are compression controlled when the
net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel is equal to or less than the
net tensile strain in the reinforcement (y = 0.002) at balanced strain
condition at the time the concrete in compression reaches its assumed
strain limit of 0.003.
Balanced strain condition: Where compression strain of the concrete
(c = 0.003) and yield strain of the steel (for Grade 60 reinforcement
y = 0.002) are reached simultaneously, the strain is in a balanced
condition.
13.6.2 Pure Compression
For members with spiral transverse reinforcement, the axial resistance is

based on:
Pr =Pn = Po = fc AgAstAst fy(AASHTO
For members with tie transverse reinforcement, the axial resistance is based on:
Pr =Pn = Po = fc AgAstAst fy AASHTO
where:
Pr = factored axial resistance
Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure
= resistance factor specified in AASHTO 5.5.4.2
Po = nominal axial resistance of a section at zero eccentricity
fc = specified strength of concrete at 28 days, unless another age is specified
Ag = gross area of section
Ast = total area of main column reinforcement
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement

13.6.3 Biaxial Flexure
AASHTO 5.7.4.5 specifies the design of non-circular members subjected to

biaxial flexure and compression based on the stress and strain compatibility using
one of the following approximate expressions:
For the factored axial load, Pu 0.1fcAg
1 1 1 1
(AASHTO 5.7.4.5-1)
Prxy Prx Pry Po
where:
Po = 0.85fc (Ag Ast) + Astfy (AASHTO 5.7.4.5-2)
For the factored axial load, Pu 0.1fcAg

M ux M uy
1 (AASHTO 5.7.4.5-3)
M rx M ry
where:
Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is
present
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is
present
Pu = factored applied axial force
Mux = factored applied moment about x axis
Muy = factored applied moment about y axis
Mrx = uniaxial factored flexural resistance of a section about x axis corresponding
to the eccentricity produced by the applied factored axial load and moment
Mry = uniaxial factored flexural resistance of a section about y axis corresponding
to the eccentricity produced by the applied factored axial load and moment

13.7 COLUMN FLEXURAL DESIGN PROCEDURE

Column flexure design steps for permanent and transient loads are presented in
the following sub-sections.
13.7.1 Longitudinal Analysis (CTBridge)
Perform a longitudinal analysis of the bridge under consideration using Caltrans

CTBridge software. Results will determine:
Axial load (Ax) and longitudinal moment (Mz) at top of the column for
DC and DW
Maximum unfactored axial load (Ax) and associated longitudinal moment
(Mz) of design vehicular live loads for one lane per bent
Maximum unfactored longitudinal moment (Mz) and associated axial
load (Ax) of design vehicular live loads for the one lane per bent
13.7.2 Transverse Analysis (CSiBridge)
Perform a transverse analysis of bent cap (BDP Chapter 12, Bent-Cap) using
commercial software CSiBridge. Results of the analysis is used to determine:
Column axial load (P) and transverse moment (M3) for DC and DW
Maximum axial load (P) and associated transverse moment (M3) for
design vehicular live loads
Maximum transverse moment (M3) and associated axial load (P) for
design vehicular live loads
Note: WinYIELD (Caltrans, 2008) uses the x-axis for longitudinal direction and y-
axis for the transverse direction. The CTBridge output renames Mz as Mx and Ax as P.
The CSiBridge output renames the transverse moment, M3, as My.
13.7.3 Column Live Load Input Procedure
13.7.3.1 Output from Longitudinal 2D Analysis (CTBridge)
Column unfactored live load forces and moments for one lane from longitudinal
analysis (CTBridge) are summarized in Table 13.7-1 below:

Table 13.7-1 Unfactored Bent Reactions for One Lane, Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
Not Included
Design Vehicle Permit Vehicle
Maximum axial load and associated longitudinal Maximum axial load and associated
moment longitudinal moment
Ax (kip) Mz (kip-ft) Ax (kip) Mz (kip-ft)
Truck A
T
max CT M
T
z assoc CT A P
max CT M
P
z assoc CT
Lane A
L
max CT M
L
z assoc CT
Maximum longitudinal moment and associated Maximum longitudinal moment and associated
axial load axial load
Truck A
T
assoc CT M
T
z max CT AP

assoc CT M
P
z max CT
Lane A
L
assoc CT M
L
z max CT
where:
A
T
max CT = maximum axial force for truck load
M
T
z assoc CT = longitudinal moment associated with maximum axial force for truck load
AL
max CT = maximum axial force for lane load
M L

z assoc CT = longitudinal moment associated with maximum axial force for lane load
AP
max CT = maximum axial force for permit vehicle load
M P

z assoc CT = longitudinal moment associated with maximum axial force for permit
vehicle load
M
T
z max CT = maximum longitudinal moment for truck load
A
T
assoc CT = axial force associated with maximum longitudinal moment for truck load
M
L
z max = maximum longitudinal moment for lane load
A
L
assoc CT = axial force associated with maximum longitudinal moment for lane load
M
P
z max CT = maximum longitudinal moment for permit vehicle load
A
P
assoc CT = axial force associated with maximum longitudinal moment for permit vehicle
load

13.7.3.2 Output from 2D Transverse Analysis (CSiBridge)
Axial forces presented in Table 13.7-1 are converted to two pseudo wheel loads
including dynamic allowance factor to be used in transverse analysis (see BDP
Chapter 12) to be used in transverse analysis.
Include dynamic load allowance factor for Table 13.7-1.
Column reaction = 1.33(reaction/2) for truck
= 1(reaction/2) for lane
= 1.25(reaction/2) for P-15
The transverse analysis column forces for pseudo truck and permit wheel
loadings are presented in Table 13.7-2.
Table 13.7-2 Unfactored Column Reaction, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
Maximum axial load and associated transverse Maximum axial load and associated transverse
moment moment
P (kip) M3 (kip-ft) P (kip) M3 (kip-ft)
Truck P
T
max CSi M
T
3 assoc CSi P
P
max CSi M
P
3 assoc CSi
Maximum transverse moment and associated axial Maximum transverse moment and associated axial
load load
Truck P
T
assoc CSi
M
T
3 max CSi P
P
assoc CSi M
P
3 max CSi
where:
P
T
max CSi = maximum axial force due to pseudo truck wheel loads
M
T
3 assoc CSi = transverse moment associated with maximum axial force due to pseudo truck
wheel loads.
P
P
max Csi = maximum axial force due to pseudo permit wheel loads
M
P
3 assoc CSi = transverse moment associated with maximum axial force due to pseudo permit
wheel loads
M
T
3 max CSi = maximum transverse moment due to pseudo truck wheel loads
P
T
assoc CSi = axial force associated with maximum transverse moment due to pseudo truck
wheel loads

M
P
3 max CSi = maximum transverse moment due to pseudo permit wheel loads
P
P
assoc CSi = axial force associated with maximum transverse moment due to pseudo permit
wheel loads
13.7.3.3 CTBridge output including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
Multiply dynamic allowance factor for values in Table 13.7-1 divided by number
of bent columns to get reactions per column (Table 13.7-3).
Table 13.7-3 Unfactored Column Reactions for One Lane, Including Dynamic Load
Allowance Factors
P (kip) Mx (kip-ft) P (kip) Mx (kip-ft)
Truck P T
max CT M
T
x assoc CT P
P
max CT M
P
x assoc CT
Lane P L
max CT M
L
x assoc CT
Maximum longitudinal moment and associated axial Maximum longitudinal moment and
load associated axial load
P (kip) Mx (kip-ft) P (kip) Mx (kip-ft)
Truck P T
assoc CT M
T
x max CT P
P
assoc CT M
P
x max CT
Lane P L
assoc CT M
L
x max CT
13.7.3.4 Truck and Lane Loads for Transverse Analysis (CSiBridge)
Split truck reactions results of transverse analysis (Table 13.7-3) into truck and
lane loads as follows:
T
Pmax CT
R1
Ratio of truck load per design vehicle = T
P

max CT Pmax
L
CT
P L
max CT
R2
P P
Ratio of lane load per design vehicle = T L
max CT max CT
Unfactored column reactions (Table 13.7-4) including dynamic load allowance

(CSiBridge):
R1 = truck load ratio of design vehicle (values of Table 13.7-2)
R2 = lane load ratio of design vehicle (values of Table 13.7-2)

Table 13.7-4 Unfactored Column Reactions, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
moment moment
P (kip) My (kip-ft) P (kip) My (kip-ft)
Truck P
T
max CSi
M
T
y assoc CSi P P
max CSi
M
P
y assoc CSi
Lane P
L
max CSi
M
L
y assoc CSi
Maximum transverse moment and associated axial Maximum transverse moment and associated
load axial load
P (kip) My (kip-ft) P (kip) My (kip-ft)
Truck P
T
assoc CSi
M
T
y max CSi P
P
assoc CSi
M
P
y max CSi
Lane P
L
assoc CSi
M
L
y max CSi
13.7.3.5 Combination of Longitudinal and Transverse Output
Combine forces and moments of Tables 13.7-3 and 13.7-4.

Case 1: Maximum My (Table 13.7-5)
Case 2: Maximum Mx (Table 13.7-6)
Case 3: Maximum P (Table 13.7-7)
Table 13.7-5 Case 1: Maximum Transverse Moment (My)

P-truck H-truck Lane
My
(kip-ft)

M yP max
CSi

M Ty max
CSi
M
L
y max CSi
Passoc P M
P CSi M xP assoc. CT P M
P L
T
assoc CSi L
Pmax CT

P
Mx assoc CSi T
P
x assoc CT L x assoc CT
T
(kip-ft) max CT max CT
P (kip) P P
assoc CSi P
T
assoc CSi P
L
assoc CSi

Table 13.7-6 Case 2: Maximum Longitudinal Moment (Mx)

P
Passoc . CT M P
T
Passoc . CT M T
L
Passoc M
. CT L

My
(kip-ft)

P
Pmax CT y. assoc . CSi
T
L
P

Pmax M
CSi P
T

Pmax M
CSi T M
Pmax
L
Mx
(kip-ft)
P

Pmax
CT
x . max CT T

Pmax
CT
x . max CT L

Pmax
CSi
CT
L
x. max CT

Passoc P
Passoc P Passoc .
L CT Pmax
L
. CSi
P T L
. P . T
P CT T CT
P (kip)

Pmax CT max . CSi

Pmax CT max . CSi
Pmax CT
Table 13.7-7 Case 3: Maximum Axial Load (P)

My
(kip-ft)
M yP assoc.
CSi
M Ty assoc.
CSi

M yL assoc.
CSi
P P
M M M
P T
Pmax

max CSi P max CSi T L
P P
Mx CSi L

L

P x assoc . CT T x assoc . CT
(kip-ft) max CT max CT x assoc . CT
Pmax CT
P (kip) P
P
max CSi P
T
max CSi Pmax
L
CSi
13.7.3.6 WinYIELD Live Load Input
Transfer Tables 13.7-5, 13.7-6, and 13.7-7 data into Table 13.7-8, which will be
used as load input for the WinYIELD program.
Table 13.7-8 Input for Column Live Load Analysis of WinYIELD Program.
Case 1: Max Transverse Case 2: Max Longitudinal
Case 3: Max Axial (P)
(My) (Mx)
Lane Lane P- Lane
P-truck H-truck P-truck H-truck H-truck
Load Load truck Load
My
Trans
Mx Long TABLE 13.7-5 Data TABLE 13.7-6 Data TABLE 13.7-7 Data
P Axial

13.7.4 Wind Loads (WS, WL)
Calculate wind moments and axial loads for column (see BDP Chapter 3).
13.7.5 Braking Force (BR)
Calculate braking force moments and axial load for column (see BDP Chapter 3).
13.7.6 Prestress Shortening Effects (CR, SH)
Calculate prestress shortening moments as shown in design example (13.10).
13.7.7 Prestressing Secondary Effect Forces (PS)
Calculate secondary prestress moments and axial loads (from CTBridge output).
13.7.8 Input Loads into WinYIELD
Transfer all loads into WinYIELDs load table.
13.7.9 Column Design/Check
Run WinYIELD to design/check the main vertical column reinforcement.

13.8 COLUMN SHEAR DESIGN PROCEDURE

Column shear demand values are calculated from longitudinal and transverse
analyses.
13.8.1 Longitudinal Analysis
Perform a longitudinal analysis (CTBridge) to determine:

Longitudinal shear (Vy) and moment (Mz) for DC and DW at top and
bottom of the column.
Maximum longitudinal shear (Vy) and associated moment (Mz) for design
vehicular live loads at top and bottom of the bent unfactored reactions for
one lane as shown in Table 13.8-1.
Table 13.8-1 Longitudinal Unfactored Bent Reactions for One Lane, Dynamic Load
Allowance Factors Not Included.
Maximum longitudinal shear and associated Maximum longitudinal shear and associated
longitudinal moment at top of the column longitudinal moment at top of the column
Vy (kip) Mz (kip-ft) Vy (kip) Mz (kip-ft)
Truck ((VyT)max)CT ((MzT)assoc)CT ((VyP)max)CT ((MzP)assoc)CT
Lane ((VyL)max)CT ((MzL)assoc)CT
longitudinal moment at bottom of the column longitudinal moment at bottom of the column
where:
((VyT)max)CT = maximum longitudinal shear at top and bottom of column for truck
load
((MzT)assoc)CT = longitudinal moment at top and bottom of column associated with
maximum shear for truck load
((VyL)max)CT = maximum longitudinal shear at top and bottom of column for lane
load
((MzL)assoc)CT = longitudinal moment at top and bottom of column associated
with ,aximum shear for lane load
((VyP)max)CT = maximum longitudinal shear at top and bottom of column for permit
load
((MzP)assoc)CT = longitudinal moment at top and bottom of column associated with
maximum shear for permit load

13.8.2 Transverse Analysis
Perform a transverse analysis (CSiBridge) to determine:

Column transverse shears (V2) and associated moment (M3) for DC and
DW
Maximum transverse shear (V2) and associated moment (M3) for design
vehicular live loads at top and bottom of the column with dynamic load
allowance factors included, as shown in Table 13.8-2
Table 13.8-2 Transverse Unfactored Column Reactions Including Dynamic Load Allowance
Factors
Maximum transverse shear and associated Maximum transverse shear and associated
transverse moment at top of the column transverse moment at top of the column
V2 (kip) M3 (kip-ft) V2 (kip) M3 (kip-ft)
Truck ((V2T)max)CSi ((M3T)assoc)CSi ((V2P)max)CSi ((M3P)assoc)CSi
transverse moment at bottom of the column transverse moment at bottom of the column
where:
((V2T)max)CSi = maximum longitudinal shear at top and bottom of column for truck
load
((M3T)assoc)CSi = transverse moment at top and bottom of column associated with
maximum shear for truck load
((V2P)max)CSi = maximum transverse shear at top and bottom of column for permit
load
((M3P)assoc)CSi = transverse moment at top and bottom of column associated with
maximum shear for permit load
13.8.3 Column Live Load Input Procedure
Include dynamic load allowance factors per column for CTBridge output (Table
13.8-1) and summarize the results in Table 13.8-3.

Table 13.8-3 Unfactored Column Longitudinal Shear and Associated Longitudinal Moment
for One Lane, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors (CTBridge)
13.8.3.2 Output from 2D Transverse Analysis (CSiBridge)
Reform Table 13.8-2 to split truck reactions of CSiBridge analysis (Table 13.8-2)
into truck and lane loads (13.7.3.4) as shown in Table 13.8-4.
(CSiBridge)
Lane ((V2L)max)CSi ((M3L)assoc)CSi
Truck ((V2T)max)CSi ((M3T)assoc)CSi ((V2P)max)CSi ((M3P)assoc)SAP
Lane ((V2L)max)CSi ((M3L)assoc)CSi

Since the longitudinal shears and associated longitudinal moments are per one
lane from CTBridge, the total longitudinal shears and associated longitudinal
moments should be calculated as shown in Table 13.8-5.
Table 13.8-5 Total Longitudinal Shear (Vy) and Associated Longitudinal Moment (Mz)
(Vy)max P
Pmax V
CSi P T
Pmax V
CSi T
V
L
Pmax CSi L
(kip)

P
Pmax
CT
y max CT

T
Pmax
CT
y max CT

L
Pmax CT
y max CT

Pmax
P
M P T
Mz P
P M
L
CSi P max CSi T max CSi L
(Mz)assoc.
(kip-ft)
P

Pmax
CT P
z assoc CT T

max CT
z assoc CT

L
max CT
z assoc CT
Determine factored shear and associated factored moment for Strength I

and Strength II Limit States.
Design for shear for controlling case as per AASHTO 5.8.3.
The following example in Section 13.10 will demonstrate the shear
design in details.
13.9 COLUMN SEISMIC DESIGN PROCEDURE

Column seismic design and details shall follow the Caltrans Seismic Design
Criteria 1.7.
13.10 DESIGN EXAMPLE

The bridge shown in Figures 13.10-1 and 13.10-2 are a three-span PS/CIP box
girder bridge with 20 skew and two column bents. The superstructure depth is 6.75 ft.
Columns heights from top of footing to superstructure soffit are 44 ft at bent two and
47 ft at bent three. The columns are round with a diameter of 6 ft. The centerline
distance between columns is 34 ft.

13.10.1 Design Column One at Bent Two
Figure 13.10-1 Elevation View of Example Bridge.

Figure 13.10-2 Typical Section of Example Bridge.

13.10.2 Flexural Check of Main Column Reinforcement (As)
13.10.2.1 Longitudinal Analysis
From CTBridge output, determine Mz for Dead Load (DC) and Added Dead Load
(DW).
Table 13.10-1 Dead Load Unfactored Column Forces
Table 13.10-2 Additional Dead Load Unfactored Column Forces.
Controlling moments, Mz, are as follows:

DC Mz = -925.2 kip-ft
DW Mz = -110.1 kip-ft

13.10.2.2 Design Vehicular Live Loads
From CTBridge output, determine bent two unfactored reactions for one lane (no
dynamic load allowance factors) for the design vehicle as:
Maximum Ax and associated Mz at top of the column
Maximum Mz and associated Ax at top of the column
Table 13.10-3 Live Load, Controlling Unfactored Bent Reactions
From the CTBridge output, determine unfactored bent two reactions for one lane
(no dynamic load allowance factors) of permit vehicle load as follows:
Maximum Ax and associated Mz at top of the column
Maximum Mz and associated Ax at top of the column

Table 13.10-4 Bent 2 Reactions, LRFD Permit Vehicle
13.10.2.3 Transverse Analysis
From CSiBridge output, determine the axial loads and transverse moments for
DC and DW.
Table 13.10-5 Axial loads and Transverse Moment for Dead Load and Added Dead Load

13.10.2.4 Live Loads
From CSiBridge output, determine the unfactored column reactions for design
vehicle including the dynamic load allowance factors which are:
Maximum P and associated M3
Maximum M3 and associated P
Table 13.10-6 Maximum Axial Load (P) for Design Vehicle
Table 13.10-7 Maximum Longitudinal Moment (M3) for Design Vehicle
From CSiBridge output, determine the unfactored column reactions for permit
vehicle including the dynamic load allowance factors which are:
Maximum P and associated M3
Maximum M3 and associated P

Table 13.10-8 Maximum Axial Load (P) for Permit Vehicle.
Table 13.10-9 Maximum Longitudinal Moment (M3) for Permit Vehicle.

Column unfactored live load forces and moments for one lane from longitudinal
analysis (CTBridge) are presented in Table 13.10-10.
Not Included
Maximum axial load and associated longitudinal Maximum axial load and associated longitudinal
moment moment
Truck -115 -65 -360 -201
Lane -99 -167
Truck -44 332 -231 -1486
Lane -42 239
13.10.2.6 Output from Transverse 2D Analysis (CSiBridge)
Two pseudo wheel loads including dynamic allowance factor to be used in

transverse analysis (see Section 13.7.3.2).
The transverse analysis column forces for pseudo truck and permit wheel
loadings are presented in Table 13.10-11.
Table 13.10-11 Unfactored Column Reaction, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors.
moment moment
Truck -569 98 -961 -193
load axial load
Truck -261 401 -469 718

13.10.2.7 Unfactored Column Reactions for One Lane, Including Impact (CTBridge)
Multiply dynamic allowance factor for values in Table 13.10-10 and calculate
reaction per column (Table 13.10-12).
Table 13.10-12 Unfactored Column Reactions for One Lane, Including Dynamic Load
Allowance Factors (CTBridge)
Truck -76 -43 -225 -126
Lane -50 -84
Truck -29 221 -145 -929
Lane -21 119
13.10.2.8 Unfactored Column Reactions, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors

(CSiBridge)
Split the truck reactions results of transverse analysis (Section 13.7.3.4) into
truck and lane loads as follows:
Ratio of truck load per design vehicle = (76.2) / (76.2 + 49.605) = 0.606
Ratio of lane load per design vehicle = (49.6) / (76.2 + 49.605) = 0.394
Truck load of design vehicle = 0.606 (values of Table 13.10-11)
Lane load of design vehicle = 0.394 (values of Table 13.10-11)
Table 13.10-13 summarizes the truck and lane loads for both design and permit
vehicles of transverse analysis.
(CSiBridge)
moment moment
Truck -345 59 -961 -193
Lane -224 39
load axial load
Truck -158 243 -469 718
Lane -103 158

Combine load results as shown in Tables 13.7-5, 13.7-6, 13.7-7, and 13.7-8 to get
WinYEILD input loads as shown in Table 13.10-14.
Table 13.10-14 WinYIELD Column Live Load Input
Case 1 Max Transverse- Case 2 Max Longitudinal-
Case 3 Max Axial-P
My Mx
P- H- Lane H- Lane P- H- Lane
P-Truck
Truck Truck Load Truck Load Truck Truck Load
My-Trans
718 243 158 -124 23 16 -193 60 39
(kip-ft)
Mx-Long
-262 -90 -173 -3965 1003 533 -537 -195 -377
(kip-ft)
P-Axial
-469 -158 -103 -617 -132 -95 -961 -345 -224
(kip)
13.10.2.9 Wind Load (WS, WL)
Wind on structure (WS):

Average bridge height = 50.25 ft
Assume bridge is in Open Country, from AASHTO Table 3.8.1.1-1
Vo = 8.2 mph
Zo = 0.23 ft
V Z
V DZ 2.5 Vo 30 ln (AASHTO 3.8.1.1-1)
VB Z o
100 50.25
V DZ 2.5 8.2 ln 110 .4 mph (design wind velocity)
100 0.23
2
V
PD PB DZ for wind skew direction = 0 (AASHTO 3.8.1.2.1-1)
VB
From AASHTO Table 3.8.1.2.1-1
PB = 0.05 for superstructure (skew angle of wind = 0)
PB = 0.04 for columns (skew angle of wind = 0)
2
110.4
PD 0.05 0.061 ksf (Superstructure)
100
2
110.4
PD 0.04 0.049 ksf (Columns)
100
The base wind pressure, PB, for various angles of wind directions may be taken
as specified in AASHTO Table 3.8.1.2.2-1 (AASHTO, 2012).

where:
PB = base wind pressure, corresponding to VB =100 mph
PD = wind pressure on structures, LRFD equation 3.8.1.2.1-1
VDZ = design wind velocity (mph) at design elevations
VB = base wind velocity of 100 mph at 30 ft height
Vo = friction velocity (mph), LRFD Table 3.8.1.1-1
Z = height of structure (ft) at which wind loads are being calculated as
measured from low ground, or from water level, > 30 ft
Zo = friction length (ft) upstream fetch, LRFD Table 3.8.1.1-1
The wind pressure, PD, is calculated at various angels using the base wind
pressure, PB, as per AASHTO Table 3.8.1.2.2-1. Table 13.10-15 lists the wind
pressure, PD, at various angles of wind.
Table 13.10-15 Wind Pressure at Various Skew Angles of Wind
Superstructure Columns
Skew angle of
(PD)Trans (ksf) (PD)Long (ksf) (PD)Trans (ksf) (PD)Long (ksf)
wind (degrees)
0 0.061 0 0.049 0
15 0.054 0.007 0.043 0.006
30 0.050 0.015 0.040 0.012
45 0.040 0.020 0.032 0.016
60 0.021 0.023 0.017 0.019
Load on span = (6.75 + 2.67)PD

Load on columns = (6)PD
Loads on both superstructure and columns at various winds skew
directions are shown in Table 13.10-16:
Table 13.10-16 Wind Loads at Various Skew Angles of Wind
Superstructure Columns
Skew angle of
(PD)Trans (kip/ft) (PD)Long (kip/ft) (PD)Trans (kip/ft) (PD)Long (kip/ft)
wind (degrees)
0 0.575 0 0.294 0
15 0.509 0.066 0.258 0.036
30 0.471 0.141 0.24 0.072
45 0.377 0.188 0.192 0.096
60 0.198 0.217 0.102 0.114

Model wind as a user-defined load in CTBridge as shown below:
Figure 13.10-3 User Defined Loads for Wind Loads
From CTBridge output:

o Case of maximum transverse wind takes place at wind direction with
skew = 0
o Case of maximum longitudinal wind takes place at wind direction
with skew = 60

Table 13.10-17 User Loads, Unfactored Column Forces, WS Trans Skew 0
Table 13.10-18 User Loads, Unfactored Column Forces, WS Trans Skew 60.

Wind on live load (WL):
Apply 0.1k/ft acting at various angles (AASHTO Table 3.8.1.3-1) as

shown in Table 13.10-19:
Table 13.10-19 Wind on Live Load (WL) at Various Angles

Skew angle of wind Normal component Parallel component
(degrees) (k-ft) (k-ft)
0 0.1 0
15 0.088 0.012
30 0.082 0.024
45 0.066 0.032
60 0.034 0.038
Using CTBridge for wind on live load, the results are:

o Case of maximum transverse wind takes place at skew angle of
wind = 0
o Case of maximum longitudinal wind takes place at wind direction
with skew = 60
Table 13.10-20 User Loads, Unfactored Column Forces, WL Trans Skew 0

Table 13.10-21 User Loads, Unfactored Column Forces, WL Trans Skew 60
Table 13.10-22 Summary of Wind Loads Reactions for Column 1 at Bent 2

Wind on Structure Wind on Live Load
Max. Trans. Max. Long. Max. Trans. Max. Long.
My (kip-ft) 474 -468 80 -74
Mx (kip-ft) 205 1102 34 173
P (kip) 34 -7 6 -1
13.10.2.10 Braking Force (BR)
The braking force (AASHTO 3.6.4) shall be taken as the greater of:
25% design truck = 0.25(72) = 18 kips
25% design tandem = 0.25(50) = 12.5 kips
5% design truck + lane = 0.05[72 + 0.64(412)] = 16.8 kips
5% design tandem + lane = 0.05[50 + 0.64(412)] = 15.7 kips
Controlling force = 18 kips
Number of lanes = [58.83-2(1.42)]/12 = 4.66
Use four lanes, MPF = 0.65
Total breaking force = 18(4) (0.65) = 46.8 kips
Apply the braking force longitudinally then design for the moment and shear
force effects. The braking force can be modeled in CTBridge as a user defined load
in the direction of local X direction as shown below:

Figure 13.10-4 User Defined Loads for Braking Force
Braking forces output from CTBridge are shown in Table 13.10-23.
Table 13.10-23 User Loads, Unfactored Column Forces, Braking Force

13.10.2.11 Thermal Effects (TU)
For a three-span bridge, the point of no movement is shown in Figure 13.10-5:
Point of No Movement
Figure 13.10-5 Point of No Movement
Design temperature ranges from 10 to 80F (AASHTO Table 3.12.2.1-1)

For normal weight concrete F (AASHTO 5.4.2.2)
Load factor for moment in column due to thermal movement TU = 0.5
(AASHTO 3.4.1)
Thermal movement = 100 ft)(12) = 0.504 in. /100 ft
E 33,000K1w1c.5 f c' (AASHTO 5.4.2.4-1)
For fc = 3.6 ksi, E 33 ,000 (1)( 0 .15 ) 1.5 3 .6 3637 ksi
r 4
Ig for circular column
4
(3)4
For 6 ft diameter column, I g 63.6 ft 4
4
Point of no movement calculation:
3EI 3EI
k , P = k then, P
L3 L3
I (two columns per bent) = 2(63.6) =127.2 ft4
3(3637)(127.2)(12) 4 (1)
PBent2 195.51 kips
(44(12))3
3(3637)(127.2)(12) 4 (1)
PBent3 160.4 kips
(47(12))3

where:
coefficient of thermal expansion
k = column stiffness
= lateral displacement
L = column height
PBent2 = lateral force due to lateral displacement () of 1 in at bent-2
PBent3 = lateral force due to lateral displacement () of 1 in at bent-3
Table 13.10-24 Point Of No Movement

Units are
Abut1 Bent2 Bent3 Abut4 SUM
kips and ft
P at 1inch. (kip) 0 195.5 160.4 0 355.9
Distance (D) (ft) 0 126 294 412 832
PD (kip-ft) 0 24,633 47,157.6 0 71,790.6
Distance from CL of support at Abut (X) = (71790.6 / 355.9) = 201.72 ft

Distance from point of no movement from Bent 2 = 201.72 126 = 75.72 ft
Note: The point of no movement can be read directly from the CTBridge output.
For this example, the point of no movement is 75.72 ft from bent two, as shown in
Figure 13.10-6.
Figure 13.10-6 Point of No Movement
Thermal displacement () = (0.504 / 100) (75.72) = 0.38 in.

3EI g TH
M TH TU
L2
3(3637)(63.6)(12) 4 (0.38)
= 0.5 = 9807 kip-in. = 817 kip-ft
(44(12)) 2

(MTH)x = M cos cos(20) = 767.6 kip-ft

(MTH)y = M sin sin(20) = 279.4 kip-ft
where:
MTH = column moment due to thermal expansion
= skew angle
TU = load factor for uniform temperature
13.10.2.12 Prestress Shortening Effects (Creep and Shrinkage)
The anticipated shortening due to prestressing effects occurs at a rate of 0.63 in.
per 100 ft (MTD 7-10).
Displacement = 0.63 (75.72 / 100) = 0.48 in.
3EIg 3(3637)(63.6)(12)4 (0.48)
Mcsh p = 0.5=12387 kip-in.=1032 kip-ft
L2 (44x12)2
(Mcsh)x = M cos cos(20) = 970 kip-ft
(Mcsh)y = M sin sin(20) = 353 kip-ft
where:
Mcsh = column moment due to prestress shortening (creep and shrinkage)
p = load factor for permanent load due to creep and shrinkage
13.10.2.13 Prestress Secondary Effects (PS)
The secondary effect of prestressing after long term losses is shown in Table
13.10-25.
Table 13.10-25 Prestressing Secondary Effects

13.10.2.14 WinYIELD Input for Column 1 at Bent 2
Design of column reinforcement is performed by running WinYIELD starting by

general form as shown in Figure 13.10-7.
Figure 13.10-7 WinYIELD General Form

Column form for circular column with diameter of 72 inches is shown in Figure
13.10-8.
Figure 13.10-8 WinYIELD Column Form

Material form (Figure 13.10-9) shows concrete specified compressive strength,

fc = 3.6 ksi and steel rebar specified minimum yield strength, fy = 60 ksi.
Figure 13.10-9 WinYIELD Material Form

Figure 13.10-10 shows the rebar form with:

Out to out distance = 72 2(2) = 68 in. (for cover = 2 in.)
Assume #14 bundle total 36 and #8 hoops
Loop radius = [72 2(2) 2(1.13) 2(1.88/2)]/2 = 31.9 in.
Figure 13.10-10 WinYIELD Rebar Form

Use AASHTO Chapter 4 to determine Kx and Ky, considering AASHTO

C4.6.2.5-1 to be used in load-1 form (Figure 13.10-11).
Figure 13.10-11 WinYIELD Load-1 Form

Load-2 (Figure 13.10-12) input data is taken from Table 13.10-14.
Figure 13.10-12 WinYIELD Load-2 Form
13.10.2.15 WinYIELD Output
Winyield output sheet (Figure 13.10-13) shows the steel reinforcement required
for the column.
Figure 13.10-13 WinYIELD Output Results

The final design could be summarized as:
Provided number of bars = 18 bundle > required number of bars = 10.6 (OK)
Min. clearance and spacing for #14 bundle horizontally = 7.5 in.
Distance between bundles = 2(31.93) / 18 = 11.1 in. > 7.5 in. (OK)

13.10.3 Shear Design for Transverse Reinforcement (Av)
The procedure of determining column transverse reinforcement is presented in

consequent sections.
13.10.3.1 Longitudinal Analysis
From CTBridge output (Tables 13.10-26 and 13.10-27), determine longitudinal

shear (Vy) and moment (Mz) at top and bottom of columns for DC and DW. Combine
output in Table 3.10-28.
Table 13.10-26 Dead Load, Unfactored Column Forces
Table 13.10-27 Additional Dead Load, Unfactored Column Forces

Table 13.10-28 Longitudinal Shear (Vy) and Longitudinal Moment (Mz) for DC and DW
Top of Column Bottom of Column
DC DW DC DW
Vy (kip) 21 2.5 21 2.5
Mz (kip-ft) -925.2 -110.1 0 0
Determine maximum longitudinal shear (Vy) and associated moment (Mz) for
design vehicular live loads at top and bottom of the bent unfactored reactions for one
lane as shown in Table 13.10-29.
Table 13.10-29 Unfactored Bent Reactions For Design Vehicle
Determine maximum longitudinal shear (Vy) and associated moment (Mz) for
permit vehicular live loads at top and bottom of the bent unfactored reactions for one
lane as shown in Table 13.10-30.

Table 13.10-30 Unfactored Bent Reactions For Permit Vehicle
Re-arrange the longitudinal shear and moment output from CTBridge are for two
columns (Table 13.10-31).

Not Included
(Vy)max (Mz)assoc (Vy)max (Mz)assoc
(kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip-ft)
Truck 10.3 -455 -12.28 540.25
Lane 7.6 -336
(Vy)max (Mz)assoc (Vy)max (Mz)assoc
Truck 10.3 0 33.78 0
Lane 7.6 0
Apply dynamic allowance factor to Table 13.10-31 for one column as shown in Table 13.10-32.
Table 13.10-32 Unfactored Column Longitudinal Shear and Associated Longitudinal

Moment for One Lane, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors.
(Vy)max (kip) (Mz)assoc (kip-ft) (Vy)max (kip) (Mz)assoc (kip-ft)
Truck 6.8 -303 -7.7 338
Lane 3.8 -168
Truck 6.8 0 21 0
Lane 3.8 0

13.10.3.2 Transverse Analysis

CSiBridge output for load cases of dead load (DC) and added dead load (ADL) is
shown in Table 13.10-33.
Table 13.10-33 Transverse Shear (V2) and Moment (M3) at Top and Bottom of Columns
due to Dead Load (DC) and Added Dead Load (DW)
Combine output in Table 3.10-34.
Table 13.10-34 Transverse Shear (V2) and Moment (M3) for DC and DW
Top of column Bottom of column
DC DW DC DW
V2 (kip) -10.5 -0.5 -10.5 -0.5
M3 (kip-ft) 462 23 0 0
CSiBridge output for maximum shear (V2) and associated and moment (M3) for
design vehicle including dynamic load allowance as shown in Table 13.10-35.

Table 13.10-35 Maximum Shear (V2) and Associated Moment (M3) for Design Vehicle
CSiBridge output for maximum shear (V2) and associated and moment (M3) for
permit vehicle including dynamic load allowance as shown in Table 13.10-36.
Table 13.10-36 Maximum Shear (V2) and Associated Moment (M3) for Permit Vehicle
Re-arrange the transverse shear and moment output from CSiBridge in Table
13.10-37.

Table 13.10-37 Unfactored Column Reaction, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
transverse moment at top of the column transverse moment at top of the column
(V2)max (M3)assoc (V2)max (M3)assoc
Truck -9.1 400 -16.3 718
transverse moment at bottom of the column transverse moment at bottom of the column
Truck -9.1 0 -16.3 0
Use the procedure shown in 13.7.4 and arrange output in Table 13.10-38.
Table 13.10-38 Unfactored Column Reactions, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factor
Truck -5.5 243 -16.3 718
Lane -3.6 157
Truck -5.5 0 -16.3 0
Lane -3.6 0
13.10.3 Total Longitudinal Shear and Associated Moments

Total column longitudinal total shear and associated moment as per 13.8.3 is
presented in Table 13.10-39.
Table 13.10-39 Unfactored Column Total Longitudinal Shear and Associated Longitudinal
Moment, Including Dynamic Load Allowance Factors
Truck 31 -1367 -12 519
Lane 17 -759
Truck 31 0 32 0
Lane 17 0

13.10.3.9 Summary of Column Shear Loads
Column shear loads are summarized in Table 13.10-40.

Table 13.10-40 Longitudinal Shear and Associated Longitudinal Moment
Load Case
(Vy)max. (kip) (Mz)assoc (kip-ft) (Vy)max. (kip) (Mz)assoc (kip-ft)
DC 21 -925 21 0
DW 2.5 -110 2.5 0
H-Truck 31 -1367 31 0
Lane 17 -759 17 0
P-Truck -12 519 32 0
Table 13.10-41 Transverse Shear and Associated Transverse Moment.

Load Case
(V2)max (kip) (M3)assoc (kip-ft) (V2)max (kip) (M3)assoc (kip-ft)
DC -10.5 462 -10.5 0
DW -0.5 23 -0.5 0
H-Truck -5.8 258 -5.8 0
Lane -3.3 143 -3.3 0
P-Truck -16.3 718 -16.3 0
Since this example uses circular columns, the design shears and moments should
be taken as the square root of the sum of the squares:
Table 13.10-42 Square Root of the Sum of the Squares

Load Case
V (kip) (M)assoc (kip-ft) V (kip) (M)assoc (kip-ft)
DC 23 1034 23 0
DW 3 112 3 0
H-Truck 32 1392 32 0
Lane 17 772 17 0
P-Truck 20 886 36 0
13.10.3.10 Strength Shear Limit States
Determine strength I and strength II limit states for shear and associated moments.
Strength I:
Vu = 1.25 (23) + 1.5 (3) + 1.75 (32 + 17) = 119 kips (controls)
Mu = 1.25 (1034) + 1.5 (112) + 1.75 (1392 + 772) = 5248 kips
Strength II:
Vu = 1.25 (23) + 1.5 (3) + 1.35 (20) = 60 kips
Mu = 1.25 (1034) + 1.5 (112) + 1.35 (886) = 2,657 kip-ft

Vn = Vc + Vs (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
Av f y d v
Vs cot (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-4)
s
Vu
vu (AASHTO 5.8.2.9-1)
bv d v
Column loop radius = 31.93 in. (from WinYIELD input)
Using simplified procedure for nonprestressed sections (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1)

Vc 0.0316 f c bv d v 0.03162 3.6 7250.16 433 kips 119 kips
where:
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (in.2)
bv = effective web width
dv = effective shear depth
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal reinforcement (in.)
Vc = concrete shear capacity
Vn = nominal shear capacity
Vs = transverse shear reinforcement capacity
Vu = factored shear force
Mu = factored moment
= factor indication ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
and shear as specified in article 5.8.3.4
Use minimum shear reinforcement (AASHTO 5.8.2.5-1).
Av f c 3 .6
0.0316 bv 0.0316 x72 0.072 in. 2 /in.
s min f y 60
Av = 0.79 in.2 for #8 hoops, so

0 . 79
s min 11 in. (Use s = 6 in.)
0 .072
Check maximum spacing:

vu
For 0.125 Smax = 0.8 dv 18 in. (CA 5.8.2.7-1)
f c
vu
0.125 Smax = 0.4 dv 12 in. (AASHTO 5.8.2.7-2)
f c
v 0.0483
Since u 0.0134 0.125 , then Smax = 0.8 (50.16) = 40.1 in. > 18 in.
f c 3.6
Smax = 18 in. > 11 in. (OK)
Note: Use #8 hoops @ 6 in. Seismic shear demands should be checked per the current
SDC. Column confinement/shear steel, in most normal cases, will be governed by the
plastic hinge shear.
Check shear-flexure interaction:

M u VU
As f y 0.5Vs cot (AASHTO 5.8.3.5.3-1)
d v
5248(12) 117
2(18)(2.25)(60) + -0 cot45
0.9(50.16) 0.9
4860 kips 1525 kips (OK), then #14 tot. 18 bundle as shown in Figure 13.10-14
are OK

Y-Axis (Long)
#8 hoop at 6 in. #14 tot. 18 bundles
Y-Axis (Trans)
Figure 13.10-14 Column DetailsReinforcement of Column

NOTATION
Ag = gross area of section (in.2) (13.6.2)
As = main column reinforcement (13.10.2)
Ast = total area of main column reinforcement (in.2) (13.6.2)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (in2) (13.10.3.10)
Ax = axial load (13.7.1)
bv = effective web width (13.10.3.10)
Cm = a factor, which relates the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform
moment diagram, is typically taken as 1 (13.5.1)
dv = effective shear depth ( 13.10.3.10)
Ec = the elastic modulus of concrete (ksi) (13.5.1)
Es = elastic modulus of reinforcement (ksi) (13.5.1)
fc = specified strength of concrete at 28 days, unless another age is specified (ksi)
(13.6.2)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement (ksi) (13.6.2)
I = moment of inertia about axis under consideration (in.4) (13.5.1)
Ig = the gross moment of inertia (in.4) (13.5.1)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about neutral axis (ksi) (13.5.1)
K = the effective length factor (13.2)
k = column stiffness (k/in)(13.10.2.11)
L = column height (13.10.2.11)
lu = the unsupported length of a compression member (in.) (13.2)
MTH = column moment due to thermal expansion (13.10.2.11)
Mcsh = column moment due to prestress shortening (creep and shrinkage) (13.10.2.11)
M1 = the smaller end moment, should be positive for single curvature flexure (13.5)
M2 = the larger end moment, should be positive for single curvature flexure (13.5)
M2b = moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that result no
sidesway, always positive (kip-ft) (13.5.1)
M2s = moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
result in sidesway, , greater than lu/1500, always positive (kip-ft) (13.5.1)
M3 = transverse moment (13.7.2)
Mb = balanced moment resistance at balanced strain condition (13.6.1)

Mc = magnified factored moment (13.5.1)

Mo = nominal flexural resistance of a section at zero eccentricity (13.6.1)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance (13.6.1)
Mrx = uniaxial factored flexural resistance of a section about x-axis corresponding to
the eccentricity produced by the applied factored axial load and moment
(13.6.2)
Mry = uniaxial factored flexural resistance of a section about y-axis corresponding to
the eccentricity produced by the applied factored axial load and moment
(13.6.2)
Mu = factored moment (13.10.3.10)
Mux = factored applied moment about x-axis (kip-in.) (13.6.2)
Muy = factored applied moment about y-axis (kip-in.) (13.6.2)
My = transverse moment (13.7.2)
Mz = longitudinal moment (13.7.1)
P = column axial load (13.7.2)
PB = base wind pressure, corresponding to VB =100 mph (13.10.2.9)
Pb = balanced axial resistance at balanced strain condition (13.6.1)
PBent2 = lateral force due to lateral displacement () of 1 in at bent-2 (13.10.2.11)
PBent3 = lateral force due to lateral displacement () of 1 in at bent-3 (13.10.2.11)
PD = wind pressure on structures (13.10.2.9)
Pe = Euler buckling load (13.5.1)
Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure (13.6.2)
Po = nominal axial resistance of a section at 0 eccentricity (kip) (13.6.1)
Pr = factored axial resistance (13.6.2)
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is
present (kip) (13.6.2)
Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure (kip) (13.6.2)
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is
present (kip) (13.6.2)
Pu = factored axial load (kip) (13.5.1)
r = radius of gyration (in.) (13.2)
R1 = truck load of design vehicle (13.7.3)
R2 = lane load of design vehicle (13.7.3)

S = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured in a direction parallel to the

longitudinal reinforcement (in) (13.10.3.10)
V2 = transverse analysis (13.8.2)
VB = base wind velocity of 100 mph at 30 ft height (13.10.2.9)
Vc = concrete shear capacity (13.10.3.10)
VDZ = design wind velocity (mph) at design elevations (13.10.2.9)
Vn = nominal shear capacity (13.10.3.10)
Vo = friction velocity (mph) (13.10.2.9)
Vs = transverse shear reinforcement capacity (13.10.3.10)
Vu = factored shear force (13.10.3.10)
Vy = longitudinal shear (13.8.1)
Z = height of structure (ft) at which wind loads are being calculated as measured
from low ground, or from water level, > 30 ft (13.10.2.9)
Zo = friction length (ft) upstream fetch (13.10.2.9)
coefficient of thermal expansion(13.10.2.11)
= factor indication ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension and
shear (13.10.3.10)
d = ratio of maximum factored permanent moment to the maximum factored total
load moment, always positive (13.5.1)
p = load factor for permanent load due to creep and shrinkage (13.10.2.12)
TU = load factor for uniform temperature (13.10.2.11)
= lateral displacement (13.5.1)
c = compression strain of the concrete (13.6.1)
y = yield strain of the steel (13.6.1)
b = moment magnification factor for compression member braced against sidesway
(13.5.1)
s = moment magnification factor for compression member not braced against
sidesway (13.5.1)
= skew angle (13.10.2.11)
= resistance factor specified in AASHTO 5.5.4.2 (13.6.2)
k = stiffness reduction factor; 0.75 for concrete members and 1 for steel members
(13.5.1)

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, 6th Edition, Washington, DC.
Sixth Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
3. Caltrans, (2013). Caltrans Seismic Design CriteriaVersion 1.7, California Department of
4. Caltrans, (2008). WinYIELD (2008): Column Live Load Input Procedure, California
5. Chen, W.F. and Duan, L. Ed. (2014). Bridge Engineering Handbook2nd Edition, CRC press,
Boca Raton, FL.
6. CSI, (2015). CSiBridge 2015, Version 17.0.0, Computers and Structures, Inc. Walnut
Creek, CA.
7. MacGregor, J.G. (1988). Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

CHAPTER 15
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 15-1

15.2 COMMON TYPES OF SPREAD FOOTINGS FOR BRIDGES................................... 15-1
15.3 PROPORTIONING AND EMBEDMENT OF FOOTINGS ......................................... 15-1
15.3.1 Sizing of Spread Footings ................................................................................ 15-2
15.3.2 Embedment and Depth of Footings .................................................................. 15-2
15.4 DESIGN LOADS ........................................................................................................... 15-3
15.5 BEARING STRESS DISTRIBUTION .......................................................................... 15-3
15.6 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................... 15-5
15.6.1 Settlement Check.............................................................................................. 15-5
15.6.2 Bearing Check .................................................................................................. 15-5
15.6.3 Eccentricity Limits ........................................................................................... 15-6
15.6.4 Sliding Check ................................................................................................... 15-6
15.7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FOOTINGS ................................................................... 15-7
15.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE...................................................................................................... 15-7
15.8.1 Bridge Footing Data ......................................................................................... 15-7
15.8.3 Footing Thickness Determination .................................................................. 15-10
15.8.4 Calculation of Factored Loads ....................................................................... 15-11
15.8.5 Footing Size Determination............................................................................ 15-14
15.8.6 Flexural Design .............................................................................................. 15-21
15.8.7 Shear Design .................................................................................................. 15-24
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................. 15-27
NOTATION ............................................................................................................................. 15-29
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 15-31
Chapter 15 Shallow Foundations 15-i

Chapter 15 Shallow Foundations 15-ii

CHAPTER 15
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Shallow foundations (spread footings) are advantageous to pile foundations
considering lower cost, easier construction, and fewer environmental constraints.
However, weak soil and seismic considerations may limit use of spread footings and
impact the foundation type selection.
In general, size of the spread footing is determined based on bearing resistance of
the supporting soil or rock and also permissible level of settlement. Design of spread
footings requires constant communication between the Structural Designer (SD) and
the Geotechnical Designer (GD) throughout the design process. Factored loads are
provided by the SD and factored resistance for the supporting soil and rock, that is
permissible net contact stress qpn and factored gross nominal bearing resistance qR are
calculated and reported by the GD. The structural design is performed by the SD.
Consistency between the SD and the GD in the use of required gross or net stresses is
important. Caltrans Bridge Memo to Designers (MTD) 4-1 (Caltrans, 2014b)
provides general guidance on design process and also the minimum level of required
communications between the SD and the GD. The analysis and design of a spread
footing based on the 6th Edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) and the California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a),
and Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) Version 1.7 (Caltrans, 2013), will be illustrated
through an example.
15.2 COMMON TYPES OF SPREAD FOOTINGS FOR BRIDGES

Spread footings can be used as isolated footings to support single columns or as
combined footings to support multi-columns when columns are closely spaced.
Elongated spread footings under abutments and pier walls act as strip footings where
moments act only in the short direction. Strip footings under abutments or piers can
be analyzed and designed similar to column footings, with moments acting in one
direction only.
15.3 PROPORTIONING AND EMBEDMENT OF FOOTINGS

The designer should consider several parameters such as axial force and biaxial
moment acting on the footing, right of way, existing structures, and also depth of
footing when selecting size and location of the footing. Although square footings are
more common for footings supporting pinned columns, rectangular shapes may be
more efficient when column is fixed at the base, since moments acting on the footing
in two directions may be very different. Considering various load combinations
specified in AASHTO (2012) and Caltrans (2014a), and variation of geotechnical
Chapter 15 Shallow Foundations 15-1

resistances with eccentricities of loads acting on the footing any type of optimization
can be rigorous.
15.3.1 Sizing of Spread Footings

The trial minimum size of the spread footing can be selected based on footings of
similar conditions and past experience. Size of a spread footing is usually governed
by the column size, magnitude of loads acting on the footing, and resistances of the
substrate. The effective length to effective width (L/B) ratio is commonly 1.0 ~ 2.0.
The GD should be consulted for selection of the ratios. The allowable settlement will
be assumed as 1 in. or 2 in. according to MTD 4-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) and based on
continuity of the superstructure. Larger limits can be used if structural analysis shows
that the superstructure can tolerate such settlement without adverse serviceability
impacts (Caltrans, 2014a).
The footing size is usually proportioned based on permissible net contact stress
at the service limit state and checked for factored gross nominal bearing resistance
at strength and extreme event limit states.
These stresses are functions of the effective width as well as the effective length
to effective width ratio, therefore they are presented by a family of curves and also a
table as shown in the design example. The SD needs to use double interpolation to
extract the information required for design under different load combinations using
corresponding effective dimensions. If necessary, the GD may be contacted to revise
the information and provide a new set of curves and tables to avoid extrapolation.
15.3.2 Embedment and Depth of Footings

The footing embedment shall be carefully determined for degradation and
contraction scour for the base (100 year) flood, as well as short term scour depth. The
embedment depth of the footing should be adequate to ensure the top of the footing is
not exposed when total scour has occurred, as shown in Figure 15.3-1. If the footing
is not in water and freezing is not of concern, a minimum cover of 2 to 3 ft is
recommended.
Degradation, contraction,
and local pier scour depth
Figure 15.3-1 Minimum Embedment for Scour Protection

The depth (thickness) of the footing is preliminary selected based on the required
development length of the column reinforcement and then designed for flexural and
shear strength.
15.4 DESIGN LOADS

The factored shear forces (Vx and Vy), column axial force (P) and bending
moments (Mx and My) resulting from structural analysis are usually reported at the
base of the column and must be transferred to the bottom of the footing in order to
calculate contact bearing stresses. Therefore, the resultant moment at the base of the
columns must be modified to include the additional moment caused by shear force
transfer. The modified moment in a generic format can be written as M + (V dfooting),
where dfooting is the actual footing depth.
15.5 BEARING STRESS DISTRIBUTION

The sign convention shown in MTD 4-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) is to avoid mistakes in
communications between the SD and the GD. The footing local X axis is defined
along the longer dimension of the footing (L), and the Y axis along the short
dimensions (B) as shown in Figure 15.5-1. Forces and moments resulting from
superstructure analysis acting at the column base are resolved in the directions of
local axes if local axes do not coincide longitudinal and transverse directions of the
bridge.
Bearing stress distribution depends on relative stiffness of the footing and
supporting soil and rock. For determination of the footing size based on the bearing
resistance and settlement requirements, the bearing stress is assumed to be uniformly
distributed for footings on soil and linearly distributed for footings on rock. For
structural design of the footing, bearing stress is assumed to be linearly distributed.
For eccentrically loaded footings on soil, the effective footing dimensions
(B and L) specified in AASHTO Article 10.6.1.3 (AASHTO, 2012) shall be used for
design of settlement and bearing resistance. Bearing stress distribution over effective
footing area is assumed to be uniform. The effective dimensions for a rectangular
footing are shown in Figure 15.5.1 and shall be taken as follows:
=
B B 2 ey
(AASHTO 10.6.1.3-1)
L 2 ex
L=
where:
B, L = actual dimensions of the footing (ft)
ey , ex = eccentricities parallel to dimensions B and L, respectively (ft)
A = reduced effective area of the footing = B L (ft2)
q = uniform bearing stress = P/A (ksf)

Y
L
L/2
Reduced
effective
Point of load B
area
application
ey
B'
B/2
ex
L'
Figure 15.5-1 Effective Footing Area
For footings on rock and for structural design of footings, the bearing stress is
assumed to be linearly distributed. If the eccentricity is less than B/6 (or L/6) the
maximum bearing stress is calculated as:
P My M
qmax = + x (15.5-1)
A Sy Sx
where:
P = vertical force acting at the center of gravity of the bottom of the
footing area (kip)
M x, M y = moments acting at the bottom of the footing about X and Y
directions, respectively (kip-ft)
Sx, Sy = section modulus of the footing area about X and Y directions,
respectively (ft3)
A = actual footing area = B L (ft2)
Equation (15.5-1) is valid only if stresses calculated at corners of the footing are
all positive (compression), otherwise the reduced contact area of footing must be
determined and rocking must be considered in analysis.
Bearing stresses can be calculated as net or gross. The weight of the footing
and all overburden soil from top of the footing to finished grade must be included
when calculating gross bearing stress. The weight of overburden soil between
bottom of footing and original grade at excavation time is subtracted from gross
bearing stress to calculate net bearing stress. Net bearing stress under AASHTO
Service I Load Combination is used to evaluate footing settlement.

15.6 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The bearing stresses calculated under various AASHTO LRFD limit states must
be checked against acceptable stresses provided by the GD. After receiving
foundation information and scour data (if applicable), the GD will provide
permissible net contact stress used for Service Limit States checks, and factored
gross nominal bearing resistance used for Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
checks, respectively. The stresses are functions of the effective width as well as
effective length to effective width ratio, therefore information will be provided as a
family of data points for different values of L/B ratios for a given B. The SD needs
to use double interpolation to extract the information required for design under
different load combinations using corresponding effective dimensions. If necessary,
the GD may be contacted to revise the information and provide a new set of curves
and table to avoid extrapolation.
15.6.1 Settlement Check

For Service Limit State, the following requirement must be met:
qn, u q pn for footing on soil (15.6-1)
qn, amx q pn for footing on rock (15.6-2)
where:
qpn = permissible net contact stress provided by the GD and calculated
based on a specified allowable settlement (ksf)
qn,u = net uniform bearing stress calculated using Service-I Limit State
loads assuming uniform stress distribution for footings on soil (ksf)
qn,max = net maximum bearing stress calculated using Service-I Limit State
loads assuming linear stress distribution for footings on rock (ksf)
15.6.2 Bearing Check

For Strength and Extreme Event Limit States, the design requirement is written
as:
q g ,u qR for footing on soil (15.6-3)
qg ,max qR for footing on rock (15.6-4)
where:
qg,u = gross bearing stress calculated based on uniform stress distribution
for footings on soil (ksf)
qg,max = gross maximum bearing stress calculated based on linear stress
distribution for footings on rock (ksf)
qR = factored gross nominal bearing resistance provided by the GD =
bqn (ksf)

qn = gross nominal bearing resistance (ksf)

b = resistance factor
15.6.3 Eccentricity Limits

The eccentricity limits for Service and Extreme Event Limit States specified in
AASHTO (2012) and Caltrans (2014a) are summarized as:
Table 15.6-1 AASHTO (2012) Eccentricity Limits

AASHTO
Limit State Footing on Soil Footing on Rock
Article Number
Service B/6 or L/6 B/4 or L/4 10.5.2.2
Extreme Event 10.6.4.2 and
B/3 or L/3 B/3 or L/3
(Seismic ) EQ = 0 11.6.5.1
Extreme Event 10.6.4.2 and
2B/5 or 2L/5 2B/5 or 2L/5
(Seismic ) EQ = 1.0 11.6.5.1
Note: Seismic forces should be applied in all directions per SDC (Caltrans 2013). It is not
necessary to include live load (design or permit truck) in Extreme Event Limit State
load combinations therefore EQ = 0.
15.6.4 Sliding Check

Shear force acting at the interface of footing and substrate should be calculated
and compared to the factored nominal sliding resistance specified as:
RR = Rn = R + ep Rep (AASHTO 10.6.3.4-1)
The contribution of soil passive pressure (second term) is generally negligible

and equation is summarized to RR = Rn = R . For cohesionless soil R is written
as:
=
R V tan ( ) (AASHTO 10.6.3.4-2)
where:
R = nominal sliding resistance between soil and concrete (kip)
V = total force acting perpendicular to the interface (kip)
= friction angle at interface of footing and soil = f, internal friction angle
of the drained soil for concrete cast against soil (degree)
= resistance factor against sliding = 0.8 for cast-in-place concrete against
sand (AASHTO Table 10.5.5.2.2-1).

15.7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

Structural design of the footing includes the following steps:
Select footing thickness based on required development length of the column
reinforcement
Design flexural reinforcement in both directions considering minimum
reinforcement required for shrinkage and temperature
Check thickness of the footing for one-way and two-way shears and design
shear reinforcement if required
Check seismic details per Caltrans SDC (Caltrans, 2013a) and other practice
manuals
Table 15.7-1 provides highlights of requirements for structural design of the

footings specified in AASHTO (2012) and Caltrans (2014a). Application of these
requirements will be illustrated in the design example.
Table 15.7-1 AASHTO (2012) and Caltrans (2014a) Requirements for

Structural Design of Footings
Topic AASHTO Articles Application

Strut & tie
5.6.3 Requirement check
Applicability
Flexural design 5.7.3.2 Reinforcement design
Footing depth and
Direct shear design 5.8.3.3
reinforcement design
Shear friction 5.8.4 Shear key design
5.7.3.3,
Reinforcement spacing 5.7.3.4, Design and detailing
5.10.3, 5.10.8
Reinforcement Structural design of
5.11.2
development footings
Concrete cover 5.12.3 Footing depth and detailing
Footings 5.13.3 Footing depth
15.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE

15.8.1 Bridge Footing Data
Design process for a bridge bent spread footing is illustrated through the
following example. A circular column of 6 ft diameter with 26#14 main rebars, and
#8 hoops spaced at 5 in. is used for a two-span post-tensioned box girder bridge.
Footing as shown in Figure 15.8-1 rests in cohesionless soil with internal friction

angle of 38. Original ground (OG) elevation is 48 ft, finished grade (FG) elevation is
48 ft, and bottom footing elevation (BOF) is 39 ft.
Concrete material f c = 3,600 psi
Reinforcement fy = 60,000 psi (A706 steel).
Governing unfactored live load forces at the base of the column are listed in
Table 15.8-1.
Unfactored dead load and seismic forces at the base of the column are listed
in Table 15.8-2.
Plastic moment and shear applied at the column base are:
Mp = 15,573 kip-ft; Vp = 716 kips
Overturning column axial force in transverse push is 992 kips.
Note: To facilitate communications of the SD and the GD, local coordinate of
foundation have been defined as X and Y. As shown in Figure 15.8-2a. Local X axis is
parallel to long dimension plan of footing (L) and the local Y axis is perpendicular to
X. The global coordinates L (Longitudinal) and T (Transverse) are commonly used
for bridge analysis. The structural designer needs to transfer forces and moments
acting on the footing to shear forces and moments acting in local coordinates. All
communications between the SD and the GD shall be based on forces/moments
calculated in local coordinates of the footing. In this example local and global
coordinates coincide, that is X = T and Y = L. Therefore, local and global coordinates
may have been used interchangeable, as shown in Figure 15.8-2b.
Bottom of footing
elevation = 39 ft
Figure 15.8-1 Elevation of the Spread Footing
Table 15.8-1 Unfactored Live Load Forces at Column Base

Load HL-93 Truck Permit Truck
Case I II III I II III
MT (kip-ft) -206 -40 -80 -348 19 34
ML (kip-ft) 250 1,456 552 171 2,562 354
P (kip) 217 238 479 367 439 760
VT (kip) -12 -1 -2 -16 4 7
VL (kip) 12 81 26 8 144 17

Table 15.8-2 Unfactored Dead Load and Seismic Forces Applied at Column Base
Seismic-I Seismic-II
Load Case DC DW PS
(Mp applied) (Mp applied)
MT (kip-ft) 62 9 0 15,574 0
ML (kip-ft) 833 139 -14 0 15,574
P (kip) 1,503 227 -21 992 0
VT (kip) 4 1 0 716 0
VL (kip) 44 7 -16 0 716
L Y
B X
L>B
(a) General Case
Y=L
ML
MT
B = LT X=T
L = LT
(b) Example Problem
Figure 15.8-2 Local Footing Coordinates vs. Global Structure Coordinates
Upon calculation of effective dimensions under any load combination, the larger
effective dimension is designated as L and smaller as B to calculate qpn and qR
from information provided by the GD.

Perform the following design portion for the footing in accordance with the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th Edition (AASHTO, 2012) with the
California Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a), and design peak ground acceleration
(PGA) = 0.6g .

Determine the minimum footing thickness required to develop the column

reinforcement. (Assume #9 bars for footing bottom reinforcement)
Calculate LRFD factored forces for Service, Strength, and Extreme Event
limit states applicable to footing design
Determine the minimum size of the square footing adequate for applicable
LRFD limit states
Calculate required rebar spacing if #5 and #9 bars are used for top and
bottom mats, respectively
Check footing thickness for one-way and two-way shears
15.8.3 Footing Thickness Determination

Minimum footing thickness is equal to the minimum clearance from the bottom
of footing to the bottom mat of footing reinforcement, plus the deformed diameters of
the bars used for the bottom of footing reinforcement, plus the required development
length of the main column reinforcement.
dmin. = clr. + 2(db) + ld (15.8-1)
where:
dmin. = minimum footing thickness (ft)
clr. = minimum clearance from the bottom of footing to the bottom mat of
footing reinforcement (in.)
db = nominal diameter of bar used for the bottom of footing reinforcement
(in.)
ld = required development length of the main column reinforcement (in.)
From AASHTO Table 5.12.3-1, clr. = 3 in., and for #9 bars, db = 1.25 in. The
development length is calculated in accordance with AASHTO Articles 5.11.2.2, and
5.11.2.4.
Development of Deformed Bars in Compression:

ldb 0.63 (1.693)(60) / (3.6)0.5 = 33.7 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-1)
ldb 0.3(1.693)(60) = 30.5 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-2)
AASHTO Article 5.11.2.2.2 states that the basic development length may be
multiplied by applicable modification factors, and requires that reinforcement is
enclosed within a spiral of not less than 0.25 in. in diameter and spaced at not more
than a 4 in. pitch, in order to use modification factor of 0.75. This reduction does not
apply because we have the main column hoops spaced at 5 inches.
Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression,
therefore, development length required for compression is equal to 33.7 inches.

Development of Standard Hooks in Tension

lhb = 38.0 (1.693) / (3.6)0.5 = 33.9 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.4.1-1)
Basic development length shall be multiplied by applicable modification factors
(AASHTO 5.11.2.4.2).
Concrete Cover For #11 bar and smaller, side cover (normal to plane of hook)
not less than 2.5 in., and for a 90 degree hook cover on bar extension beyond the
hook not less than 2 in., then modification factor = 0.70.
Note - For determining modification factors, the specifications refer to the

portion of the bar from the critical section to the bend as the hook, and the portion
of the bar from the bend to the end of the bar as the extension beyond the hook.
Ties or Stirrups Hooks for #11 bar and smaller, enclosed vertically or
horizontally within ties or stirrup-ties spaced along the full development, ldh, at a
spacing not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of hooked bar, then modification
factor = 0.80.
None of the modification factors are applied, since #14 bars have been used for
columns, therefore, development length of standard hooks in tension = 33.9 in. say 34
in. (Also greater than 8 1.693 in. and 6 in.).
Development length for tension (34 in.), controls over the development length for
compression (33.7 in.). The required footing thickness is calculated as:
dmin. = clr. + 2(db) + ld = 3 + 2(1.25) + 34 = 39.5 in. = 3.29 ft
Try footing thickness dfooting = 4.0 ft
15.8.4 Calculation of Factored Loads

Considering live load movements in the longitudinal and transverse directions,
the following three cases of live load forces have been considered in this example:
Case I) Maximum Transverse Moment (MT) and associated effects
Case II) Maximum Longitudinal Moment (ML) and associated effects
Case III) Maximum Axial Force (P) and associated effects
Moments and shears at the column base must be transferred to the bottom of the
footing for the footing design. The following unfactored forces are obtained to
include the additional moment (V dfooting) caused by shear force transfer.
For example, HL-93 Truck Load Case I,
Forces applied at the column base are:
MT = 206 kip-ft
VT = 12 kip

For the footing thickness dfooting = 4 ft, forces applied at the bottom of footing are
obtained as follows:
MT = - 206 + (-12)(4) = -254 kip-ft
VT = -12 kip
The unfactored live load forces (without impact) at the bottom of the footing are
calculated in Table 15.8-3.
Table 15.8-3 Unfactored Live Load Forces at Bottom of Footing

Load HL-93 Truck Permit Truck
MT (kip-ft) - 254 - 44 - 88 - 412 35 62
ML (kip-ft) 298 1,780 656 203 3,138 422
P (kip) 217 238 479 367 439 760
VT (kip) -12 -1 -2 - 16 4 7
VL (kip) 12 81 26 8 144 17
The design for live loads for Case-III (both HL-93 and Permit Trucks) is only
illustrated in this example, however all three cases need to be considered in practice.
Forces and moments resulting from seismic analysis in transverse and longitudinal
directions are also shown as Seismic-I and Seismic-II, respectively.
As PGA > 0.5g shallow foundation will be designed for column plastic hinging,
(rocking is not allowed). For the footing thickness dfooting = 4 ft, overstrength moment
and shear applied at the bottom of the footing are calculated as:
Mo = 1.2 [15,574 + (716)(4)] = 22,126 kip-ft
VTo = 1.2(716) = 859 kip
The unfactored dead load forces and seismic forces at the bottom of the footing
are shown in Table 15.8-4.
Table 15.8-4 Unfactored Forces Applied at Bottom of Footing

Seismic-I Seismic-II
Load Case DC DW PS
(Mo applied) (Mo applied)
MT (kip-ft) 78 13 0 22,126 0
ML (kip-ft) 1,009 167 -78 0 21,126
P (kip) 1,503 227 -21 992 0
VT (kip) 4 1 0 859 0
VL (kip) 44 7 -16 0 859
The LRFD load combinations (AASHTO, 2012) used in foundation design and
corresponding load factors (AASHTO Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2) are summarized in
Table 15.8-5. The upper and lower limits of permanent load factors (p) are shown as
U and L, respectively.

Table 15.8-5 Load Factors for Footing Design

Load DC DW PS EV HL-93 P-15 EQ
Strength I-U 1.25 1.5 1.00 1.35 1.75 - -
Strength I-L 0.90 0.65 1.00 0.90 1.75 - -
Strength II-U 1.25 1.50 1.00 1.35 - 1.35 -
Strength II-L 0.90 0.65 1.00 0.90 - 1.35 -
Strength III-U 1.25 1.50 1.00 1.35 - - -
Strength III-L 0.90 0.65 1.00 0.90 - - -
Strength V-U 1.25 1.5 1.00 1.35 1.35 - -
Strength V-L 0.9 0.65 1.00 0.90 1.35 - -
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 - -
Extreme Event I 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 - - 1.00
The LRFD load factors are applied to axial force, shear forces, and moments in
longitudinal and transverse directions to calculate factored loads for Strength, Service
and Extreme Event limit states at the base of the column, as summarized in Table
15.8-6. Only the governing seismic case that is Seismic-I is used in Extreme Event-I
load combination.
Table 15.8-6 Factored Forces at Column Base for Footing Design

MT ML P VT VL VTotal
Factored Loads
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
Strength I-U -37 2,582 3,037 3 95 95
Strength I-L -75 2,087 2,318 1 74 74
Strength II-U 201 2,003 3,224 16 72 74
Strength II-L 162 1,508 2,505 14 51 53
Strength III-U 117 1,434 2,198 7 50 50
Strength III-L 79 939 1,479 4 28 28
Strength V-U -2 2,319 2,845 4 85 85
Strength V-L -40 1,824 2,126 2 63 63
Service I 3 1,754 2,188 3 61 61
Extreme Event I 22,126 0 2,701 864 35 865
Example: Calculation of gross axial force at bottom of footing for Strength-II-U

limit state:
Pg = 1.25(1,503)+1.5(227)+1(21)+1.35(760) = 3,224 kips

15.8.5 Footing Size Determination

In order to design a spread footing all live load combinations (Cases I, II and III)
should be considered for both design and permit trucks. It is recommended to
consider maximum axial case (Case III) for initial sizing of the footing and check
footing size and stresses for the other two cases (I and II), however this example only
considers Case-III.
Based on preliminary analysis of the footing, reasonable estimates for width of
the footing as well as length to width ratios are provided to the GD to be used in
design (Appendix A). Refer to MTD 4-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) for other information to
be submitted to the GD.
The GD will provide graphs and also a table of permissible net contact stress
(used for Service-I limit state check), and factored gross nominal bearing resistance
(used for strength and extreme event limit states) for numerous B' and L'/B'
ratios, as shown in Figures 15.8-3 to 15.8-5, and Table 15.8-7 for given ranges of
footing widths and also effective length to effective width ratios.
10.0
L'/B' = 1.00
qpn (ksf)
9.0
L'/B' = 1.25 For Permissible Settlement = 1''
8.0 L'/B' = 1.50
Permissible Net Contact Stress
L'/B' = 1.75
7.0
L'/B' = 2.00
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Footing Effective Width (ft)
Figure 15.8-3 Variations of Permissible Net Contact Stress

45.0
L'/B' = 1.00
Factored Gross Nominal Bearing Resistance qR (ksf)
L'/B' = 1.25
40.0
L'/B' = 1.50
L'/B' = 1.75
L'/B' = 2.00
35.0
30.0
Resistance Factor b = 0.45
25.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Figure 15.8-4 Variations of Factored Gross Nominal Bearing Resistance

(Strength Limit State)
100.0
Factored Gross Nominal Bearing Resistance qR (ksf)
L'/B' = 1.00
L'/B' = 1.25
90.0
L'/B' = 1.50
L'/B' = 1.75
80.0
L'/B' = 2.00
70.0
60.0
Resistance Factor b = 1.00
50.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Figure 15.8-5 Variations of Factored Gross Nominal Bearing Resistance

(Extreme Event Limit State)

Table 15.8-7 Variations of Bearing Resistance for Different Limit States
Effective Footing Effective Factored Factored Permissible
Size Footing Gross Gross Net Contact
Size Nominal Nominal Stress
Ratio Bearing Bearing (Service
Resistance Resistance Limit)
No.
(Extreme (Strength
Event Limit) Limit)
B (ft) L (ft) L/B qR (ksf) qR (ksf) qpn (ksf)
1 10.00 10.00 1.00 69.8 31.4 9.7
2 13.75 13.75 1.00 74.5 33.5 7.0
3 17.50 17.50 1.00 79.4 35.8 5.5
4 21.25 21.25 1.00 84.5 38.0 4.6
5 25.00 25.00 1.00 89.6 40.3 3.9
1 10.00 12.50 1.25 66.8 30.1 8.7
2 13.75 17.19 1.25 72.2 32.5 6.3
3 17.50 21.88 1.25 77.9 35.1 5.0
4 21.25 26.56 1.25 83.7 37.7 4.1
5 25.00 31.25 1.25 89.5 40.3 3.5
1 10.00 15.00 1.50 64.8 29.2 8.0
2 13.75 20.63 1.50 70.7 31.8 5.8
3 17.50 26.25 1.50 76.9 34.6 4.6
4 21.25 31.88 1.50 83.1 37.4 3.8
5 25.00 37.50 1.50 89.5 40.3 3.2
1 10.00 17.50 1.75 63.3 28.5 7.4
2 13.75 24.06 1.75 69.7 31.3 5.4
3 17.50 30.63 1.75 76.2 34.3 4.2
4 21.25 37.19 1.75 82.8 37.2 3.5
5 25.00 43.75 1.75 89.4 40.2 3.0
1 10.00 20.00 2.00 62.3 28.0 7.0
2 13.75 27.50 2.00 68.8 31.0 5.1
3 17.50 35.00 2.00 75.6 34.0 4.0
4 21.25 42.50 2.00 82.5 37.1 3.3
5 25.00 50.00 2.00 89.4 40.2 2.8
As the first trial, a square footing of 2020 ft is selected and contact stresses
under service, strength, and extreme event factored loads are calculated as
summarized in the following tables. Stresses are compared to permissible net
contact stress (Service-I), and factored gross nominal bearing resistance (Strength
and Extreme Event), as explained in MTD 4-1. Since the footing rests on soil, contact
stress distribution is assumed uniform over the effective area of the footing.
The bearing stresses should be calculated as net for Service-I limit state and gross
for all strength and extreme event limit states as shown in Figure 15.8-6, therefore,
weight of overburden soil and footing with corresponding load factors have been
considered in the axial forces shown in Table 15.8-8.

FG OG
Poverburde
Pgross
Pnet=Pgross - Poverburden
Figure 15.8-6 Definition of Gross and Net Bearing Stresses
For example:
Strength I-U
Pgross = Pgross at column base + factored weight at soil on footing
+ factored weight of footing
Pgross = 3,037 + (202028.26)(48394) (120/1,000)(1.35)
+ (20204)(150/1,000)(1.25) = 3,638 kips
Service-I
Pnet = Pnet at column base + weight of soil on footing + weight of footing
excavated soil (over burden)
Pnet = 2,188 + (202028.26)(4839-4)(120/1,000)
+ (20204)(150/1,000)(48-39)(2020)(120/1,000) = 2,220 kips
Detailed calculations for Strength I-U limit state can be summarized as:
MT = 37 kip-ft; P = 3,638 kips
eT = 37/3,638 = 0.01 ft; LT = 202(0.01) = 19.98 ft
ML = 2,582 kip-ft, eL = 2,582/3,638 = 0.71ft
LL = 202(0.71) = 18.58 ft
Ae = 19.98(18.58) = 371 ft2; qg,u = 3,638/371 = 9.80 ksf
L'/B' = 19.98/18.58 = 1.08, therefore qR = 36.23 (From Figure 15.8-3)
Since qR is greater than qg,u, bearing resistance is adequate.
Similar calculation is required for every load combination as shown in Table 15.8-8.

Table 15.8-8 Detailed Check for Footing Size (First Trial)

Load MT ML P eT L'T L'L
eL (ft)
Combination (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (ft) (ft) (ft)
Strength I-U -37 2,582 3,638 0.01 0.71 19.98 18.58
Strength I-L -75 2,087 2,735 0.03 0.76 19.94 18.47
Strength II-U 201 2,003 3,826 0.05 0.52 19.90 18.95
Strength II-L 162 1,508 2,923 0.06 0.52 19.89 18.97
Strength III-U 117 1,434 2,800 0.04 0.51 19.92 18.97
Strength III-L 79 939 1,896 0.04 0.50 19.92 19.01
Strength V-U -2 2,319 3,447 0.00 0.67 20.19 18.65
Strength V-L -40 1,824 2,543 0.02 0.72 19.97 18.56
Service I -3 1,754 2,220 0.00 0.79 20.00 18.42
Extreme Event I 22,126 0 3,164 6.99 0.00 6.01 20.00
Table 15.8-8 Detailed Check for Footing Size (First Trial) (Continued)
Load Ae qo qpn or qo/qpn or
L'/B' Check
Combination (ft2) (ksf) qR (ksf) qo/qR Ratio
Strength I-U 371.2 1.08 9.80 36.23 0.27 OK
Strength I-L 368.5 1.08 7.42 36.15 0.21 OK
Strength II-U 377.1 1.05 10.15 36.52 0.28 OK
Strength II-L 377.2 1.05 7.75 36.53 0.21 OK
Strength III-U 377.9 1.05 7.41 36.53 0.20 OK
Strength III-L 378.6 1.05 5.01 36.56 0.14 OK
Strength V-U 373.1 1.07 9.24 36.28 0.25 OK
Strength V-L 370.7 1.08 6.86 36.22 0.15 OK
Service I 368.3 1.09 6.02 5.11 1.18 NG
Extreme Event I 119.1 3.32 26.30 40.43* 0.65 OK
* L'/B is out of range, therefore, factored nominal bearing resistance was calculated by
extrapolation. For design purposes, the SD needs to ask the GD to provide adequate
data to cover all applicable cases, without any need to extrapolation.
In Table 15.8-8:
L'L, L'T = effective dimensions of the footing in the directions of L and T,
respectively (ft). L'T = LT 2eT and L'L = LL 2eL
eL , eT = eccentricities calculated from ML and MT, respectively (ft)
Ae = effective area of the footing (ft2)
B' = shorter effective dimension (ft)
L' = longer effective dimension (ft)
qo = uniform bearing stress calculated as net for service (qn,u) and gross for
Strength and Extreme Event limits (qg,u) (ksf)
qpn = permissible net contact stress (ksf)
qR = factored gross nominal bearing resistance (ksf)

The permissible eccentricity under Service-I Load is calculated as:

B/6 = L/6 = 20/6 = 3.33 ft. Therefore the eccentricity calculated under Service-I
loads (0.79 ft) is acceptable. Under Extreme Event, the calculated eccentricity of 6.99
ft is larger than the permissible eccentricity of B/3 = L/3 = 20/6 = 6.66 ft and is not
acceptable.
Examination of stresses shows that contact stress calculated under Service-I limit
state is higher than permissible net stress calculated from information (chart or table)
provided by the GD. Therefore, size of the footing is increased to 24 ft 24 ft and
stresses are recalculated as shown in Table 15.8-9.
Table 15.8-9 Detailed Check for Footing Size (Second Trial)

Load MT ML P eT eL LT LL
Combination (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
Strength I-U -37 2,582 3,913 0.01 0.66 23.98 22.68
Strength I-L -75 2,087 2,925 0.03 0.71 23.95 22.57
Strength II-U 201 2,003 4,101 0.05 0.49 23.90 23.02
Strength II-L 162 1,508 3,113 0.05 0.48 23.90 23.03
Strength III-U 117 1,434 3,074 0.04 0.47 23.92 23.07
Strength III-L 79 939 2,086 0.04 0.45 23.92 23.10
Strength V-U -2 2,319 3,721 0.00 0.62 24.00 22.75
Strength V-L -40 1,824 2,733 0.01 0.67 23.97 22.66
Service I 3 1,754 2,241 0.00 0.78 24.00 22.43
Extreme Event I 22,126 0 3,376 6.55 0.00 10.89 24.00
Table 15.8-9 Detailed Check for Footing Size (Second Trial) (Continued)
Load Ae qo qpn or qo/qpn or
L'/B' Check
Combination (ft2) (ksf) qR (ksf) qo/qR Ratio
Strength I-U 543.9 1.06 7.20 38.85 0.15 OK
Strength I-L 540.6 1.06 5.41 38.77 0.14 OK
Strength II-U 550.3 1.04 7.45 39.08 0.15 OK
Strength II-L 550.3 1.04 5.66 39.09 0.14 OK
Strength III-U 551.9 1.04 5.57 39.11 0.14 OK
Strength III-L 552.7 1.04 3.77 39.13 0.10 OK
Strength V-U 546.1 1.05 6.82 38.90 0.18 OK
Strength V-L 543.3 1.06 5.03 38.84 0.13 OK
Service I 538.4 1.07 4.16 4.22 0.99 OK
Extreme Event I 261.3 2.20 12.91 63.1* 0.23 OK
* L'/B is out of range, therefore, factored nominal bearing resistance was calculated by
extrapolation. For design purposes, the SD needs to ask the GD to provide adequate data
to cover all applicable cases, without any need to extrapolation.

As shown in above tables, a 24 ft 24 ft footing size satisfies stress requirements.

Furthermore, the calculated eccentricities under service and extreme event limit states
(0.78 ft and 6.55 ft, respectively) are smaller than the limits (4 ft and 8 ft,
respectively). The ratio of length of footing from column face to face of footing, to
thickness of footing, Lftg/Dftg = (0.5)(24-6)/4 = 2.25 that is slightly over the limit of
2.2 required by SDC 7.7.1.3 (Caltrans 2013) for rigidity of the footing. However, the
SDC limitation is mostly applicable to pile cap and it is less critical for spread
footings.
The factored nominal sliding resistance between footing and soil is calculated as:
RR = Rn = R + ep Rep (AASHTO 10.6.3.4-1)
Assuming that soil passive pressure is negligible, RR= R , and for cohesionless
soil:
R = V tan() (AASHTO 10.6.3.4-2)
where:
R = nominal sliding resistance between soil and foundation (kip)
V = total vertical force (kip)
For concrete cast against soil: = f = internal friction angle of drained soil
The factored resistance against sliding failure for cast-in-place concrete on sand
is calculated using = 0.8 for strength limit states and = 1.0 for extreme event
limit state (AASHTO Table 10.5.5.2.2-1).
Similar to axial force, LRFD load factors are applied to unfactored resultant
shear forces (VRes.) to calculate factored shear forces for each load combination.
Table 15.8-10 shows that requirements of AASHTO Article 10.6.3.4 for sliding
failure is met, therefore footing size of 24 ft 24 ft is acceptable and will be used
throughout this example.
Table 15.8-10 Sliding Check for Footing

Load Factored Resultant Factored Vertical
RR (kip) Check
Combination Shear (kip) Load (kip)
Strength I-U 95 3,913 2,444 OK
Strength I-L 74 2,925 1,827 OK
Strength II-U 74 4,101 2,561 OK
Strength II-L 53 3,113 1,544 OK
Strength III-U 50 3,074 1,520 OK
Strength III-L 28 2,086 1,303 OK
Strength V-U 83 3,721 2,324 OK
Strength V-L 63 2,733 1,707 OK
Extreme Event I 865 3,376 2,635 OK

Upon finalizing the footing size, Foundation Design Data Sheets shown in
Appendix are completed and forwarded to the GS to be used for preparation of
Foundation Design Recommendations.
15.8.6 Flexural Design

For structural design of the footing, distribution of contact stresses is assumed
linear (trapezoidal or triangular) irrespective of the substrate stiffness (resting on soil
or rock). If the eccentricity (e = M/P) is less than L/6 then the soil under the entire
area of the footing is in compression and contact stresses can be determined based on
trapezoidal distribution.
Maximum forces acting at the bottom of column for case-III can be summarized
as:
Service: P = 2,188 kips; ML = 1,754 kip-ft; MT = 3 kip-ft
Strength I-U: P = 3,638 kips; ML = 2,582 kip-ft; MT = 37 k-ft
The area and section modulus of the footing contact surface are: 576 ft2 and 2,304 ft3,
respectively. Maximum and minimum contact stresses acting along the edges of the
footing (q1 and q2) are calculated using the generic equation of (P/A) (M/S):
Strength Limit State:
L Direction: q1= 7.44 ksf; q2= 5.20 ksf
T Direction: q1= 6.33 ksf; q2= 6.30 ksf
Service Limit State:
L Direction: q1 = 4.56 ksf; q2 = 3.04 ksf
T Direction: q1 = 3.80 ksf; q2 = 3.80 ksf
Since the column has a circular cross section, it is transformed into an effective
square section for footing analysis with equivalent column width of: (28.26)0.5 = 5.32
ft.
Assuming #5 (db=0.69 in.) and #9 (db=1.25 in.) bars are used for top and bottom
mat reinforcement, the minimum effective depths (de) of the footing for the top and
bottom mats are calculated as 43.96 in. and 43.1 in., respectively.
Critical sections for moment and shear calculations:
Bending moment at the face of the column (AASHTO 5.13.3.4)
One-way shear at distance dv from the face of the column (AASHTO
5.8.3.2)
Two-way (punching) shear on the perimeter of a surface located at distance
dv,avg from the face of the column (AASHTO 5.13.3.6)

where:
dv = effective shear depth of the section (ft)
dv,avg = average of effective shear depths for both directions (ft)
Using critical contact stresses (q1 and q2), maximum moments at the face of the
column for unit foot width of the footing are calculated as:
Strength Limit State: ML = 311.8 kip-ft; MT = 276.1 kip-ft
Service Limit State: ML =190.4 kip-ft; MT = 165.8 kip-ft
Assuming 3 in. concrete cover, and using 42#9 bars for bottom mat, the spacing
of rebars is calculated as:
s = [24(12) 2(3) 1.25]/(421) = 6.85 in.
The calculated spacing is less than maximum spacing of 12 in. specified in
AASHTO Article 5.10.8, and it is acceptable.
The area of steel contributing to unit width of the footing is: (1.0)(12)/6.85 =1.75
in.2, therefore the depth of the concrete stress block and resisting moment are
calculated as:
(1.75)(60)
a= = 2.86 in.
(0.85)(3.6)(12)
Corresponding depth of the neutral axis will be c = (2.86)/(0.85) = 3.36 in. and
the net tensile strain in extreme tension steel reinforcement is calculated as:
s = (0.003)(43.13.36)/(3.36) = 0.035
Since calculated strain is larger than 0.005, the section is considered as tension-
controlled and resistance factor is taken as 0.9 (AASHTO 5.5.4.2). The factored
moment is calculated as:
Mr = Mn = (0.9)(1.75)(60)(43.10.52.86)(1/12) = 328.1 kip-ft
> ML = 311.8 kip-ft OK
Therefore, selected number of bars is adequate for strength in both directions.
However AASHTO Article 5.7.3.3.2 requires minimum amount of reinforcement to
be provided for crack control. The factored flexural resistance Mr is required at least
equal to as the smaller of Mcr and 1.33 Mu as follows (gross section properties are
used instead of transformed sections):
Modulus of rupture: fr = (0.24)(3.6)0.5 = 0.455 ksi
Gross section modulus: Sc = Snc = (12)(48)2 /6 = 4,608 in.3
Mcr = 3 1 fr Sc = 1.6(0.75)(0.455)(4,608) = 2,516 kip-in. = 209.7 kip-ft
(AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2-1)
1.33Mu = 1.33(311.8) = 414.7 kip-ft

Mr =M n =
328.1 kip-ft
M cr = 209.7 kip-ft
> smaller of = 209.7 kip-ft
1.33M u = 414.7 kip-ft
OK (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
AASHTO Article 5.7.3.4 requires maximum limits of rebar spacing for crack control.
700 e
s 2d c (AASHTO 5.7.3.4-1)
s f ss
Assuming exposure factor e = 1 (class-I exposure) and dc = 3 + (1.25/2)=3.625 in.

3.625
s = 1 + = 1.117
0.7(48 3.625)
Cracked concrete section is used to calculate tensile stress in steel reinforcement
under service loads:
Ec = 57(3,600)0.5 = 3,420 ksi
n = 29,000/3,420 = 8.48
Per AASHTO Article 5.7.1, n is rounded to the nearest integer number, therefore n =
8 will be used.
The distance of the neutral axis to the top of the footing is calculated as:
yb = 8.93 in.
The moment of inertia for unit width (12 in.) of the transformed section (based on
concrete) is calculated as:
Itrans = (12)(8.933)/3+(1.75)(8)(43.1 8.93)2 = 19,194 in.4
Tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state is calculated as:
M ( d e yb ) (190.4) (12) (43.1 8.93)
=f ss n= (8) = 32.54 ksi
I 19,194
The maximum spacing is checked as:
700 e 700 (1)
=s 6.85 in. < 2=
dc 2(3.625)
= 12 in. OK
s f ss (1.117)(32.54)
Therefore, 42#9 bars are acceptable for the bottom mat.
The shrinkage and temperature reinforcement for the top mat per unit foot width shall
satisfy (AASHTO Article 5.10.8):
1.3bh 1.3(12 24)(48)
As > = = 0.446 in.2 (AASHTO 5.10.8.1)
2(b + h) f y 2(12 24 + 48)(60)
0.11 As 0.6 (AASHTO 5.10.8-2)

Since thickness of the footing is greater than 18 in., spacing of the rebar shall not
exceed 12 in. If 42#5 bars are considered:
s = [24(12) 2(3) 0.69]/(421) = 6.85 in. < 2 in. OK
As = (0.31)(12)/(6.85) = 0.543 in.2 > 0.446 in.2/ft OK (AASHTO 5.10.8-1)
0.11 < As = 0.543 < 0.6 OK (AASHTO 5.10.8-2)
Therefore, 42#5 bars in each direction will be used for the top mat.
Note: For square footings the reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the
entire width of the footing. (AASHTO Article 5.13.3.5)
15.8.7 Shear Design

According to AASHTO Article 5.13.3.6.1, both one-way and two-way shears
shall be considered in footing design:
The critical section for one-way action extends in a plane across the entire
width and located at a distance as specified in AASHTO 5.8.3.2 (that is
mostly at distance dv from the face of the column).
The critical section for two-way action is perpendicular to the plane of the
footing and located so that its perimeter b0, is a minimum but not closer than
0.5dv to the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction area.
where:
dv = d 0.5a = 43.10.5(2.86) = 41.67 in. 3.5 ft.,
however, dv should be greater than both 0.9de = 0.9(43.1) = 38.79 in. and 0.72h =
0.72(48) = 34.56 inch.
Therefore, dv = 3.5 ft will be used in calculations.
15.8.7.1 Direct (One-Way) Shear

The extreme contact stresses for most critical strength limit state case (L
direction) are 5.20 ksf and 7.44 ksf. As shown in Figure 15.8-7, assuming a linear
stress distribution the contact stress at distance dv from face of the column is
calculated:
q3 = 7.44 (7.44 5.20)(12 2.66 3.5)/(24) = 6.89 ksf
Shear force at critical section for unit width:
Vu = (7.44+ 6.89)(12 2.66 3.5)/2 = 41.84 kips
The maximum shear resistance of the section (considering shear reinforcement
contribution) is limited to 0.25 f cbv d v (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3):
Vn, max = 0.25(3.6)(12)(41.67) = 450 kips
This maximum shear resistance is much higher than factored shear force of 41.84
kips, and is not governing.

Shear resistance of concrete (Vc) is 0.0316 f cbv d v , where = 2.0.
= =
Vc 0.0316(2) 3.6(12)(41.67) 59.96 kips
Assuming that no shear reinforcement will be used, Vs= 0 and
Vn = 0.9(60) = 54 kips > 39.15 kips OK
5.32'
Vu
5.20 ksf 7.44 ksf

3.5
6.89 ksf
24'
Figure 15.8-7 Direct Shear Force Calculation
15.8.7.2 Punching (Two-Way) Shear

The critical section is located at the distance of 0.5 dv,avg. from face of the column
Critical section for

24' two way shear
6'
24'
9.5'
Figure 15.8-8 Critical Section for Two-Way Shear

Using conservative assumption of dv,avg=3.5 ft results in b0 = (6+3.5) = 29.83 ft

= 358 in. For square footing c = 1, and nominal shear resistance is as:
0.126 0.126
Vn =
0.063 + f cbo d v =
0.063 + 3.6 ( 358 )( 41.67 ) =
5, 350 kips
c 1.0
Vn = 5,350 kips > 0.126 f c bo d v = 0.126 3.6 (358)(41.67 ) = 3,566 kips
Use Vn = 3,566 kips
Vn = 0.9(3,566) = 3,210 kips

The punching shear force acting on the critical surface is calculated by
subtracting the force resulting from soil contact stress acting on the critical surface
from the axial force of the column:
3,638
P2=
way 3,638 (4.75)
= 2
3,190 kips <
= Vn 3,210 kips OK
(24) (24)
Shear reinforcement is not required and the footing depth d = 4.0 ft is acceptable.
Note: Although seismic loads were considered in sizing of the footing, structural
design of the footing was only based on service and strength I-U (Case-III) limit
states. Refer to Caltrans SDC (Caltrans, 2013) for other design and detailing
requirements.

APPENDIX
COMMUNICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL AND

GEOTECHNICAL DESIGNERS
(REFER TO MTD 4-1 AND MTD 1-35)
Preliminary Foundation Design Data Sheet (Trial Footing Size)
Table 15.A-1 Preliminary Foundation Data

Approximate
Estimated
Finished BOF Permissible Ratio of
Footing
Grade Elevation Settlement under Permanent
Support No. Dimensions
Elevation (ft) (ft) Service-I Load Total
(ft) (in.) Service I
B L Load
Abut 1 1 or 2 -
Bent 2 48 39 10 10 1 0.75
Abut 3 1 or 2 -
Table 15.A-2 Scour Data
Long-term
Short-term (Local)
Support No. (Degradation and Contraction)
Scour Depth (ft)
Scour Elevation (ft)
Abut 1 N/A N/A
Bent 2 48 0.00
Abut 3 N/A N/A
Foundation Design Data Sheet (Final Footing Size)
Table 15.A-3 Foundation Data

Finished Footing
BOF Permissible Settlement
Grade Dimensions (ft)
Support No. Elevation under Service Load
Elevation
(ft) B L (in.)
(ft)
Abut 1 1 or 2
Bent 2 48 39 24 24 1
Abut 3 1 or 2

Table 15.A-4 LRFD Service-I Limit State Loads for Controlling Load Combination
Total Load Permanent Load
Support PTotal PPerm
No. Mx My Vx Vy Mx My Vx Vy
(kip) (kip)
(kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip)
Net Gross
Abut 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Bent 2 2,241 1,754 3 N/A N/A 1,762 1,098 85 N/A N/A
Abut 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Table 15.A-5 LRFD Strength/Construction and Extreme Event Limit States Load Data
Strength/Construction Limit State Extreme Event Limit State
(Controlling Group) (Controlling Group)
Support PTotal
PTotal
No. (kips) Mx My Vx Vy Mx My Vx Vy
(kip)
Gross (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip)
Gross
Abut 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Bent 2 4101 2003 201 N/A 3,376 0 22,126 864 35
Abut 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Note: Load tables may be modified to submit multiple lines of critical load combinations for
each limit state, if necessary.

NOTATION
A = actual footing area (ft2)
A = reduced effective area of the footing (ft2)
B, L = actual dimensions of the footing (ft)
B, L = effective dimensions of the footing (ft)
clr. = minimum clearance from the bottom of footing to the bottom mat of footing
reinforcement (in.)
db = diameter of bar (in.)
dfooting = footing depth (ft)
dmin. = minimum footing depth (ft)
dv = effective shear depth of the section (ft)
dv,avg = average of effective shear depths for both directions (ft)
ey , ex = eccentricities parallel to dimensions B and L, respectively (ft)
f c = 28-day compressive strength of concrete (psi)
fy = specified minimum yield strength of steel (ksi)
ldb = development length for deformed bars (in.)
lhb = development length for deformed bars (in.)
ld = required development length of the main column reinforcement (in.)
ML, MT = moments acting about L and T directions, respectively (kip-ft)
Mp = plastic moment at column base (kip-ft)
M x, M y = moments acting X and Y directions, respectively (kip-ft)
P = vertical force acting at the center of gravity of the bottom of the footing area
(kip)
q = uniform bearing stress (ksf)
qg,u = gross uniform bearing stress (ksf)
qg,max = gross maximum bearing stress (ksf)
qn = gross nominal bearing resistance (ksf)
qn,max = net maximum bearing stress calculated using Service-I Limit State loads
assuming linear stress distribution for footings on rock (ksf)
qn,u = net uniform bearing stress calculated using Service-I Limit State loads assuming
uniform stress distribution for footings on soil (ksf)

qpn = permissible net contact stress provided by the GD and calculated based on a
specified allowable settlement (ksf)
qR = factored gross nominal bearing resistance provided by the GD = bqn (ksf)
R = nominal sliding resistance between soil and concrete (kip)
Sx, Sy = section modulus of the footing area about X and Y directions, respectively (ft3)
V = total force acting perpendicular to the interface (kip)
VL, VT = shears acting along L and T directions, respectively (kip)
Vp = plastic shear at column base (kip)
Vx, Vy = shears acting along X and Y directions, respectively (kip)
= friction angle at interface of concrete and soil (degree)
f = internal friction angle of drained soil (degree)
b = resistance factor for bearing
= resistance factor against sliding

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Units,
2012 (6th Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, D.C.
2. Caltrans, (2013). Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.7, California Department
3. Caltrans, (2014a). California Amendment to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

Specifications - 6th Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
4. Caltrans, (2014b). Bridge Memo to Designers 4-1: Shallow Foundations, California

5. Caltrans, (2008). Bridge Memo to Designers 1-35: Foundation Recommendation and

Reports, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.


CHAPTER 16
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 16-1

16.1.1 Types of Piles and Shafts .............................................................................. 16-2
16.1.2 Constructability Issues .................................................................................. 16-2
16.1.3 General Design Considerations Pile/Shaft Group ...................................... 16-3
16.2 ANALYSIS/DESIGN OF PILE/SHAFT GROUPS IN COMPETENT SOIL (DESIGN
EXAMPLE) .................................................................................................................... 16-8
16.2.1 Determine Pile Cap Layout and Depth ....................................................... 16-11
16.2.2 Determine Factored Loads for Service, Strength, and Extreme Event Limit
States 16-13
16.2.3 Check Pile/Shaft Capacity........................................................................... 16-15
16.2.4 Design Pile Cap for Flexure ........................................................................ 16-19
16.2.5 Design Pile Cap for Shear ........................................................................... 16-24
16.2.6 Design Pile Cap for Joint Shear .................................................................. 16-28
16.2.7 Communication to Geotechnical Services .................................................. 16-32
16.3 ANALYSIS/DESIGN OF SHAFT GROUPS IN SOFT/LIQUEFIABLE SOIL UNDER
EXTREME EVENT I LIMIT STATE........................................................................... 16-34
16.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 16-34
16.3.2 Caltrans Design Practice ............................................................................. 16-34
16.3.3 Practice Bridge Geometry ........................................................................... 16-40
16.3.4 Site Conditions and Foundation Recommendations ................................... 16-40
16.3.5 Material Properties ...................................................................................... 16-49
16.3.6 Minimum Pile-Cap Depth ........................................................................... 16-51
16.3.7 Shaft-Group Layout .................................................................................... 16-53
16.3.8 Seismic Forces on Shaft-Group Foundations .............................................. 16-53
16.3.9 Structural Modeling of Shaft-Group Foundations ...................................... 16-56
16.3.10 Inelastic Static Analysis of Shaft-Group Foundations ................................ 16-57
Chapter 16 Deep Foundations 16-i

16.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LARGE DIAMETER

COLUMN-SHAFTS ..................................................................................................... 16-63
16.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 16-63
16.4.2 Design Practice ........................................................................................... 16-63
16.4.3 Lateral Stability Check of Type I and II Shafts .......................................... 16-66
16.4.4 Reinforcement Spacing Requirements of Column-Shafts .......................... 16-67
16.4.5 Design Process ............................................................................................ 16-70
16.4.6 Design Example .......................................................................................... 16-72
NOTATION ................................................................................................................... 16-106
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 16-112
Chapter 16 Deep Foundations 16-

ii
CHAPTER 16
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
16.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the design practice of deep foundations, which comprises
pile and shaft foundations. A pile is defined as a slender deep foundation unit,
entirely or partially embedded in the ground and installed by driving, vibration, or
other method. A drilled shaft is defined as a foundation unit, entirely or partially
embedded in the ground, constructed by placing concrete in a drilled hole with or
without steel reinforcement. Within Caltrans terminology, pile is often used as a
general term referring to both driven piles and drilled shafts. However, the term
piles is referred as Driven Piles in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012). Both piles and drilled shafts develop their
geotechnical capacities from the surrounding soil. Pile/shaft groups in competent soil
are addressed in Sections 16.1.3 and 16.2, shaft groups in soft/liquefiable soil are
addressed in Section 16.3, and column shafts (Type I and Type II) are addressed in
Section 16.4.
Pile/shaft foundations can be an economical/necessary alternative to spread
footings, particularly when:
(i) competent soil strata are far from original ground;
(ii) liquefaction and/or lateral-spreading potential exist;
(iii) scour depth is large;
(iv) removal of existing soil is undesirable, e.g., soil contaminated by

hazardous material; or
(v) space limitations prohibit the use of spread footings.

The structural system of a pile/shaft group is an array of piles or shafts that are
connected to a relatively thick reinforced concrete or composite cap and that work
interactively together to support the bridge bents/piers. The forces and moments
acting at the base of the bent/pier are directly transferred to the pile cap, and resulting
displacements and rotations of the cap generate axial force, shear force, and bending
moment in the piles/shafts. Design provisions for driven piles and drilled shafts are
specified in AASHTO Articles 10.7 and 10.8, respectively, with corresponding CA
Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a). Furthermore, Caltrans Memo to Designers 3-1
(Caltrans, 2014b) provides general guidance for selection and design of the piles or
shafts and detailed communication procedures between the Structural Designer (SD)
and the Geotechnical Designer (GD).
Chapter 16 Deep Foundations 16-1

16.1.1 Types of Piles and Shafts
Application of different types of piles and shafts are discussed in Memo to

Designers 3-1 (Caltrans, 2014b). Standard Plan Piles (Class Piles) are structurally
predesigned piles or shafts mostly used in pile groups to support columns or at
abutments and piers. Upper limits of structural resistance of Standard Plan (Class)
Piles in compression and tension, as well as structural details, are given in the
Standard Plans. The most common types of driven piles are steel H-Pile (HP) or pipe
piles, precast pre-stressed concrete piles, and Cast-in-Steel Shell (CISS) piles. In
selection of driven piles, environmental constraints such as acceptable limits of noise
and vibration, construction constraints such as required overhead, and geotechnical
condition of the soil are of importance.
Drilled shafts also known as Cast-in-Drilled Hole (CIDH) concrete piles are
often recommended when:
(i) pile driving is not viable, e.g., when there is interference of pile driving
with overhead power or telephone lines or nearby underground utilities;
(ii) large vertical or lateral resistance is required; and
(iii) noise and vibration mitigation plans are either not feasible or too
expensive.
However, disposal of hazardous drill spoils may be costly. Drilled shafts may be
used in a group similar to driven piles or as large diameter isolated shafts, that is, pile
extensions and Types I/II shafts. Memo to Designers 3-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) includes
provisions that improve constructability of the shaft, such as the use of
temporary/permanent casing and also construction joint in Type-II shafts. For more
information on isolated large diameter shafts (Type I and II shafts), refer to Section
16.4.
16.1.2 Constructability Issues
If ground water is anticipated during construction, drilled shafts must be at least

24 in. in diameter, and PVC inspection pipes should be installed to allow Gamma-
Gamma Logging (GGL) or Cross-Hole Sonic Logging (CSL) test of the shafts for
quality assurance mostly performed by the Foundation Testing Branch of
Geotechnical Services. Memo to Designers (MTD) 3-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) illustrates
requirements for proper placement of the inspection pipes. Inspection pipes are laid
out by the (SD) and must be shown in the structure plans where applicable. Drilled
shafts need to allow for additional concrete cover for placement of the rebar cage.
Minimum cover requirements for various drilled shaft sizes are shown in Table 16.1-
1. The minimum cover is not related to protection of the reinforcing steel (refer to
CA Amendment (Caltrans, 2014a) Table 5.12.3-1) but rather as an aid for
construction. The minimum cover allows for rebar cage deformations that occur
during placement as well as for some tolerance for the final shaft and column
location. For non-Standard Plan Piles, irrespective of the actual cover, only 3 in. of
cover is assumed effective and used in the structural capacity calculations.

Table 16.1-1 Minimum Cover Requirement for Drilled Shafts

Diameter of Drilled Shaft, D Concrete Cover
16 in. and 24 in. Standard Piles See Standard Plan B2-3
24 in. D 36 in. 3 in.
42 in. D 54 in. 4 in.
60 in. D < 96 in. 5 in.
96 in. and larger 6 in.
For Type-II shafts use of a construction joint below the column cage will
facilitate construction. The plans should show the location of the construction joint
and also any permanent casing used to allow workers to prepare the joint. If the joint
is more than 20 ft deep, the District should be contacted to obtain classification of the
site as gassy/non-gassy from Cal-OSHA Mining and Tunneling Unit as explained in
topic 110 of the Highway Design Manual and MTD 3-1 (Caltrans, 2014b).
The most common types of driven piles are steel pipe, steel HP shapes, Cast-in-
Steel Shell (CISS), and precast pre-stressed concrete piles. The Structural Designer
should check availability with the cost estimating branch if HP sections are to be
used. Timber piles are not commonly used in Caltrans projects unless for temporary
construction.
Vibration and noise generated by pile driving should be considered from early
stages of the project and when developing the Advanced Planning Study (APS).
District should be consulted regarding acceptable levels of noise and vibration based
on environmental, geotechnical, and structural constraints. The Project Engineer may
present mitigation methods to avoid elimination of driven piles which are usually
cheaper than other alternatives.
Redundancy of the steel piles, shells, and casings can affect quality assurance of
welding and, therefore, impact the cost and schedule of the project. Definition of
Redundant (R) and Non-redundant (N) piles is covered in the Caltrans Standard
Special Provisions [49-2.02B(1)(a), 2011] and may differ from the commonly used
definition of structural redundancy.
If ground water is anticipated during construction, steel casings may be used to
facilitate construction of drilled shafts and to avoid caving problems. Unlike driven
shells (used in CISS piles), casings can be installed by vibration or oscillations, and
usually, contribution of cased portion of the shaft to geotechnical capacity is
negligible. Contribution of casing to confinement or flexural strength and stiffness of
the shaft may be considered in design calculations.
16.1.3 General Design Considerations Pile/Shaft Group
Columns and piers can be supported by a foundation system consisting of a

concrete cap attached to a group of piles or shafts. The structural redundancy of
pile/shaft group is advantageous. However, excavation and backfill required for
construction may impact its selection.

16.1.3.1 Pile/Shaft Spacing
Table 16.1-2 summarizes the current recommendations of AASHTO (AASHTO,

2012) and CA Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a) for pile/shaft spacing in a pile/shaft
group, where D is the diameter of the pile/shaft.
Table 16.1-2 Pile/Shaft Group Spacing

Type of Piles or Shafts Minimum center-to-center Minimum spacing between face of
spacing of piles/shafts the pile/shaft to face of the cap (for
edge/corner piles/shafts)
Driven Piles 36 in. or 2D 9 in. or 0.5D
(whichever greater) (whichever greater)
Drilled Shafts 2.5D 12 in.
The limit of 2.5D for drilled shafts shall not be violated for better
constructability. Furthermore, use of larger spacing is recommended to avoid
interference of adjacent piles/shafts and to economize geotechnical design.
16.1.3.2 Scour Protection
To avoid loss of geotechnical capacity and structural problems caused by

washout of the surrounding soil, the pile cap should be deep enough to prevent
pile/shaft exposure during service life of the bridge. All components of scour that is
degradation, contraction, and local pier scour must be considered in design. The
minimum required depth of the cap to eliminate scour problem is shown in Figure
16.1-1.
Figure 16.1-1 Required Embedment Depth for Scour Protection

When evaluating the geotechnical/structural capacity of the pile/shaft group, the

combination of different components of scour should follow Table 16.1-3 (see
Section 3.7.5 of CA Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a).
Table 16.1-3 Percentage of Scour Used in Design for Different Limit States
Limit State Maximum Maximum Local Scour to be
Aggradation/Degradation and considered for footing design,
Contraction Scour to be shown as a % of total
considered for footing design,
shown as a % of total
Service 100 100
Strength 100 50
Extreme Event 100 0
16.1.3.3 Standard (Class) Piles
Based on structural capacity, piles and shafts are classified as standard and non-
standard. Standard piles, including drilled shafts and driven piles, have a pre-
calculated structural capacity. Caltrans Standard Plans, Sheets B2-3, B2-5, and B2-8
provide pile details for class 90, 140, and 200 kip standard piles. Class of a pile or
shaft refers to Design Compression Strength of the pile/shaft, generally used for
Working Stress Design (WSD). Design Tensile Strength (WSD) for the above piles is
0.4 times design compressive strength as shown in the standard plans. The LRFD
Nominal Resistance in Compression of Pile Class 90, 140 and 200 is twice the class
of the pile, i.e., 180, 280, and 400 kips, respectively. The LRFD Nominal Resistance
in Tension is half of the compression. Due to lack of solid information on joint
performance, the pile-to-cap connection of standard piles is assumed as a pin
connection.
Corrosion mitigation provisions are covered by construction specifications.
Therefore, standard plans are valid for both corrosive and non-corrosive sites, except
for pipe piles Alternative W shown on B2-5 and B2-8. Designers may use this
alternative if applicable corrosion allowance is considered, and structural resistance
of the reduced cross section of the pile is recalculated and checked based on design
life of the structure (commonly 75 years). Standard piles must be checked and
redesigned if used for seismic critical applications.
16.1.3.4 General Design Assumptions
A pile/shaft group is an indeterminate structure and is generally subjected to axial

force and biaxial moment and shear. The following assumptions are commonly used
in analysis of pile/shaft groups:
Rigid Pile Cap: The pile cap can be assumed as rigid when the length-to-
thickness ratio of the cantilever measured from face of the column/pier to the
edge of the cap is less than or equal to 2.2 according to Seismic Design
Criteria (SDC) 7.7.1.3 (Caltrans, 2013).

Pile/Shaft-to-Cap Pin Connection: When surrounded by competent soil, the

lateral movement of the piles/shafts under lateral loads such as earthquake is
very small. Therefore, moments in the pile/shaft can be ignored and a pin
connection can be assumed between piles/shafts and the pile cap.
These assumptions will result in a linear distribution of pile/shaft forces and
facilitate analysis under lateral forces as explained in this chapter.
16.1.3.5 Analysis for Service and Strength Limit State Loads
The maximum compression (Cmax) and tension (Tmax) axial forces applied to a
pile/shaft in a symmetrical group are calculated as:
P M xC y M y Cx (16.1.3.5-1)
Cmax
N Ix Iy
P M xC y M y Cx
(16.1.3.5-2)
Tmax
N Ix Iy
where P, Mx and My are axial force, bending moment about x axis, and bending
moment about y axis, respectively, acting at the top of pile (bottom of pile cap).
N is the total number of piles/shafts, and Ix and Iy are equivalent moments of
inertia of pile/shaft groups in the x and y directions calculated as:

I x N x C y2 (16.1.3.5-3)
I y N y C x2
(16.1.3.5-4)
In the above equations Nx and Ny are number of piles/shafts in a row parallel to x
or y directions, and Cy and Cx are perpendicular distances of the row under
consideration from center of gravity of the pile/shaft group, respectively. In the above
equations compression is assumed positive.
16.1.3.6 Analysis for Extreme Event (Seismic) Loads
For Extreme Event-I Limit State (seismic) the pile/shaft group is analyzed under
column overstrength moment (Mo) and associate shear force (Vo) acting at the base of
the column and applied at all different directions. The plastic moment (Mp) at the
base of the column should be calculated using fiber method analysis (for example,
xSECTION analysis) and considering the seismic induced overturning effect on the
column axial force for multi-column bents. The overstrength moment (Mo) is equal to
1.2Mp. The overstrength moment and shear should be transferred to the bottom of the
pile cap for pile/shaft group analysis, and therefore, the moment to be used in
pile/shaft analysis will be Mo + Vo Df, where Df is the depth of the pile cap. Analysis
of pile/shaft group for seismic forces depends on the type of the soil. Caltrans SDC
6.2.2 (Caltrans, 2013) classifies soil as competent, marginal, and poor. This

classification is based on physical and mechanical properties of the soil, as well as

possibility of seismic-associated effects such as liquefaction and lateral spreading.
Pile/shaft group analysis for seismic forces in competent soil will be similar to
analysis for Service or Strength limit state load combinations. The analysis of
pile/shaft group in marginal or poor (soft/liquefiable) soil under Extreme Event I
limit state is addressed in Section 16.3.
16.1.3.7 Design Process
MTD 3-1 (Caltrans, 2014b) lays out the design process for deep foundations. The
SD provides factored loads acting on the pile/shaft for different load combinations,
and the GD provides tip elevations for compression, tension, and settlement. The
settlement tip is calculated based on service-I limit state loads, while compression
and tension tips are calculated based on strength and extreme event limit state loads.
The factored weight of the footing (pile cap) and overburden soil should be
added to the factored axial force calculated at the base of the column to provide the
gross factored axial force. The factored weight of the soil from Original Ground
(OG) to bottom of the pile cap is subtracted from factored gross axial force to obtain
factored net axial force. Pile/shaft load calculations are based on net axial force for
Service limit state and gross axial force for Strength and Extreme Event limit states.
The lateral tip elevation is provided by SD. The seismic moment and shear are
applied at the cut-off point of the pile/shaft, and deflection at the cut-off point is
recorded. Then, the length of the pile/shaft is changed, the deflection is recalculated,
and the variation of the deflection vs. length of the pile/shaft is drawn. Critical
Depth of the pile/shaft is the shallowest depth at which any increase in the length of
the pile/shaft does not change the cut-off deflection. The critical length is used to
specify lateral tip on the plans. A determination of the lateral tip elevation is not
necessary for pile/shaft groups in competent soil. For pile/shaft groups in marginal or
soft/liquifiable soil it is not necessary to use a factor of safety for determination of the
lateral tip elevation. MTD 3-1 explains the design process and information to be
communicated between the SD and the GD, as well as information to be shown in the
Pile Data Table. Examples of different types of piles/shafts are provided in the
Attachments of MTD 3-1.

16.2 ANALYSIS/DESIGN OF PILE/SHAFT GROUPS IN

COMPETENT SOIL (DESIGN EXAMPLE)
The design process for a column-to-pile cap pile foundation is illustrated through
the following example.
Note: A fixed column-pile cap connection was assumed for this design illustration.
However, a more efficient pile cap design may utilize a pinned column-pile cap
connection.
Given:
A circular column of 6 ft diameter with 26 #14 main bars and #8 hoops at 5 in. is
used for a two-span post-tensioned box girder bridge. OG elevation is 48 ft, Finished
Grade (FG) elevation is 48 ft, and bottom of the cap elevation is 38.75 ft.
Furthermore:
Concrete material fc = 3,600 psi.
Reinforcement fy = 60,000 psi.
Un-factored live loads at the base of the column are listed in Table 16.2-1.
Plastic moment and shear at the base of the column are calculated as
Mp = 15,455 kip-ft and Vp = 716 kips.
Un-factored dead load and seismic forces at the base of the column are listed
in Table 16.2-2.
Geotechnical information classifies soil as competent (SDC 7.7.1.1). Density

of soil is 120 lb./ft3
Pile Cap rests on 30 in. CIDH piles (drilled shafts). Estimate of the shaft
factored nominal geotechnical resistance is 600 kips compression and 300
kips tension. Shaft moments are assumed negligible (SDC 7.7.1.1). Shaft
layout is assumed as shown in Figure 16.2-1.

Figure 16.2-1 Shaft Group Layout
Note: When the distance between the center of applied load (column) and the
supporting reactions (piles/shafts) is less than twice the depth (per AASHTO 5.6.3.1),
a strut and tie model may be used. Caltrans practice allows use of simplified analysis
and design of a pile cap in lieu of a strut and tie model.
The typical section of the shaft is shown in Figure 16.2-2.
2ID
Figure 16.2-2 Shaft Details

Table 16.2-1 Un-factored Live Load Forces at Column Base

Design Truck Permit Truck
MT (kip-ft) -203.8 -39.6 -79.8 -344.1 18.7 32.2
ML (kip-ft) 248.3 1442.2 547.1 169.1 2537.6 351.4
P (kip) 217.3 237.6 479.2 366.5 438.7 760.4
VT (kip) 0 0 0 0 0 0
VL(kip) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Note:
Case I: Maximum Transverse Moment (MT) and associated effects
Case II: Maximum Longitudinal Moment (ML) and associated effects
Case III: Maximum Axial Force (P) and associated effects
Table 16.2-2 Un-factored Dead Load and Seismic Forces Applied at the Column
Base.
Un-factored, MT ML P VT VL
without impact Loads (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip)
DC 61.0 826.1 1164.9
DW 11.4 167.8 227.4
EV 0.0 0.0 312.3
PS 0.0 -141.7 -20.9
Seismic-I+ 18545.8 0.0 992.0 859.0 0.0
Seismic-I- 18545.8 0.0 -992.0 859.0 0.0
Seismic-II 0.0 18545.8 0.0 0.0 859.0
Seismic-III+ 13115.8 13115.8 496.0 607.0 607.0
Seismic-III- 13115.8 13115.8 -496.0 607.0 607.0
Note: Seismic forces and moments caused by overturning effects are calculated using an assumed overstrength
moment and shear force of :
Mo=1.2Mp= 18,545.8 kip-ft, Vo=1.2Vp=859 kips. However, in practice, the magnitude of overstrength moment
and shear depends on the applied axial force.
VT, VL shown in Tables 16.21-1 and 16.21-2 are forces applied at the top of the
footing.
Requirements:
1. Determine pile cap layout and depth.
2. Determine LRFD factored loads for service, strength, and extreme event
limit states.
3. Check pile/shaft capacity.
4. Design pile cap for flexure.
5. Design pile cap for shear.
6. Design pile cap for joint shear.

16.2.1 Determine Pile Cap Layout and Depth
A pile/shaft layout of 16 shafts (4 rows of 4 shafts) is assumed as shown in

Figure 16.2-1. Per CA Amendments 10.8.1.2, the minimum spacing for CIDH piles is
2.5D. The minimum edge distance for CIDH piles is 12 in. clear (AASHTO
10.8.1.2). The shaft spacing is 2.5 30 in. = 75 in = 6.25 ft, and minimum overall
pile cap width is 75 in. 3 + (12 in. + 30 in./2) 2 = 279 in. Pile/shaft layout and
pile cap size meet minimum size and spacing criteria.
Note: If Geotechnical Services indicate group effects control, it may be warranted to
increase pile/shaft spacing to raise pile/shaft tip elevations.
To ensure the full moment capacity of a column can be developed, the minimum
pile cap depth is equal to the minimum clearance from the bottom of pile cap to the
bottom mat of cap reinforcement, plus the bar diameters used for the bottom of pile
cap reinforcement, plus the required development length of the main column
reinforcement.
Dftg,min = clr. + 2(dbd) + ld
Dftg,min = minimum pile cap depth.
clr. = minimum clearance from the bottom of pile cap to the bottom mat of
pile cap reinforcement = 6 in. (BDD 6.71)
dbd = diameters of the bars used for the bottom of pile cap reinforcement.
l d = required development length of the main column reinforcement.
Assuming #11 bars for the pile cap bottom reinforcement: dbd = 1.63 in. (BDD 13-10)
Calculate the development length according to the specifications given by AASHTO
5.11.2.2 and AASHTO 5.11.2.4, which are shown below in section 16.2.1.1.
16.2.1.1 Development of Deformed Bars in Compression

AASHTO states:
ldb 0.63 (1.693)(60) / (3.6)0.5 = 33.7 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-1)
ldb 0.3(1.693)(60) = 30.5 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-2)
AASTHO 5.11.2.2.2 states that the basic development length may be multiplied
by applicable modification factors.
AASHTO 5.11.2.2.2: Reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral of not less than
0.25 in. in diameter and not more than a 4 in. pitch, modification factor = 0.75. (This
reduction does not apply because we have the main column hoops at 5 in.).
Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.
Therefore, development length required for compression is equal to 33.7 in.

16.2.1.2 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension

lhb = 38.0 (1.693) / (3.6)0.5 = 33.9 in. (AASHTO Eq. 5.11.2.4.1-1)
Basic development length shall be multiplied by applicable modification factors:
Concrete Cover: For #11 bar and smaller, side cover (normal to plane of
hook) not less than 2.5 in., and for 90 degree hook, cover on bar
extension beyond hook not less than 2 in., modification factor = 0.70.
Note: For determining modification factors the specifications refer to the portion of
the bar from the critical section to the bend as the hook, and the portion of the bar
from the bend to the end of the bar as the extension beyond the hook.
Ties or Stirrups: For #11 bar and smaller, hook enclosed vertically or
horizontally within ties or stirrup-ties spaced along the full development
ldh not greater than 3 db, where db is diameter of hooked bar, modification
factor = 0.80.
None of the modification factors are applied, since #14 bars have been used for
columns. Therefore:
Development of standard hooks in tension = 33.9 in., say 34 in. (Also greater
than 8 1.88 in. and 6 in.)
Development length for tension (34 in.) controls over the development length for
compression (33.7 in.). The required pile cap thickness is calculated as:
Dftg,min = clr. + 2(dbd) + l ft.d = 6 in. + 2(1.63 in.) + 34 in. = 43.3 in.
Note: If the development length of the pile/shaft reinforcement is a concern, the pile
cap depth should be similarly checked for this reinforcement.
Recommendation for balanced footing/pile cap depth is:
0.7 x Dc = 0.7 x 6.0 ft = 4.2 ft;
Use Dftg = 50 in. = 4.17 ft (SDC 7.6.1-2)
Check minimum pile cap depth for rigid footing assumption. (SDC 7.7.1.3)
Lftg/Dftg 2.2
where:
Lftg = cantilever length of pile cap from face of column = (23.25-6.0)/2 = 8.63 ft
Dftg = 50 in. = 4.17 ft
Lftg/Dftg = 2.06; rigid footing assumption OK

16.2.2 Determine Factored Loads for Service, Strength, and Extreme Event
Limit States
The following three cases of live load forces should be considered in design:
Analysis results for other applicable loads acting on the pile cap are given in
Table 16.2-2. Forces and moments resulting from seismic analysis in transverse,
longitudinal, and 45 degree combination thereof are shown as Seismic I(+/-), Seismic
II, and Seismic III(+/-). For Seismic I and Seismic III, the + represents the
compression column while the represents the tension column due to overturning
forces. A combination of seismic forces should be taken at 15 degree intervals,
however, for this example, one location at 45 degrees was used.
EV was calculated in Table 16.2-2 as:
(23.25 ft 23.25 ft ((6 ft)2/4 )) (48.0 ft 38.75 ft 4.17 ft)
(0.12 k/ft3) = 312.3 kips
The LRFD load combinations used in foundation design and corresponding load
factors (AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1) are summarized in the following table. The upper
and lower limits of permanent load factors (p) are shown as U and L respectively.
Table 16.2-3 LRFD Load Factors

DC DW PS EV HL-93 P-15 Seismic
Strength I-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 1.75 0 0
Strength I-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 1.75 0 0
Strength II-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 0 1.35 0
Strength II-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 0 1.35 0
Strength III-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 0 0 0
Strength III-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 0 0 0
Strength V-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 1.35 0 0
Strength V-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 1.35 0 0
Service I 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
Extreme Event I 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
The PS load factor of 1.0, as shown in Table 16.2-3, is recommended when the
columns cracked moment of inertia is used in analysis. However, for load cases
other than Extreme Event-I a load factor of 0.5 may be used; see AASHTO Table
3.4.1-3 (AASHTO, 2012).
In order to determine loads at the bottom of the pile cap, the cap size and depth
will be needed. For this example a pile cap depth of 50 in. with a length and width of
23 ft - 3 in. is used.

The overall un-factored pile cap weight (DL) = 23.25 ft 23.25 ft 4.17 ft
0.15 kip/ft3 = 338 kips
The LRFD load factors are applied to axial force and moments in longitudinal
and transverse directions to calculate factored loads for Strength, Service, and
Extreme Event limit states, as summarized in Table 16.2-4 below. Loading shown in
the table below is for live load case III only.
Table 16.2-4 Case III Maximum Axial Force
MT ML P
Factored Loads (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip)
Strength I-U -46 2100 3459
Strength I-L -77 1668 2599
Strength II-U 137 1617 3647
Strength II-L 106 1185 2787
Strength III-U 93 1143 2621
Strength III-L 62 711 1761
Strength V-U -14 1881 3267
Strength V-L -45 1450 2407
Service I -7 1399 2501
Extreme Event I, Seismic I+ 22128 0 3014
Extreme Event I, Seismic I- 22128 0 1030
Extreme Event I, Seismic II 0 22128 2022
Extreme Event I, Seismic III+ 15645 15645 2518
Extreme Event I, Seismic III- 15645 15645 1526
Shown below are sample calculations for the factored loads shown in Table 16.2-4:
Example 1: Calculation of axial force at the bottom of pile cap for

Strength-II limit state:
P = 1.25(1164.9) + 1.25(338) + 1.5(227.4) + 1(-20.9) + 1.35(760.4) +
1.35(312.3) = 3647 kips
Example 2: Calculation of transverse moment at the bottom of pile cap

for Seismic I+:
MT = 1(18545.8 + 4.17 859.0) = 22,128 kip-ft
Example 3: Calculation of gross axial force at the bottom of pile cap for
Service I limit state:
P = 1(1164.9) + 1(338) + 1(227.4) + 1(-20.9) + 1(479.2) + 1 (312.3) =
2501 kips

However, the net Service I loads should be reported to Geotechnical Services as

shown in the footnotes of Table 16.2-9. The net axial force is calculated by
subtracting the weight of the overburden soil from gross axial force.
Soil Weight = 23.25 ft 23.25ft (48 ft - 38.75 ft) 0.12k/ft 3 = 600 kips
Pnet = 2501 600 = 1,901 kips
Note: represents loads used in Table 16.2-9, Foundation Design Data Sheet.
Similarly, the net permanent loads are to be calculated and reported to
Geotechnical Services.
P = 1(1164.9) + 1(338) + 1(227.4) + 1 (-20.9) + 1(312.3) = 2,022 kips
Pnet = 2,022 600 = 1,422 kips
16.2.3 Check Pile/Shaft Capacity
The general equation for moment in a rigid pile cap under seismic demand (SDC
7.7.1-2) is written as:
Mocol + Vo Col Dftg + M(i)pile - Rs (Dftg DRs) (C(i)pile C(i)) (T(i)pile C(i)) = 0
Since the pile cap is surrounded by competent soil, the simplified foundation
model may be used; Eq.16.1.3.5-1 and Eq.16.1.3.5-2 shall apply. The moment of
inertia of the pile/shaft group in both directions is calculated as:
Table 16.2-5 Transverse Pile/Shaft Layout
Cy (ft) # piles/shafts N Cy2
Row 1 -9.38 4 352 ft2
Row 2 -3.13 4 39 ft2
Row 3 3.13 4 39 ft2
Row 4 9.38 4 352 ft2
Ix = (N Cy2) = 782 ft2
Similarly, Iy = Ix = 782 ft2

Strength and Service loads shown below in Table 16.2-6 are for Case II, which is
the controlling load case for shaft loading for this example. The last two columns list
maximum force (Pmax) and minimum force (Pmin) in the piles under the various
loading conditions. Negative forces show tension in the shafts.

Table 16.2-6 Case II Maximum Longitudinal Moment

Factored MT ML P Pc/N Pmax Pmin
Mxcy/Ix Mycx/Iy
Loads: kips, ft (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
(kip) (kip)
Strength I-U 24 3666 3036 190 0.3 44.0 234.0 145.5
Strength I-L -7 3235 2176 136 -0.1 38.8 174.9 97.1
Strength II-U 118 4568 3213 201 1.4 54.8 257.0 144.5
Strength II-L 87 4136 2353 147 1.0 49.6 197.7 96.4
Strength III-U 93 1143 2620 164 1.1 13.7 178.6 148.9
Strength III-L 62 711 1761 110 0.7 8.5 119.3 100.8
Strength V-U 40 3089 2941 184 0.5 37.1 221.4 146.3
Strength V-L 9 2658 2081 130 0.1 31.9 162.1 98.1
Service I 33 2294 2259 141 0.4 27.5 169.1 113.3
Extreme Event I
Seismic-I(+) 22128 0 3014 188 265.5 0.0 453.9 -77.2
Seismic-I(-) 22128 0 1030 64 265.5 0.0 329.9 -201.2
Seismic II 0 22128 2022 126 0.0 265.5 391.9 -139.2
Seismic III+ 15645 15645 2518 157 187.7 187.7 532.8 -218.1
Seismic-III- 15645 15645 1526 95 187.7 187.7 470.8 -280.1
16.2.3.1 Check Geotechnical Requirements
The CA Amendments 10.5.5.2.4 and 10.5.5.3.3 specify strength reduction factors

() for strength and extreme event limit states as 0.7 and 1, respectively.
Compare factored loads on piles/shafts to factored resistance for strength limit
state:
For compression 257 kips < (0.7) 600 = 420 kips OK
For tension 0 kips < (0.7) 300 = 210 kips OK
Compare factored loads on piles/shafts to factored resistance for extreme event
limit state:
For compression 533 kips < (1.0) 600 = 600 kips OK
For tension 280 kips < (1.0) 300 = 300 kips OK
Therefore, shafts meet LRFD geotechnical requirements.
16.2.3.2 Check Pile/Shaft Structural Requirements
Strength Limit State:

Pile/Shaft Tension Capacity
= Pn = (Ast fy) (AASHTO 5.7.6.1)
2
= 0.9 (9 bars 1in. /bar) 60 ksi = 486 kips > 0 kips OK
Note: No tension in shafts for Strength limit state.

Pile/Shaft Compression Capacity

Pn = 0.75{0.85[0.85 fc (Ag-Ast) + fyAst]} (AASHTO 5.7.4.4)
= 0.75{0.85[0.85 3.6(706.9-9) + 60(9)]} = 1706 kips > 257 kips
1706 kips > 257 kips OK
Extreme Event Limit State (Seismic):

for shear (SDC 3.2.1)
Pile/Shaft Tension Capacity

Pn = (9 bars 1in.2/bar) 60 ksi = 540 kips > 280 kips OK
Pile/Shaft Compression Capacity

Pn = 1{0.85[0.85 3.6(706.9-9) + 60(9)]} = 2274 kips > 533k OK
16.2.3.3 Piles/Shafts Shear Capacity
Caltrans practice is not to check the shear capacity for pile/shaft groups in
competent soil. However, formal guidance material for this policy is currently not
available for LRFD design. The following is an example calculation showing how the
pile shear check calculation may be performed.
Ignoring the pile cap passive pressure on the front face as well as the friction on
the two side faces of the pile cap, the pile/shaft shear may be conservatively
approximated as the total shear divided by the number of piles/shafts. Assuming the
maximum shear will occur at the top of the pile/shaft, the maximum factored shear
force is as follows:
Seismic III-: Vu = 1 (6072 + 6072) 0.5/16 = 53.7 kips
The structural shear capacity of a reinforced concrete pile/shaft can be calculated
as follows:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp 0.25 fc bv dv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3)
Vc = 0.0316(fc)0.5(bv)(dv)
Vs = [Av (fy)(dv) (cot + cot ) sin ] / s
Vp = 0 (no pre-stressing in pile/shaft)
bv = D = 30 in.
dv = 0.9 de = 0.9 (21.8 in.) = 19.6 in.
Dr = D 2 (clr + hoop dbd + long dbd/2) = 30 2(3 + 0.69 + 1.25/2) = 21.4 in.
de = D/2 + Dr/ in. (AASHTO C5.8.2.9-2)
= 90
Av = 0.31in.2 2 = 0.62 in.2, s = 6 in. (#5 hoops at 6 in. spacing)

Check for minimum transverse reinforcement:

Av 0.0316 ( fc)0.5(bv)s/fy = 0.0316(3.6)0.5(30)(6)/60 = 0.18 in.2 OK
Nu = 280.1 kips (shear will be controlled by maximum tensile member)
Mu = 0 (minimal moment demand assumed at top of pile/shaft)
Aps = 0 (no pre-stressing steel in pile/shaft)
s = [(|Mu|/dv) + 0.5 Nu + |Vu Vp| Aps fpo]/[(Es As + Ep Aps)]
(AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-4)
s = [0.5 (280.1) + |53.7|]/[(29,000)(4.5)] = 0.00148
4.8

1 750 s (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-1)
4.8
2.27
1 7500.00148
= 29 +3500s (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.2-3)
= 29 +3500(0.00148) = 34.2 o
As = 9(1 in.2)/2 = 4.5 in.2

Vc = 0.0316(2.27)(3.6)0.5(30)(19.6) = 80.02 kips
Vs = 0.62(60)(19.6)[cot(34.2)+cot(90)]/6 = 178.8 kips
Vn = 80.02 + 178.8 = 258.8 kips < 0.25(3.6)(30)(19.6) = 529.2 kips OK
Vr = Vn = (258.8) = 232.9 kips > 53.7 kips OK
It is worth noting that a more refined analysis that accounts for the passive
pressure on the front face as well as the friction on the two side faces may be
warranted if the pile shear demand exceeds its structural shear capacity.

16.2.3.3 Pile/Shaft Moment Capacity
For the pile group in competent soil, due to small pile deflections, the bending
moment demand has been assumed not to control, and therefore, does not require
further analysis.
16.2.4 Design Pile Cap for Flexure
The critical section of the pile cap for flexure is at the face of the column as
shown in Figure 16.2-3. Since the column has a circular cross-section, it is
transformed into an effective square section for pile cap analysis with equivalent
column width of: (28.26)0.5 = 5.32 ft
P1 P2 P3 P4
Figure 16.2-3 Pile Cap Loading
Mcap (transverse) = (P1transv X1transv)+(P2transv X2transv) Wft Xfttransv Ws Xstransv

Due to symmetry: X1transv = X1long, X2trans = X2long, Xfttransv = Xstransv = Xftlong = Xslong
where:
X1 = distance from face of column to row 1 of shafts
= (6.25/2 + 6.25) 5.32/2 = 6.715 ft

X2 = distance from face of column to row 2 of shafts

= 6.25/2 5.32/2 = 0.465 ft
Pi = (No. shafts per row x) [P/N + Mx cy/Ix]
Xfttransv = 0.5 distance from face of column to edge of pile cap
= 1/2((23.25-5.32)/2) = 4.48 ft
Wft = weight of pile cap portion (from face of column to edge of cap)
= ((23.25-5.32)/2)(23.25)(50/12)(0.15) = 130.3 kips
Ws = weight of soil portion (from face of column to edge of cap)
= ((23.25-5.32)/2)(23.25)(48-38.75-4.17)(0.12) = 127.1 kips
= load factor, as specified in CA Amendments Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2
The maximum compression forces and the corresponding moment, Mcap, as
shown in Table 16.2-6, are for Case II loading. Loading Case I and III should also be
checked but are not shown here.
Table 16.2-6 Pile/Shaft Compression Forces and Corresponding Mcap

(Strength and Service)
Transverse Longitudinal
P1 P2 Mcap P1 P2 Mcap
Factored Loads: (kip) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip-ft)
Strength I-U 760 759 3958 935 818 5159
Strength I-L 544 544 2870 699 596 3935
Strength II-U 809 805 4306 1022 876 5774
Strength II-L 592 590 3214 787 654 4549
Strength III-U 660 657 3235 710 673 3581
Strength III-L 443 441 2142 474 452 2356
Strength V-U 737 736 3793 884 785 4799
Strength V-L 521 520 2700 648 563 3574
Service I 566 565 2912 675 602 3658
Example Calculation: For Strength II, max P1 force and Mcap in longitudinal
direction:
P1long = (#shafts per row 1) [P/N + Mxcy/Ix] = (4) [3213/16 +
(45689.38)/782]
1022 kips
(dead load components) = 1.25
(earth vertical pressure) = 1.35
Mcap = (1022 6.715) + (876 0.465) 1.25(130.3)(4.48) 1.35(127.1)(4.48)
5,774 kip-ft

In this example, tension forces were developed only under seismic loads.
Maximum Compression and Tension Forces for Extreme Event I loading are shown
in Table 16.2-7. The sign indicates tension forces. The corresponding Mcap values are
also shown.
Table 16.2-7 Shaft Compression Forces and Corresponding Mcap (Seismic)

Transverse Longitudinal
P1 P2 Mcap P1 P2 Mcap
Factored Loads: (kip) (kip) (kip-ft) (kip) (kip) (kip-ft)
Maximum Compression
Seismic-I(+) 1815 1107 11551 753 753 4256
Seismic-I(-) 1319 611 7990 257 257 694
Seismic II 505 505 2475 1567 859 9771
Seismic III(+) 1380 880 8524 1380 880 8524
Seismic-III(-) 1132 632 6744 1132 632 6744
Maximum Tension
Seismic-I(+) -309 399 -3040 753 753 4256
Seismic-I(-) -805 -97 -6602 257 257 694
Seismic II 505 505 2475 -557 151 -4821
Seismic III(+) -122 379 -1794 -122 379 -1794
Seismic-III(-) -370 131 -3575 -370 131 -3575
Example Calculation: For Seismic-I(+), Mcap in transverse direction:

(seismic) = 1.0
Mcap = (1815 6.715) + (1107 0.465) 1(130.3)(4.48) (127.1)(4.48)
11,551 kip-ft
Maximum moments acting on the pile cap at the face of the column for Seismic-
I(+), Seismic-I(-), and Service I and are shown in Tables 16.2-6 and 16.2-7. Dividing
by the 23.25 ft pile cap width, the maximum design moments and associated values
per unit width are calculated as:
Strength Limit State: Strength II MT = 185 kip-ft/ft; ML = 248 kip-ft/ft
Extreme Event Limit State: Seismic-I (+) MT = 497 kip-ft/ft; ML = 183 kip-ft/ft
Extreme Event Limit State: Seismic-I (-) MT = -284 kip-ft/ft; ML = 29 kip-ft/ft
Service Limit State: MT = 125 kip-ft/ft; ML = 157 kip-ft/ft
Assuming that #9 (dbd = 1.25 in.) bars with 3 in. cover and #11 (dbd = 1.63 in.)
bars with 6 in. cover are used for top and bottom mat reinforcement, the minimum
effective depths (de) of the pile cap for the top and bottom mats are calculated as
45.13 in. and 41.55 in., respectively.
Critical sections for moment and shear calculations are:

Bending moment at the face of the column (AASHTO 5.13.3.4).
One-way shear at distance dv from the face of the column (AASHTO

5.8.3.2).
Two-way (punching) shear on the perimeter of a surface located at

distance dv,avg from the face of the column (AASHTO 5.13.3.6).
where dv is effective shear depth of the section, and dv,avg is the average of effective
shear depths for both directions.
16.2.4.1 Pile Cap Bending Moment Check: Bottom Bars Due to Maximum Pile/Shaft
Compression
Assuming 3 in. side concrete cover and using 46-#11 bars for bottom mat, the
spacing of the rebar is calculated as:
s = (23.25(12)-2(3)-1.63)/(46-1) = 6 in.
AASHTO 5.10.8, and it is acceptable.
The area of steel contributing to unit width of the pile cap is: (1.56)(12)/6=3.12
in.2, therefore the depth of the concrete stress block is calculated as:
(3.12)(60)
ac 5.1in.
(0.85)(3.6)(12)
The bending moment capacity for non-seismic loading is computed as follows:

Mr = Mn = (0.9)(3.12)(60)(41.55 0.5 5.1)(1/12) = 547.6 kip-ft/ft > 248
(AASHTO 5.7.3.2) OK
where = 0.9 is based upon tensile controlled reinforcement (AASHTO 5.5.4.2)
t = 0.003(de c)/c 0.003(de c)/c = 0.003(41.55-5.1)/5.1 = 0.0214 > 0.005
(AASHTO Fig.C5.7.2.1-1)
Therefore, the section is tensile controlled, = 0.9 OK

For flexural capacity under seismic loading, the moment capacity for capacity
protected members is determined from expected material properties. (SDC 3.4)
where expected fc = 5 ksi, fy = 68 ksi
(3.12)(68)
a 4.16in.
(0.85)(5.0)(12)
Mne = (1)(3.12)(68)(41.55 0.5 4.16)(1/12) = 697.8 kip-ft/ft > 497

OK

16.2.4.2 Pile Cap Bending Moment Check: Top Bars Due to Maximum Pile/Shaft
Tension:
Assuming 3 in. side concrete cover and using 46 #9 bars for top mat, the spacing
of the rebar is calculated as:
s = (23.25(12) 2(3) 1.25)/(46 1) = 6 in.
AASHTO 5.10.8, and it is acceptable.
The area of steel contributing to unit width of the pile cap is: (1)(12)/6 = 2 in.2,
and therefore, the depth of the concrete stress block and resisting moment are
calculated as:
(2.0)(60)
a 3.27in.
(0.85)(3.6)(12)
Flexural capacity check is needed for seismic loading only as top reinforcement
is not in tension due to strength and service loading. The moment capacity is
determined from expected material properties. (SDC 3.4)
(2.0)(68)
a 2.7in.
(0.85)(5.0)(12)
Mne = (1)(2)(68)(45.13 0.5 2.7)(1/12) = 496.2 kip-ft/ft > 284 OK

Therefore, selected number of bars is adequate for strength, however AASHTO
Eq. 5.7.3.3.2 requires minimum amount of reinforcement to be provided for crack
control.
Crack control is for service load case and is neglected for top bars, as top bars are
not in tension for service loading condition.
To check the crack control requirement for the bottom reinforcement (Strength
II), the cracking moment (Mcracking) is calculated as smaller of Mcr and 1.33 Mu as
follows:
Modulus of rupture = fr = (0.24)(3.6)0.5 = 0.455 ksi
Gross section modulus = (12)(50)2/6 = 5000 in.3/ft
kip - in. kip - ft
M cr 1 3 f r S x 1.6(0.7)(0.455)(5,000) 2,548 212
ft ft
1.33Mu = 1.33(248) = 329.8 kip-ft/ft
Therefore, Mcr = 212 kip-ft/ft governs, and Mr = Mn = 547.6 kip-ft/ft > 212
OK
AASHTO 5.7.3.4 requires maximum limits of rebar spacing for crack control.

700 e
s 2d c
s f ss
Assuming e = 1 (class-I exposure) and dc = 6+(1.63+1.63/2) = 8.45 in.:
8.45
s 1 1.29
0.750 8.45
Cracked section is used to calculate tensile stress in steel reinforcement under
service loads:
(n)( M )(d x)
f ss (Chen and Duan 2000)
I cr
Ec = 1820(3.6)0.5 = 3453 ksi (AASHTO C5.4.2.4-1)

n = 29000/3453 = 8.40
M (maximum service moment) = ML = 157 kip-ft
d = de = 41.55 in.
x can be solved by a quadratic equation, where for a rectangular section:
B = [n As + (n 1) As]/b
C = 2[n d As + (n 1) d As]/b
x B 2 C B 10.9
Icr = (1/3) b x3 + n A s (d x)2 + (n 1) As (x d)2 = 30,400 in.4
Using the above information fss is calculated as:
f ss
8.40157 1241.55 10.9 16.0 ksi
30,400
The maximum spacing is checked per AASHTO Eq. 5.7.3.4-1:
7001 28.45 17.0 ksi 6.0 in.
1.2916 OK
Therefore, 46#11 bars are acceptable for the bottom mat.

Note: For square pile caps the reinforcement will be distributed uniformly across the
entire width of the cap. (AASHTO 5.13.3.5)
16.2.5 Design Pile Cap for Shear
According to AASHTO 5.13.3.6.1, both one-way and two-way shear shall be

considered in pile cap design:

The critical section for one-way action extends in a plane across the
entire width and is located at a distance as specified in 5.8.3.2 (that is
mostly at distance dv from the face of the column).
The critical section for two-way action is perpendicular to the plane of

the pile cap and is located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum but not
closer than 0.5dv to the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction
area.
where dv = d 0.5a = 41.55 0.5(5.1) = 39 in. = 3.25 ft
dv should be greater than both 0.9d = 37.1 in. and 0.72h =36 in.
(AASTHO 5.8.2.9)
use dv = 39 in. = 3.25 ft
The dv value calculated above is based upon the strength loading case and is
conservatively used for both the strength and seismic shear capacity calculations in
this example.
16.2.5.1 Direct (One-Way) Shear
The applied one-way shear acting at distance dv away from the face of the
column will engage one shaft row. The maximum shear force Vu is 687 kips for
strength and 1558 kips for the extreme event.
Strength: Vu = 1022 1.35(127.1) 1.25(130.3) = 687.4 kips
Seismic I+: Vu = 1815 1.0(127.1) 1.0(130.3) = 1558 kips

Note: For circular columns the distance dv can be taken from the face of an equivalent
square column.

dv
P1 P2 P3 P4
Figure 16.2-4 One-Way Shear
Therefore, use Vu= 1558 / 23.25 = 67 kip/ft

The maximum shear resistance of the section (considering shear reinforcement
contribution) is limited to 0.25 fcbvdv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
Vn, max = 0.25(3.6)(12)(39) + 0 = 421.2 kip/ft > 67 kip/ft OK
Shear resistance of concrete (Vc) is 0.0316(fc) bvdv
0.5
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
Shear resistance of steel (Vs) is Av fy dv cots (AASHTO C5.8.3.3-1)
where = 2, = 45.0 (AASTHO 5.8.3.4.1)
Vc 0.03162 3.6 1239 56.1 kip/ft 67 kip/ft, shear reinforcement is
required.
Assuming #5 bars at 12 in. both ways:
Vs = (0.31in.2/ft)(60ksi)(39 in.)(cot() / (12 in.) = 60.5 kip/ft
Factored nominal resistance of the steel and concrete:
Vn = (Vc + Vs)
Vn = 0.9(56.1 + 60.5) = 104.94 kip/ft > 67 kip/ft OK
Check Minimum Transverse Reinforcement: (AASHTO 5.8.2.5)
Av 0.0316 f c bvs/fy

0.31 in.2/ft 0.0316 3.6 (12 in.)(12 in.)/60 = 0.144 in.2/ft OK
Check Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement:

If u < 0.125 fc, then smax = 0.8 dv or 24 in. (AASHTO 5.8.2.7-1)
u = Vu/[ (bv) (dv)]
u = 67 kip/ft /[0.9 (12 in.) (39 in.)] = 0.16 ksi < (0.125 3.6 ksi)
smax = 0.8dv = 0.8 (39 in.) = 31.2 in., use smax = 24 in. > 12 in. OK
16.2.5.1 Punching (Two-Way) Shear
The critical section is located at the distance of 0.5 dv,avg. from face of the
column as shown in Figure 16.2-5.
Figure 16.2-5 Pile Cap Critical Section
The actual punching shear force acting on the critical surface is calculated by
subtracting the force resulting from the piles/shafts acting on critical surface from the
axial force (Pu) of the column.
Determine the controlling punching shear force (Pu).
Strength II: Pu = [1.25(1164.9) + 1.5(227.4) + 1(-20.9) + 1.35(760.4)] = 2803
Seismic I+: Pu = [1(1164.9) + 1 (227.4) + 1(-20.9) + 1(992)] = 2363
Therefore, use Pu = 2803 kips, = 0.9
As the 4 shafts shown above are not fully within the effective zone, only a
portion of these shafts should be removed from the punching shear force. The
number of shafts within the critical surface will be approximated as 2 of 16 shafts.

2
P2 way 2803(1 ) 2453
16
Using conservative assumption of dv,avg = 39 in. = 3.25 ft, results in b0 = (6 +
3.25) = 29.1 ft = 348.7 in. For 2-way action with transverse reinforcement, the
nominal shear resistance shall be taken as:
Vn 0.192 f c 348.739
Vn Vc Vs 0.192 fc (bo )(dv )

Vn 4,954 kips
Vn max = 0.9(4,954) = 4,459 kips
Vc 0.03162 3.6 348.739 1,631 kips (AASHTO 5.13.3.6.3-2)

Av f y dv
Vs ; for = 45 (AASHTO 5.13.3.6.3-4)
s
Av = 0.31 (348.7/12) = 9 in.2
Vs = 9(60)(39)/(12) = 1755 kips

Nominal resistance of the steel and concrete:
Vn = Vc + Vs = 0.9(1631+1755) = 3,047 kips 4,459 kips
Vn Vn max
3,047 kips 4,459 kips
Vn > P2-way
3,047 kips > 2,453 kips OK
Note: For large capacity piles, localized pile punching shear failure and the
development of flexural reinforcement beyond the exterior piles should be
investigated. (SDC 7.7.1.6)
16.2.6 Design Pile Cap for Joint Shear
Footing joint shear is evaluated in accordance with SDC 7.7.1.4.

Principal Compression, pc 0.25 fc = 0.25 (3.6) = 0.9 ksi
Principal Tension, t 12 f c 12 3600 720 psi 0.72 ksi
1/2
fv fv
2
pt v 2jv
2 2


1/2
f f 2
pc v v v 2jv
2 2

Pcol
fv ftg
A jh
T jv
v jv ftg
Beff D ftg
ftg
A jh ( Dc D ftg ) ( Bc D ftg )
ftg
Beff 2 Dc
T jv Tc T(i ) pile
T(i)pile = summation of the hold down force in the tension piles/shafts

Note: The column tensile force (Tc) can be determined from the xSECTION output
file or CSiBridge. After determining Tc associated with Mp, multiply by 1.2 to
determine Tc associated with Mo.
Check Maximum Compressive Column:
Pc = Pu = [1(1164.9) + 1(227.4) + 1(-20.9) + 1(992)] = 2363 kips
For Maximum Compressive Column, Tc (at M = Mp) = 2578 kips (from
CSiBridge)
Tc ( at M = Mo) = 1.2 2578 kips = 3094 kips
Use T(i)pile = 0; conservatively ignore tensile piles.
Note: If tensile piles are used, only the tensile piles within the joint shear area should
be considered.
Pc 2,363 2,363
fv 0.159
A jhftg 72 5072 50 14,884
Tjv = 3,094 - 0 = 3,094
vjv = 3,094/(101.8 50) = 0.608

1/2
0.159 0.159
2
pc 0.6082 0.69ksi 0.9ksi
2 2

1/2
0.159 0.159
2
pt 0.6082 0.53 ksi 0.72ksi
2 2


Check Maximum Tensile Column:

Pc = Pu = [1.0(1164.9) + 1.0(227.4) + 1.0(-20.9)-1.0(992)] = 379 kips
For Maximum Tensile Column, Tc (at M = Mp) = 3000 kips (from CSiBridge)
Tc ( at M =Mo) = 1.2 3000 kips = 3600 kips
T(i)pile = 0 kips
379
= = = 0.025
14,884
Tjv = 3600 0 = 3600

vjv =3600 / (101.8 50) = 0.707
1/ 2
0.025 0.025
2
pc 0.707 0.720 ksi 0.9 ksi
2
2 2

1/ 2
0.025 0.025
2
pt 0.707 0.694 ksi 0.72 ksi
2
2 2

If 3.5 f c then T heads are required in stirrups: (SDC 7.7.1.7)
3.5 f c 3.5 3600 210 psi 0.21ksi
Use pt = 0.694 ksi > 0.21 ksi NG

Therefore, T headed stirrups are required in pile cap to account for joint shear
effects. The pile cap region within Dc/2 from the face of the column should have T
heads at the bottom of stirrups.
See the pile cap reinforcement detail, Figure 16.2-6, for T headed stirrup
locations.

23-3
23-3
Figure 16.2-6 Reinforcement Layout

Note: Fully lapped stirrups with 180 degree hooks at opposite ends may be used in
lieu of T-headed stirrups (SDC 7.7.1.7). For other seismic design and detailing
requirements, refer to Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (Caltrans, 2013).

16.2.7 Communication to Geotechnical Services
The following attachments provide examples of communication processes

between the Structural Designer and Geotechnical Services Refer to MTD 3-1
(2014b) and MTD 1-35 (2008).
Attachment-I:
Example of Preliminary Information to be sent from Structural Designer to

Geotechnical Services:
Table 16.2-8 Preliminary Foundation Design Data Sheet
Support No. Foundation Type(s) Estimate of Maximum Factored
Considered Compression Loads (kips)
Abut 1 Spread Footing

Bent 2 30 in. CIDH Piles 3500
Abut 3 Spread Footing
Attachment-II:
General Foundation and Load Information to be sent from Structural Designer to

GD for LRFD Strength and Extreme Event Limit States Load Data:
Table 16.2-9 Foundation Design Data Sheet
Foundation Design Data Sheet

Finished Cut-off Pile Cap Size Permissible
Number of
Support Design Grade Elevation (ft) Settlement
Pile Type Piles
No. Method Elevation under Service
per Support
(ft) (ft) B L Load (in.)*
Abut 1 WSD 1.0 or 2.0
30 in.
Bent 2 LRFD 48 39 23.25 23.25 1.0 16
CIDH
Abut 3 WSD 1.0 or 2.0
*Note: Based on Caltrans current practice, the total permissible settlement is 1 in. for multi-span structures with
continuous spans or multi-column bents, 1 in. for single span structures with diaphragm abutments, and 2 in. for
single span structures with seat abutments. Different permissible settlement under service loads may be allowed if a
structural analysis verifies that required level of serviceability is met.

Table 16.2-10 Foundation Design Loads

Foundation Design Loads
Strength Limit State Extreme Event Limit State

Service-I Limit State
(Controlling Group, kips) (Controlling Group, kips)
(kips)
Permanent
Support Total Load Loads
Compression Tension Compression Tension
No.
Max. Max. Max. Max. Max.
Per Per Per Per Per Per
Per Per Per Per Per
Support Support Support Support Support Support
Pile Pile Pile Pile Pile
Abut 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Bent 2 1901 N/A 1422 3647 257 0 0 3014 533 0 280
Abut 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Note: For Geotechnical Services:
Support loads shown are per column.
Service I loads are reported as net loads.
Strength and Extreme loads are reported as gross loads.
Loads from Table 16.2-10 are shown in bold and highlighted in Sections 16.2.2
and 16.2.3.
Load tables may be modified to submit multiple lines of critical load
combinations for each limit state, if necessary.

16.3 ANALYSIS/DESIGN OF SHAFT GROUPS IN

SOFT/LIQUEFIABLE SOIL UNDER EXTREME EVENT I
LIMIT STATE
16.3.1 Introduction
The behavior of a pile/shaft group depends on the characteristics of its

surrounding soil. This problem pertains to a class of Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI)
problems. The lateral behavior of a pile/shaft group is governed by the soil near the
ground surface, whereas its axial behavior is governed by the soil at a deeper depth.
These two behaviors are practically independent of each other (Parkers and Reese,
1971). The axial behavior of a pile/shaft group embedded in a soft/liquefiable soil is
similar to that embedded in a competent soil; whereas its lateral behavior depends on
the type of soil in which it is embedded. For a pile/shaft group embedded in a
competent soil, the soil near the ground surface provides substantial soil resistance to
the lateral displacement of the pile cap, which results in small displacement and
moment demands in the piles/shafts. For a pile/shaft group embedded in a
soft/liquefiable soil, the majority of this soil resistance is lost, which results in large
displacement and moment demands in the piles/shafts. The main objective of this
section is to illustrate the analysis and design of shaft groups in soft/liquefiable soil
under Extreme Event I Limit State (seismic loading).
16.3.2 Caltrans Design Practice
Foundation components of Ordinary Standard Bridges shall be designed to

remain essentially elastic when resisting the columns overstrength moment, the
associated overstrength shear, and the axial force at the base of the column (Caltrans,
2013). Bridge features that lead to complex response during seismic events, e.g.,
irregular geometry, unusual framing, and/or unusual geologic conditions, are
considered non-standard. The current Caltrans design practice for Ordinary Non-
Standard Bridges is that the formation of plastic hinges in piles/shafts is not
desirable, and piles/shafts should remain elastic during the design seismic hazard. For
a soft or liquefiable soil (unusual geologic conditions), this might be uneconomical
due to the excessive curvature demand imposed on the piles/shafts. Project-specific
design criteria may permit plastic hinging at the top of the piles/shafts with a
maximum displacement ductility demand of 2.5 (estimated at the bottom of the pile
cap); the formation of a second set of plastic hinges at some distance below the
bottom of the pile cap shall not be permitted (Caltrans, 2013). Shaft groups with
permitted plastic hinging at the top of the shafts should be designed to meet the
performance and strength criteria described in the following subsections.

16.3.2.1 Shaft-Group Foundation Performance Criteria
16.3.2.1.1 Demand Ductility Criteria (SDC 4.1.2)
The displacement ductility demand of a shaft group, D, is defined as D=D /Y,

where D is the global displacement demand of the shaft group and Y is the yield
displacement of the shaft group from its initial position to the formation of the first
plastic hinge in the shafts (SDC 2.2.3). Shaft groups with permitted plastic hinging at
the top of the shafts shall have a maximum displacement ductility demand of 2.5.
For ordinary standard bridges, the global displacement demand, D, is typically
estimated using a linear elastic analysis (equivalent static or dynamic) of the bridge
assuming effective section properties for ductile members (SDC 2.2, 5.2, and 5.6).
For a shaft-group foundation, however, the forces transferred to the foundation are
limited by the overstrength moment capacity of the column, Mocol. The global
displacement demand of a shaft group, D, shall therefore be defined as the
lateral displacement (measured at the bottom of the pile cap) resulting from the
application of the columns overstrength moment and associated overstrength shear
at the base of the column: see Figure 16.3-1.
(a) (b)
Figure 16.3-1 Schematic Views of a Shaft-Group Foundation with Permitted Plastic
Hinging for Two Loading Cases
In the above figure: (a) corresponds to the formation of the first plastic hinge at
the top of a shaft, which occurs at a lateral force VY = Vocol and bending moment
MY = Mocol, where is a constant (for shafts with permitted plastic hinging 1
and for elastic shafts > 1); and (b) corresponds to the application of the columns
overstrength moment and associated overstrength shear at the base of the column.

16.3.2.1.2 Capacity Ductility Criteria (SDC 4.1.3)
The local displacement ductility capacity of an isolated shaft within a shaft group
c is defined as c = c /yshaft, where yshaft is the idealized yield displacement of the
shaft at the formation of the first plastic hinge (SDC 3.1.4.1), and c is the local
displacement capacity of the shaft at its collapse limit state. The value of c is
calculated for an equivalent member that approximates a guided-guided column
(SDC 3.1.3, 3.1.4, and 3.1.4.1). See Figure 16.3-2.
c1 = y1shaft + p1 ; c2 = y2shaft + p2 ; (SDC 3.1.3-1)
y1shaft = Y1L12/3 ; y2shaft = Y2L22/3 ; (SDC 3.1.3-7)
p1 = p1(L1 Lp1 /2) ; p2 = p2(L2 Lp2 /2) ; (SDC 3.1.3-8)
p1 = p1Lp1 ; p2 = p2Lp2 ; (SDC 3.1.3-9)
c1 = c1/y1shaft ; c2 = c2/y2shaft ; (SDC 3.1.4-2)
where L1, L2 are the distances from the two points of maximum moments to the point
of contra-flexure (assumed equal, i.e., L1 L2 = L/2); L is the distance between the
two points of maximum moments; Y1, Y2 are the idealized yield curvatures of the
top and lower plastic hinges, respectively (assumed equal, i.e., Y1 Y2); p1, p2 are
the idealized plastic curvatures of the top and lower plastic hinges, respectively
(assumed equal, i.e., p1 p2); p1, p2 are the idealized local plastic displacement
capacities due to the rotations of the top and lower plastic hinges, respectively; p1,
p2 are the plastic rotation capacities of the top and lower plastic hinges, respectively;
Lp1, Lp2 are the equivalent analytical lengths of the top and lower plastic hinges,
respectively. The top plastic hinge of a shaft within a shaft group is analogous to that
of a column, whereas the lower plastic hinge of a shaft is analogous to that of a non-
cased type I pile shaft; therefore, Lp1, Lp2 are given by:
Lp1 = 0.08 L1 + 0.15 fye dbl 0.3 fye dbl (SDC 7.6.2.1-1 )
Lp2 = D + 0.08 L2 , (Analogous to SDC 7.6.2.3-1 for non-cased type I shaft)
where dbl and fye are the nominal diameter and the expected yield stress of the
longitudinal reinforcement of the shaft, respectively, and D is the shaft diameter.
Individual shafts within a shaft group shall have a minimum local displacement
ductility capacity of 3 (i.e., c1 3; c2 3) to ensure dependable rotational capacity
in the plastic hinge regions regardless of the displacement demand imparted to them
(SDC 3.1.4.1).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 16.3-2 Plastic Hinges of a Shaft-Group Foundation
In the above figure: (a) corresponds to a schematic view of a shaft-group

foundation subjected to lateral loading near collapse; (b) corresponds to a segment of
a shaft between the two points of maximum moment idealized as a guided-guided
column; and (c) corresponds to an idealized curvature diagram of the shaft segment
shown in (b).
16.3.2.1.3 Global Displacement Criteria (SDC 4.1.1)
The global displacement demand of a shaft group, D, shall be less than its global
displacement capacity, C: see Figure 16.3-3. The global displacement capacity of a
shaft group, C, is defined as the lateral displacement (measured at the bottom of the
pile cap) corresponding to the first plastic hinge reaching its plastic rotation capacity
(SDC 3.1.3).

Figure 16.3-3 An Idealized Force-Deflection Curve of a Shaft Group in

Soft/Liquefiable Soil
Note: The models shown in the inset diagrams approximately depict the behavior of
the shaft group, assuming that the liquefied-soil stiffness is negligibly small.
Figure 16.3-3 shows a schematic plot of the idealized force-deflection curve

(solid lines) of a shaft group in soft/liquefiable soil. The broken lines correspond to a
hypothetical case, where the column is retrofitted such that its plastic moment
capacity is sufficiently large to force the formation of the lower set of plastic hinges.
The lateral behavior of a shaft group can be divided into three distinct regions.
Region I, from point 0 to point 1, where the lateral behavior is approximated by a
guided-guided shaft, with L* = L; Region II, from point 1 to point 2, where the lateral
behavior is approximated by a guided-free shaft (assuming that the top set of plastic
hinges form simultaneously). The additional lateral displacement (measured at the

bottom of the pile cap) beyond point 1 is ( L*/2), where L* = L-Lp1/2, and (rad) is
the rotation of the top of the shafts beyond point 1 (= 0 at point 1); Region III, from
point 2 to point 3, where the lateral behavior is approximated by a pinned-free shaft
(assuming that the lower set of plastic hinges form simultaneously). The additional
lateral displacement (measured at the bottom of the pile cap) beyond point 2 is (
L*), where L* = L Lp1/2 Lp2/2, and (rad) is the additional rotation of the top of
the shafts beyond point 2. The points 0, 1, 2, and 3 shown in Figure 16.3-3 identify
the boundaries of these three regions.
The global displacement capacity of a shaft group is given by C = Y1 + P1,
where Y1 is the global yield displacement of the shaft group from its initial position
to the formation of the first plastic hinge, and P1 is the global plastic displacement of
the shaft group corresponding to the first plastic hinge reaching its plastic rotation
capacity. The value of Y1 is obtained from the inelastic static analysis of the shaft
group (discussed in Section 16.3.10 in this Chapter). The value of P1 can be
estimated based on the model describing the behavior of the shaft group in region II,
i.e., P1 = p1 (L Lp1/2)/2.
It is worth noting that point 3 shown in Figure 16.3-3 can fall either before or
after point 2 (corresponding to the formation of the lower set of plastic hinges). The
expression P1 = p1 (L Lp1/2)/2 is derived for the case where point 3 falls before
point 2. If point 3 falls after point 2, both region II and region III contribute to the
expression for P1. The expression P1 = p1 (L Lp1/2)/2, however, can still be
conservatively used to verify that (C /D) > 1. The reason here is that point 2 has to
fall after point C since the formation of any of the lower plastic hinges is not
permitted before the column reaches its overstrength capacity; and subsequently,
point 3 has to fall after point C, i.e., (C /D) > 1. The use of the expression P1 = p1
(L Lp1/2)/2 simplifies the analysis since it eliminates the need for tracking the
formation of the lower set of plastic hinges.
16.3.2.2 Shaft-Group Foundation Strength Criteria
16.3.2.2.1 Minimum Lateral Strength (SDC 3.5)
Shaft groups with permitted plastic hinging shall have a minimum lateral flexural
capacity (based on the expected material properties) to resist a lateral force VY of not
less than 10% of the dead load on the shaft group PP, i.e., VY / PP 0.1, where VY
corresponds to the formation of the first plastic hinge in the shaft group: see Figure
16.3-1(a).
16.3.2.2.2 P- Effects (SDC 4.2)
The Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria has established a conservative limit for
lateral displacements induced by axial loads for columns meeting the ductility
demand limits. This limit for columns shall be adopted for shafts within a shaft group
since the lateral soil springs of a liquefied layer are most likely yielded before the

formation of plastic hinges at the top of the shafts. For a ductile shaft approximated
as a guided-guided column, this limit is defined by:
Pdl r /2 0.20 Mpshaft,
where Pdl is the axial force in an individual shaft attributed to dead load (with no
overturning effects); Mpshaft is the idealized plastic moment capacity of the shaft
associated with Pdl; r is the relative lateral offset (of the displacement demand)
between the top and the lower points of maximum moment along the shaft: see
Figure 16.3-1(b).
16.3.2.2.3 Force Demands (SDC 6.2.3.1)
Foundation elements shall be designed to resist the columns overstrength

moment, Mocol, the associated overstrength shear, Vocol, and the axial load, PP. The
moment and the shear demands for the pile cap and the shafts shall be determined
from a static analysis of the shaft-group foundation under the actions of Mocol, Vocol,
and PP at the base of the column.
The capacity of concrete components to resist all seismic force demands, except
for shear, shall be based on the expected material properties (SDC 3.2.1) with a
strength reduction factor of = 1. The seismic shear capacity of all concrete
components (ductile and capacity-protected) shall be conservatively based on the
nominal concrete and steel strengths (SDC 3.2.1) with a strength reduction factor of
= 0.9.
For shaft-group foundations with permitted plastic hinging, verifying the moment
demand of the ductile shafts is not required, since the moment demand shall not
exceed the plastic moment capacity of the shafts. The moment demand of the
capacity-protected pile cap shall not exceed its expected nominal moment capacity,
Mne (SDC 3.4).
16.3.3 Practice Bridge Geometry
Figure 16.3-4 shows schematically the elevation and the typical section of a four-
span cast-in-place pre-stressed concrete box-girder bridge having a total length of
525 ft (Yashinsky et al., 2007). The bridge crosses a dry-bed canyon at zero skew.
The bridge is supported on two seat-type abutments on pile foundations, and three
single-column piers on shaft-group foundations. Each shaft-group foundation consists
of a 25 25 4.5 ft pile cap on a 5 5 array of 24-in. diameter, 60-ft long drilled
shafts spaced at 5.25 ft in both directions. The length of the drilled shafts is limited to
30 times the shaft diameter to ensure constructability and quality control (Caltrans,
2014b).
16.3.4 Site Conditions and Foundation Recommendations
Figure 16.3-5 shows the idealized soil profile at Pier 3, which consists of a 24-ft
thick layer of medium dense sand underlain by a 60-ft thick layer of dense sand.
Groundwater was encountered at a depth of 9 ft. The estimated future long-term

scour (degradation and contraction) elevation is 91.5 ft. The potential local pier scour
depth corresponding to the 100-year base flood shall not be considered in the
Extreme Event I Limit State (seismic): see CA Amendments (Caltrans, 2014a) Table
3.7.5-1. The 15 ft thick layer of saturated medium dense sand below the pile cap is
determined to be liquefiable under the design seismic hazard. Figure 16.3-6 shows
the Acceleration Response Spectrum curve for this project site.
It should be noted that the project site is underlain by cohesionless soil layers and
shallow groundwater; therefore, the use of 16-in. diameter CIDH piles is not
recommended due to potential construction difficulties (e.g., caving of sand into the
drilled hole, and the difficulties associated with the cleaning and inspection of the
bottom of the drilled hole). Thus, only 24-in. (or larger) diameter CIDH piles should
be used (Caltrans, 2014b).
A series of analyses is performed on the 24-in. diameter shafts selected for this
practice bridge in order to provide the necessary geotechnical information for
foundation design (Malek and Islam, 2010)

Figure 16.3-4 Geometry of the Practice Bridge

Figure 16.3-5 Idealized Soil Profile for the Project Site
The following notation is used in the idealized soil profile: N is the standard blow
count, t (lb./ft3) is the unit weight of sand, (degrees) is the friction angle, and k
(lb./in.3) is a soil modulus parameter for sand.

1.6
SPECTRAL ACCELERATION (g) 1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
PERIOD (sec)
Figure 16.3-6 Acceleration Response Spectrum Curve for the Project Site
The computer program LPILE (Reese et al., 2007) is used to develop the soil
lateral reaction versus the lateral deflection (p-y) curves (also known as lateral soil
springs). The p-y curves are generally non-linear and vary along the length of shafts.
The soil lateral reaction, p, is the lateral load per unit length of a given diameter shaft
and is obtained by integrating the unit lateral stress around the shaft. The force p acts
in the opposite direction of the lateral deflection y: see Figure 16.3-7. Several
methods are used by Geotechnical Services to develop the p-y curves for the liquefied
soil layer. A preliminary analysis has indicated that the p-reduction factor method is
the appropriate method for this project. In this method, the p-y curve for a liquefied
soil layer is obtained by reducing the p-values of the corresponding non-liquefied soil
layer using a reduction factor, which depends on the density of the liquefied soil
layer. For the idealized soil profile shown in Figure 16.3-5, a p-reduction factor of
0.1 is selected since the liquefied soil layer has a density that falls within the lower
range of the medium density. The recommended p-y curves for an individual 24-in.
diameter shaft installed in the soil profile shown in Figure 16.3-5 are presented in
Figure 16.3-8.
It is worth mentioning that the lateral displacement of a pile cap mobilizes the
soil in front of it. This results in a build-up of passive pressure, which depends on the
amount of lateral displacement of the pile cap. This passive pressure is typically
provided by Geotechnical Services in the form of a passive resistance-displacement
relationship. The designer, however, should evaluate the amount of displacement
required to produce the ultimate passive resistance of the soil. For this practice
bridge, the 6.5-ft thick soil layer overlain on the liquefiable layer is relatively thin
and likely to crack during liquefaction; therefore, the pile cap passive pressure is
negligible.
The t-z method (a well-known method of soil-structures interaction) is used by
Geotechnical Services to develop the load transfer curves for the axial side resistance

(t-z curves) and the end bearing resistance (Q-z curve). The t-z curves are a set of
non-linear curves, which vary along the length of a shaft and represent the axial load
transfer per unit length of a given diameter shaft as a function of the vertical shaft
displacement at the corresponding depth. All soil within and above the liquefiable
zone shall be considered not to contribute to axial compressive resistance (AASHTO
10.7.4). The Q-z curve is a non-linear curve representing the axial soil reaction in end
bearing as a function of the axial displacement at the shaft tip: see Figure 16.3-9. The
recommended t-z and Q-z curves for an individual 24-in. diameter shaft installed in
the soil profile shown in Figure 16.3-5 are presented in Figures 16.3-10 and 16.3-11,
respectively.
It should be noted that both the tip resistance (end bearing) and the side
resistance (skin friction in cohesionless soil or adhesion in cohesive soil) develop in
response to the vertical displacement of the shaft. However, the peak value for the
side resistance typically occurs at a smaller vertical displacement than the peak value
for the tip resistance. Geotechnical Services usually discards the tip resistance for
service and strength limit states, particularly in wet conditions, where soft
compressible drill spoils and questionable concrete quality are both possible at the tip
of the shaft. For extreme event I limit state, however, Geotechnical Services may
include some fraction of the tip resistance.
Elevation Plan
Figure 16.3-7 A Schematic Diagram Showing the Distribution of Soil Stress

Reaction p(z) at a Depth z due to a Lateral
Deflection y of an Individual Shaft

6.0
5.0
4.0
Depth 0 to 5 ft
p (kip/ft) 3.0 Depth 5 to 10 ft
Depth 10 to 15 ft
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
y (ft)
450
375
300 Depth 15 to 25 ft
p (kip/ft)
Depth 25 to 35 ft
225
Depth 35 to 45 ft
150 Depth 45 to 60 ft
75
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
y (ft)
Figure 16.3-8 Idealized Soil p-y Curves for an Individual 24-in. Diameter Shaft
at Various Depths Measured from the Bottom of the Pile Cap

Figure 16.3-9 Soil Stress Reaction
The above figure is a schematic diagram showing the distribution of soil stress
reaction t along a unit length of the shaft at a depth d due to a vertical displacement
z(d). Also shown is the soil reaction Q at the shaft tip due to a vertical displacement
z(L).
12
10
Depth 15 to 19 ft
8
Depth 19 to 25 ft
t (kip/ft)
6 Depth 25 to 35 ft
Depth 35 to 45 ft
4
Depth 45 to 60 ft
2
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
z (ft)
Figure 16.3-10 Idealized Soil t-z Curves
The above figure illustrates the idealized soil t-z curves for an individual 24-in.
diameter shaft at various depths measured from the bottom of the pile cap.

120
100
80
Q (kip)
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
z (ft)
Figure 16.3-11 Idealized Soil Q-z Curve for an Individual 24-in. Diameter Shaft
The lateral capacity of a closely spaced shaft group is less than the sum of the
capacities of the individual shafts within the group. This behavior can be attributed to
overlapping of shear zones within the group. The p-y curves are typically developed
for an individual shaft. In order to apply these p-y curves to a shaft group, a scale
factor is applied to the load component, p, of the p-y curve. This scale factor is
referred to as the P-multipliers for the lateral capacity of closely spaced shafts. For
this practice bridge, the P-multipliers are based on the CA Amendments 10.7.2.4
(Caltrans, 2014a). Interpolating the results for a center-to-center spacing of 2.625
shaft diameters, and accounting for the side-by-side effects, the P-multipliers
corresponding to row 1 (leading), row 2, and rows 3 and higher, are 0.572, 0.392, and
0.284, respectively: see Figure 16.3-12(a).
The vertical capacity of a shaft group in sand is less than the sum of the
capacities of the individual shafts due to overlapping zones of shear deformation in
the soil surrounding the shafts and loosening of soil during construction (AASHTO
10.8.3.6.3). Figure 16.3-12(b) shows a schematic diagram of the overlapping zones of
influence for individual shafts under vertical loads. Figure 16.3-12(c) shows a
schematic diagram of the stress conditions below the tips of individual shafts and
below the shaft group modeled as a block foundation. The t-z and Q-z curves are
typically developed for an individual shaft. In order to apply these t-z and Q-z curves
to shaft groups, a scale factor is applied to the load component t of the t-z curves, and
to the load component Q of the Q-z curve. This scale factor is referred to as the
Group Efficiency Factor (GEF). Based on AASHTO 10.8.3.6.3, the GEF for a shaft
group in compression corresponding to a center-to-center spacing of 2.625 shaft
diameters in cohesionless soil is 0.679.

Figure 16.3-12 Overlapping Zones of Closely Spaced Shaft G Foundation
The above figure is of schematic diagrams showing: (a) overlapping zones of

influence for a closely spaced shaft group under a lateral load; (b) overlapping zones
of influence for closely spaced frictional shafts under an axial compression load; and
(c) vertical stress condition below tips of individual shafts (broken lines) and below
the entire shaft group modeled as a block foundation (solid line) under axial
compression load.
16.3.5 Material Properties
16.3.5.1 Reinforcing Steel ASTM A706 (Grade 60) Properties (SDC 3.2.3)
Modulus of elasticity Es = 29,000 ksi

Specified minimum yield strength fy = 60 ksi
Expected yield strength fye = 68 ksi
Specified minimum tensile strength fu = 80 ksi
Expected tensile strength fue = 95 ksi
Nominal yield strain y = 0.0021
Expected yield strain ye = 0.0023
Ultimate tensile strain: for #10 and smaller bars su = 0.12
for #11 and larger bars su = 0.09
Reduced ultimate tensile strain: for #10 and smaller bars Rsu = 0.09

for #11 and larger bars Rsu = 0.06

Onset of strain hardening: for #8 bars sh = 0.015
for #10 and 11 bars sh = 0.0115
16.3.5.2 Normal-Weight Portland Cement Concrete Properties (SDC 3.2.6)
Specified 28-day compressive strength of concrete f'c = 3.6 ksi

Expected concrete compressive strength ( = 1.3 f'c 5 ksi f'ce = 5 ksi
Unit weight of reinforced concrete w = 0.150 kip/ft3
Unit weight of plain concrete wc = 0.14396 kip/ft3
Modulus of elasticity ( = 33,000 (wc)1.5 fce ) Ec = 4030.5 ksi
Ultimate unconfined compression (spalling) strain sp = 0.005
Unconfined concrete strain at maximum compressive co = 0.002
strength
For confined concrete, the confined compressive strain, cc, and the ultimate
compression strain, cu, are defined by Manders constitutive stress-strain model: see
Figure 16.3-13.
(a) (b)
Figure 16.3-13 Constitutive Models
The above figure shows constitutive models for: (a) parks stress-strain model for
rebar; and (b) manders confined and unconfined stress-strain models for concrete.

16.3.6 Minimum Pile-Cap Depth
The depth of a pile cap shall be sufficient to:
(i) ensure the development of the longitudinal column reinforcement

(AASHTO 5.11.2.2 and 5.11.2.4);
(ii) satisfy the columnpile cap joint shear requirements (SDC 7.7.1.4);
(iii) resist the one-way action shear (AASHTO 5.13.3.6.2);
(iv) resist the two-way action shear (AASHTO 5.13.3.6.3); and
(v) satisfy the rigidity requirement if the infinitely rigid pile-cap

assumption is made when calculating the axial force demand in the
piles/shafts (SDC 7.7.1.3).
16.3.6.1 Pile Cap-Column Proportions
The SDC recommends that the depth of the pile cap, Dftg, be greater than or equal
to 0.7 times the column diameter, Dc (SDC 7.6.1). Maintaining this ratio should
produce a reasonably well-proportioned structure and satisfy the joint-shear
requirements. For this practice bridge:
Dftg 0.7Dc 0.7 5 3.5 ft ( SDC 7.6.1-1)
16.3.6.2 Development Length Requirements
The minimum pile cap depth, Dftg,min, is defined as:

Dftg,min = Concrete Cover + 2 dbd + ld
where concrete cover on reinforcement is 6 in. for a pile cap on concrete shafts
(Caltrans, 1990), dbd is the deformed diameter of the bottom-mat reinforcement (dbd =
1.44 in. for #10 bars (Caltrans, 1984)), and ld is the development length of the
longitudinal column reinforcement, which is calculated in the following subsections.
16.3.6.2.1 Development of Deformed Bars in Compression (AASHTO 5.11.2.2)
The development length, ld, for deformed bars in compression is equal to the
product of the basic development length specified in AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1 and the
applicable modification factors specified in AASHTO 5.11.2.2.2; but not less than 8
in.
The basic development length, ldb, for the #11 columns longitudinal rebar
(having a nominal diameter db = 1.41 in. (Caltrans, 1984) in compression is the larger
of:

ldb 0.63 db fy / f'c 0.63 1.41 60/3.6 28.1in. [Governs]

(AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-1)
ldb 0.30 db fy 0.30 1.41 60 25.4 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.1-2)
Confinement requirement: Column reinforcement is enclosed within #8 hoops, which
are not less than 0.25 in. in diameter and spaced at a 4.0 in. pitch; therefore, a
modification factor of 0.75 shall apply (AASHTO 5.11.2.2.2) as follows:
ld = 0.75 28.1 = 21.1 in. (which is greater than the minimum value of 8 in.)
16.3.6.2.2 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension (AASHTO 5.11.2.4)
The development length, ldh, in inches, for deformed rebar in tension terminating
in a 90o standard hook shall not be less than:
(i) the product of the basic development length, lhb, and the applicable
modification factors;
(ii) 8 bar diameters, but not less than 6 in.

The basic development length, lhb, for the #11 columns longitudinal hooked
rebar of yield strength, fy, not exceeding 60 ksi, is given by:
lhb = 38 db / fc = 38 1.41/3.6 = 28.2 in. (AASHTO 5.11.2.4.1-1)
The basic development length shall be multiplied by the following modification
factors:
Cover requirement: For #11 rebar and smaller, side cover (normal to
plane of hook) not less than 2.5 in., and for 90 hook, cover on bar
extension beyond hook not less than 2 in., a modification factor of 0.7
shall apply (AASHTO 5.11.2.4.2).
Confinement requirement: For #11 rebar and smaller, hooks enclosed

vertically or horizontally within ties or stirrup-ties spaced along the full
development ldh at a spacing not exceeding 3db, where db is the nominal
diameter of the hooked rebar, a modification factor of 0.8 shall apply
(AASHTO 5.11.2.4.2).
The development length, ldh, for #11 bars in tension terminating in a standard
hook is:
ldh = 0.7 0.8 28.2 = 15.8 in. (which is more than 6 in. and 8db = 8 1.41 =
11.28 in.)
The development length for compression, ld = 21.1 in., governs over the
development length for tension, ldh = 15.8 in. Therefore, the minimum pile cap
thickness is given by:
Dftg,min = clr + 2(dbd) + ld = 6 in. + 2 1.44 in. + 21.1 in. = 30 in.

16.3.6.3 Rigid Pile-Cap Requirement
If the rigid pile cap assumption is made to estimate the axial forces in the shafts,
the SDC requires that Lftg/Dftg 2.2 (SDC 7.7.1.3), where Lftg is the cantilever length
of the pile cap measured from the column face to the edge of the pile cap. For this
practice bridge:
Lftg = (25 5)/2 = 10 ft
Dftg,min = Lftg / 2.2 = 10/ 2.2 = 4.5 ft (SDC 7.7.1.3-1)
16.3.7 Shaft-Group Layout
According to the CA Amendments 10.8.1.2, the minimum center-to-center

spacing for shafts is 2.5 times the shaft diameter; and the minimum clear edge-
distance for shafts is 12 in. For this practice bridge, the shafts are spaced at 5.25 ft,
which is greater than the minimum shaft spacing of 2.5 2 ft = 5 ft. The selected 12-
in. clear edge distance for shafts in this practice bridge meets the minimum clear
edge-distance requirement.
16.3.8 Seismic Forces on Shaft-Group Foundations
In order to determine the force demand on the pile cap (a capacity protected
member), a 20% overstrength magnifier is applied to the plastic moment capacity at
the base of the column, i.e., Mocol = 1.2Mpcol, to account for the material strength
variations between the column and the pile cap and the possibility that the actual
moment capacity of the column may exceed its estimated value (SDC 4.3.1). Note
that for Extreme Event I Limit State, the load factor for permanent loads, p, is 1.0
(CA Amendments 3.4.1).
16.3.8.1 Axial Force Effects
The axial force effects due to the self-weight of superstructure and the future
wearing surfaces are both obtained from a static analysis of the bridge and are given
by:
Self-weight of box-girder, integral pier cap, and concrete barrier = 1153.587 kip
2
Self-weight of future wearing surfaces (35 lb./ft ) = 131.250 kip
Self-weight of column = 0.15 lb./ft (5 ft) /4 22 ft
3 2
= 64.795 kip
Axial load at column base = 1153.60 kip + 131.25 kip + 64.795 kip = 1349.632 kip
Self-weight of pile cap = 0.15 lb./ft3 25 ft 25 ft 4.5 ft = 421.875 kip
Overburden soil weight = 0.115 lb./ft (25 ft 25 ft (5 ft) /4)(2 ft) =
3 2
139.234 kip

Axial load on pile cap, PP = 1349.632 kip + 421.875 kip + 139.234 kip = 1910.741 kip
Average axial load/shaft = 1910.741 kip / 25 shafts = 76.430 kip
16.3.8.2 Plastic Moment Capacities for Ductile Concrete Members
The plastic moment capacity for the columns and the shafts cross-sections are
estimated by moment-curvature analyses using the computer program x-SECTION
based on the expected material properties (SDC 3.3.1). The results of the analyses are
summarized in Table 16.3-1. Figure 16.3-14 shows the cross-section details of the
column and the shaft, as well as the pile cap (a capacity-protected member).
Table 16.31 Summary of the Output Results of the x-SECTION Program

Column Shaft
Axial load (kip) 1349.63 76.43
Cross-Sectional Area, A (ft2) 19.63 3.142
Idealized Cracked Moment of Inertia, Icr (ft3) 14.51 0.209
Idealized Plastic Moment Capacity, Mp (kip-ft) 9812.0 313.2
Figure 16.3-14 Cross-Section Details of the Column, Shaft and Pile Cap
The figure above shows the cross-section details of: (a) the column; (b) the shaft;
and (c) the pile cap for estimating the plastic moment capacity.

16.3.8.3 Shear Force Effects
Figure 16.3-15 shows the response of Pier 3 under lateral loading in both the
transverse and the longitudinal directions. Neglecting the effect of the weight of the
column on the plastic moment capacity for the columns cross-section, the
overstrength moment at the top and the bottom of the column is given by:
Mocol@top = Mocol@bot = 1.2 Mpcol = 1.2 9812 = 11774.4 kip-ft
The columns overstrength shear in the transverse and the longitudinal directions
can be estimated as follows:
Vocol(Trans) = Mocol@bot /H = 11774.4/(22 ft + 3 ft 8 in.) = 458.74 kips
Vocol(Long) = (Mocol@top + Mocol@bot)/Hc = (11774.4 + 11774.4)/(22 ft) =
1070.4 kip
Since Vocol(Long) > Vocol(Trans), longitudinal direction controls.
(a) (b)
Figure 16.3-15 Schematic Views of the Deformed Shape of Pier 3

The above figure shows schematic views of the deformed shape of Pier 3 in (a)
the transverse direction and (b) the longitudinal direction, due to a lateral pushover
force Vocol.
16.3.9 Structural Modeling of Shaft-Group Foundations
A shaft-group foundation is a three-dimensional problem, which can be

approximately modeled as a two-dimensional problem by assuming the pile cap is
infinitely rigid in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal analysis plane, i.e.,
the transverse direction. For this practice bridge, the shaft-group foundation is
divided into five strips of equal width parallel to the longitudinal axis. Each shaft-
group foundation strip consists of 25 5 4.5 ft pile-cap strip on a 5 1 array of
24-in. diameter shafts spaced at 5.25 ft: see Figure 16.3-16. Note that the depth of the
pile-cap strip equals the depth of the pile cap ( = 4.5 ft), but its width is only one-fifth
the width of the pile cap, i.e., (1/5) 25 = 5 ft. The column is modeled as a 5-ft wide
frame member endowed with one-fifth the actual cross-sectional properties of the
column, i.e., Acol/5, Icrcol/5, Mpcol/5.
Figure 16.3-16 Shaft Group Foundation Schematic Plan Views
The above figure shows: (a) a schematic plan view of a shaft-group foundation;
(b) schematic views of the plan and the elevation of a two-dimensional shaft-group
foundation strip model of the shaft-group foundation.

16.3.10 Inelastic Static Analysis of Shaft-Group Foundations
For this practice bridge, the inelastic static analysis of the shaft-group foundation
strip in the longitudinal direction is performed using three design tools, namely:
w-FRAME (Seyed, 1995), CSiBridge (CSI, 2015), and LPILE (Reese et al., 2007).
The use of each design tool is based on a number of assumptions, which differ from
one design tool to another. A detailed study, however, has shown that results
obtained by the three design tools are comparable for design purposes. The selection
of the appropriate design tool for a specific project is based upon the discretion of the
Structural Designer. The aim of the inelastic static analysis of the shaft-group
foundation strip is to determine the parameters required to verify the performance
and strength criteria of the shaft group, namely, Y, VY, P1Y, Y1, p1, D, r, P1, V1, V4,
and L. Table 16.3-2 summarizes the value of the parameters obtained from w-
FRAME, CSiBridge, and LPILE.
Table 16.3-2 Parameters Obtained from w-FRAME, CSiBridge, and LPILE

w-FRAME CSiBridge LPILE
Y (ft) 0.15333 0.15763 0.14333
VY/5 (kip) 178.807 179.827 180.53
P1Y (kip) 221.4 229.18 P1 = 262.496
Y1@P1Y (rad/in.) 0.000218 0.000225 0.000219
p1@P1Y (rad/in.) 0.001562 0.00149 0.001476
D (ft) 0.25443 0.27931 0.30083
r (ft) 0.23833 0.26233 0.28074
P1 (kip) 245.9 255 262.496
V1 (kip) 53.26 54.79 55.123
V4 (kip) 36.18 36.37 39.429
L (in.) 192 192 201.6
The following subsections verify the shaft-group performance and strength

criteria based on the parameters obtained from the w-FRAME program: see Table
16.3-2.
16.3.10.1 Shaft-Group Foundation Performance Criteria
16.3.10.1.1 Demand Ductility Criteria (SDC 4.1.2)
The global displacement ductility demand, D, of the shaft group is given by:
D =D /Y = 0.25443 / 0.15333 = 1.66 2.5 OK
16.3.10.1.2 Capacity Ductility Criteria (SDC 4.1.3)
In order to calculate the local displacement ductility capacity of an isolated shaft

within a shaft group, the location of the potential lower plastic hinge in this shaft

needs to be determined. The location of the potential lower plastic hinge in a shaft
can be assumed at the same location as the peak value of bending moment below the
bottom of the pile cap, i.e., at a depth of L = 192 in. The point of contra-flexure
shown in Figure 16.3-2 can be assumed to be the midpoint between the two points of
maximum moment along the shaft. The lengths L1 and L2 defining the distances from
the points of maximum moment to the point of contra-flexure (cf. Figure 16.3-2) are
given by:
L1 L2 L / 2 = 192 in. / 2 = 96 in.
The equivalent analytical length of the top and the lower plastic hinges, Lp1 and
Lp2, respectively (Figure 16.3-2), are given by:
Lp1 = 0.08 L1 + 0.15 fye dbl 0.3 fye dbl (SDC 7.6.2.1-1 for columns)
Lp2 = D + 0.08 L2 (Analogous to SDC Eq. 7.6.2.3-1 for non-cased type I shaft)
where fye (= 68 ksi) and dbl (= 1 in. for #8) are the expected yield stress and the
nominal diameter of the shafts longitudinal reinforcement, and D (= 24 in.) is the
shaft diameter,
Lp1 = 0.08 96 + 0.15 68 1 = 17.88 in. 0.3 68 1 = 20.40 in.
Lp1 = 20.4 in.
Lp2 = 24 + 0.08 96 Lp2 = 31.68 in.
Neglecting the difference between the axial force at the top and the potential
lower plastic hinges, both the yield and the plastic curvatures at the top and the
potential lower plastic hinges can be assumed equal, i.e., Y1 Y2 (= 0.000218
rad/in.) and p1 p2 (= 0.001562 rad/in.): see Table 16.3-2.
The plastic rotation capacities of the top and the potential lower plastic hinges,
p1 and p2, respectively, are given by:
p1 = p1 Lp1 = 0.001562 20.40 0.0319 rad (SDC 3.1.3-4)
p2 = p2 Lp2 = 0.001562 31.68 0.0495 rad (SDC 3.1.3-4)
The idealized plastic displacement capacities p1 and p2 due to the rotation of
the of the top and the potential lower plastic hinges, respectively, are given by:
p1 = p1 (L1 Lp1 /2) 0.0319 (96 20.4/2) 2.74 in. (SDC 3.1.3-3)
p2 = p2 (L2 Lp2 /2) = 0.0495 (96 31.68/2) 3.97 in. (SDC 3.1.3-3)
The idealized yield displacements y1shaft and y2shaft associated with the formation
of the top and the potential lower plastic hinges, respectively, are given by:
y1shaft = Y1 L12/3 = 0.000218 962/3 = 0.67 in. (SDC 3.1.3-2)
y2shaft = Y2 L22/3 = 0.000218 962/3 = 0.67 in. (SDC 3.1.3-2)
The local displacement capacities of the leading shaft c1 and c2 are given by:
c1 = y1shaft + p2 = 0.67 + 2.74 = 3.41 in. (SDC 3.1.3-6)
c2 = y2 shaft
+ p2 = 0.67 + 3.97 = 4.64 in. (SDC 3.1.3-6)

The local displacement ductility capacities of the leading shaft c1 and c1 are
given by:
c1 = c1/y1shaft = 3.41/0.67 = 5.09 3 OK (SDC 3.1.4-2)
c2 = c2/y2shaft = 4.64/0.67 = 6.93 3 OK (SDC 3.1.4-2)
The local displacement ductility capacities of the other shafts can be calculated
similarly. However, these shafts are subjected to smaller axial compressive forces (or
to tension), therefore, they have larger values of c1 and c2 compared to those of the
leading shaft.
16.3.10.1.3 Global Displacement Criteria (SDC 4.1.1)
The yield displacement associated with the formation of the first plastic hinge in
the shaft-group strip (at the top of the leading shaft) is Y1 = 0.15333 ft (= 1.84 in.).
The global displacement demand of the shaft-group strip resulting from the
application of the columns overstrength moment and its associated overstrength
shear is D = 0.25443 ft (= 3.05 in.). The global plastic displacement of the shaft
group due to the plastic rotation capacity of the first plastic hinge, P1, is given by:
P1 = (1/2) p1 (L Lp1/2) = (1/2) 0.0319 (192 20.4/2) = 2.9 in.
The global displacement capacity of the shaft group (measured at the bottom of
the pile cap), C, is given by:
C = Y1 + P1 = 1.84 in. + 2.9 in. = 4.74 in.
(C/D) = 4.74/3.05 = 1.55 > 1 OK
Figure 16.3-17 Force-Displacement Curve for the Shaft-Group Foundation Strip

16.3.10.2 Shaft-Group Foundation Strength Criteria
16.3.10.2.1 Minimum Lateral Strength (SDC 3.5)
The lateral pushover force associated with the formation of the first plastic hinge
in the shaft-group strip is given by:
(VY/5) / (PP/5) = 178.807 / 382.148 = 0.468 0.1 OK
16.3.10.2.2 P- Effects (SDC 4.2)
For a shaft approximated as a guided-guided column, the P- effects can

typically be ignored if the following limit is satisfied (SDC 4.2).
(Pdl r /2)/(0.20 Mpshaft) 1.0
For this practice bridge, Pdl (= 76.430 kip) is the axial force in the shaft attributed
to tributary dead load with no overturning effect; Mpshaft (= 313.2 kip-ft) is the
idealized plastic moment capacity of the shaft corresponding to Pdl = 76.430 kip; and
r is the relative lateral offset (of the displacement demand) between the top and the
potential lower points of maximum moment: see Figure 16.3-1(b), given by:
(Pdl r/2)/(0.2 Mpshaft) = (76.430 0.2383/2)/(0.2313.2) = 0.145 < 1.0 OK
Therefore, the P- effects can be ignored.
16.3.10.2.3 Structural Shear Capacity of Ductile Shafts (SDC 3.6)
For the shaft-group foundation strip of this practice bridge, only two shafts need
to be checked for shear; namely, the (leading) row 1 shaft, which has the highest
compression force, and the row 4 shaft, which has the lowest tension force.
The shear capacity of a shaft, Vn, is based on the nominal material strengths
(fc = 3.6 ksi, fy = 60 ksi) and a strength reduction factor = 0.9, as follows:
Vn = Vc + Vs, (SDC 3.6.1-2)
where Vc and Vs are the nominal shear strengths provided by the concrete and the
shear-reinforcement, respectively. The concrete shear capacity of a member designed
for ductility is defined by:
Vc = vc Ae, (SDC 3.6.2-1)
where vc is the permissible shear stress carried by concrete, and Ae is the effective
shear area of the members cross-section, which can be expressed in terms of the
gross cross-sectional area, Ag (= (24)2/4= 452.39 in.2), of the shaft as follows:
Ae = 0.8 Ag = 0.8 452.39 in.2 = 361.91 in.2 (SDC 3.6.2-2)

For shafts whose net axial load is in tension, vc = 0 (SDC 3.6.2). For shafts whose
axial load is in compression, the value of vc at a section depends on the section
location:
Inside the plastic hinge zone:
vc Factor1 Factor 2 f c 4 f c (psi) (SDC 3.6.2-3)
Outside the plastic hinge zone:

vc 3 Factor 2 f c 4 f c (psi) (SDC 3.6.2-4)
Factor 1 = 0.3 s fyh (ksi) / 0.15 + 3.67 d 3 (SDC 3.6.2-5)
Factor 2 = 1 + P1 (lb.)/{2000 Ag (in.2)} < 1.5 (SDC 3.6.2-6)
where fyh (= 60 ksi) is the nominal yield stress of the shafts spiral reinforcement; P1
is the axial force in the row 1 shaft (=245900 lb.); and s is the ratio of the volume of
spiral reinforcement to the core volume confined by the spiral, which can be
expressed in terms of the area of the spiral reinforcement, Ab(#4) = 0.2 in.2, the cross-
sectional dimension of the confined concrete core measured between the centerline of
the peripheral spiral, D = 24 2 (3 + 0.25) = 17.5 in., and the pitch of the spiral
reinforcement, s = 6 in.
s = {4 Ab}/{D s} = {4 0.2}/{17.5 6} = 0.0076 (SDC 3.8.1-1)
Factor 1 = 0.3 { 60/0.15 + 3.671.66} = 5.05 > 3 Factor 1 = 3
Factor 2 = 1 + 245,900/{2000 452.39} = 1.272 < 1. Factor 2 = 1.272
Inside the plastic hinge zone:

vc = 3 1.272 3600 {43600 = 240 psi} vc = 228.96 psi
Outside the plastic hinge zone:

vc = 3 1.272 3600 {43600 = 240 psi} vc = 228.96 psi
In calculating Factor 1, the global displacement ductility demand, D, is used in
lieu of the local displacement ductility demand, d, since a significant portion of the
global displacement of the shaft is attributed to its local deformation (SDC 3.6.2).
The nominal shear strength provided by the concrete, Vc, is defined by:
Vc = vc Ae = 228.96 361.91 = 82,863 lb. = 82.863 kip
Vc = 0.90 82.863 = 74.577 kip
The shear reinforcement capacity of a confined circular section is defined by:
Vs = (Av fyh D / s), (SDC 3.6.3-1)
where Av = n /2 Ab is the area of shear reinforcement, and n (= 1) is the
number of individual interlocking spiral core-sections, and given by:

Av = 1 /2 0.2 = 0.314 in.2 {Av(min) = 0.025D s/fyh = 0.044 in.2}

(SDC 3.6.3-2 & 3.6.5.2-1)
Vs = 0.314 60 17.5/6 = 54.95 kip {Vs(max) = 8 fc Ae = 173.717 kip}
(SDC 3.6.5.1-1)
Vs = 0.90 54.950 = 49.455 kip
For the row 1 shaft (highest compression shaft), the shear demand is V1 = 53.62 kip
Vn = Vc + Vs = 74.577 kip + 49.455 kip = 124.032 kip
Vn /V1 = 124.032/53.62 = 2.31 1 OK
For the row 4 shaft (lowest tension shaft), the shear demand is V4=36.18 kip
Vn = Vc + Vs = 0 kip + 49.455 kip = 49.455 kip
Vn /V4 = 49.455/36.18 = 1.37 1 OK
Verifications of the performance and strength criteria of the shaft group based
upon the parameters obtained from CSiBridge and LPILE are performed similar to
the verifications performed using the parameters obtained from the w-FRAME
program. A summary of the verifications performed using the three design tools is
presented in Table 16.3-3.
Table 16.3-3 Summary of the Performance and Strength Criteria Verifications

Performed Using the w-FRAME, the CSiBridge, and the LPILE Programs
Allowable
w-FRAME CSiBridge LPILE
Limits
I. (D = D /Y ) 1.66 1.77 2.10 2.5

Performance
(c1 = c1/y1shaft )
Criteria
5.09 4.78 4.69

II. 3.0
(c2 = c2/y2shaft ) 6.93 6.48 6.42
III. (C /D) 1.55 1.39 1.27 1.0
I. (VY /5)/(PP /5) 0.468 0.471 0.472 0.1

Strength Criteria
II. (Pdl r /2)/(0.2 Mpshaft) 0.145 0.160 0.171 1.0
(Vn /V1) 2.31 2.27 2.27

III. 1.0
(Vn /V4) 1.37 1.36 1.25

16.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LARGE DIAMETER

COLUMN-SHAFTS
16.4.1 Introduction
The design process of large diameter column-shafts (shafts) includes several

steps. Some of the steps highly depend on the characteristics of the surrounding
soil. The lateral response of the shaft is governed by the soil close to the ground
surface, and soil-foundation-structure interaction (SFSI) analysis is required.
However, the axial resistance of the shaft is controlled by the quality and the depth of
the deeper soil layers. Shaft embedded in competent soil is capable of resisting
ground shaking forces while experiencing small deformations, but for shaft
embedded in soft or liquefiable soil, the majority of the soil resistance is lost, which
results in large deformations and moment demands in the shaft.
The analysis and design of the large diameter shafts (Types I and II) based on the
6th Edition of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (BDS) together with
California Amendments, and Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) Version 1.7
will be illustrated through an example.
16.4.2 Design Practice
Column-shafts with two different types of geometry (Types I and II) are commonly
used in Caltrans projects. Bridge foundations are designed to remain essentially elastic
when resisting the columns overstrength moment, the associated overstrength shear,
and the axial force at the base of the column (Caltrans, 2010). However, prismatic
Type I column-shafts are designed to form the plastic hinge below the ground in the
shaft and, therefore, are designed as ductile components.
The concrete cover and area of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement in Type
I column-shafts may change from column to the shaft. However, the cross section of
the confined core is the same for both the column and the shaft.
Type II column-shafts are designed with enlarged shaft so that the plastic hinge
will form at or above the shaft/column interface, thereby containing the majority of
inelastic action to the ductile column element. The diameter of the shaft is at least 24
in. larger than the diameter of the column, and therefore, two separate cages are used
for the column and the shaft. The column cage is embedded in the shaft to allow the
transfer of forces from column to the shaft. Refer to SDC for embedment length
requirements. Use of a construction joint at the base of the column allows concrete of
the lapped portion to be cast under dry conditions, therefore eliminating need of
inspection in that area. However, a construction joint is not used for shafts smaller
than 5 ft.
Type II shafts are designed to remain elastic, D 1 and the global displacement
ductility demand, D for the shaft must be less than or equal to the D for the column

supported by the shaft. See SDC Section 7.7.3.2 for design requirements for Type II
column-shafts.
Type I column-shafts are appropriate for short columns, while a Type II column-
shaft is commonly used in conjunction with taller columns. The use of Type II shafts
will increase the foundation costs, compared to Type I shafts. However, there is an
advantage of improved post earthquake inspection and repair. For short columns,
designers have used isolation casing in Type-II column-shafts to increase ductility
capacity and to reduce shear demand in the shaft.
CISS piles are pipe piles driven to the desired tip, followed by removal of the soil
within the steel shell. The interior surface is cleaned to remove any soil or mud.
Then, the rebar cage is placed, and concrete is cast inside of the steel shell. CISS
piles provide excellent structural resistance against lateral loads and are a good
option if any of the following conditions exist: poor soil, soft bay mud or loose sands,
liquefaction, scour, and lateral spreading. To improve composite action, a shear
transfer mechanism such as studs or shear rings can be welded to the steel shell
interior face of large diameter piles. For a more in-depth discussion about the shear
rings or welded studs, please refer to Caltrans Research Project Report (Gebman and
Restrepo, 2006).
Following is a summary of current Caltrans policy on the use of shear rings in
CISS piles and drilled shafts with permanent casing:
Shear rings are not required for pile group foundations.
Shear rings are not required on corrugated metal pipe casings.
Shear rings are not required for piles 3 ft in diameter.
For Type I and II shafts less than 5 ft but greater than 3 ft in diameter
use one ring as shown in Figure 16.4-1a.
For Type I and II shafts 5 ft or larger in diameter, use two rings as
shown in Figure 16.4-1b.
The spacing and size of the shear rings is shown in Table 16.4-1.

Figure 16.4-1 Single and Double Shear Ring Details

Table 16.4-1 Shear Ring Table
Shear Ring Options

Pile Diameter Fillet Weld*
Reinforcing Bar Size Bar Stock Size
< 6 ft #4 1/2 in x 1/2 in 3/8 in.
6 ft to 10 ft #6 5/8 in. x 5/8 in. 1/2 in.
> 10 ft #8 1 in. x 1 in. 5/8 in.
16.4.3 Lateral Stability Check of Type I and II Shafts
The column-shaft is considered stable when substantial decrease in pile shaft

length does not result in appreciable increase in deflection. Lateral stability analysis
may be performed by gradually lowering the tip elevation and calculating
corresponding deflection as shown in Figure16.4-2. The length (of the pile) at which
lowering the tip elevation does not change deflection appreciably (say less than 5%)
is called critical length of the shaft. The following guidance on lateral tip elevation
calculations is applicable to both CIDH and CISS piles:
For column-shafts (types I and II) in multi-column bents, lateral stability
analysis must be performed to determine the critical length of the shaft.
A factor of safety of 1.0 must be applied to determine the lateral tip
elevation. If applicable, the combined effects of liquefaction and scour
are to be considered in analysis.
For column-shafts (types I and II) without rock sockets in single-column
bents, lateral stability analysis is performed to determine the critical
length of the shaft. A factor of safety of 1.2 must be applied to determine
the lateral tip elevation. If applicable, the combined effects of
liquefaction and scour are to be considered in analysis.
For column-shafts (types I and II) with rock sockets in single-column
bents, lateral stability analysis is performed to determine the critical
length of the shaft. A factor of safety of 1.2 must be applied to the rock
socket portion of the shaft in determining the lateral tip elevation. If
applicable, the combined effects of liquefaction and scour are to be
considered in analysis.

Critical Column Shaft Length (LP)
Push-over analysis
LC
Dtop (in.)
LP
Critical Pile Length = 80 ft.
LP (ft)
Figure 16.4-2 Lateral Stability Analysis of Column-Shafts
16.4.4 Reinforcement Spacing Requirements of Column-Shafts
16.4.4.1 Minimum Reinforcement Spacing in Column-Shafts
Construction of column-shafts does not require compaction or vibration of

concrete except for the top 15 ft of a dry pour because the concrete slump is at least 7
in. Dry pour is defined when the drilled hole is dry or dewatered without the use of
temporary casing to control water. Therefore, flow of concrete significantly affects
integrity of the shaft and its resistance to applied loads. A clear window of 5 in. x 5
in. has been required for shaft reinforcement to minimize possibility of any
anomalies. When the drilled hole cannot be dewatered and the concrete is poured in
the wet using the slurry-displacement method of construction, inspection of the shaft
is required. Clear spacing at inspection pipe locations may be reduced from 5 in. to 3
in. between the inspection pipe and adjacent longitudinal rebar or 8.5 in. between
longitudinal rebars adjacent to inspection pipes as shown in Memo to Designers 3-1.
For more details, see Table 16.4-10. Furthermore, if the spacing between the shaft
and column reinforcing cages does not meet the minimum spacing requirement, the
engineer must either increase the size of the shaft or require a mandatory construction
joint (for wet pour).
16.4.4.2 Maximum Reinforcement Spacing in Column-Shafts
The main concern in detailing a shaft is how to accommodate the minimum 8.5
in. longitudinal reinforcing steel clear spacing at inspection pipe locations as required

by MTD 3-1. The 8 in. maximum center-to-center spacing of longitudinal reinforcing

steel has been revised by California Amendments (10.8.1.3) to 12 in. for shafts with
diameters equal to and larger than 5 ft, and 10 in. for shafts with diameters smaller
than 5 ft.
The rationale for the required spacings is based on a recent study at University of
California-San Diego. Preliminary findings show that use of the proposed spacing
given above will not affect the confinement effectiveness of the transverse steel.
Furthermore:
Number 14 bars are generally the largest bars used for longitudinal steel
in column-shafts of 5 ft diameter or larger. The 12 in. spacing was
derived by assuming #14s bundled with 8.5 in. clear space at the
inspection pipe locations as shown in Figure 16.4-3.
Partial Plan View
Figure 16.4-3 Typical Rebar Spacing in Shafts (Equal and Larger than 5 ft )
Number 11 bars are generally the largest bars used for longitudinal steel
in column-shafts less than 5 ft diameter. The 10 in. spacing was derived
by assuming single #11s with 8.5 in. clear space at the inspection pipe as
Partial Plan View
Figure 16.4-4 Typical Rebar Spacing in Shafts (Smaller than 5 ft )

16.4.4.3 Cage Offset Requirements for Type-II Shaft
Construction Specifications require a permanent steel casing to be placed in the

area where the column and shaft cages of a Type-II column-shaft overlap and when a
construction joint is required. This means the pour in that segment is in the dry
condition and can be vibrated. The spacing of the column reinforcement in this area
can follow the standard requirements for column steel reinforcement. In a Type-II
column-shaft, the allowable offset between centerlines of the column and shaft
reinforcement cages is limited by the required horizontal clearance between the two
cages. In this case, the clear distance between the two cages must be at least 3.5 in. if
a construction joint is used and 5 in. without a construction joint. Furthermore, the
offset between centerlines of the shaft cage and the drilled hole (horizontal tolerance
at cut-off point) must be limited to provide minimum concrete cover of 3 in. to the
shaft outermost reinforcement at all locations. Figure 16.4-5 shows cage offset
requirements for Type II Shafts:
Figure 16.4-5 Cage Offset Requirements for Type II Shaft

16.4.4.4 Rock Socket Design Criteria
When CIDH piles tipped in rock are analyzed for lateral loads, the p-y method
reports shear demand forces that exceed the seismic overstrength shear, Vo calculated
demand in the column. The abrupt change to high-stiffness p-y springs may amplify
shear force to more than 5Vo within the rock socket.
In current Caltrans practice, the designer must enlarge or reinforce the pile to
resist the amplified shear force. However, there is ongoing debate over whether the
design force is "real" and whether the discretization of distributed soil reaction to
nodal springs is appropriate at the rock interface. Designing for the amplified shear
force would increase rebar congestion for an uncertain benefit.
The Caltrans policy imposes an upper limit on the design shear force,
recognizing the general problems of the discretization of distributed soil reaction to
nodal springs application in rock. The design shear force demand in CIDH shafts and
rock sockets need not be taken more than two and half times the seismic overstrength
shear force of the column: Vu 2.5Vo
The in-ground amplification of shear forces in rock sockets deserves special
consideration. Shear demand values from analysis can be misleading, as the discrete
spring is not capable of handling a sudden transition to hard rock.
16.4.4.5 Minimum Lateral Reinforcement in Column-Shafts
If Vu < Vc the minimum lateral reinforcement of the shaft must be # 5

hoops at 12 in. center-to-center spacing.
If Vu Vc the minimum lateral reinforcement of the shaft must be the

larger of Av 0.0316 (f'c)0.5(bv)s/fy (AASHTO 5.8.2.5), and # 5 hoops at
12 in. center-to-center spacing.
Radial bundling of longitudinal reinforcement is not allowed due to fabrication

challenges.
16.4.5 Design Process
The design process of large diameter column-shafts is presented by the flow chart
on the following page.

CSiBridge
CSiBridge
Figure 16.4-6 Typical Design Process for Type II Column-Shaft

16.4.6 Design Example
Design process for a Type II shaft foundation is illustrated through the following
example. A fixed column-to-shaft connection has been assumed in this example.
However, a pin column-to-shaft connection will reduce forces/moments transferred
to the foundations.
Given:
The following example is a two span post-tensioned concrete box girder bridge with
a 2-column bent. The superstructure is a post-tensioned concrete box girder and is
supported by 2 Type-II shafts as shown in Figure16.4-7. The soil profile of the bent
consists of loose to very loose sand with gravel for the top 34 ft, underlain by very
dense sand (friable sandstone) to about 55 ft below ground. Bedrock consisting of
very hard sandstone/siltstone was encountered below that depth and changed to fresh
and hard, with Rock Quality Designation (RQD) of 60% up to 100% at lower depths.
Ground water has been encountered near the surface of the streambed. There is a
moderate to high potential for liquefaction. Scour potential is high with local scour at
the supports estimated from top of streambed or pile cutoff with 15 ft of degradation
and contraction.
Figure 16.4-7 Transverse Elevation of Example Bridge

3.00
2.50
Spectral Acceleration (g)

2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Period (seconds)
Figure 16.4-8 Recommended Seismic Design Criteria Curve Equivalent to

Vs30 = 270 m/s with PBA 0.6g
As shown in Figure 16.4-10, section A-A, the columns are 5.5 ft in diameter.
The shafts are 97 inches in diameter with 60 #14 bundled reinforcing bars and #8
confining hoops at 7.5 in. and double #8 hoops at 7.0 in. spacing along the shaft and
the rock socket, respectively. The concrete cover to shaft reinforcement outside and
inside the rock socket region is 9 in. and 5 in., respectively (Figure 16.4-10, sections
B-B, C-C, and D-D).

Figure 16.4-9 Column-Shaft Reinforcement Details (not to scale)


Figure 16.4-10 Typical Shaft and Column Section Details
Note: CIDH Concrete Piling (Rock Socket Section D-D) shown in this example is
between the standard diameters of 7ft and 7.5 ft as stated in MTD 3-1 (Caltrans
2013). Contractor can use a special auger to handle a case like this. It is highly
recommended to have the rock socket as a standard diameter per MTD 3-1.

Material properties are as follows:
Concrete: f c = 4 ksi; f ce = 5 ksi
Reinforcement: fy = 60 ksi; fye= 68 ksi

Unfactored live loads at the base of the Column are listed in Table 16.4-2
Plastic moment and shear at the base of the column are calculated as
Mp=12,309 k-ft, and Vp = 821 kips
Un-factored dead load and seismic forces at the base of the column are
listed in Table 16.4-3
The nominal geotechnical resistance of the shaft in compression is 5,310
kips
The nominal geotechnical resistance of the shaft in tension is 2,655 kips
Note: Concrete Strength of f c = 4 ksi was chosen in this example for a stronger
concrete shear capacity and it is not far off from the default value of f c = 3.6 ksi.
Table 16.4-2 Un-factored Live Load Forces at Column Base

Design Truck Permit Truck
MT (kip-ft) -189.2 -70.77 -109.7 -296.02 -28.21 -36.89
ML (kip-ft) 59.25 752.94 123.57 98.91 1,239.31 199.08
P (kip) 295.13 397.07 615.51 458.23 705.35 922.37
VT (kip) -13.76 4.74 -5.2 -21.53 -2.57 2.4
VL (kip) 1.39 17.18 2.9 2.31 128.26 4.65
Note:
Table 16.4-3 Un-factored Dead Load and Seismic Forces Applied

at the Column Base
Un-factored, without MT ML P VT VL
impact Loads (k-ft) (k-ft) (kips) (kips) (kips)
DC 86.88 305.65 1,793.75 6.31 -19.8
DW 10.32 35.5 163.65 0.75 -2.30
PS -193.6 -195.6 37.1 4.45 12.30
Seismic-I Transverse 14,771 1,926 985
Seismic-II
Longitudinal 14,771 1,926 985

Note: The maximum axial force of the column (DC + DW) without considering the
overturning effect of seismic forces is 1,926 kips (SAP 2000 transverse analysis), and
the plastic moment of the column under such load is 12,309 kip-ft. The
corresponding overstrength moment and associated shear force are calculated as Mocol
= 1.2Mpcol = 14,771 k-ft, and Vocol = 985 kips assuming that Lc = 30 ft. However, in
practice, the magnitudes of overstrength moment and associated shear depend on the
applied axial force.
Requirements:
Calculate LRFD factored loads for service, strength, and extreme event-I
(seismic) limit states applicable to the shaft design.
Check geotechnical capacity, assuming nominal geotechnical resistance
of 5,310 kips in compression and 2,655 kips in tension.
Check development length for column reinforcement extended into
(Type-II) shaft (SDC 8.2.4).
Check shaft structural resistance for non-seismic loads.
Design shaft flexural reinforcement (non-seismic effects).
Design shaft for shear reinforcement (non-seismic effects).
Check shaft for seismic effects.
16.4.6.1 LRFD Factored Loads for Service, Strength, and Extreme Event Limit States
Considering effects of live load movements in the longitudinal and transverse

directions, the following three live load cases are commonly considered in design:
Analysis results for other applicable un-factored loads acting on the shaft are
given in Table 16.4-3, together with forces and moments resulting from seismic
analysis in transverse and longitudinal directions.
The LRFD load combinations used in foundation design and corresponding load
factors (AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1) are summarized in Table 16.4-4. The upper and
lower limits of permanent load factors (p) are shown as U and L, respectively.

Table 16.4-4 LRFD Load Factors

DC DW PS EV HL-93 P-15 Seismic
Strength I-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 1.75 0 0
Strength I-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 1.75 0 0
Strength II-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 0 1.35 0
0.9
Strength II-L 0.9 0.65 1 0 1.35 0
Strength III-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 0 0 0
Strength III-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 0 0 0
Strength V-U 1.25 1.5 1 1.35 1.35 0 0
Strength V-L 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 1.35 0 0
Service I 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
Extreme Event I 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
The PS load factor of 1, as shown in Table 16.4-4, is recommended when a

columns cracked moment of inertia is used in analysis. However, for load cases
other than extreme event-I, a load factor of 0.5 may be used. See AASHTO LRFD
Table 3.4.1-3.
In order to determine loads at the bottom of the shaft, the column diameter and
length are needed. For this example, the column diameter is 5.5 ft with a length of 30
ft. The overall un-factored DC for column weight = 30 ft (5.5)2/4 0.15 kip/ft3
= 106.92 kips.
The LRFD load factors are applied to axial force and moments in longitudinal
and transverse directions to calculate factored loads for strength, service, and extreme
event limit states, as summarized in Tables 16.4-5, 16.4-6, and 16.4-7. Loading
shown in those tables are for live load cases I, II, and III.
Table 16.4-5 Case III: Maximum Axial Force P and Associated Effects
MT ML P
Factored Loads
(k-ft) (k-ft) (kip)
Strength I-U -261 456 3,602
Strength I-L -301 319 2,835
Strength II-U -119 508 3,770
Strength II-L -159 371 3,003
Strength III-U -70 240 2,525
Strength III-L -109 103 1,758
Strength V-U -218 407 3,356
Strength V-L -257 269 2,589
Service I -206 269 2,610
Extreme Event I, Seismic I 14,771 3,921
Extreme Event I, Seismic II 14,771 3,921

The following are a few example calculations for the factored loads shown in
Table 16.4-5:
Axial force for Strength II-U limit state: P = 1.25(1793.75) + 1.5(163.65) +
1(37.1) + 1.35(922.37) = 3,770 kips
Longitudinal moment for Strength II-L limit state: ML = 0.9(305.65) + 0.65(35.5)
+ 1(-195.6) + 1.35(199.08) = 371 k-ft
Transverse moment for Strength II-L limit state: MT = 0.9(86.88) + 0.65(10.32) +
1(-193.6) + 1.35(-36.89) = -159 k-ft
Gross axial force for Service I limit state: P = 1(1793.75) + 1(163.65) + 1(37.10)
+ 1(615.51) = 2,610 kips
However, the net Service I loads need to be reported to Geotechnical Services for
settlement calculations. For a large diameter shaft without any pile cap, the difference
between Pnet and Pgross is small. Therefore: Pnet = Pgross = 2,610 kips
Similarly, the net permanent loads are to be calculated and reported to
Geotechnical Services.
P = 1(1793.75) + 1(163.65) + 1(37.10) = 1,995 kips
Table 16.4-6 Case I: Maximum Transverse Moment and Associated Effects
MT ML P
Factored loads (k-ft) (k-ft) (kip)
Strength I-U -401 343 3,041
Strength I-L -440 206 2,274
Strength II-U -469 373 3,143
Strength II-L -508 236 2,270
Strength V-U -325 320 2,923
Strength V-L -364 183 2,156
Service I -286 205 2,290
Extreme Event I, Seismic I 14,771 3,921
Extreme Event I, Seismic II 14,771 3,921

Table 16.4-7 Case II: Maximum Longitudinal Moment and Associated Effects
MT ML P
Factored Loads (k-ft) (k-ft) (kips)
Strength I-U -193 1,557 3,220
Strength I-L -233 1,420 2,453
Strength II-U -108 1,913 3,477
Strength II-L -147 1,776 2,710
Strength V-U -165 1,256 3,061
Strength V-L -204 1,119 2,294
Service I -167 898 2,392
Extreme Event I, Seismic (Case I) 14,771 3,921
Extreme Event I, Seismic (Case II) 14,771 3,921
16.4.6.2 Shaft Geotechnical Capacity Check
Strength and Service loads for Case II shown in Table 16.4.7 are the controlling
load cases for shaft design in this example.
The CA Amendment articles 10.5.5.2.4 and 10.5.5.3.3 specify resistance
reduction factors () for strength and extreme event limit states as 0.7 and 1.0,
respectively. Compare factored loads on piles/shafts to factored resistance for
Strength II-U limit state:
Compression: 3,477 kips compression < (0.7) 5,310 (Nominal) = 3,717 kips
OK
The tension demand in this example is zero, and the tension factored resistance is
(0.7) x 2,655 (Nominal) = 1,859 kips
Therefore, it is acceptable.
Compare factored loads on piles/shafts to factored resistance for Extreme Event
limit State:
Compression: 3,921 kips (compression) < (1) 5,310 (Nominal) = 5,310 kips
OK
The tension demand in this example is zero, and the tension factored resistance is
(1) x 2,655 (Nominal) = 2,655 kips
Therefore, it is acceptable.

16.4.6.3 Check Development Length for Column Reinforcement into Type-II Shaft
AASHTO Eq. 5.11.2.2: Development of Deformed Shaft Bars in Compression:

Eq. 5.11.2.2.1-1: ldb 0.63(1.88)(60)/(4)0.5 = 35.53 x 1.2 = 42.64 in.
(AASHTO 5.11.2.3)
Eq. 5.11.2.2.1-2: ldb 0.3(1.88)(60) = 33.84 x 1.2 = 40.61 in.
(AASHTO 5.11.2.3)
AASHTO 5.11.2.2.2 states that the basic development length may be multiplied
by applicable modification factors.
AASHTO 5.11.2.2.2: Reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral of not less than
0.25 in. in diameter and not more than a 4 in. pitch, modification factor = 0.75. (This
reduction does not apply because we have the pile shaft hoops at 7.5 in.).
Development length of the bars in compression is 42.64 in.
Column longitudinal reinforcement shall be extended into Type II (enlarged)
shafts in a staggered manner with the minimum recommended embedment lengths of
(Dc,max + Ld) and (Dc,max + 2 Ld), where Dc,max is the larger cross-section dimension of
the column, and Ld is the development length in tension of the column longitudinal
bars. This practice ensures adequate anchorage in case the plastic hinge damage
penetrates into the shaft (SDC 8.2.4).
AASHTO 5.11.2.1: ldb = 1.25(1.56)(68)/(5)0.5 = 59.3 in.
not less than ldb = 0.4(1.63)(68) = 44.33 in.
Development length = ldb= 0.6 59.3 = 35.58 in.
Development length = (Dc,max + Ld) = 66 + 35.58 = 101.58 in.
Development length = (Dc,max + 2 x Ld) = 66 + 2 35.58 = 137.16 in.
Development provided is 20 ft = 240 in. > 137.16 in. OK
16.4.6.4 Check Shaft Structural Resistance:
Check axial force for strength limit state loads:
Shaft Tension Capacity = Pn = (Ast fy); (AASHTO 5.7.6.1)

= 0.9 (60 2.25) (60) = 7,290 kips OK
Note: Tension in shaft for Strength limit state is negligible. Therefore, shaft is
acceptable in tension.
Shaft Compression Capacity = Pn = 0.75{0.85[0.85 fc (Ag Ast) + fyAst ]};
(AASHTO 5.7.4.4)

Pn = 0.75{0.85[0.85 4(7238.3 135) + 60(135)]} = 20,560 kips > 3,770 kips

OK
Check axial force for Seismic Extreme Event Loading:
= 1 for seismic resistance factors (CA Amendment article 5.5.5).
= 0.9 shear resistance factor (SDC 1.7 and 3.6.7) for shear during seismic and
other extreme events.
Shaft Tension Capacity:
Pn = 1 (60 2.25) (60) = 8,100 kips > 0 kips OK
Shaft Compression Capacity:
Pn = 1{0.85[0.85 4(7,238.3 135) + 60(135)]} = 27,414 kips > 3,921 kips
OK
Note: In this example, the factored axial resistance is significantly higher than
factored loads. Therefore, the interaction of axial force and bending moment is not
checked. However, in general such interaction needs to be considered in design.
Shafts are also to be checked for maximum shear for service and strength limit states.
Assuming, the maximum shear will occur at the top of the shaft, the maximum
factored strength II limit state shear force is as follows:
Strength II: Vu = 1.35(128.262 + 2.572)0.5 = 173.2 kips
The shear capacity of a reinforced concrete pile/shaft can be calculated as
follows:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp 0.25 fc bv dv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3)
Vc = 0.0316(fc) (bv)(dv)
0.5
Vs = [Av (fy)(dv) (cot + cot ) sin ]/ s

Vp = 0 (no pre-stressing in pile/shaft)
bv = D = 96 in. (AASHTO 5.8.3.1)
dv = 0.9 de = 0.9 (70.91) = 63.82 in. (AASHTO 5.8.2.9)
Dr = D 2 (clr + hoop ddb + long ddb/2) = 96 2(9 + 1.13 + 1.88) = 71.98 in.
de = D/2 + Dr/ = 96/2 + 71.98/ = 70.91 in. (AASHTO C5.8.2.9-2)
= 90
Av = 0.79 in.2, S = 7.5 in. down to the bottom of casing then Av = 1.58 in.2 S = 7
in., at rock socket section
Check for minimum transverse reinforcement:
Av 0.0316 (fc)0.5(bv)s/fy = 0.0316(4)0.5(96)(7.5)/60 = 0.76 in.2 OK
(AASHTO 5.8.2.5)

Determine shear capacity for Strength II:

= 2, = 45, = 90 (For Strength II piles in compression, the simplified
method, AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1, may be used.)
Vc = 0.0316(2)(4)0.5 (96)(63.82) = 774.42 kips
Vs = 0.79(60)(63.82)[(cot(45)+cot(90)) sin(90)]/7.5 = 403.34 kips
Vn = 774.42 + 403.34 = 1,177.76 kips < 0.25(4)(96)(63.82) = 6,126.72 kips OK
Vr = Vn = 0.9(1,177.76) = 1,060 kips > 550 kips (See Figure 16.4-11) OK
Note: AASHTO Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4 or B5.2 may have been used instead of the simplified
method to calculate a higher shear resistance, as follows:
x = [(|Mu|/dv) + 0.5Nu + 0.5|Vu Vp|cot() Aps fpo]/[2(Es As + Ep Aps)]
(AASHTO B5.2-1)
Nu = 0 kips (no tensile load)
Mu = 1916 kip-ft (moment demand assumed at top of pile/shaft)
Vu = 173 kips (shear demand assumed at top of pile/shaft)
Aps = 0 (no pre-stressing steel in pile/shaft)
x = [(|Mu|/dv) + 0.5Nu + 0.5|Vu Vp|cot() Apsfpo]/[2(Es As + Ep Aps)]
(AASHTO B5.2-1)
x = [(1916 12/63.82) + 0.5|173|cot (45)]/[2(29,000)(60 2.25)] = 0.000057
vu = |Vu Vp |/(bvdv) = |173|/[(0.9)(96)(63.82)] = 0.0313 (AASHTO 5.8.2.9)
vu/fc = 0.0313/4 = 0.0078
= 3.24, = 24.3, (AASHTO Table B5.2-1)
Using = 24.3, resolving for x = 0.000057; = 3.24
Vc = 0.0316 (3.24)(4)0.5(96)(63.82) = 1,254.55 kips
Vs = 0.79(60)(63.82)[(cot(24.3) + cot(90))sin(90)]/7.5 = 893.30 kips
Vn = 1,254.55 + 893.30 = 2,147.85 kips < 0.25(4)(96)(63.82) = 6,126.72 kips OK
Vr = Vn = 0.9 (2,147.85 kips) = 1,933.07 kips > 550 kips OK

Figure 16.4-11 Shear Diagram at Strength State for Single Shaft

Determine the shear capacity with 0.5 in. casing using the following (AASHTO
5.8.3.4.1) simplified method:
Determine shear capacity for Strength II:
= 2, = 45, = 90 (for Strength II piles in compression, the simplified

method, AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1, may be used.)
Vc = 0.0316(2)(4)0.5(96)(63.82) = 774.42 kips

Vs = 0.79(60)(63.82)[(cot(45) + cot(90)) sin(90)]/7.5 = 403.34 kips
Vnp = 0.5Fcr Ag with Fcr = 0.78Es/(D/t)3/2 0.58 Fy (AASHTO 6.12.1.2.3c)
Fcr = 0.78Es/(D/t)3/2 = 0.78 29000/(97/0.5)3/2 = 8.37 ksi < 0.58 45 = 26.1 ksi
Vnp = 0.5Fcr Ag Nominal shear resistance (pipe or casing)
Vnp = 0.5 8.37 97 0.5 = 637.65 kips
Vn = 774.42 + 637.65 + 403.34 = 1,815.41 kips < 6,126.72 kips OK
Vr = Vn = 0.9 (1,815.41 kips) = 1,633.87 kips > 550 kips
(See figure 16.4-11) OK
If the pile shear demand exceeds the capacity, a more refined analysis may be
performed accounting for the passive resistance of the soil against the pile. Maximum
moments acting on the shaft at the bottom of the column for extreme event I, strength
and service are shown in Tables 16.4-5, 16.4-6 and 16.4-7 as:
MT ML M T2 M L2
LRFD Limit State (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
Strength Limit: Strength II Case II -108 1,913 1,916
Strength Limit: Strength II Case I -508 236 560
Extreme Event I Limit State: Seismic I/II 14,771 14,771 20,889
Service Limit State Case II -167 898 913
Service Limit State Case I -286 205 352
The maximum shaft bending moment demand for non-seismic loading (6,500
kip-ft) is extracted from Figure 16.4-12. The maximum shaft bending moment
capacity for non-seismic loading is determined using the Xsection program (Caltrans,
2006):
Mr = Mne@0.003 = (0.9)26,928 = 24,235.2 k-ft > 6,500 k-ft OK
(AASHTO 5.5.4.2)

Figure 16.4-12 Moment Diagram at Strength State for Single Shaft

Communications of Structural Designer with Geotechnical Services (Refer to

MTD 3-1 and MTD 1-35)
The following table will be sent from Structure Design to Geotechnical Services:
Table 16.4-8 Foundation Design Loads
Foundation Design Loads

Strength Limit State Extreme Event Limit State
Service-I Limit State (kips) (Controlling Group, kips) (Controlling Group, kips)
Permanent
Total Load Loads
Compression Tension Compression Tension
Max. Max. Max.
Support Per Max. Per Per Per Max. Per Per Per Per
No. Support Per Pile Per Support Support Pile Support Per Pile Support Pile Support Pile
Bent 2 2,610 2,610 1,995 3,770 3,770 0 0 3,921 3,921 0 0
Notes:
Support loads shown are per column
Service I loads are reported as net loads
Strength and Extreme Event loads are reported as gross loads
Load tables may be modified to submit multiple lines of critical load combinations for each limit state, if
necessary
16.4.6.5 Shaft Seismic Analysis and Design Procedures
16.4.6.5.1 Design Approach

The design of CIDH with permanent steel casing would be analyzed and
designed similarly to a CISS.
16.4.6.5.2 Preliminary Substructure/Foundation Design
Based on the geotechnical and hydraulics engineer requirements, the typical bent
was designed as follows. The clear column height is 30 ft supported by an 8 ft
diameter CIDH with 0.5 in. thick permanent casing for the top 34 ft with a 66 ft rock
socket at diameter of 7 ft - 4 in. The selected pile system serves well in a 2-column
bent arrangement to overcome the potential channel bed scour and soil liquefaction.
16.4.6.5.3 Preliminary Demand Assessment
It is a common practice to design bridges for service and strength limits states
and then refines the bridge system for seismic design requirements. Furthermore, the
seismic design is a non-linear process and the bridge design may have to be iterated
several times to reach a desirable solution. Finally, the designer may have to take the

seismic changes to the bridge back to the service load design and go through the
entire design procedure until service, strength, and seismic requirements are all met.
The engineers experience and judgment is a key factor in the amount of time
required to perform these tasks.
One possible method in the seismic design is the creation of a linear elastic
model of the structure and performing of a modal dynamic analysis to obtain an
estimate of the displacement demands. An alternative method, as used in this chapter,
is to use the initial slope of the force-deflection curve from the push analyses of bents
and frames and estimate the displacement demands from such analyses (SDC 5.2.1).
Details of the displacement demand computation will be shown later.
16.4.6.5.4 Material Properties
The material properties used in the seismic analysis are as follows:

Concrete strength, f ce = 5000 psi
Concrete specific weight for calculation of modulus of elasticity = 145

lb./ft3
Other concrete properties are based on SDC sections 3.2.5 and 3.2.6.
Reinforcement (A706 steel) properties are based on SDC sections 3.2.2
and 3.2.3.
16.4.6.5.5 Soil Springs for CIDH Piles with Permanent Steel Casing
The shaft is embedded in two soil layers. The topsoil layer with depth of 34 ft is
sand with gravel and the bottom soil layer is sandstone rock material. The p-y and t-z
curves reflect these characteristics.
The p-y curves are used in the lateral modeling of soil as they interact with the
large diameter shafts. The geotechnical engineer generally produces these curves and
the values are converted to proper soil springs within the push analysis. The spacing
of the nodes selected on the pile members would naturally change the values of
spring stiffness. However, a minimum of 10 elements per pile is advised
(recommended optimum is 20 elements or 2 ft to 5 ft pile segments).
The t-z curves are used in the modeling of skin friction along the length of piles.
Vertical springs are attached to the nodes to support the dead load of the bridge
system and to resist overturning effects caused by lateral bridge movement. The
bearing resistance at the tip of the pile is usually modeled as a q-z spring. This spring
may be idealized as a bilinear spring placed in the boundary condition section of the
push analysis input file.

Figures 16-4.13 and 16-4.14 show Idealized Soil Springs for the right (RC) and left
(LC) columns, respectively:
Idealized Soil P-Y Curve RC

200
P (kip/ft.) 150 Depth 0 to 6 ft.
Depth 6 to 10 ft.
100 Depth 10 to 15 ft.
Depth 15 to 22 ft.
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
y (ft.)

1000
P (kip/ft.)
Depth 34 to 40 ft.
600
Depth 40 to 46 ft.
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
y (ft.)

2500
2000 Depth 60 to 67 ft.
P (kip/ft.)
1500 Depth 67 to 74 ft.

Depth 74 to 81 ft.
1000
Depth 81 to 88 ft.
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
y (ft.)
Figure 16.4-13 Idealized Soil Springs for Right Column

Idealized Soil P-Y Curve LC

200
150
P (kip/ft.)
Depth 4 to 10 ft.
50 Depth 10 tp 16 ft.
Depth 16 to 23 ft.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
y (ft.)

300
P (kip/ft.)
200
Depth 33 to 38 ft.
Depth 44 to 50 ft.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
y (ft.)

1000
P (kip/ft.)

Depth 50 to 56 ft.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
y (ft.)

2000
P (kip/ft.)
1000 Depth 65 to 71 ft.

Depth 71 to 77 ft.
Depth 83 to 91 ft.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
y (ft.)
Figure 16.4-14 Idealized Soil Springs for Left Column

16.4.6.6 Ductility and Transverse Push-Over Analysis and Design
16.4.6.6.1 Displacement capacity versus demand (C>D)
CIDH Piles with permanent steel casing, column-shaft design: The concept of
placing a reinforced concrete flexural element within a pipe/casing element is used in
this example. The pipe/casing is installed to the desired tip elevation and cleaned out,
leaving a soil plug or a rock socket in place at the tip of the pile. The column-shaft
rebar cage is then placed within the pipe, followed by the concrete pour.
The pipe/casing and the reinforced concrete element are considered two parallel
elements where strength or stiffness of elements can be added. Since composite
action is not guaranteed, it is conservative to use the non-composite properties of the
system.
The pipe/casing piles are ASTM A252, Grade 3 as required by Caltrans
Standard Specifications section 49-2.02B(3) 2010 with a minimum yield strength of
45 ksi. The yield moment of the pipe/casing is estimated based on the yield stress of
45 ksi and then is increased by 25% to represent the plastic moment of the
pipe/casing. The compression portion of the pipe/casing is continuously supported
against buckling.
The elongation required for ASTM A252, for Grade 3 pipe/casing material is
estimated at 12% and a factor of safety of 2 is used, based on engineering judgment,
to represent the minimum strain at peak stress of the pipe/casing steel at 6%.
Properties for 97 in. diameter by 0.5 in. thick pipe:
97 4 96 4

Is

Do4 Di4 12 12
8.5 ft 4
64 64
Is 8.5
S 2.1 ft3
R 4.04
where R = outer radius of the pipe
Do= outer diameter of the pipe
Di= inner diameter of the pipe
My = Sy = 2.1 123 45 = 163,296 kip-in. = 13,608 kip-ft
where y= (45 ksi) yield stress of the pipe
Mp = 1.25My = 17,010 kip-ft
(EsIs)pipe = (29,000 144)8.5 = 3.55 107 kip-ft2
UltimateSteel Strain 0.12
Design Steel Strain cu 0.06 rad
Factor of Safety 2

0.06 0.06
Design Curvature u 0.00123 rad/in.
Pipe Radius 48.5 in.
The concrete core and the rebar cage combine to produce a well-confined
concrete element that is modeled within the xSECTION program (Caltrans, 2006) to
generate section properties. The design requirements are met since the plastic hinges
form in the column. Several cross sections along the column/shaft are analyzed. The
cross section properties for various locations are tabulated in Table 16.4-9.
Since the steel casing of the shaft is fully extended from the top of rock to the
cut-off, the confinement of shaft cross sections could be modeled with the steel
casing as the lateral confining element. The hoop reinforcement, #8 at 7.5 in., is
included in the confinement computation. The axial forces of 1,926 and 2,004 kips
are used for the column and shaft cross-sections respectively.
60#14 bars, A706 steel, #8hoops at 7.5 in. spacing
Axial load = 2,004 kips
Mp = 27, 220 kip-ft
p = 0.000465 rad/in.
Icr = 82.42 ft4
Ec = 4,032 ksi 580,000 ksf
(EcIcr)cage = 580,000 82.42 = 4.78 107 kip-ft2
For the cross section at the mid-height of the shaft casing, the following data is
obtained by using xSECTION software. (See Typical xSECTION Figures 16.4-15
and 16.4-16).
The combined effects of the 2 elements, steel pipe/casing, and concrete core are
as follows:
Mp = 17,010 + 27,220 = 44,230 kip-ft
Es I s pipe Ec I cr cage 3.55107 4.78107
I combined 143.64 ft 4
Econcrete 580,000
Ec = 4,032 ksi = 580,000 ksf
p = 0.000465 rad/in. based on minimum of the two elements
The Icombined is computed for converting the combined properties of steel
pipe/casing and concrete core into an equivalent concrete property. These parameters
are to be used in the pushover analysis later. The smaller of the curvature of steel
pipe and concrete core is selected as the ductility capacity limit.

Figure 16.4-15 Shaft Cross Section with Moment Curvature

with 1.87% Longitudinal Steel
Figure 16.4-16 Shaft Cross Section with Moment Curvature

in Rock Region with 2.22% Longitudinal Steel

Table 16.4-9 Cross-Section Properties for the Column and Shaft

Concrete Core Pipe/Casing Combination
Location Section Mp p Icr Mp p Icr Mp p Icr Ec
Composition kip-ft rad/in. ft4 kip-ft rad/in. ft4 kip-ft rad/in. ft4 ksf
Column Core 12,309 0.000898 19.78 12,309 0.000898 19.78 580,000
Shaft Core 27,220 0.000465 82.42 17,010 0.00123 8.5 44,230 0.000465 143.62 580,000
Shaft+Col Shaft+Col 34,157 0.000317 95.07 17,010 0.00123 8.5 51,167 0.000317 143.62 580,000
Shaft @rock Core only 28,508 0.000864 71.97 28,508 0.000864 71.97 580,000
Cap beam + Unconfined 27,111 0.000587 86.93 27,111 0.000587 86.93 580,000
conc
Cap beam - Unconfined 25,602 0.000422 83.1 25,602 0.000422 83.1 580,000
conc
A typical bent is then modeled within the wFRAME program (Caltrans, 1995)
using the above properties and foundation springs to perform a non-linear pushover
analysis.
The force-deflection curve shown in section 16.4.6.6.4 indicates that 2 plastic
hinges form at the top of columns followed by 2 more plastic hinges developing at
the bottom of columns as designed for a Type II shaft The period of this bent is
around 1.17 seconds and the initial stiffness and the displacement demand (D) are
263 kips/in. and 9.42 in., respectively. Detailed computations are shown below:
ki = Initial Slope of Force Deflection Curve = Lateral Force/Yield Displacement
ki = (0.39 W)/ yi = (0.39 3,536 kips)/5.25 in =263kip/in.
where W = total of dead load plus added dead load (kips)
W 3,536
T period 0.32 0.32 1.17 seconds
ki 263
Displacement demand:
D = (ARS x W)/Ki = (0.7 x 3536)/263 = 9.42 in.
The plastic hinge length at top of column is calculated from SDC Section 7.6.2.
The standard plastic hinge length (SDC 7.6.2.1) is used with the moment diagram.
The rotational capacity (p) of the plastic hinge is similar to the equations shown in
SDC section 3.1.3. The plastic component of the displacement capacity, however, is
based on an effective length of column defined from the center of the lower plastic
hinge to the center of the upper plastic hinge as follows (Figure 16.4-17):
For the plastic hinge at top of column:
Lp = length of plastic hinge = 0.08L1 + 0.15fyedbl 0.3 fyedbl (SDC 7.6.2.1-1)
L1 = portion of column from plastic hinge to contraflexure (zero moment)
L1 = 16 ft
dbl = diameter of main bar = 1.63 in. for #11 bar
Lp = 0.08 16 12 + 0.15 68 1.63 = 32 in. 0.3 68 1.63 = 33.25 in.

p = Lpp (SDC 3.1.3-4)

Where p = plastic curvature capacity at top of column from cross section
analysis
p = 33.25 0.000898 = 0.0298 rad
p = p L = 0.0298 30 ft (12 in./ft) = 10.73 in.
L = portion of column from center of top plastic hinge to center of bottom plastic
hinge
c = p + y for each and every plastic hinge
c = 10.73 + 5.25 = 15.98 in. > D = 9.42 in. OK
The overturning effects increased the axial load from 1,926 kips to 2,695 kips in
the compression column. However, the increase in plastic moment was less than
20%. There is additional reserve capacity in the cap beam to easily meet the higher
column moment demand.
Comparison of displacement capacity (C) and demand (D) shows adequate
ductility in the transverse direction for this particular bent (C >D ).
Figure 16.4-17 Plastic Hinges and Deformation
16.4.6.6.2 P-Moment Check:
The P- moment check is required per SDC section 4.2.

(P ) Check: M P = P (D/2) = 1,926 kips (9.42 in./12)/2 = 756 kip-ft

M P 756
0.061 0.2 OK
MP 12,309 (SDC 4.2-1)
16.4.6.6.3 Minimum Ductility Requirements
The minimum ductility requirement (SDC section 3.1.4.1) is based on the

following values: The distances of L1 and L2 are 16 ft and 14 ft, respectively, from the
moment diagram of the push over analysis per definition in SDC Figure 3.1.3-2. The
yield curvature at the top and bottom of column is 0.000088 rad/in. The plastic
curvature at the top and bottom is 0.000898 rad/in. (from column xSection analysis).
From SDC Eq. 7.6.2.1-1:
LP1 = 0.08L1 + 0.15fyedbl 0.3 fyedbl = 0.08 16 12 + 0.15 68 1.63 = 32 in.

< 0.3 68 1.63 = 33.25 for the top plastic hinge (SDC 7.6.2.1-1)
Lp2 = 0.08L2 + 0.15fyedbl 0.3 fyedbl = 0.08 14 12 + 0.15 68 1.63 = 30 in.
< 0.3 68 1.63 = 33.25 for the bottom plastic hinge (SDC 7.6.2.1-1)
p1 = Lp1p1 = 33.25 0.000898 = 0.0298 rad. (SDC 3.1.3-9)
p2 = Lp2p2 = 33.25 0.000898 = 0.0298 rad. (SDC 3.1.3-9)
Lp 1
p 1 p 1 L1 0.0298 16 12 33.25/2 5.22 in.
2 (SDC3.1.3-8)

Lp 2
p 2 p 2 L2 0.0298 14 12 33.25/2 4.51 in.
2 (SDC 3.1.3-8)

col
L12
y1
16 122 0.000088 1.08 in.
y1 (SDC 3.1.3-7)
3 3
col
L22
y2
14 122 0.000088 0.83 in.
y2 (SDC 3.1.3-7)
3 3
c1 col
y1 p1 1.08 5.22 6.30 in. (SDC 3.1.3-6)
c 2 col
y 2 p 2 0.83 4.51 5.34 in. (SDC 3.1.3-6)
c1 6.30
c1 5.83 3 (SDC 3.1.4-2)
col
y1 1.08
c2 5.34
c 2 6.43 3 (SDC 3.1.4-2)
col
y2 0.83

16.4.6.6.4 Minimum Lateral Strength
The lateral strength of the bent is 0.39g, as calculated from the force-deflection
curve of the push over analysis as shown in Figure 16.4-18. This meets the
requirement of SDC section 3.5, which requires minimum lateral strength of 0.1 g.
Figure 16.4-18 Lateral Load Deflection Curve of Bent
16.4.6.7 Shear and Flexural Capacity
To meet the over-strength requirements of SDC section 4.3.1, the plastic moment
of the column is increased by 20% in the push analysis to determine the larger
flexural demand in the cap beam. The push analysis including over-strength of the
column in addition to overturning indicated a maximum negative moment demand of
18,146 kip-ft in the cap beam, while the capacity of the cap beam in negative moment
was 25,602 kip-ft

16.4.6.7.1 Shaft Shear Capacity with 0.5 in. Casing Excluding Scour and Liquefaction
The plastic shear demand in the column is limited to:
M p TOP M p BOT 212,309 820.6

Vp kips
L Plastic Himge to Plastic Hinge 30
The following cases affecting a shear increase should be considered: Increase the
shear demand by an additional 20% due to overturning, VO = 985 kips. The nominal
shear capacity of the casing/pipe alone is calculated per AASHTO 6.12.1.2.3c and is
less than the maximum shear demand as shown in Figure 16.4-19.
Vnp = 0.5Fcr Ag with Fcr = 0.78Es/(D/t)3/2 0.58 Fy
( AASHTO 6.12.1.2.3c)
Fcr = 0.78Es/(D/t) = 0.78 29000/(97/0.5)3/2 = 8.37 ksi < 0.58 45 = 26.1 ksi
3/2
Vnp = 0.5Fcr Ag Nominal shear resistance (pipe or casing)

Vnp = 0.5 8.37 97 0.5 = 637.65 kips
The shear capacity of the shaft reinforced concrete outside the plastic hinge zone
must be added. For this case the traditional reinforced concrete column shear capacity
equations of SDC 3.6.2 are used. In this particular case SDC Eqs. 3.6.3-1 and 3.6.3-2
yield the following for the pipe and an axial load at the top of shaft of 2,031 kips:
Av f yhD 0.796077 in.
Vs 764 kips
2s 27.5 in. (SDC 3.6.3-1)
s f yh
0.3 Factor1 3.67 d 3 (SDC 3.6.2-5)
0.15ksi
Factor 1 = 3 outside the plastic hinge zone (SDC 3.6.2-5)
Pc lb.
Factor 2 1

2,000 Ag in.2 1.5 (SDC 3.6.2-6)
Factor 2 1
2,0311,000 1.14 (SDC 3.6.2-6)
2,00051.32144
vc psi 3Factor 2 f c psi 4 f c psi (SDC 3.6.2-4)
vc psi 31.14 4,000 216.3 psi 4 4,000 252.98 psi

(SDC 3.6.2-4)
Vc = vc Ac where Ac = 0.8Ag

Vc 216.3 0.8 Ag 216.30.851.32 144 / 1.000 1,279 kips
(SDC 3.6.2-1) and (SDC 3.6.2-2)

Vn Vc Vs Vnp 0.91,279 764 637.65 2,413 kips 2,265 kips
(SDC 3.6.1-1 and 3.6.1-2)

The shear capacity of the shaft casing and the reinforced concrete section are all
added. The total shear capacity of 2,413 kips is larger than the shear demand without
scour and liquefaction. It is slightly less than the maximum shear demand of 2.5Vo
(2,463 kips) required for the case with scour and liquefaction. To increase capacity,
the designer may reduce the confinement spacing or increase the steel shell thickness
of the shaft. The capacity calculated is acceptable for this example.

Figure 16.4-19 Shear Diagram at Potential Collapse State for Single Shaft

16.4.6.7.2 Shaft Shear Capacity at Rock Socket:
The shear capacity of the shaft without casing at the rock interface outside the
plastic hinge zone must also be checked. For this case, the traditional reinforced
concrete column shear capacity equations of SDC 3.6.2 are used. In this particular
case SDC Eqn. 3.6.3-1 yields the following for the pipe with an increase in
confinement spacing from a single #8 confinement at 7.5 in. to a doubled #8
confinement at 7 in. and an axial load at the top of rock socket section of 2,260 kips.
For the case without scour or liquefaction, see L-Pile or CSiBridge Demand see
Figure 16.4-19.
Av f yh D 20.796077
Vs 1,638 kips 2,265 kips (SDC 3.6.3-1)
2s 27
s f yh
0.3 Factor1 3.67 d 3 (SDC 3.6.2-5)
0.15ksi
Factor 1 = 3 outside the plastic hinge zone (SDC 3.6.2-5)
Pc lb.
Factor 2 1

2,000 Ag in.2 1.5 (SDC 3.6.2-6)
Factor 2 1
2,2601,000 1.19 (SDC 3.6.2-6)
2,00042.24144
vc psi 3Factor 2 f c psi 4 f c psi (SDC 3.6.2-4)
vc psi 31.19 4,000 226 psi 4 4,000 252.98 psi

(SDC 3.6.2-4)

Vc 226 0.8 Ag 2260.842.24 144 / 1.000 1,100 kips
(SDC 3.6.2-1) and (SDC 3.6.2-2)

Vn Vc Vs 0.91,100 1,638 2,464 kips 2,265 kips
(SDC 3.6.1-1 and 3.6.1-2)

The shear demand for the case with scour and liquefaction effect as shown in
Figure 16.4-19 is about 50% more than the shear capacity of the rock socket section
as calculated above. Therefore, we limit the demand to be no more than 2.5Vo (2,463
kips), which happened to be almost equal to the calculated capacity of 2,464 kips in
this example.
vc psi 31.19 4,000 226 psi 4 4,000 252.98 psi

(SDC 3.6.2-4)


Vc 226 0.8 Ag 2260.842.24 144 / 1.000 1,100 kips
(SDC 3.6.2-1) and (SDC 3.6.2-2)

Vn Vc Vs 0.91,100 1,638 2,464 kips 2,463 kips OK
(2.5Vo where Vo = 985 kips)

(See L-Pile or CSiBridge Demand, see Figure 16.4-19)
16.4.6.7.3 Shaft Seismic Flexural Capacity:
The type II shaft flexural capacity under seismic loading outside the plastic hinge
zone and away from the column inserted inside the type II shaft is determined from
expected material properties. (Capacity protected component, per SDC 3.4)
where expected fce = 5.0 ksi, fye = 68 ksi Using (Xsection)
The type II shaft flexural demands under seismic loading outside plastic hinge
zone and away from the column inserted inside type II shaft are determined from (L-
Pile) output as shown below in Figure 16.4-20 for both cases.
Mr = Mn@0.003 = (1)(26,928(shaft) + 13,608(casing)) = 40,536 kip-ft > 1.25
(29,167) kip-ft (L-Pile, CSiBridge, or Wframe Demand) without liquefaction and
scour demand (SDC 7.7.3.2) OK
Mr = Mn@0.003 = (1) (26,928(shaft) + 13,608(casing) = 40,536 kip-ft < 1.25
(36,667) kip-ft (L-Pile, CSiBridge, or Wframe Demand) with liquefaction and
scour demand (SDC 7.7.3.2 ) NG
The moment capacity is less than the moment demand of (1.25Md) per SDC by
approximately 13% is acceptable for this example. Designers can add more
reinforcement to increase the moment capacity by 13%. Designers need to be aware
that the moment demand used in the example was extracted from L-Pile software and
is based on a single pile, disregarding the framing action of a two-column system that
can reduce the moment demand by at least by 15%.

Figure 16.4-20 Moment Diagram at Potential Collapse State for Single Shaft

Table 16.4-10 Reinforcement Spacing Requirements

in CIDH Piles with Inspection Tubes
Clear Spacing Clear Spacing
Component Location Requirements for Requirements for
Longitudinal Bars Transverse Bars
Max2 (in.) Min (in.) Max3 (in.) Min5 (in.)
Type-I Column-Shaft Column and
10-ndb Note 4 Smax-mdb 5
with Diameter < 5ft Shaft
Type-I Column-Shaft Column and
12-ndb Note 4 Smax-mdb 5
with Diameter 5ft Shaft
Type-II Column-
Shaft
Shaft 10-ndb Note 4 12 5
with Shaft Diameter
< 5ft
Type-II Column-
Shaft
Shaft 12-ndb Note 4 12 5
with Shaft Diameter
5ft
Note:
1. For Type II Shaft 5ft construction joint and permanent steel casing are
mandatory, unless the drilled hole is determined by Geotechnical Services and
Structure Representative to be dry.
2. n=1 is for single bars and n =2 for circumferential bundled bars. Refer to
California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Sixth Edition 10.8.1.3 and 5.13.4.5.
3. m is number of hoops in a bundle, otherwise m =1. Smax is maximum center-to-
center (C-C) spacing of single hoops per SDC 8.2.5 Version 1.7.
4. Per MTD3-1, minimum longitudinal clear spacing of rebars is 5 in. except at
locations of inspection pipes where it is 8.5 in. to accommodate the pipes
5. Minimum Clear Distance between parallel longitudinal and transverse bars is 5

in. per California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Sixth Edition 5.13.4.5.2.

NOTATION
A = area of cross-section of a member (in.2) (16.3.8)

Ab = area of individual reinforcing steel bar (in.2) (16.3.10)
Ae = effective shear area of a cross-section (in.2) (16.3.10)
Ag = gross cross-sectional area (in.2) (16.2.3)
Ajh ftg = effective horizontal area for a moment-resisting pile cap joint (in.2) (16.2.6)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (in.2) (16.2.3)
ARS = 5% damped elastic Acceleration Response Spectrum, expressed in terms of g
(SDC 2.1) (16.4.6.6.1)
As = total area of non prestressed tension reinforcement (in.2) (16.2.3)
As = total area of compression reinforcement (in.2) (16.2.4)
Ast = total area of longitudinal steel (in.2) (16.2.3)
Av = area of shear reinforcement normal to flexural tension reinforcement (in.2)
(16.2.3)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block (in.) (16.2.4)
B = coefficient used to solve a quadratic equation (16.2.4)
Beff ftg = effective width of the pile cap for calculating average normal stress in the
horizontal direction within a pile cap moment-resisting joint (in.) (16.2.6)
bv = effective width of a member for shear stress calculations (in.) (16.2.3)
C = coefficient used to solve a quadratic equation (16.2.4)
C(i)pile = axial compression demand on a pile/shaft (kip) (16.2.3)
clr = minimum clearance for bottom-mat reinforcement (16.3.6.2)
D = shaft diameter (in.) (16.1.2)
Dc = column diameter (in.) (16.2.1)
Dftg = depth of pile cap (in.) (16.2.1)
Dftg,min = minimum depth of pile cap (in.) (16.2.1)
DRs = depth of resultant soil-resistance measured from the top of pile cap (ft) (16.2.3)
Dr = diameter of the circle passing through the longitudinal reinforcement (in.)
(16.2.3)
D = cross-sectional dimension of a confined concrete core measured between the
centerline of the peripheral hoop or spiral (in.) (16.3.10.2.3)
d = distance from the compression flange to the centroid of the compression steel
(in.); depth below original ground (in.) (16.2.4)

db = nominal bar diameter (in.) (16.2.1)

dbd = deformed bar diameter (in.) (16.2.1)
dbl = nominal bar diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement of a shaft (in.) (16.3.2)
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
closest bar (in.) (16.2.1)
force in the tensile reinforcement (in.) (16.2.4)
dv = effective shear depth (in.) (16.2.3)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (ksi) (16.2.4)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing steel (ksi) (16.3.5)
fc = specified 28-day compressive strength of unconfined concrete (ksi) (16.3.5)
fce = expected compressive strength of unconfined concrete (ksi) (16.3.5)
fpo = average stress in prestressing steel (ksi)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete (ksi) (16.2.4)
fss = tensile stress in mild steel at the service limit state (ksi) (16.2.4)
fue = expected minimum tensile strength for A706 reinforcing steel (ksi) (16.3.5)
fy = nominal yield stress for A706 reinforcing steel (ksi) (16.2)
fye = expected yield stress for A706 reinforcing steel (ksi) (16.3.2)
fyh = nominal yield stress of transverse (spiral) shaft reinforcement (ksi) (16.3.10)
fu = specified minimum tensile strength for A706 reinforcing steel (ksi) (16.3.5)
H = height of column measured from the top of the pile cap to the center of gravity
of the superstructure (in.) (16.3.8)
Hc = clear height of a column measured from the top of the pile cap to the soffit of
the superstructure (in.) (16.3.8)
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked cross-section of a member about its centroidal
axis (in.4) (16.2.4)
Iy = moment of inertia of a pile/shaft group about the y-axis (in.4) (16.1.3)
k = a soil modulus parameter for sand (lb./in.3) (16.3.4)
L = distance between the top and the lower points of maximum moment along a
shaft: see Figure 16.3-2 (in.) (16.3.4)
L1, L2 = distances between the top and the lower points of maximum moment,
respectively, and the point of contraflexure defined in Figure 16.3-2 (in.)
(16.3.2)

L* = effective length of the shaft segment between the top and the lower points of
maximum moment along a shaft defined in Figure 16.3-3 (in.) (16.3.1)
Lftg = cantilever length of the pile cap measured from the face of the column to the
edge of the pile cap along the principal axis of the pile cap (in.) (16.2.1)
Lp = equivalent analytical plastic hinge length (in.) (16.3.2)
ld = development length of longitudinal column reinforcement (in.) (16.3.6)
ld = development length of deformed bars in compression (in.) (16.3.6)
ldb = basic development length of deformed bars in compression (in.) (16.2.1)
ldh = development length of deformed bars in tension (in.) (16.2.1)
lhb = basic development length of hooked bars in tension (in.) (16.2.1)
Mcap = moment demand in the pile cap (kip-ft) (16.2.4)
Mcr = cracking moment of a members cross-section (kip-ft) (16.2.4)
Mi = moment demand at the top of a row i shaft (kip-ft): see Figure 16.3-1 (16.3.2)
Miy = moment at the top of a row i shaft at the formation of the first plastic hinge
(kip-ft): see Figure 16.3-1 (16.3.2)
ML = maximum longitudinal moment (kip-ft) (16.2)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance of a members cross-section (kip-ft) (16.2.4)
Mne = nominal moment capacity of a members cross-section based on the expected
material properties and concrete strain c = 0.003 (kip-ft) (16.2.4)
Mocol = overstrength moment capacity of columns cross-section (kip-ft) (16.2.3)
Mp = idealized plastic moment capacity of a members cross-section (kip-ft) (16.1.3)
Mpcol = idealized plastic moment capacity of a columns cross-section (kip-ft) (16.3.8)
Mpshaft = idealized plastic moment capacity of a shafts cross-section (kip-ft) (16.3.2)
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending (kip-ft) (16.2.4)
MT = maximum transverse moment (kip-ft) (16.2)
Mu = factored moment at a section (kip-ft) (16.2.3)
MY = moment at the columns base (=Mocol) associated with the formation of the
first plastic hinge in the shaft group (kip-ft): see Figure 16.3-1 (16.1.3)
N = total number of piles/shafts in a pile/shaft group; standard blow count per foot
for the California Standard Penetration Test (16.1.3)
Nu = applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (kip) (16.2.3)
n = modular ratio, Es/Ec or Ep/Ec; number of individual interlocking spiral core-
sections (16.3.10)
P = maximum axial force (kip) (16.1.3)

Pc = the column axial load including the effects of overturning (kip) (16.2.6)
Pdl = axial load attributed to dead load (kip) (16.3.2)
Pi = axial force demand on a row i shaft (kip): see Figure 16.3-1
Piy = axial force at the top of a row i shaft at the formation of the first plastic hinge
(kip): see Figure 16.3-1
Pn = nominal axial resistance of the pile/shaft (kip) (16.2.2)
Pnet = net effective load acting on the bottom of the pile cap (kip) (16.2.2)
PP = total axial load on a shaft-group foundation (kip) (16.3.2)
pc = principal compression stress (ksi) (16.2.3)
pt = principal tension stress (ksi) (16.2.6)
Rs = total resultant soil-resistance along the end and sides of pile cap (kip) (16.2.3)
Q = axial soil compressive resistance at the tip of a given diameter shaft (kip)
(16.3.4)
s = pitch of spiral reinforcement measured along the length of the shaft (in.);
spacing of reinforcing bars (in.) (16.2.4)
Tc = total tension force in the longitudinal reinforcement of a column associated
with Mo (kip) (16.2.3)
Tjv = net tension force in a moment-resisting pile cap joint (kip) (16.2.6)
t = axial load transfer per unit length of a given diameter shaft (kip/ft) (16.3.4)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (kip) (16.2.3)
Vi = shear demand at the top of a row i shaft (kip): see Figure 16.3-1
Viy = shear force at the top of a row i shaft at the formation of the first plastic hinge
(kip): see Figure 16.3-1
VL = maximum longitudinal shear (kip) (16.2)
Vn = nominal shear resistance of a section (kip) (16.2.3)
Vnp = nominal shear resistance of a pipe or casing (kip) (16.4.6)
Vp = component of the pre-stressing force in the direction of applied shear (kip)
(16.2)
Vocol = overstrength shear capacity of the column (kip) (16.3.2)
Vr = nominal shear resistance of cross-section (kip) (16.2.3)
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (kip) (16.2.3)
VT = maximum transverse shear (kip) (16.2)
Vu = factored shear force at a section (kip) (16.2.3)

VY = shear force at the columns base (=Vocol) associated with the formation of the
first plastic hinge in the shaft group (kip-ft): see Figure 16.3-1 (16.3.2)
x = distance from the compression flange to the neutral axis (in.) (16.1.3)
y = lateral deflection of a shaft at a specific depth (in.) (16.1.3)
z = vertical deflection of a shaft at a specific depth (in.) (16.2.3)
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis (16.2.3)
= factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete;
ratio of long side to short side of footing (16.2.3)
s = ratio of flexural strain at the extreme tension face to the strain at the centroid of
the reinforcement layer nearest the tension face (16.2.4.2)
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete (psi) (16.3.10)
vjv = nominal shear stress in a moment-resisting joint (ksi)
vu = average factored shear stress on concrete (ksi) (16.2.2)
cc = confined concrete compressive strain at maximum compressive stress (16.3.5)
co = unconfined concrete compressive strain at maximum compressive stress
(16.3.5)
cu = confined concrete ultimate compressive strain (16.3.5)
sh = tensile strain at the onset of strain hardening for A706 reinforcement (16.3.5)
sp = unconfined concrete ultimate compressive strain (spalling strain) (16.3.5)
su = ultimate tensile strain of A706 reinforcement (16.3.5)
Rsu = reduced ultimate tensile strain of A706 reinforcement (16.3.5)
ye = expected yield tensile strain of A706 reinforcement (16.3.5)
c = local member displacement capacity (in.) (16.3.2)
C = global displacement capacity of a shaft group (in.) (16.3.2)
D = global displacement demand of a shaft group (in.) (16.3.2)
pi = idealized local plastic displacement capacity of a shaft due to the rotation of the
ith plastic hinge (in.): see Figure 16.3-2 (16.3.2.1.3)
Pi = global plastic displacement capacity of a shaft group due to the plastic rotation
capacity of the ith plastic hinge (in.): see Figure 16.3-3
r = relative lateral offset between the top of the shaft and the lower point of
maximum moment in a shaft (in.) (16.3.2)
Yi = yield displacement of a shaft group at the formation of the ith plastic hinge in
the shafts (in.): see Figure 16.3-2 (16.3.2.1.3)


yishaft = idealized local yield displacement of the ith shaft (in.) (16.3.10)
y2shaft = (16.3.10.1.2)
= angle of internal friction (16.2.3)
= strength reduction factor
p = idealized plastic curvature of a cross-section (rad/in.) (16.2.3)
Y = idealized yield curvature of a cross-section (rad/in.) (16.3.2)
e = crack control exposure condition factor (16.2.4)
p = load factor for permanent loads (16.2.2)
t = unit weight of soil (lb./ft3) (16.3.4)
= non-dimensional constant defined in Figure 16.3-1(16.3.2)
c = local displacement ductility capacity (16.3.2)
d = local displacement ductility demand (16.3.10)
D = global displacement ductility demand (16.3.2)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (rad) (16.2.3)
= angle defined in Figure 16.3-3 (rad)
p = plastic rotation capacity (rad) (16.3.2)
s = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to the core volume confined by the
spiral reinforcement (measured out-to-out) for circular cross-sections (16.3.10)
= angle defined in Figure 16.3-3 (rad) (16.3.2)

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Units (6th
Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
DC.
2. AISC, (2010). Specification for Structural Steel Buildings Manual, American
Institute of Steel Construction Inc., Chicago, IL
3. Caltrans, (1984). Bridge Design Details 13-10: Reinforcing Bar Data Grade 60 (ACI 318-
83), California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, July 1984.
4. Caltrans, (1990). Bridge Design Details 6-71: Pile Footings, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA, June 1990.
5. Caltrans, (1995). wFRAME, Push Analysis of Bridge Bents and Bridge Frames Version
1.12, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
6. Caltrans, (2006). xSECTION, Moment-Curvature Curves for Reinforced Concrete Structural
Elements Version 4.00,, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (2014 a). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Sixth Edition, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
8. Caltrans, (2014b). Bridge Memo to Designers 3-1: Deep Foundations, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, June 2014.
9. Caltrans, (2008). Bridge Memo to Designers 1-35: Foundation Recommendation and
Reports, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, June 2008.
10. Caltrans, (2010). Bridge Memo to Designers 20-1: Seismic Design Methodology, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, July 2010.
11. Caltrans, (2013). Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.7, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA, April 2013.
12. Chen, W. F. and Duan, L. (2000). Bridge Engineering Handbook, Chapter 9, 15-16, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
13. CSI, (2015). CSiBridge 2015, v. 17.0.0, Computers and Structures, Inc., Walnut Creek, CA.
14. Gebman, M. J. and Restrepo, A. J. (2006). Axial Force Transfer Mechanisms within Cast-
In Steel Shell Piles. Report: SSRP-06/16. University of California, San Diego, La Jolla,
CA.
15. Parker, F., Jr. and Reese, L. C. (1971). Lateral Pile-Soil Interaction Curves for Sand.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering Properties of Sea-Floor Soils
and their Geophysical Identification, UNESCO-University of Washington, Seattle, WA, July
1971, 212-223.
16. Reese, L. C. Wang, S. T., Isenhower, W., and Arrellega, J. A. (2007). Computer Program
LPILE Plus Version 5.0.38. A Program for the Analysis of Piles and Drilled Shafts under
Lateral Loads, Technical Manual, Ensoft, Inc., Austin, TX.

17. Seyed, M. (1995). Computer Programs w-FPREP and w-FRAME Version 1.12 A
Program for Two Dimensional Push Analysis of Bridge Bents and Frames, Sacramento, CA.
18. Yashinsky, M. et al. (2007). Pile Group Foundation Study, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA, November 2007.
19. Malek, A. M., and Islam M. S. (2010), Seismic Analysis and Design of Pile Group Bridge
Foundations in Soft and Liquefied Soil. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No.
2202, 183-191.


CHAPTER 21
SEISMIC DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 21-1

21.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................... 21-1
21.2.1 Preliminary Member and Reinforcement Sizes ........................................... 21-1
21.2.2 Minimum Local Displacement Ductility Capacity ...................................... 21-7
21.2.3 Displacement Ductility Demand Requirements .......................................... 21-9
21.2.4 Displacement Capacity Evaluation............................................................ 21-12
21.2.5 P- Effects ............................................................................................... 21-15
21.2.6 Minimum Lateral Strength ........................................................................ 21-15
21.2.7 Column Shear Design ................................................................................ 21-16
21.2.8 Bent Cap Flexural and Shear Capacity ...................................................... 21-18
21.2.9 Seismic Strength of Concrete Bridge Superstructures .............................. 21-18
21.2.10 Joint Shear Design ..................................................................................... 21-26
21.2.11 Torsional Capacity .................................................................................... 21-34
21.2.12 Abutment Seat Width Requirements ......................................................... 21-34
21.2.13 Hinge Seat Width Requirements ............................................................... 21-35
21.2.14 Abutment Shear Key Design ..................................................................... 21-36
21.2.15 No-Splice Zone Requirements .................................................................. 21-38
21.2.16 Seismic Design Procedure Flowchart ........................................................ 21-39
21.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE - THREE-SPAN CONTINUOUS CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE BOX GIRDER BRIDGE ...................................................................... 21-43
21.3.1 Bridge Data................................................................................................ 21-43
21.3.2 Design Requirements................................................................................. 21-43
21.3.3 Step 1- Select Column Size, Column Reinforcement, and
Bent Cap Width ......................................................................................... 21-46
21.3.4 Step 2 - Perform Cross-section Analysis ................................................... 21-47
21.3.5 Step 3 - Check Span Configuration/Balanced Stiffness ............................ 21-48
21.3.6 Step 4 - Check Frame Geometry ............................................................... 21-49
Chapter 21 Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges 21-i

21.3.7 Step 5 Calculate Minimum Local Displacement Ductility Capacity

and Demand .............................................................................................. 21-49
21.3.8 Step 6 Perform Transverse Pushover Analysis....................................... 21-51
21.3.9 Step 7- Perform Longitudinal Pushover Analysis ..................................... 21-56
21.3.10 Step 8- Check P - Effects ..................................................................... 21-60
21.3.11 Step 9- Check Bent Minimum Lateral Strength ........................................ 21-60
21.3.12 Step 10- Perform Column Shear Design ................................................... 21-61
21.3.13 Step 11- Design Column Shear Key .......................................................... 21-64
21.3.14 Step 12 - Check Bent Cap Flexural and Shear Capacity ........................... 21-65
21.3.15 Step 13- Calculate Column Seismic Load Moments ............................... 21-67
col @ soffit
21.3.16 Step 14 - Distribute M eq into the Superstructure ............................ 21-74
21.3.17 Step 15- Calculate Superstructure Seismic Moment Demands at

Location of Interest ................................................................................... 21-74
21.3.18 Step 16- Calculate Superstructure Seismic Shear Demands at
Location of Interest ................................................................................... 21-78
21.3.19 Step 17- Perform Vertical Acceleration Analysis ..................................... 21-82
21.3.20 Step 18- Calculate Superstructure Flexural and Shear Capacity ............... 21-82
21.3.21 Step 19- Design Joint Shear Reinforcement .............................................. 21-86
21.3.22 Step 20- Determine Minimum Hinge Seat Width ..................................... 21-95
21.3.23 Step 21- Determine Minimum Abutment Seat Width .............................. 21-95
21.3.24 Step 22 - Design Abutment Shear Key Reinforcement ............................. 21-96
21.3.25 Step 23 - Check Requirements for No-splice Zone ................................... 21-97
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 21-98
NOTATION ........................................................................................................................... 21-137
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 21-144
Chapter 21 Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges 21-ii

CHAPTER 21
SEISMIC DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES
21.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is intended primarily to provide guidance on the seismic design of
Ordinary Standard Concrete Bridges as defined in Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria
(SDC), Version 1.7 (Caltrans 2013). Information presented herein is based on SDC
(Caltrans 2013), AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO 2012)
with California Amendments (Caltrans 2014), and other Caltrans Structure Design
documents such as Bridge Memo to Designers (MTD). Criteria on the seismic design
of nonstandard bridge features are developed on a project-by-project basis and are
beyond the scope of this chapter.
The first part of the chapter, i.e., Section 21.2, describes general seismic design
considerations including pertinent formulae, interpretation of Caltrans SDC
provisions, and a procedural flowchart for seismic design of concrete bridges. In the
second part, i.e., Section 21.3, a seismic design example of a three-span continuous
cast-in-place, prestressed (CIP/PS) concrete box girder bridge is presented to
illustrate various design applications following the seismic design procedure
flowchart. The example is intended to serve as a model seismic design of an ordinary
standard bridge using the current SDC Version 1.7 provisions.

21.2.1 Preliminary Member and Reinforcement Sizes
Bridge design is inherently an iterative process. It is common practice to design

bridges for the Strength and Service Limit States and then, if necessary, to refine the
design of various components to satisfy Extreme Events Limit States such as seismic
performance requirements. In practice, however, engineers should keep certain
seismic requirements in mind even during the Strength and Service Limit States
design. This is especially true while selecting the span configuration, column size,
column reinforcement requirements, and bent cap width.
21.2.1.1 Sizing the Column and Bent Cap
(1) Column size
SDC Section 7.6.1 specifies that the column size should satisfy the following
equations:
Chapter 21 Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges 21-1

Dc
0.70 1.00 (SDC 7.6.1-1)
Ds
D ftg
0.7 (SDC 7.6.1-2)
Dc
where:
Dc = column cross sectional dimension in the direction of interest (in.)
Ds = depth of superstructure at the bent cap (in.)
Dftg = depth of footing (in.)
If Dc > Ds, it may be difficult to meet the joint shear, superstructure capacity, and
ductility requirements.
(2) Bent Cap Width
SDC Section 7.4.2.1 specifies the minimum cap width required for adequate joint
shear transfer as follows:
Bcap Dc 2 (ft) (SDC 7.4.2.1-1)
21.2.1.2 Column Reinforcement Requirements
(1) Longitudinal Reinforcement
Maximum Longitudinal Reinforcement Area, Ast ,max 0.04 Ag (SDC 3.7.1-1)

Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Area:
Ast ,min 0.01( Ag ) for columns (SDC 3.7.2-1)
Ast ,min 0.005( Ag ) for Pier walls (SDC 3.7.2-2)
where:
Ag = the gross cross sectional area (in.2)
Normally, choosing column Ast 0.015( Ag ) is a good starting point.
(2) Transverse Reinforcement
Either spirals or hoops can be used as transverse reinforcement in the column.

However, hoops are preferred (see MTD 20-9) because of their discrete nature in the
case of local failure.

Inside the Plastic Hinge Region
The amount of transverse reinforcement inside the analytical plastic hinge

region (see SDC Section 7.6.2 for analytic plastic hinge length formulas),
expressed as volumetric ratio,s, shall be sufficient to ensure that the column
meets the performance requirements as specified in SDC Section 4.1.
4( A )
s ' b for columns with circular or interlocking cores (SDC 3.8.1-1)
D (s)
For rectangular columns with ties and cross ties, the corresponding
equation for s , is:
Av
s (SDC 3.8.1-2)
Dc' s
where:
Av = sum of area of the ties and cross ties running in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of bending (in.2)
Dc' = confined column cross-section dimension, measured out to out of
ties, in the direction parallel to the axis of bending (in.)
s = transverse reinforcement spacing (in.)
In addition, the transverse reinforcement should meet the column shear

requirements as specified in SDC Section 3.6.3.
Outside the Plastic Hinge Region
As specified in SDC Section 3.8.3, the volume of lateral reinforcement

outside the plastic hinge region shall not be less than 50 % of the minimum
amount required inside the plastic hinge region and meet the shear
requirements.
(3) Spacing Requirements
The selected bar layout should satisfy the following spacing requirements for
effectiveness and constructability:
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Maximum and minimum spacing requirements are given in AASHTO Article
5.10 (2012).
Transverse Reinforcement
According to SDC Section 8.2.5, the maximum spacing in the plastic hinge
region shall not exceed the smallest of:

1
of the least column cross-section dimension for columns and of the
5
least cross-section dimension for piers
6 times the nominal diameter of the longitudinal bars
8 in.
Outside this region, the hoop spacing can be and should be increased to
economize the design.
21.2.1.3 Balanced Stiffness
(1) Stiffness Requirements
For an acceptable seismic response, a structure with well-balanced mass and

stiffness across various frames is highly desirable. Such a structure is likely to
respond to a seismic activity in a simple mode of vibration and any structural damage
will be well distributed among all the columns. The best way to increase the
likelihood that the structure responds in its fundamental mode of vibration is to
balance its stiffness and mass distribution. To this end, the SDC recommends that the
ratio of effective stiffness between any two bents within a frame or between any two
columns within a bent satisfy the following:
kie
0.5 For constant width frame (SDC 7.1.1-1)
k ej
ke / m
2 ie i 0.5 For variable width frame (SDC 7.1.1-2)
k /m
j j
SDC further recommends that the ratio of effective stiffness between adjacent
bents within a frame or between adjacent columns within a bent satisfies the
following:
kie
0.75 For constant width frame (SDC 7.1.1-3)
k ej
ke / m
1.33 ie i 0.75 For variable width frame (SDC 7.1.1-4)
k /m
j j
where:
kie = smaller effective bent or column stiffness (kip/in.)

mi = tributary mass of column or bent i (kip-sec2/ft)
k ej = larger effective bent or column stiffness (kip/in.)
mj = tributary mass of column or bent j (kip-sec2/ft)

Bent stiffness shall be based on effective material properties and also include the
effects of foundation flexibility if it is determined to be significant by the
Geotechnical Engineer.
If these requirements of balanced effective stiffness are not met, some of the
undesired consequences include:
The stiffer bent or column will attract more force and hence will be
susceptible to increased damage
The inelastic response will be distributed non-uniformly across the structure
Increased column torsion demands will be generated by rigid body rotation
of the superstructure
(2) Material and Effective Column Section Properties
To estimate member ductility, column effective section properties as well as the

moment-curvature ( M ) relationship are determined by using a computer
program such as xSECTION (Mahan 2006) or similar tool. Effort should be made to
keep the dead load axial forces in columns to about 10% of their ultimate
compressive capacity (Pu = Ag f c' ) to ensure that the column does not experience
brittle compression failure and also to ensure that any potential P- effects remain
within acceptable limits. When the column axial load ratio starts approaching 15%,
increasing the column size or adding an extra column should be considered.
Material Properties
Concrete
Concrete compressive stress f c = 4,000 psi is commonly used for
superstructure, columns, piers, and pile shafts. For other components like
abutments, wingwalls, and footings, f c =3,600 psi is typically specified.
SDC Section 3.2 requires that expected material properties shall be used to
calculate section capacities for all ductile members. To be consistent
between the demand and capacity, expected material properties will also be
used to calculate member stiffness. For concrete, the expected compressive
strength, f ce' , is taken as:
1.3( f c' )

f ce' Greater of and (SDC 3.2.6-3)
5,000 psi

Other concrete properties are listed in SDC Section 3.2.6.

Steel
Grade A706/A706M is typically used for reinforcing steel bar. Material
properties for Grade A706/A706M steel are given in SDC Section 3.2.3.
Effective Moment of Inertia
It is well known that concrete cover spalls off at very low ductility levels.
Therefore, the effective (cracked) moment of inertia values are used to assess the
seismic response of all ductile members. This is obtained from a moment-curvature
analysis of the member cross-section.
21.2.1.4 Balanced Frame Geometry
SDC Section 7.1.2 requires that the ratio of fundamental periods of vibration for
adjacent frames in the longitudinal and transverse directions satisfy:
Ti
0.7 (SDC 7.1.2-1)
Tj
where:
Ti = natural period of the less flexible frame (sec.)
Tj = natural period of the more flexible frame (sec.)
The consequences of not meeting the fundamental period requirements of SDC

Equation 7.1.2-1 include a greater likelihood of out-of-phase response between
adjacent frames leading to large relative displacements that increase the probability
of longitudinal unseating and collision between frames at the expansion joints.
For bents/frames that do not meet the SDC requirements for fundamental period of
vibration and/or balanced stiffness, one or more of the following techniques (see SDC
Section 7.1.3) may be employed to adjust the dynamic characteristics:
Use of oversized shafts
Adjust the effective column length. This may be achieved by lowering
footings, using isolation casings, etc.
Modify end fixities
Redistribute superstructure mass
Vary column cross section and longitudinal reinforcement ratios
Add or relocate columns
Modify the hinge/expansion joint layout, if applicable
Use isolation bearings or dampers

If the column reinforcement exceeds the preferred maximum, the following

additional revisions as outlined in MTD 6-1 (Caltrans 2009) may help:
Pin columns in multi-column bents and selected single columns adjacent to
abutments at their bases
Use higher strength concrete
Shorten spans and add bents
Use pile shafts in lieu of footings
Add more columns per bent
21.2.2 Minimum Local Displacement Ductility Capacity
Before undertaking a comprehensive analysis to consider the effects of changes in

column axial forces (for multi-column bents) due to seismic overturning moments
and the effects of soil overburden on column footings, it is good practice to ensure
that basic SDC ductility requirements are met. SDC Section 3.1 requires that each
ductile member shall have a minimum local displacement ductility capacity c of 3 to
ensure dependable rotational capacity in the plastic hinge regions regardless of the
displacement demand imparted to the member.
c Ycol p (SDC 3.1.3-1)
L2
Ycol (Y ) (SDC 3.1.3-2)
3
Lp
p p L (SDC 3.1.3-3)
2
p Lp p (SDC 3.1.3-4)
p u Y (SDC 3.1.3-5)
c1 col
Y 1 p1 ; c 2 Y 2 p 2
col
(SDC 3.1.3-6)
L12 L22
1
Ycol (Y 1 ); colY2 (Y 2 ) (SDC 3.1.3-7)
3 3
L p1 L
p1 p1 L1 ; p 2 p 2 L2 p 2
(SDC 3.1.3-8)
2 2
p1 L p1 p1; p 2 L p 2 p 2 (SDC 3.1.3-9)
p1 u1 Y1; p 2 u 2 Y 2 (SDC 3.1.3-10)
where:
L = distance from the point of maximum moment to the point of contra-flexure
(in.)

LP = equivalent analytical plastic hinge length as defined in SDC Section 7.6.2

(in.)
p = idealized plastic displacement capacity due to rotation of the plastic hinge
(in.)
Ycol = idealized yield displacement of the column at the formation of the plastic
hinge (in.)
Y = idealized yield curvature defined by an elastic-perfectly-plastic
representation of the cross sections M- curve, see SDC Figures 3.3.1-1
and 3.3.1-2 (rad/in.)
p = idealized plastic curvature capacity (assumed constant over Lp) (rad/in.)
p = plastic rotation capacity (radian)
u = curvature capacity at the Failure Limit State, defined as the concrete strain
reaching cu or the longitudinal reinforcing steel reaching the reduced
ultimate strain suR (rad/in.)
It is Caltrans practice to use an idealized bilinear M- curve to estimate the

idealized yield displacement and deformation capacity of ductile members.
c
C.L. Column
Ycol p
C.G.
L Force
Idealized
Yield Curvature
Capacity
EquivalentCurvature p
Actual
Curvature
Lp
P
Y c
p
u Y Displacement
Figure SDC 3.1.3-1 Local Displacement Capacity

Cantilever Column with Fixed Base

C.L. Column
Y1 u1
p1
P1
Lp1
Idealized
L1
c2 Yield Curvature
P2 P1
Actual Curvature
colY2 colY1
c1
Idealized
L2 Equivalent Curvature
Lp2
P2
p2 Y2
u2
Figure SDC 3.1.3-2 Local Displacement Capacity

Framed Column, Assumed as Fixed-Fixed
21.2.3 Displacement Ductility Demand Requirements
The displacement ductility demand is mathematically defined as

D D (SDC 2.2.3-1)
Y (i )
where:
D = the estimated global/frame displacement demand
Y(i) = the yield displacement of the subsystem from its initial position to the
formation of plastic hinge (i)
To reduce the required strength of ductile members and minimize the demand
imparted to adjacent capacity protected components, SDC Section 2.2.4 specifies
target upper limits of displacement ductility demand values, D , for various bridge
components.

Single Column Bents supported on fixed foundation D 4

Multi-Column Bents supported on fixed or pinned footings D 5
Pier Walls (weak direction) supported on fixed or pinned footings D 5
Pier Walls (strong direction) supported on fixed or pinned footings D 1
In addition, SDC Section 4.1 requires each bridge or frame to satisfy the
following equation:
D C (SDC 4.1.1-1)
where:
C = the bridge or frame displacement capacity when the first ultimate
capacity is reached by any plastic hinge (in.)
D = the displacement generated from the global analysis, stand-alone
analysis, or the larger of the two if both types of analyses are necessary
(in.)
The seismic demand can be estimated using Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA).
As described in SDC Section 5.2.1, this method is most suitable for structures with
well-balanced spans and uniformly distributed stiffness where the response can be
captured by a simple predominantly translational mode of vibration. Effective
properties shall be used to obtain realistic values for the structures period and
demand.
The displacement demand, D , can be calculated from Equation 21.2-1.

ma
D (21.2-1)
ke
where:
m = tributary superstructure mass on the bent/frame
a = demand spectral acceleration
ke = effective frame stiffness
For ordinary bridges that do not meet the criteria for ESA or where ESA does not
provide an adequate level of sophistication to estimate the dynamic behavior, Elastic
Dynamic Analysis (EDA) may be used. Refer to SDC Section 5.2.2 for more details
regarding EDA.

Figure SDC 3.1.4.1-1 Local Ductility Assessment

21.2.4 Displacement Capacity Evaluation
SDC Section 5.2.3 specifies the use of Inelastic Static Analysis (ISA), or
pushover analysis, to determine reliable displacement capacities of a structure or
frame. ISA captures non-linear bridge response such as yielding of ductile
components and effects of surrounding soil as well as the effects of foundation
flexibility and flexibility of capacity protected components such as bent caps. The
effect of soil-structure interaction can be significant in the case where footings are
buried deep in the ground.
Pushover analysis shall be performed using expected material properties of

modeled members to provide a more realistic estimate of design strength. As
required by SDC Section 3.4, capacity protected concrete components such as bent
caps, superstructures and footings shall be designed to remain essentially elastic
when the column reaches its overstrength capacity. This is required in order to ensure
that no plastic hinge forms in these components.
Caltrans in-house computer program wFRAME (Mahan 1995) or similar tool may
be used to perform pushover analysis. If wFRAME program is used, the following
conventions are applicable to both the transverse and longitudinal analyses:
The model is two-dimensional with beam elements along the c.g. of the
superstructure/bent cap and columns.
The dead load of superstructure/bent cap, and of columns, if desired, is
applied as a uniformly distributed load along the length of the
superstructure/bent cap.
The element connecting the superstructure c.g. to the column end point at the
soffit level is modeled as a super stiff element with stiffness much greater
than the regular column section. The moment capacity for such element is
also specified much higher than the plastic moment capacity of the column.
This is done to ensure that for a column-to-superstructure fixed connection,
the plastic hinge forms at the top of the column below the superstructure
soffit.
The soil effect can be included as p-y, t-z, and q-z springs.
Though pushover is mainly a capacity estimating procedure, it can also be used

to estimate demand for structures having characteristics outlined previously in
Section 21.2.3.
21.2.4.1 Foundation Soil Springs
The p-y curves are used in the lateral modeling of soil as it interacts with the
bent/column foundations. The Geotechnical Engineer generally produces these
curves, the values of which are converted to proper soil springs within the push
analysis. The spacing of the nodes selected on the pile members would naturally

change the values of spring stiffness, however, a minimum of 10 elements per pile is
advised (recommended optimum is 20 elements or 2 ft to 5 ft pile segments).
The t-z curves are used in the modeling of skin friction along the length of piles.
Vertical springs are attached to the nodes to support the dead load of the bridge
system and to resist overturning effects caused by lateral bridge movement. The
bearing reaction at tip of the pile is usually modeled as a q-z spring. This spring may
be idealized as a bi-linear spring placed in the boundary condition section of the push
analysis input file.
21.2.4.2 Transverse Pushover Analysis
During the transverse movement of a multi-column frame, a strong cap beam

provides a framing action. As a result of this framing action, the column axial force
can vary significantly from the dead load state. If the seismic overturning forces are
large, the top of the column might even go into tension. The effect of change in the
axial force in a column section due to overturning moments can be summarized as
follows:
Mp changes
The tension column(s) will become more ductile while the compression
column(s) will become less ductile.
The required flexural capacity of cap beam that is needed to make sure that
the hinge forms at column top will obviously become larger.
With the changes in column axial loads, the section properties (Mp and Ie) should
be updated and a second iteration of the wFRAME program performed if using
wFRAME for the analysis.
The effective bent cap width to be used for the pushover analysis is calculated as
follows:
Beff Bcap (12t ) (SDC 7.3.1.1-1)
where:
t = thickness of the top or bottom slab (in.)
Bcap = bent cap width (in.)
21.2.4.3 Longitudinal Pushover Analysis
Although the process of calculating the section capacity and estimating the
seismic demand is similar for the transverse and longitudinal directions, there are
some significant differences. For longitudinal push analysis:
If wFRAME program is used, columns are lumped together

For prestressed superstructures, gross moment of inertia is used for the

superstructure
Bent overturning is ignored
The abutment is modeled as a linear spring whose stiffness is calculated as
described in this Section.
If the column or pier cross-section is rectangular, section properties along the

longitudinal direction of the bridge as shown in Figure 21.2-1 must be calculated and
used. If using xSECTION , this can be achieved by specifying in the xSECTION
input file, the angle between the column section coordinate system and the
longitudinal direction of the bridge as shown in the sketch below.
Both left and right longitudinal pushover analyses of the bridge should be
performed.
Bridge longitudinal direction
Bent Line
Figure 21.2-1 Bridge Longitudinal Direction
It is Caltrans practice to design the abutment backwall so that it breaks off in

shear during a seismic event. SDC Section 7.8.1 requires that the linear elastic
demand shall include an effective abutment stiffness that accounts for expansion gaps
and incorporates a realistic value for the embankment fill response. The abutment
embankment fill stiffness is non-linear and is highly dependent upon the properties of
the backfill. The initial embankment fill stiffness, Ki, is estimated at 50 kip/in./ft for
embankment fill material meeting the requirements of Caltrans Standard
Specifications and 25 kip/in./ft, if otherwise.
The initial stiffness, K i shall be adjusted proportional to the backwall/diaphragm
height as follows:
h
K abut K i w (SDC 7.8.1-2)
5.5
where:
w = projected width of the backwall or diaphragm for seat and diaphragm
abutments, respectively (ft)
h = height of the backwall or diaphragm for seat and diaphragm abutments,
respectively (ft)

The passive pressure resisting movement at the abutment, Pw, is given as:
h or hdia
Pw Ae (5 ) bw kip ft (SDC 7.8.1-3)
5.5
where:
hbw wbw For seat abutments
Ae (SDC 7.8.1-4)
hdia wdia For diaphragm abutments
The terms hbw, hdia, wbw, and wdia, are defined in SDC Figure 7.8.1-2.
SDC Section 7.8.1 specifies that the effectiveness of the abutment shall be
assessed by the coefficient:
RA D eff (SDC 7.8.1-5)
where:
RA = abutment displacement coefficient
D = the longitudinal displacement demand at the abutment from elastic analysis
eff = the effective longitudinal abutment displacement at idealized yield
Details on the interpretation and use of the coefficient RA value are given in SDC
Section 7.8.1.
21.2.5 P- Effects
In lieu of a rigorous analysis to determine P- effects, SDC recommends that

such effects can be ignored if the following equation is satisfied:
Pdl r 0.20M col

p (SDC 4.2-1)
where:
M col
p = idealized plastic moment capacity of a column calculated from M-
analysis
Pdl = dead load axial force
r = relative lateral offset between the base of the plastic hinge and the point of
contra-flexure
21.2.6 Minimum Lateral Strength
SDC Section 3.5 specifies that each bent shall have a minimum lateral flexural
capacity (based on expected material properties) to resist a lateral force of 0.1Pdl,

where Pdl is the tributary dead load applied at the center of gravity of the
superstructure.
21.2.7 Column Shear Design
The seismic shear demand shall be based upon the overstrength shear Vo ,
associated with the column overstrength moment M 0col . Since shear failure tends to
be brittle, shear capacity for ductile members shall be conservatively determined
using nominal material properties, as follows:
Vn V0 (SDC 3.6.1-1)
where:
Vn = Vc + Vs (SDC 3.6.1-2)
0.90
21.2.7.1 Shear Demand Vo
Shear demand associated with overstrength moment may be calculated from:

M 0col
V0 (21.2-2)
L
where:
M 0col 1.2M col
p (SDC 4.3.1-1)
L = clear length of column
Alternately, the maximum shear demand may be determined from wFRAME
pushover analysis results. The maximum column shear demand obtained from
wFRAME analysis is multiplied by a factor of 1.2 to obtain the shear demand
associated with the overstrength moment.
21.2.7.2 Concrete Shear Capacity

Vc c Ae (SDC 3.6.2-1)
where:
Ae (0.8) Ag (SDC 3.6.2-2)
c f1 f 2 f c' 4 fc' (Inside the plastic hinge region) (SDC 3.6.2-3)
= 3 f 2 f c' 4 f c' (Outside the plastic hinge region) (SDC 3.6.2-4)

s f yh
0.3 f1 3.67 d 3 ( f yh in ksi) (SDC 3.6.2-5)
0.150
s f yh 0.35 ksi (21.2-3)
Pc
f2 1 1.5 ( Pc is in lb, Ag is in in.2) (SDC 3.6.2-6)
2,000Ag
21.2.7.3 Transverse Reinforcement Shear Capacity Vs

Av f yh D'
Vs (SDC 3.6.3-1)
s
where:

Av n Ab (SDC 3.6.3-2)
2
n = number of individual interlocking spiral or hoop core sections
21.2.7.4 Maximum Shear Reinforcement Strength, Vs,max
Vs, max 8 f c' Ae (psi) (SDC 3.6.5.1-1)
21.2.7.5 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
Av, min 0.025

D's
f yh
in.
2
(SDC 3.6.5.2-1)
21.2.7.6 Column Shear Key
The area of interface shear key reinforcement, Ask in hinged column bases shall
be calculated as shown in the following equations:
1.2( Fsk 0.25P)
Ask if P is compressive (SDC 7.6.7-1)
fy
1.2( Fsk P)
Ask if P is tensile (SDC 7.6.7-2)
fy
where:
Ask 4 in.2 (21.2-4)
Fsk = shear force associated with the column overstrength moment, including
overturning effects (kip)

P = absolute value of the net axial force normal to the shear plane (kip)
= lowest column axial load if net P is compressive considering overturning
effects
= largest column axial load if net P is tensile, considering overturning effects
The hinge shall be proportioned such that the area of concrete engaged in
interface shear transfer, Acv satisfies the following equations:
4.0 Fsk
Acv (SDC 7.6.7-3)
f c'
Acv 0.67Fsk (SDC 7.6.7-4)
In addition, the area of concrete section used in the hinge must be enough to meet
the axial resistance requirements as provided in AASHTO Article 5.7.4.4 (AASHTO
2012), based on the column with the largest axial load.
21.2.8 Bent Cap Flexural and Shear Capacity
According to SDC Section 3.4, a bent cap is considered a capacity protected

member and shall be designed flexurally to remain essentially elastic when the
column reaches its overstrength capacity. The expected nominal moment capacity
Mne for capacity protected members may be determined either by a traditional
strength method or by a more complete M- analysis. The expected nominal moment
capacity shall be based on expected concrete and steel strength values when either
concrete strain reaches 0.003 or the steel strain reaches SU R
as derived from the
applicable stress-strain relationship. The shear capacity of the bent cap is calculated
according to AASHTO Article 5.8 (AASHTO 2012).
The seismic flexural and shear demands in the bent cap are calculated
corresponding to the column overstrength moment. These demands are obtained
from a pushover analysis with column moment capacity as M0 and then compared
with the available flexural and shear capacity of the bent cap.
The effective bent cap width to be used is calculated as follows:

Beff B cap 12t (SDC 7.3.1.1-1)
t = thickness of the top or bottom slab
21.2.9 Seismic Strength of Concrete Bridge Superstructures
When moment-resisting superstructure-to-column details are used, seismic forces

of significant magnitude are induced into the superstructure. If the superstructure
does not have adequate capacity to resist such forces, unexpected and unintentional

hinge formation may occur in the superstructure leading to potential failure of the
superstructure. According to SDC Sections 3.4 and 4.3.2, a capacity design approach
is adopted to ensure that the superstructure has an appropriate strength reserve above
demands generated from probable column plastic hinging. MTD 20-6 (Caltrans
2001a) describes the philosophy, design criteria, and a procedure for determining the
seismic demands in the superstructure, and also recommends a method for
determining the flexural capacity of the superstructure at all critical locations.
21.2.9.1 General Assumptions
As discussed in MTD 20-6, some of the assumptions made to simplify the

process of calculating seismic demands in the superstructure include:
The superstructure demands are based upon complete plastic hinge formation
in all columns or piers within the frame.
Effective section properties shall be used for modeling columns or piers
while gross section properties may be used for superstructure elements.
Additional column axial force due to overturning effects shall be considered
when calculating effective section properties and the idealized plastic
moment capacity of columns and piers.
Superstructure dead load and secondary prestress demands are assumed to be
uniformly distributed to each girder, except in the case of highly curved or
highly skewed structures.
While assessing the superstructure member demands and available section
capacities, an effective width, Beff as defined in SDC Section 7.2.1.1 will be
used.
D 2 Ds Box girders and slab superstructures
Beff c (SDC 7.2.1.1-1)
Dc Ds Open soffit superstructures
where:
Dc = cross sectional dimension of the column (in.)
Ds = depth of the superstructure (in.)
21.2.9.2 Superstructure Seismic Demand
The force demand in the superstructure corresponds to its Collapse Limit State.
The Collapse Limit State is defined as the condition when all the potential plastic
hinges in the columns and/or piers have been formed. When a bridge reaches such a
state during a seismic event, the following loads are present: Dead Loads, Secondary
Forces from Post-tensioning (i.e., prestress secondary effects), and Seismic Loads.
Since the prestress tendon is treated as an internal component of the superstructure
and is included in the member strength calculation, only the secondary effects which
are caused by the support constraints in a statically indeterminate prestressed frame
are considered to contribute to the member demand.

The procedure for determining extreme seismic demands in the superstructure

considers each of these load cases separately and the final member demands are
obtained by superposition of the individual load cases.
Since different tools may be used to calculate these demands, it is very important
to use a consistent sign convention while interpreting the results. The following sign
convention (see Figure 21.2-2a) for positive moments, shears and axial forces, is
recommended. The sign convention used in wFRAME program is shown in Figure
21.2-2b. It should be noted that although the wFRAME element level sign convention
is different from the standard sign convention adopted here, the resulting member
force conditions (for example, member in positive or negative bending, tension or
compression, etc.) are the same as furnished by the standard convention. In
particular, note that the inputs Mp and Mn for the beam element in the wFRAME
program correspond to tension at the beam bottom (i.e., positive bending) and tension
at the beam top (i.e., negative bending), respectively. The engineer should also ensure
that results obtained while using the computer program CTBridge (Caltrans 2007) are
consistent with the above sign conventions when comparing outputs or employing the
results of one program as inputs into another program.
(i) (j) (i) (j)

Beam
Beam
(j) (i)
Column Column
(i) (j)
(a) Standard (b) wFRAME
Figure 21.2-2 Sign Convention for Positive Moment, Shear and Axial force
(Element Level)
Prior to the application of seismic loading, the columns are pre-loaded with
moments and shears due to dead loads and secondary prestress effects. At the
Collapse Limit State, the earthquake moment applied to the superstructure may be
greater or less than the overstrength moment capacity of the column or pier
depending on the direction of these pre-load moments and the direction of the
seismic loading under consideration. Figure 21.2-3 shows schematically this
approach of calculating columns seismic forces.

As recommended in MTD 20-6, due to the uncertainty in the magnitude and

distribution of secondary prestress moments and shears at the extreme seismic limit
state, it is conservative to consider such effects only when their inclusion results in
increased demands in the superstructure.
Once the column moment, Meq, is known at each potential plastic hinge location
below the joint regions, the seismic moment demand in the superstructure can be
determined using currently available Caltrans analysis tools. One such method
entails application of Meq at the column-superstructure joints and then using computer
program SAP2000 (CSI 2007) to compute the moment demand in the superstructure
members. Another method involves using the wFRAME program to perform a
longitudinal pushover analysis by specifying the required seismic moments in the
columns as the plastic hinge capacities of the column ends. The pushover is
continued until all the plastic hinges have formed.
M dl M ps M eq
M 0 M dl M ps M eq
When earthquake forces add
to dead load and secondary
+ + + = prestress forces.
When earthquake forces add to dead
load and secondary prestress forces.
Collapse Limit
Collapse Limit
State
State
M dl M ps
M eq
M 0 M dl M ps M eq
When earthquake forces counteract
dead load and secondary prestress
+ + - = When earthquake forces counteract dead
forces.
load and secondary prestress forces.
Figure 21.2-3 Column Forces Corresponding to Two Seismic Loading Cases
Note that CTBridge is a three-dimensional analysis program where force results

are oriented in the direction of each members local axis. If wFRAME (a two-
dimensional frame analysis program) is used to determine the distribution of seismic
forces to the superstructure, it must be ensured that the dead load and secondary
prestress moments lie in the same plane prior to using them in any calculations. This
must be done especially when horizontal curves or skews are involved.

(1) Dead Load Moments, Additional Dead Load Moments, and Prestress Secondary
Moments
These moments are readily available from CTBridge output and are assumed to
be uniformly distributed along each girder.
(2) Earthquake Moments in the Superstructure (Reference MTD 20-6, SDC 4.3.2)
The aim here is to determine the amount of seismic loading needed to ensure that
potential plastic hinges have formed in all the columns of the framing system. To
form a plastic hinge in the column, the seismic load needs to produce a moment at the
potential plastic hinge location of such a magnitude that, when combined with the
pre-loaded dead load and prestress moments, the column will reach its overstrength
plastic moment capacity, M 0col .
M 0col @ soffit M dlcol @ soffit M col

ps
@ soffit
M eq
col @ soffit
(21.2-5)
It should be kept in mind that dead load moments will have positive or negative
values depending on the location along the span length. Also, the direction of seismic
loading will determine the nature of the seismic moments.
Two cases of longitudinal earthquake loading shall be considered, namely,

(a) bridge movement to the right, and
(b) bridge movement to the left.
col
The column seismic load moments, M eq , are calculated from Equation 21.2-5
based upon the principle of superposition as follows:
col @ soffit
M eq
ps
@ soffit
(21.2-6)
col
In the above equation, the overstrength column moment M o is given as:
M ocol 1.2M col

p (SDC 4.3.1-1)
(3) Earthquake Shear Forces in the Superstructure
A procedure similar to that used for moments can be followed to calculate the
seismic shear force demand in the superstructure. As in the case of moments, the
shear forces in the superstructure member due to dead load, additional dead load, and
secondary prestress are readily available from CTBridge output.

The superstructure seismic shear forces due to seismic moments can be obtained
directly from the wFRAME output or calculated by using the previously computed
values of the superstructure seismic moments, M eqL and M eqR , for each span.
(4) Moment and Shear Demand at Location of Interest
The extreme seismic moment demand in the superstructure is calculated as the

summation of all the moments obtained from the above sections, taking into account
the proper direction of bending in each case as well as the effective section width.
The superstructure demand moments at the adjacent left and right superstructure span
are given by:
M DL M dlL M ps
L
M eqL (21.2-7)
M DR M dlR M ps
R
M eqR (21.2-8)
Similarly, the extreme seismic shear force demand in the superstructure is

calculated as the summation of shear forces due to dead load, secondary prestress
effects and the seismic loading, taking into account the proper direction of bending in
each case and the effective section width. The superstructure demand shear forces at
the adjacent left and right superstructure spans are defined as:
VDL VdlL VpsL VeqL (21.2-9)
VDR VdlR VpsR VeqR (21.2-10)
As stated previously in this section, the secondary effect due to the prestress will
be considered only when it results in an increased seismic demand.
Dead load and secondary prestress moment and shear demands in the
superstructure are proportioned on the basis of the number of girders falling within
the effective section width. The earthquake moment and shear imparted by column is
also assumed to act within the same effective section width.
(5) Vertical Acceleration
In addition to the superstructure demands discussed above, SDC Sections 2.1.3

and 7.2.2 require an equivalent static vertical load to be applied to the superstructure
to estimate the effects of vertical acceleration in the case of sites with Peak Ground
Acceleration (PGA) greater than or equal to 0.6g. For such sites, the effects of
vertical acceleration may be accounted for by designing the superstructure to resist an
additional uniformly applied vertical force equal to 25% of the dead load applied
upward and downward.

21.2.9.3 Superstructure Section Capacity
(1) General
To ensure that the superstructure has sufficient capacity to resist the extreme
seismic demands determined in Section 21.2.9.2, SDC Section 4.3.2 requires the
superstructure capacity in the longitudinal direction to be greater than the demand
distributed to it (the superstructure) on each side of the column by the largest
combination of dead load moment, secondary prestress moment, and column
earthquake moment, i.e.,
sup(R )
M ne M dlR M pR/ s M eqR (SDC 4.3.2-1)
sup(L )
M ne M dlL M pL / s M eqL (SDC 4.3.2-2)
where:
sup R , L
M ne = expected nominal moment capacity of the adjacent right (R) or left (L)
superstructure span
(2) Superstructure Flexural Capacity
MTD 20-6 (Caltrans 2001a) describes the philosophy behind the flexural section
capacity calculations. Expected material properties are used to calculate the flexural
capacity of the superstructure. The member strength and curvature capacities are
assessed using a stress-strain compatibility analysis. Failure is reached when either
the ultimate concrete, mild steel or prestressing ultimate strain is reached. The
internal resistance force couple is shown in Figure 21.2-4.
p/s se
se sa sa p/s
As Ap/s dp/s dc
s
Ts
cs Cc
Cs
Tp/s c
Cp/s
s N/A
MLn ds
ds dp/s
e N/A s MR n
Cc c s
C c T e
s
dc s s
Stress Strain As Strain Stress
Note: Axial forces col

not shown V o
col
M o
Figure 21.2-4 Superstructure Capacity Provided by Internal Couple

Caltrans in-house computer program PSSECx or similar program, may be used to

calculate the section flexural capacity. The material properties for 270 ksi and 250 ksi
prestressing strands are given in SDC Section 3.2.4. According to MTD 20-6, at locations
where additional longitudinal mild steel is not required by analysis, a minimum of #8
bars spaced 12 in. (maximum spacing) should be placed in the top and bottom slabs at the
bent cap. The mild steel reinforcement should extend beyond the inflection points of the
seismic moment demand envelope.
As specified in SDC Section 3.4, the expected nominal moment capacity, Mne, for
capacity protected concrete components shall be determined by either M- analysis
or strength design. Also, SDC Section 3.4 specifies that expected material properties
shall be used in determining flexural capacity. Expected nominal moment capacity
for capacity-protected concrete members shall be based on the expected concrete and
steel strengths when either the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value based on the
stress-strain model or the reduced ultimate prestress steel strain, suR = 0.03 is
reached.
In addition to these material properties, the following information is required for

the capacity analysis:
Eccentricity of prestressing steel - obtained from CTBridge output file. This
value is referenced from the CG of the section.
Prestressing force - obtained from CTBridge output file under the
P/S Response After Long Term Losses Tables.
Prestressing steel area, Aps - calculated for 270ksi steel as
P jack
A ps (21.2-11)
(0.75)(270)
Reinforcement in top and bottom slab, per design including #8 @12.
Location of top and bottom reinforcement, referenced from center of gravity
of section, slab steel section depth and assumed cover, etc.
Both negative (tension at the top) and positive (tension at the bottom) capacities
are calculated at various sections along the length of the bridge by the PSSECx
computer program. The resistance factor for flexure, flexure = 1.0, as we are dealing
with extreme conditions corresponding to column overstrength.
(3) Superstructure Shear Capacity
MTD 20-6 specifies that the superstructure shear capacity is calculated according
to AASHTO Article 5.8. As shear failure is brittle, nominal rather than expected
material properties are used to calculate the shear capacity of the superstructure.

21.2.10 Joint Shear Design
21.2.10.1 General
(1) Principal Stresses
In a ductility-based design approach for concrete structures, connections are key

elements that must have adequate strength to maintain structural integrity under
seismic loading. In moment resisting connections, the force transfer across the joint
typically results in sudden changes in the magnitude and nature of moments, resulting
in significant shear forces in the joint. Such shear forces inside the joint can be many
times greater than the shear forces in individual components meeting at the joint.
SDC Section 7.4 requires that moment resisting connections between the
superstructure and the column shall be designed to transfer the maximum forces
produced when the column has reached its overstrength capacity, M 0col , including the
effects of overstrength shear V0col . Accordingly, SDC Section 7.4.2 requires all
superstructure/column moment-resisting joints to be proportioned so that the
principal stresses satisfy the following equations:
For principal compression, pc: pc 0.25 fc (psi) (SDC 7.4.2-1)

For principal tension, pt: pt 12 fc (psi) (SDC 7.4.2-2)
2
( f h fv ) f fv
pt h v jv
2
(SDC 7.4.4.1-1)
2 2
2
( f fv ) f fv
pc h h v jv
2
(SDC 7.4.4.1-2)
2 2
T
v jv c (SDC 7.4.4.1-3)
A jv
Ajv lacBcap (SDC 7.4.4.1-4)
Pc
fv (SDC 7.4.4.1-5)
A jh
Ajh Dc Ds Bcap (SDC 7.4.4.1-6)
Pb
fh (SDC 7.4.4.1-7)
Bcap Ds
where:
fh = average normal stress in the horizontal direction (ksi)

f = average normal stress in the vertical direction (ksi)

Dc = cross sectional dimension of column in the direction of bending (in.)
Ds = depth of superstructure at the bent cap for integral joints (in.)
lac = length of column reinforcement embedded into the bent cap (in.)
Pc = column axial force including the effects of overturning (kip)
Pb = beam axial force at the center of the joint, including the effects of
prestressing (kip)
Tc = column tensile force (defined as M 0col h ) associated with the column
overstrength plastic hinging moment, M 0col . Alternatively, Tc may be
obtained from the moment-curvature analysis of the cross section (kip)
h = distance from the center of gravity of the tensile force to the center of
gravity of the compressive force of the column section (in.)
In the above equations, the value of f h may be taken as zero unless prestressing
is specifically designed to provide horizontal joint compression.
(2) Minimum Bent Cap Width See Section 21.2.1.1
(3) Minimum Joint Shear Reinforcement
SDC 7.4.4.2 specifies that, if the principal tensile stress, pt is less than or equal to
3.5 f c ' (psi) , no additional joint reinforcement is required. However, a minimum
area of joint shear reinforcement in the form of column transverse steel continued
into the bent cap shall be provided. The volumetric ratio of the transverse column
reinforcement ( s , min ) continued into the cap shall not be less than:
3.5 f c
s, min (psi) (SDC 7.4.4.2-1)
f yh
If pt is greater than 3.5 f c ' , joint shear reinforcement shall be provided. The
amount and type of joint shear reinforcement depend on whether the joint is
classified as a T joint or a Knee Joint.
21.2.10.2 Joint Description
The following types of joints are considered as T joints for joint shear analysis
(SDC Section 7.4.3):
Integral interior joints of multi-column bents in the transverse direction
All integral column-to-superstructure joints in the longitudinal direction

Exterior column joints for box girder superstructures if the cap beam extends
beyond the joint (i.e. column face) far enough to develop the longitudinal cap
reinforcement
Any exterior column joint that satisfies the following equation shall be designed
as a Knee joint. For Knee joints, it is also required that the main bent cap top and
bottom bars be fully developed from the inside face of the column and extend as
closely as possible to the outside face of the cap (see SDC Figure 7.4.3-1).
S Dc (SDC 7.4.3-1)
where:
S = cap beam short stub length, defined as the distance from the exterior girder
edge at soffit to the face of the column measured along the bent centerline
(see Figure SDC 7.4.3-1),
Dc = column dimension measured along the centerline of bent
Bent Cap Top and

Bottom Reinforcement
S Dc
Figure SDC 7.4.3-1 Knee Joint Parameters
21.2.10.3 T Joint Shear Reinforcement
(1) Vertical Stirrups in Joint Region
Vertical stirrups or ties shall be placed transversely within a distance Dc

extending from either side of the column centerline. The required vertical stirrup
area Asjv is given as
Asjv 0.2 Ast (SDC 7.4.4.3-1)
where Ast = Total area of column main reinforcement anchored in the joint. Refer
to SDC Section 7.4.4.3 for placement of the vertical stirrups.

(2) Horizontal Stirrups

Horizontal stirrups or ties, Asjh , shall be placed transversely around the vertical
stirrups or ties in two or more intermediate layers spaced vertically at not more than
18 inches.
Asjh 0.1 Ast (SDC 7.4.4.3-2)
This horizontal reinforcement shall be placed within a distance Dc extending
from either side of the column centerline.
(3) Horizontal Side Reinforcement
The total longitudinal side face reinforcement in the bent cap shall at least be
equal to the greater of the area specified in SDC Equation 7.4.4.3-3.
0.1 Acap
top

Assf max (SDC 7.4.4.3-3)
0.1 Abot
cap
where:
Acap = area of bent cap top or bottom flexural steel (in.2).
The side reinforcement shall be placed near the side faces of the bent cap with a
maximum spacing of 12 inches. Any side reinforcement placed to meet other
requirements shall count towards meeting this requirement.
(4) J Dowels
For bents skewed more than 20o, J bars (dowels) hooked around the longitudinal
top deck steel extending alternately 24 in. and 30 in. into the bent cap are required.
The J-dowel reinforcement shall be equal to or greater than the area specified as:
Asj bar 0.08Ast (SDC 7.4.4.3-4)
This reinforcement helps to prevent any potential delamination of concrete
around deck top reinforcement. The J-dowels shall be placed within a rectangular
region defined by the width of the bent cap and the distance Dc on either side of the
centerline of the column.
Transverse reinforcement in the joint region shall consist of hoops with a

minimum reinforcement ratio specified as:
Ast (SDC 7.4.4.3-5)
s 0.4
lac
2
, provided


where:
Ast = area of longitudinal column reinforcement (in.2)
lac = actual length of column longitudinal reinforcement embedded into the bent
cap (in.)
For interlocking cores, s shall be based on area of reinforcement Ast of each
core. All vertical column bars shall be extended as close as possible to the top bent
cap reinforcement.
(6) Anchorage for Main Column Reinforcement
The main column reinforcement shall extend into the cap as deep as possible to
fully develop the compression strut mechanism in the joint. If the minimum joint
shear reinforcement prescribed in SDC Equation 7.4.4.2-1 is met, and the column
longitudinal reinforcement extension into the cap beam is confined by transverse
hoops or spirals with the same volumetric ratio as that required at the top of the
column, the anchorage for longitudinal column bars developed into the cap beam for
seismic loads shall not be less than:
lac, required 24dbl (SDC 8.2.1-1)
With the exception of slab bridges where the provisions of MTD 20-7 shall
govern, the development length specified above shall not be reduced by use of hooks
or mechanical anchorage devices.
21.2.10.4 Knee Joint Shear Reinforcement
Knee joints may fail in either opening or closing modes (see Figure SDC
7.4.5-1). Therefore, both loading conditions must be evaluated. Refer to SDC Section
7.4.5 for the description of Knee joint failure modes.
(a) (b)
Figure SDC 7.4.5-1 Knee Joint Failure Modes

Two cases of Knee joints are identified as follows:

Dc
Case 1: S (SDC 7.4.5.1-1)
2
Dc
Case 2: S Dc (SDC 7.4.5.1-2)
2
The following reinforcement is required for Knee joints.
(1) Bent Cap Top and Bottom Flexural Reinforcement - Use for both Cases 1 and 2
The top and bottom reinforcement within the bent cap width used to meet this
provision shall be in the form of continuous U-bars with minimum area:
Asu barmin 0.33Ast (SDC 7.4.5.1-3)
where:
Ast = total area of column longitudinal reinforcement anchored in the joint (in.2)
The U bars may be combined with bent cap main top and bottom
reinforcement using mechanical couplers. Splices in the U bars shall not be located
within a distance, ld, from the interior face of the column.
(2) Vertical Stirrups in Joint Region - Use for both Cases 1 and 2
Vertical stirrups or ties, Asjv as specified in SDC Equation 7.4.5.1-4, shall be

placed transversely within each of regions 1, 2, and 3 of Figure SDC 7.4.5.1-1.
Asjv 0.2 Ast (SDC 7.4.5.1-4)
The stirrups provided in the overlapping areas shown in Figure SDC 7.4.5.1-1
shall count towards meeting the requirements of both areas creating the overlap.
These stirrups can be used to meet other requirements documented elsewhere
including shear in the bent cap.
(3) Horizontal Stirrups - Use for both Cases 1 and 2
Horizontal stirrups or ties, Asjh , as specified in SDC Equation 7.4.5.1-5, shall be

placed transversely around the vertical stirrups or ties in two or more intermediate
layers spaced vertically at not more than 18 inches (see Figures SDC 7.4.4.3-2,
7.4.4.3-4, and 7.4.5.1-5 for rebar placement).
Asjh 0.1 Ast (SDC 7.4.5.1-5)

The horizontal reinforcement shall be placed within the limits shown in Figures
SDC 7.4.5.1-2 and SDC 7.4.5.1-3.

jv
As in each of
1 2 3 Bent cap
stirrups
CL Bent 3 Bcap
Dc
CL Girder
S
Dc/2
S < Dc
Figure SDC 7.4.5.1-1 Location of Knee Joint Vertical Shear Reinforcement

(Plan View)
(4) Horizontal Side Reinforcement- Use for both Cases 1 and 2
The total longitudinal side face reinforcement in the bent cap shall be at least
equal to the greater of the area specified as:
0.1 Acap
top

Assf or (SDC 7.4.5.1-6)
0.1 Abot
cap
where:
top
Acap = Area of bent cap top flexural steel (in.2)
bot
Acap = Area of bent cap bottom flexural steel (in.2)
This side reinforcement shall be in the form of U bars and shall be continuous
over the exterior face of the Knee Joint. Splices in the U bars shall be located at least
a distance ld from the interior face of the column. Any side reinforcement placed to

meet other requirements shall count towards meeting this requirement. Refer to SDC
Figures 7.4.5.1-4 and 7.4.5.1-5 for placement details.
(5) Horizontal Cap End Ties for Case 1 Only
The total area of horizontal ties placed at the end of the bent cap is specified as:
Asjhcmin 0.33Asu bar (SDC 7.4.5.1-7)
This reinforcement shall be placed around the intersection of the bent cap
horizontal side reinforcement and the continuous bent cap U-bar reinforcement, and
spaced at not more than 12 inches vertically and horizontally. The horizontal
reinforcement shall extend through the column cage to the interior face of the
column.
(6) J-Dowels - Use for both Cases 1 and 2
Same as in Section 21.2.10.3 for T joints, except that placement limits shall be as
shown in SDC Figure 7.4.5.1-3.
Transverse reinforcement in the joint region shall consist of hoops with a

minimum reinforcement ratio as specified in SDC Equations 7.4.5.1-9 to 7.4.5.1-11.
0.76 Ast
s (For Case 1 Knee joint) (SDC 7.4.5.1-9)
Dclac, provided
Ast
s 0.4 2 (For Case 2 Knee joint, Integral bent cap)
lac, provided
(SDC 7.4.5.1-10)
Ast
s 0.6 2 (For Case 2 Knee joint, Non-integral bent cap)
lac, provided
(SDC 7.4.5.1-11)
where:
lac,provided = actual length of column longitudinal reinforcement embedded into the

bent cap (in.)
Ast = total area of column longitudinal reinforcement anchored in the joint
(in.2)
Dc = diameter or depth of column in the direction of loading (in.)
The column transverse reinforcement extended into the bent cap may be used to
satisfy this requirement. For interlocking cores, s shall be calculated on the basis of

Ast and Dc of each core (for Case 1 Knee joints) and on area of reinforcement, Ast of
each core (for Case 2 Knee joints). All vertical column bars shall be extended as
close as possible to the top bent cap reinforcement.
21.2.11 Torsional Capacity
There is no history of damage to bent caps of Ordinary Standard Bridges from

previous earthquakes attributable to torsional forces. Therefore, these bridges are not
usually analyzed for torsional effects. However, non-standard bridge features (for
example, superstructures supported on relatively long outrigger bents) may
experience substantial torsional deformation and warping and should be designed to
resist torsional forces.
21.2.12 Abutment Seat Width Requirements
Sufficient seat width shall be provided to prevent the superstructure from

unseating when the Design Seismic Hazards occur. Per SDC Section 7.8.3, the
abutment seat width measured normal to the centerline of the bent, N A , as shown in
Figure SDC 7.8.3-1 shall be calculated as follows:
CL Brg.
NA
p/s+cr+sh+temp eq
4
Minimum Seat Width, NA = 30 in.
Figure SDC 7.8.3-1 Abutment Seat Width Requirements
N A p / s cr sh temp eq 4 (in.) (SDC 7.8.3-1)
where:
NA = abutment seat width normal to the centerline of bearing. Note that for
abutments skewed at an angle sk, the minimum seat width measured
along the longitudinal axis of the bridge is NA/cos sk (in.)

p/s = displacement attributed to pre-stress shortening (in.)

cr sh = displacement attributed to creep and shrinkage (in.)
temp = displacement attributed to thermal expansion and contraction (in.)
eq = displacement demand, D for the adjacent frame. Displacement of the
abutment is assumed to be zero (in.)
The minimum seat width normal to the centerline of bearing as calculated above
shall be not less than 30 in.
21.2.13 Hinge Seat Width Requirements
For adjacent frames with ratio of fundamental periods of vibration of the less
flexible and more flexible frames greater than or equal to 0.7, SDC Section 7.2.5.4
requires that enough hinge seat width be provided to accommodate the anticipated
thermal movement (temp), prestress shortening (p/s), creep and shrinkage (cr+sh),
and the relative longitudinal earthquake displacement demand between the two
frames (eq) - see Figure SDC 7.2.5.4-1. The minimum hinge seat width measured
normal to the centerline of bent, N H is given by:

p / s cr sh temp eq 4 in.

NH the larger of or (SDC 7.2.5.4-1)
24 (in.)

where:
eq
1 2
D
2 2
D (SDC 7.2.5.4-2)
eq = relative earthquake displacement demand at an expansion joint (in.)

(iD) = the larger earthquake displacement demand for each frame calculated by
the global or stand-alone analysis (in.)
NH
p/s+cr+sh + eq
temp 4
(Time-dependent
terms)
NH 24
Figure SDC 7.2.5.4-1 Minimum Hinge Seat Width

21.2.14 Abutment Shear Key Design
21.2.14.1 General
According to SDC Section 7.8.4, abutment shear key force capacity, Fsk shall be
determined as follows:
Fsk (0.75V piles Vww ) For Abutment on piles (SDC 7.8.4-1)

Fsk Pdl For Abutment on Spread footing (SDC 7.8.4-2)
0.5 1 (SDC 7.8.4-3)
where:
V piles = Sum of lateral capacity of the piles (kip)
Vww = Shear capacity of one wingwall (kip)
Pdl = Superstructure dead load reaction at the abutment plus the weight of the
abutment and its footing (kip)
= factor that defines the range over which Fsk is allowed to vary
For abutments supported by a large number of piles, it is permitted to calculate

the shear key capacity using the following equation, provided the value of Fsk is less
than that furnished by SDC Equation 7.8.4-1:
Fsk Pdlsup (SDC 7.8.4-4)
where:
Pdlsup = superstructure dead load reaction at the abutment (kip)
21.2.14.2 Abutment Shear Key Reinforcement
The SDC provides two methods for designing abutment shear key reinforcement,
namely, Isolated and Non-isolated methods.
(1) Vertical Shear Key Reinforcement, Ask

Fsk
Ask Isolated shear key (SDC 7.8.4.1A-1)
1.8 f ye
Ask
1
Fsk 0.4 Acv Non-isolated shear key (SDC 7.8.4.1A-2)
1.4 f ye
0.25 f ce' Acv
0.4 Acv Fsk min
(SDC 7.8.4.1A-3)
1 .5 Acv

0.05Acv
Ask (SDC 7.8.4.1A-4)
f ye
where:
In the above equations, f ye and f ce' have units of ksi, Acv and Ask are in in2, and
Fsk is in kip. See SDC Figure 7.8.4.1-1 for placement of shear key reinforcement for
both methods.
(2) Horizontal Reinforcement in the Stem Wall (Hanger Bars), Ash
Ash (2.0) AskIso( provided) Isolated shear key (SDC 7.8.4.1B-1)

(2.0) AskNon iso
( provided)

Ash max Fsk Non-isolated shear key (SDC 7.8.4.1B-2)
f
ye
where:
AskIso( provided) = area of interface shear reinforcement provided in SDC Equation
7.8.4.1A-1(in.2)
iso
AskNon
( provided) = area of interface shear reinforcement provided in SDC Equation
7.8.4.1A-2 (in.2)
For the isolated key design method, the vertical shear key reinforcement, Ask
should be positioned relative to the horizontal reinforcement, Ash to maintain a
minimum length Lmin given by (see Figure SDC 7.8.4.1-1A):
Lmin,hooked 0.6(a b) ldh (SDC 7.8.4.1B-3)

Lmin,headed 0.6(a b) 3 in. (SDC 7.8.4.1B-4)
where:
a = vertical distance from the location of the applied force on the shear key to
the top surface of the stem wall, taken as one-half the vertical length of the
expansion joint filler plus the pad thickness (see Figure SDC 7.8.4.1-1(A))
b = vertical distance from the top surface of the stem wall to the centroid of the
lowest layer of shear key horizontal reinforcement
ldh = development length in tension of standard hooked bars as specified in
AASHTO (2012)

* Smooth construction joint is required at the shear key interfaces with the stemwall and
backwall to effectively isolate the key except for specifically designed reinforcement. These
interfaces should be trowel-finished smooth before application of a bond breaker such as
construction paper. Form oil shall not be used as a bond breaker for this purpose.
(A) Isolatedy Shear Key
(B) Non-Isolated Shear Key

NOTES:
(a) Not all shear key bars shown
(b) On high skews, use 2-inch expanded polystyrene with 1 inch expanded polystyrene
over the 1-inch expansion joint filler to prevent binding on post-tensioned bridges.
Figure SDC 7.8.4.1-1 Abutment Shear Key Reinforcement Details
21.2.15 No-Splice Zone Requirements
No splices in longitudinal column reinforcement are allowed in the plastic hinge

regions (see SDC Section 7.6.3) of ductile members. These plastic hinge regions are
called No-Splice Zones, and shall be detailed with enhanced lateral confinement
and shown on the plans.

In general, for seismic critical elements, no splices in longitudinal rebars are

allowed if the rebar cage is less than 60 ft. long. Refer to SDC Section 8.1.1 for more
provisions for No-Splice Zones in ductile members.
21.2.16 Seismic Design Procedure Flowchart
1. Select column size, column reinforcement, and bent cap width

(SDC Sections 3.7.1, 3.8.1, 7.6.1, 8.2.5)
2. Perform cross-section analysis to determine

column effective moment of inertia
(Material properties - SDC Sections 3.2.6, 3.2.3)
Ensure that dead load on column ~ 10 % column ultimate
'
compressive capacity Ag f c
3. Check span configuration/balanced stiffness

(SDC Section 7.1.1)
No
Multi-frame bridge ?
Yes
o
4. Check frame geometry
(SDC Eq. 7.1.2-1)
5. Calculate minimum local displacement ductility capacity

and demand
(SDC Sections 3.1.3, 3.1.4, 3.1.4.1)
Check that local displacement ductility capacity, c 3

6. Perform transverse pushover analysis

(SDC Section 5.2.3, SDC Eq. 7.3.1.1-1)
Check that:
(a) displacement demand, D < displacement capacity, C
(SDC Eq. 4.1.1-1)
(b) D target value from SDC Section 2.2.4
7. Perform longitudinal pushover analysis

(SDC Sections 5.2.3, 7.8.1)
Check that: (a) D < C
(b) D target value from SDC Section 2.2.4
8. Check P- effects in transverse and

longitudinal directions (SDC Eq. 4.2-1)
9. Check bent minimum lateral strength in

transverse and longitudinal directions
(SDC Section 3.5)
10. Perform column shear design in

transverse and longitudinal directions
(SDC Sections 3.6.1, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.3.1)
No
Are column
bases pinned?
Yes
No
11. Design column shear key
(SDC Section 7.6.7)

12. Check bent cap flexural and shear capacity

(AASHTO Article 5.8, SDC Sect. 3.4, SDC Eq. 7.3.1.1-1)
13. Calculate column seismic load moments

(SDC Sect. 4.3.2, MTD 20-6, SDC Eq. 4.3.1-1)
col @ soffit
M eq
ps
@ soffit

14. Distribute column seismic moments into the

superstructure (S/S) to obtain S/S seismic demands
(Perform right and left Pushover analyses)
15. Calculate S/S moment demands; at location of interest

(SDC Eq. 7.2.1.1-1, MTD 20-6)
M DL M dlL M ps
L
M eqL ; M DR M dlR M ps
R
M eqR
16. Calculate S/S shear demands at location of interest

(SDC Eq. 7.2.1.1-1, MTD 20-6)
VD VdlL V ps
L L
VeqL ; VDR VdlR VpsR VeqR
No
Is
Site PGA 0.6g ?
Yes
o
17. Perform vertical acceleration analysis
(SDC Sections 7.2.2 and 2.1.3)

18. Calculate superstructure flexural and shear Capacity

(MTD 20-6, AASHTO Article 5.8)
19. Design joint shear reinforcement

(SDC Sections 7.4.2, 7.4.4, 7.4.4.3, 7.4.5.1)
.)
No
Multi-frame bridge ?
Yes
Yes
20. Determine minimum hinge seat width
(SDC Section 7.2.5.4)
No
Seat type abutments ?
Yes
o
21. Determine minimum abutment seat width
(SDC Section 7.8.3)
22. Design abutment shear key reinforcement

(SDC Section 7.8.4)
23. Check requirements for No-splice Zone

(SDC Section 8.1.1, MTD 20-9)
END

21.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE - THREE-SPAN CONTINUOUS CAST-

IN-PLACE CONCRETE BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
21.3.1 Bridge Data
The three-span Prestress Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridge shown in Figure
21.3-1 will be used to illustrate the principles of seismic bridge design. The span
lengths are 126 ft, 168 ft and 118 ft. The column height varies from 44 ft at Bent 2 to
47 ft at Bent 3. Both bents have a skew angle of 20 degrees. The columns are pinned
at the bottom. The bridge ends are supported on seat-type abutments.
Material Properties:
Concrete: fc 4 ksi
Reinforcing steel: A706, f y 60 ksi ; Es 29,000 ksi ; f ye 68 ksi ;
fue 95 ksi
Bridge Site Conditions:
This example bridge crosses a roadway and railroad tracks. Because of poor soil
conditions, the footing is supported on piles. The ground motion at the bridge site is
assumed to be:
Soil Profile: Type C
Magnitude: 8.0 0.25
Peak Ground Acceleration: 0.5g
Figure 21.3-2 shows the assumed design spectrum. For more information on
Design Spectrum development, refer to SDC Section 2.1.1 and Appendix B.
Perform seismic analysis and design in accordance with Caltrans SDC Version
1.7 (Caltrans 2013).

Figure 21.3-1 General Plan (Bridge Design Academy Prototype Bridge)

Figure 21.3-2 Design Spectrum for Soil Profile C (M = 8.00.25)

21.3.3 Step 1- Select Column Size, Column Reinforcement, and Bent Cap Width
21.3.3.1 Column size
Given Ds 6.75 ft from the strength limit state design, we select a column width
Dc 6.00 ft so that 0.70 Dc / Ds 0.89 1.00 . OK. (SDC 7.6.1-1)
21.3.3.2 Bent Cap Width
Bcap Dc 2 = 6 + 2 = 8 ft (SDC 7.4.2.1-1)
21.3.3.3 Column Longitudinal and Transverse Reinforcement

As 0.015Ag 0.015 6.00122 0.0154071.5 61.07 in.2
4
Use: #14 bars for longitudinal reinforcement
#8 hoops @ 5 in c/c for the plastic hinge region
Maximum spacing of hoops = 5 in. < 8 in. < 61.693 = 10.2 in. < 72/5 = 14.4 in.
OK. (SDC Section 8.2.5)
61.07
Number of #14 bars = 27.1
2.25
Let us use 26-#14 longitudinal bars (i.e., 1.44% of Ag ) 1.0 1.44 4.0 OK.
(SDC 3.7.1-1/3.7.2-1)
Assuming a concrete cover of 2 in. as specified in CA Amendment Table 5.12.3-1
for minimum concrete cover (Caltrans 2014).
Diameter of longitudinal reinforcement loop (from centerline to centerline of

longitudinal bars):
1.88
d M = 72 2(2) 2(1.13) 2 63.86 in.
2
dM
Spacing of longitudinal bars = 7.7 in. > 1.5(1.693) in. > 1.5 in.
26
OK. (AASHTO 5.10.3.1)
Note: If the provided spacing turns out to be more that the maximum spacing
allowed, then a smaller bar size can be used.

21.3.4 Step 2 - Perform Cross-section Analysis
21.3.4.1 Calculate Dead Load Axial Force
As a first step toward calculating effective section properties of the column, the
dead load axial force at column top (location of potential plastic hinge) is calculated.
These column axial forces are obtained from CTBridge output. It should also be
noted that these loads do not include the weight of the integral bent cap. The
CTBridge model has the regular superstructure cross-section with flared bottom slab
instead of solid cap section. In this example, weight of the whole solid cap was
added to the CTBridge results (conservative).
As read from the CTBridge output results, the column dead load axial forces are:
Column 1 Column 2
Bent 2 (Pc) (kip) 1,489 1,494
Bent 3 (Pc) (kip) 1,425 1,453
Deck Width Soffit Width 1

Average Bent Cap Length =
2 cos(Skew Angle)
49.83 43.08 1
= 49.44ft
2 0
cos(20 )
Bent Cap Weight = 8(6.75)(49.44)(0.150) 400 kips
Adding this bent cap weight, the total axial force in each column becomes:
Column 1 Column 2
Bent 2 (Pc) (kip) 1,689 1,694
Bent 3 (Pc) (kip) 1,625 1,653
21.3.4.2 Check Column Dead Load Axial Force Ratio

1694100%
Using Column 2 of Bent 2 (worst case): 10.4 % ~ 10% OK.
4071.5 4

21.3.4.3 Material and Section Properties for Section Analysis Using xSECTION Program
Expected compressive strength of concrete
f ce' 1.3(4,000) 5,200 psi * > 5,000 psi OK. (SDC 3.2.6-3)
* The xSECTION input file was originally created with the value of f ce' 5.28 ksi.
The resulting values of ductility parameters are not significantly different from the
corresponding values obtained using f ce' 5.20 ksi. Therefore, the results with
f ce' 5.28 ksi are retained.
Other concrete properties used are listed in SDC Section 3.2.6.

The following values are used as input to xSECTION program:
Column Diameter = 72.0 in. Concrete cover = 2 in.
Main Reinforcement: #14 bars, total 26.
Lateral Reinforcement: #8 hoops @ 5 in c/c, f ce' 5,200 psi *
The program calculates the modulus of elasticity of concrete internally.
For Grade A706 bar reinforcing steel,

0.09 T ransverse steel
su
R

0.06 Longitudinal steel
Select Output for Bent 2 Column xSECTION run is shown in
Appendix 21.3-1.
Moment-Curvature ( M ) diagram for Bent 2 Column is shown in
Appendix 21.3-2.
Bent 2 Column Axial Force, Pc = 1,694 kips.
Bent 3 Column Axial Force, Pc = 1,653 kips.
From M- analysis results, cracked moment of inertia, Ie = 23.717 ft4 for Bent 2
columns (See Appendices 21.3-1 and 21.3-2). For Bent 3, Ie = 23.612 ft4.
21.3.5 Step 3 - Check Span Configuration/Balanced Stiffness
21.3.5.1 Bent 2 Stiffness

331501.5 5,200
Ec 33wc 1.5 f c' ( psi) 4,372 ksi (SDC 3.2.6-1)
1,000
3EIe (3)(4,372)(23.717)(124 )
k2e (2) ( 2) 87.64 kip/in.
L3 (44 (12))3

21.3.5.2 Bent 3 Stiffness
(3)(4,372)(23.612)(124 )
k3e (2) 71.59 kip/in.
(47(12))3
(2)(1,694)
m2 = Total tributary mass at Bent 2 = 8.77 kip s 2 /in.
(32.2)(12)
(2)(1,653)
m3 = Total tributary mass at Bent 3 = 8.56 kip s 2 /in.
(32.2)(12)
kie 71.59
0.82 0.75 0.5 OK. (SDC 7.1.1-1 and 7.1.1-3)
k ej 87.64
It is seen that the balanced stiffness criteria and span layout configuration are
satisfied. Note that since this is a constant width bridge with only two bents and two
columns in each bent, we only need to satisfy the more onerous of SDC Equations
(7.1.1-1) and (7.1.1-3).
21.3.6 Step 4 - Check Frame Geometry
Since this is a single-frame bridge, this step does not apply.
21.3.7 Step 5 Calculate Minimum Local Displacement Ductility Capacity and

Demand
21.3.7.1 Displacement Ductility Capacity
(1) Bent 2 Columns
L = 44 ft
Y 0.000078rad/in. as read from the M data listed in Appendix 21.3-1.
Lp 0.08L 0.15 f ye dbl 0.3 f ye dbl
0.08(528) 0.15(68)(1.693) 59.51in. 0.3(68)(1.693) 34.54in.
OK. (SDC 7.6.2.1-1)
L
2
1
Y Y (528) 2 (0.000078) 7.25 in. (SDC 3.1.3-2)
3 3

Plastic curvature, p 0.000747 rad/in. (See M data shown in Appendices
21.3-1 and 21.3-2).
Plastic rotation, p L p p 59.51 0.000747 0.044454 rad. (SDC 3.1.3-4)

Lp
0.044454 528
59.51
Plastic displacement, p p L 22.15 in.
2 2
(SDC 3.1.3-8)
Total Displacement Capacity, c Y p 7.25 22.15 29.40 in.
(SDC 3.1.3-1)
c 29.40
Local displacement ductility capacity, c = 4.1 3
Y 7.25
OK. (SDC Section 3.1.4.1)
(2) Bent 3 Columns
Similarly, p = 24.93 in., Y = 8.27 in.

c 33.20
c = 4.0 3 OK.
Y 8.27
21.3.7.2 Displacement Ductility Demand
(1) Bent 2
The period of fundamental mode of vibration is as:

m2 8.77
T2 2 e
2 1.99 sec.
k2 87.64
From the Design spectrum shown in Figure 21.3-2, the value of spectral
acceleration for T = 1.99 sec is read as: a2 0.36g
ma 8.77(0.36)(32.2)(12)
Displacement demand, D 13.92 in.
ke 87.64
13.92
Displacement Demand ductility, D 1.9 5 OK. (SDC Section 2.2.4)
7.25
(2) Bent 3
Similarly, for Bent 3, T3 2.17 sec. The longer period is expected because Bent
3 columns are longer.
The corresponding value of spectral acceleration, a3 0.33g (Figure 21.3-2)
8.56(0.33)(32.2)(12)
Displacement demand, D 15.25 in.
71.59
15.25
Displacement Demand ductility, D 1.8 5 OK.
8.27

21.3.8 Step 6 Perform Transverse Pushover Analysis
21.3.8.1 Modeling
Figure 21.3-3 shows a schematic model of the frame in the transverse direction.
Data used for the soil springs are shown in Appendix 21.3-3.
The following values of column effective section properties for Bent 2 and
idealized plastic moment capacity (under dead loads only) obtained from xSECTION
output (see Appendix 21.3-1) are used as input in wFRAME program for pushover
analysis.
Pc (kip) Mp (kip-ft) Ie (ft4) y ( rad/in.) p ( rad/in.)

1,694 13,838 23.717 0.000078 0.000747
Appendices 21.3-4 and 21.3-5 show select portions of xSECTION output for the
cap section for positive and negative bending, respectively. The following section
properties are used for the wFRAME run:
ve ve
A 62.62 ft 2 *, I eff 55.57 ft 4 , I eff 48.94 ft 4
*Note that per SDC Equation 7.3.1.1-1, the value of A (effective bent cap cross
sectional area) would be 66.62 ft2. The value of 62.62 ft4 used is based on effective
bent cap overhang width of 34 in. required by California Amendment Article
4.6.2.6.1 (Caltrans 2014). However, any errors introduced by using A = 62.62 ft4
instead of A = 66.62 ft4 would result in a conservative design.
As the frame is pushed toward the right, the resulting overturning moment
causes redistribution of the axial forces in the columns. This overturning causes an
additional axial force on the front side column, which will experience additional
compression. The column on the backside experiences the same value in tension,
reducing the net axial load. Based on their behavior, these columns are usually
known as compression and tension columns, respectively.
At the instant the first plastic hinge forms (in this case at the top of the
compression column), the following superstructure displacement and corresponding
lateral force values are obtained from the wFRAME output (see Appendix 21.3-6):
y 8.49 in.
Corresponding lateral force = 0.171(3,382) = 578 kips, where, 3,382 kips is the
total tributary weight on the bent. At this stage, the axial forces in tension and
compression columns as read from the wFRAME analysis output are 907 kips and
2,474 kips, respectively.

3.38
Rigid Links
35.80
7.72* 7.72*
34*
L
Loose SAND:
OOSE Sand
N = 10,=30
N=10, = O30
, o,
KK==2525PCI
pci 3.28
8.20
Medium Dense
MEDIUM D Sand
ENSE SAND
N = 20, = 33o,
N=20, =33 degrees
K = 150 pci
K=150 pci
* Dimensions along the skewed bent line
Figure 21.3-3 Transverse Pushover Analysis Model
These values can be quickly checked using simple hand calculations as described
below:
M overturning 57844 25,432 kip - ft
25,432
Axial compression corresponding to M overturning , P 748 kips
34

The axial force in the compression column will increase to 1,694 + 748 = 2,242
kips. The tension column will see its axial compression drop to 1,694-748 = 946 kips.
These values compare very well with the wFRAME results. The small differences are
probably due to the presence of soil in the more realistic wFRAME model.
Column section properties corresponding to the updated axial forces (i.e. with
overturning) are obtained from new xSECTION runs and summarized in the table
below (see Appendices 21.3-7 and 21.3-8 for select portions of the output for the
compression and tension columns, respectively).
Column Type Pc (kip) Mp (kip-ft) Ie (ft4) y ( rad/in.) p ( rad/in.)

Tension 907 12,636 21.496 0.000079 0.000836
Compression 2,474 14,964 25.572 0.000079 0.000682
Note that higher compression produces a higher value of Mp but a reduction in p.

This trend occurs in all columns and is a reminder that Mp is not the only indicator of
column performance.
With updated values of Mp and Ie, we run a second iteration of the wFRAME
program. As the frame is pushed laterally, the compression column yields at the top
at a displacement y(1) = 8.79 inches. The tension column has not reached its
capacity yet. See Appendix 21.3-9 for these results. At this stage, the column axial
forces are read to be 880 kips and 2,502 kips for tension and compression columns,
respectively. Since, the change in column axial load is now less than 5%, there is no
need for further iteration.
As the frame is pushed further, the already yielded compression column is able to
undergo additional displacement because of its plastic hinge rotational capacity. As
the bent is pushed further, the top of the tension column yields at a displacement, y(2)
= 10.52 in (see Appendix 21.3-9). At this point the effective bent stiffness approaches
zero and will not attract any additional force if pushed further. The bent, however,
will be able to undergo additional displacement until the rotational capacity of one of
the hinges is reached. The force-displacement relationship is shown in Appendix
21.3-10.
The idealized yield y, which was calculated previously based upon the
assumption that cap beam is infinitely rigid, is updated to 8.79 inches. The
corresponding lateral force = 0.176(3,382) = 595 kips.

21.3.8.2 Displacement Ductility Capacity
The main purpose of the preliminary calculation for C was to size up the
members and ensure that they meet the minimum local displacement ductility
capacity of 3 before proceeding with the more realistic and comprehensive pushover
analysis that includes the effects of bent cap flexibility.
The displacement capacities for both columns are calculated as before (see Step
5) using updated values of p, and summarized below:
Tension Column Compression Column
L = 44 ft, Lp = 59.51 in. L = 44 ft, L p 59.51 in.
p = 0.000836 rad/in. p = 0.000682 rad/in.

p = 24.79 in. p = 20.22 in.
c = 10.52 + 24.79 = 35.31 in. c = 8.79 + 20.22 = 29.01 in.
For bents having a large number of columns or more locations for potential
hinging, tabulation of these results provides a quick way to determine the critical
hinge.
Hinge Location Yield Displacement Plastic Total Displacement
(in.) Deformation (in.) Capacity (in.)
Compression Column
8.79 20.22 29.01*
Top
Tension Column Top 10.52 24.79 35.31
* Critical bent displacement capacity, C.
21.3.8.3 Displacement Ductility Demand
(1) Bent 2
Fy 595 k
k2e 67.69
y 8.79 in
8.77
T 2 2.26 sec
67.69
From the Design Spectrum (DS) curve, the spectral acceleration a2 is read as
0.32g. The maximum seismic displacement demand is estimated as:
8.77 (0.32 32.2 12)
D 16.02 in.
67.69
16.02
D 1.82 < 5 OK. (SDC Section 2.2.4)
8.79

Also, D 16.02 in. C 29.01 in. OK. (SDC 4.1.1-1)

Note that the bent is forced well beyond its yield displacement but that collapse is
prevented because of ductile capacity. This is what we expect of Caltrans No
Collapse Performance Criteria. Based upon these checks one might conclude that
the column is over designed for the anticipated seismic demand. However, as shown
later, the P- effect controls the column flexural design.
The above calculation was made assuming the bent stiffness equals the stiffness
at first yield. This assumption is valid because the two hinges occurred close to each
other (i.e., 8.79 in and 10.52 in). If this assumption is not valid, a more exact
calculation may be carried out using idealized stiffness as follows (see Figure 21.3-
4):
Fy 640
k 2e 66.67 kip/in.
y 9.6
8.77
T 2 2.28 sec .
66.67
8.77(0.32)(32.2)(12)
a2 = 0.3g; D 16.27 in.
66.67
16.27
D 1.69 5 OK.
9.6
D 16.27 in. C 29.01in. OK.
640
595
640
Force
(kip)
8.79 9.60 10.52 Displacement (in.)
Figure 21.3-4 Force Displacement Relations

(2) Bent 3
The same procedure is repeated to perform transverse pushover analysis for Bent
3. The results are summarized below:
Tension Column Compression Column
L 47 ft, L p 62.39 in. L 47 ft, L p 62.39 in.
p 0.000842rad/in. p 0.000685rad/in.
p 27.99 in. p 22.77 in.
c 11.48 27.99 39.47 in. c 9.71 22.77 32.48 in.*
* Critical bent displacement capacity, C.
Seismic Demand
Fy 0.180(3,278)
ke3 60.77 kip/in.
y 9.71
8.56
The period of vibration, T 2 2.36 sec
60.77
From Design Spectrum, the spectral acceleration a3 is read as 0.31g.
8.56(0.31)(32.2)(12)
D 16.87 in.
60.77
16.87
D 1.74 5 OK.
9.71
Also, D 16.87 in. C 32.48 in. OK.
21.3.9 Step 7- Perform Longitudinal Pushover Analysis
21.3.9.1 Abutment Soil Springs
This bridge is supported on seat type abutments (see Figure 21.3-5 for effective
abutment dimensions). The effective area is calculated as:
Ae hbwwbw 6.75(46.46) 313.6ft 2 (SDC 7.8.1-4)

( wbw (49.83 43.08) / 2 46.46ft )
h 6.75
Pw Ae (5 ) bw (313.6)(5) 1,924 kips (SDC 7.8.1-3)
5.5 5.5

wbw hbw
Figure 21.3-5 Effective Area of Seat Type Abutment
Using initial embankment fill stiffness,

kips/in.
Ki 50 (SDC 7.8.1-1)
ft
Initial abutment stiffness
h 6.75
K abut Ki w 50(46.46) 2,851 kip/in. (SDC 7.8.1-2)
5.5 5.5
F 1,924
0.67 in. (See Figure 21.3-6)
K 2,851
effective gap 0.67 2.60 3.27 in. 0.272ft
See Appendix 21.3-11 for calculations for gap, the combined effect of thermal
movement and anticipated shortening. Average contributory length is used in the
calculation for gap.
1,924
Abut
Kinitial 588 kip/in. 7,061 kip/ft
3.27
1,924 kip
588 kip/in.
2.6 in. 0.67 in.
Figure 21.3-6 Initial Abutment Stiffness Iteration

This value is used as the starting abutment stiffness for the longitudinal pushover
analysis. When the structure has reached its plastic limit state (i.e., when both bents
2 and 3 columns have yielded), the longitudinal bridge stiffness is calculated as
follows:
0.38(8,430)
klong 351 kip/in.
9.13
(See Appendix 21.3-12 for the force-deflection curve for Right Push).
W 8,430
Mass, m 21.82 kip s 2 /in.
g 32.2 12
m 21.82
T 2 2 1.57 sec
klong 351
Sa 0.48g
F ma 21.82(0.48)(32.2)(12)
D 11.53 in.
K K 351
D 11.53
RA 3.53
effective 3.27
Abut
Since 2 < R A < 4, K final Kinitial
Abut
1.0 0.45( RA 2) (SDC Section 7.8.1)
Abut
K final 588(0.312) 183 kip/in. 2196kip/ft
The following stiffness values as shown in Figure 21.3-7 shall be used for all
subsequent wFRAME longitudinal pushover analyses:
K1 = 2,196 kip/ft and 1 = 0.272 ft
K2 = 0 kip/ft and 2 = 1.0 ft
K2
K1
0.272 ft 1.0 ft
Figure 21.3-7 Final Abutment Stiffness

21.3.9.2 Displacement Ductility Capacity and Demand

From the wFRAME results (see Appendix 21.3-13 for the force-displacement
relationship for the right push), the yield displacements of Bent 2 and Bent 3 are:
Location Yield Displacement Yield Displacement

(Right Push) (in.) (Left Push) (in.)
Bent 2 8.86 8.36
Bent 3 9.11 9.84
The plastic deformation capacities for both Bent 2 and Bent 3 are exactly the
same as calculated for the transverse bending for the case of gravity loading. This is
because the longitudinal case has very little overturning to change the column axial
loads.
p = 22.15 in. for Bent 2 and p = 24.93 in. for Bent 3.
(1) Bent 2
c 8.86 22.15
Min c = 3.5 3 OK. (SDC Section 3.1.4)
Y 8.86
(2) Bent 3
c 9.84 24.93
Min c 3.5 3 OK. (SDC Section 3.1.4)
y 9.84
From wFRAME force-displacement relationship of Appendix 21.3-13, the bridge
longitudinal stiffness is calculated when the first bent has yielded.
0.22(8,430)
klong 209 kip/in.
8.86
T = 2.03 sec for which Sa = 0.35g
D = 14.12 in.
This demand is the same at Bents 2 and 3 because the superstructure constrains
the bents to move together. This might not be the case when the bridge has
significant foundation flexibility that can result from rotational and/or translational
foundation movements.
14.12
Max D 1.7 5 (Bent 2) OK. (SDC Section 2.2.4)
8.36
14.12
Max D 1.5 5 (Bent 3) OK. (SDC Section 2.2.4)
9.11

21.3.10 Step 8 - Check P - Effects
21.3.10.1 Transverse direction
We have relatively heavily loaded tall columns. P-effects could be significant

for this type of situation.
(1) Bent 2 Columns

Pdl = 1,694 kips, M p = 13,838 kip-ft,
Maximum Seismic Displacement r = 16.02 in.
Pdl r 1,694(16.02)
0.16 0.20 OK. (SDC 4.2-1)
M col
p 13,838(12)
(2) Bent 3 Columns

Pdl = 1,653 kips, M p = 13,777 kip-ft,
Maximum Seismic Displacement r = 16.87 in.
Pdl r 1,653(16.87)
0.17 0.20 OK. (SDC 4.2-1)
M col
p 13,777(12)
Now we can see that although the selected column section has more than enough
ductility capacity, the column sections meet the P- requirements only by a small
margin.
21.3.10.2 Longitudinal Direction
(1) Bent 2 Columns

Pdl r 1,694(14.12)
0.14 0.20 OK. (SDC 4.2-1)
M col
p 13,838(12)
(2) Bent 3 Columns

Pdl r 1,653(14.12)
0.14 0.20 OK. (SDC 4.2-1)
M col
p 13,777(12)
21.3.11 Step 9 - Check Bent Minimum Lateral Strength
21.3.11.1 Transverse direction
From the force deflection data shown in Appendix 21.3-10,

Minimum lateral strength per bent =

0.193,383 643kips 0.1(3,383) 338 kips OK. (SDC Section 3.5)
2.3.11.2 Longitudinal Direction
From the force deflection data shown in Appendix 21.3-13,

Minimum lateral strength per column =
8,430 8,430
0.22 927 kips 0.1 422 kips OK. (SDC Section 3.5)
2 2
21.3.12 Step 10 - Perform Column Shear Design
21.3.12.1 Transverse Bending

(1) Bent 2
M 0 1.2M p 1.2(14,964) 17,957 kip ft (includes overturning effects).
Shear demand associated with overstrength moment is as:

M 17,957
V0 0 408 kips
L 44
Alternatively, from wFRAME output (see Appendix 21.3-9), the maximum
column shear demand = 1.2(349) 419 kips.
The presence of soil around the footing results in a slightly shorter effective
column length, which in turn causes slightly higher column shear demand in the
wFRAME output.
Concrete Shear Capacity, Vc
For #8 hoops @ 5 in o.c.,
1.13 1.13
Ab 0.79 in.2 , D' 72 2 2 66.87 in. , s 5 in.
2 2
4 Ab
s 0.009451 (SDC 3.8.1-1)
D's
f yh = 60 ksi
s f yh 0.009451(60) 0.57 0.35
Use s f yh 0.35 ksi (SDC Section 3.6.2)
Using the maximum value of the displacement ductility demand, d = 1.82 (see
calculation for Bent 2 Transverse pushover analysis), the shear capacity factor f1 is
calculated as:

s f yh 0.35
f1 3.67 d 3.67 1.82 4.18 3
0.150 0.150
Use f1 = 3 (SDC 3.6.2-5)
Pc 88010 3
f2 1 1 1.11 1.5 OK.

2,000 6 (12)
2,000Ag 2
4
Use f 2 1.11
It is seen from the equations for concrete shear capacity, that the plastic hinge
region is more critical as the capacity will be lower in this region. Furthermore, the
shear capacity is reduced when the axial load is decreased. The controlling shear
capacity will be found in the tension column.
vc f1 f 2 f c' 3(1.11) 4,000 211psi 4 4,000 253 psi OK.

Ae 0.8 6(12) 2 3,257in.2
4
Vc vc Ae 211(3,257) 687,227 lb 687 kips
Transverse Reinforcement Shear Capacity, Vs
nAv f yh D' 0.79(60)(66.87)

Vs
2 996 kips
2 s 5
Maximum shear strength is as:

Vs, max 8 f c' Ae 8 4,0003,257 / 1,000
OK. (SDC 3.6.5.1-1)
1,648 kips 996 kips
Minimum shear reinforcement is as:
D's
Av, min 0.025
f yh
OK. (SDC 3.6.5.2-1)
66.87(5)
0.025 0.14 in. 0.79 in.
2 2
60
Shear capacity
Vn 0.9Vc Vs 0.9(687 996) 1,515 kips V0 419 kips OK.

(2) Bent 3
M 0 1.2(14,893)
V0 380 kips
L 47
From the wFRAME analysis results, the maximum column shear demand = 1.2
340 = 408 kips. Going through a similar calculation as was done for Bent 2 columns,
we determine that
Vn 0.9Vc Vs 0.9(681 996) 1,509 kips V0 408 kips OK.
21.3.12.2 Longitudinal bending
(1) Bent 2
V0 = 1.2Vp = 1.2(645/2) = 377 kips
This corresponds to the maximum shear value of Vp = 323 kips/column obtained
from the wFRAME pushover analysis.
For D = 1.7, f 1 = 4.3 > 3. Use f 1 = 3.
For dead load axial force, factor f 2 = 1.21
vc = 230 psi which gives Vc = 749 kips
Vs = 996 kips as calculated before.
Vn 0.9(749 996) 1,571 kips V0 307 kips OK.
(2) Bent 3
V0 = 1.2Vp = 1.2(629/2) = 378 kips
This corresponds to the maximum shear value of Vp = 315 kips/column obtained
from the wFRAME pushover analysis.
For D = 1.5, factor 1 = 4.5 > 3. Use f 1 = 3
For dead load axial force, factor f 2 = 1.20
vc = 228 psi which gives Vc = 743 kips
Vs = 996 kips as calculated earlier.
Vn 0.9(743 996) 1,565 kips V0 378 kips OK.

21.3.13 Step 11- Design Column Shear Key
21.3.13.1 Determine Shear Key Reinforcement
Since the net axial force on both columns of Bent 2 is compressive, the area of
interface shear key, required Ask is given by
1.2( Fsk 0.25P)
Ask (SDC 7.6.7-1)
fy
P = 815 kips (for column with the lowest axial load) see Appendix 21.3-9
Shear force associated with column overstrength moment is as:
Fsk = shear force associated with column overstrength moment
1.2349 419 kips For Bent 2
Fsk
1.2340 408 kips For Bent 3
See Step 10 Perform Column Shear Design and Appendix 21.3-9.
Therefore, Fsk = 419 kips
1.2419 0.25(815)
Ask 4.3 in.2 4 in.2 OK.
60
Provide 6#8 dowels in column key ( Ask , provided = 4.74 in.2 > 4.3 in.2 OK.)
Dowel Cage diameter: Preferred spacing of #8 bars = 4.25 in. (see BDD 13-20)
Diameter of dowel cage = (6)(4.25)/ = 8.1 in. say 9 in. cage
21.3.13.2 Determine Concrete Area Engaged in Shear Transfer, Acv
4.0 Fsk 4.0(419)

Acv = 419 in.2 (SDC 7.6.7-3)
f c' 4
Acv 0.67Fsk 281 in.2 (SDC 7.6.7-4)
Per SDC Section 7.6.7, Acv must not be less than that required to meet the axial
resistance requirements specified in AASHTO Article 5.7.4.4 (AASHTO 2012).

Pn 0.85 0.85 f c' ( Ag Ast ) f y Ast (AASHTO 5.7.4.4-2)
Using the largest axial load with overturning effects P = 2,567 kips (see
Appendix 21.3-9) and = 1 (seismic), we have:

Pn 1.00.85 0.854( Ag 4.74) 604.74 2,567 kips
Ag = 809 in.2 > 419 in.2

Therefore, Acv,reqd 809 in.2
Diameter of Acv
8094 32 in.

Use Acv diameter = 32 in. (see Figure 21.3-8)
9 in. Cage
6-#8
Dowel
s
Acv Diameter = 32 in.
Figure 21.3-8 Column Shear Key
21.3.14 Step 12 - Check Bent Cap Flexural and Shear Capacity
21.3.14.1 Check Bent Cap Flexural Capacity
The design for strength limit states had resulted in the following main
reinforcement for the bent cap:
Top Reinforcement 22 - #11 rebars

Bottom Reinforcement 24 - #11 rebars
Ignoring the side face reinforcement, the positive and negative flexural capacity
of the bent cap is estimated to be M+ve = 21,189 kip-ft and M-ve = 19,436 kip-ft.
Appendices 21.3-4 and 21.3-5 show these values, which are based on when either the
concrete strain reaches 0.003 or the steel strain reaches SU
R
as required for capacity
protected members (See SDC Section 3.4).
The seismic flexural and shear demands in the bent cap are calculated
corresponding to the column overstrength moment. These demands are obtained from

a new wFRAME pushover analysis of Bent 2 with column moment capacity taken as
Mo. As shown in Appendix 21.3-14 (right pushover), bent cap moment demands are:
M Dve 14,350 kip ft M ve 21,189 kip ft OK.
M Dve 15,072 kip ft M ve 19,436 kip ft OK.

The associated shear demand obtained from the above pushover analysis, Vo =
2,009 kips.
21.3.14.2 Check Bent Cap Shear Capacity
Nominal shear resistance of the bent cap, Vn is the lesser of:

Vn Vc Vs + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-1)
and
Vn 0.25 f c'bv dv + Vp (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-2)
where:
Vc 0.0316 f c' bv d v (AASHTO 5.8.3.3-3)
Av f y d v cot
Vs (AASHTO C5.8.3.3-1)
s
Vp = 0 (bent cap is not prestressed)
bv = effective web width = 8 ft = 96 in.
dv = effective shear depth = distance between the resultants of the tensile and
compressive forces due to flexure, not to be taken less than the greater of
0.9d e or 0.72h (see AASHTO Article 5.8.2.9).
0.72 h = 0.72 (81) = 58.3 in.
Assuming clear distance from cap bottom to main bottom bars = 5 in.
d e = cap effective depth = 81-5-1.63/2 = 75.2 in.
0.9d e = 0.9(75.2) = 67.7 in. > 58.3 in.
Therefore, d v, min = 67.7 in
Method 1 of AASHTO Article 5.8.3.4 (AASHTO 2012) is used to determine the

values of and (the bent cap section is non-prestressed and the effect of any axial
tension is assumed to be negligible).
Use = 2.0 and = 45o per AASHTO Article 5.8.3.4.1.
Vc 0.0316 f c' bv dv 0.0316(2)( 4 )(96)(67.7) 821 kips
Assuming 6-legged, #6 stirrups @ 7 in. o.c. transverse reinforcement (see Figure

21.3-19).

Av f y d v cot
6(0.44)(60)(67.7)(cot 45)
Vs 1,532 kips
s 7
Vn Vc Vs 821 1,532 2,353kips
Vn 0.25 f c'bv dv 0.25(4)(96)(67.7) 6,499kips 2,353kips
Vn 2,353kips
Vn 0.9(2,353) 2,118kips V0 2,009kips OK.
21.3.15 Step 13 - Calculate Column Seismic Load Moments
21.3.15.1 Determine Dead Load, Additional Dead Load, and Prestress Secondary
Moments at Column Tops/Deck Soffit
For this bridge, the top of bent support results from CTBridge (Table 21.3-1) will
need to be transformed to the consistent planar coordinate system (i.e., the plane
formed by the centerline of the bridge and the vertical axis) to ensure consistency
with wFRAME results and to account for the bridge skew. To do so, the following
coordinate transformation (see Figure 21.3-9) will be applied to the top of column
moments from CTBridge.
Table 21.3-1 Top of Bent Column Moments (kip-ft) from CTBridge

DL ADL Sec. PS
Skew Mz My Mlong Mz My Mlong Mz My Mlong
Bent (Degree)
2 20 -1,189 91 -1,148 -213 17 -207 82 -371 204
3 20 1,305 -1 1,227 234 -1 220 -127 287 -218
It is noted that the above values are for both columns in each bent.
(1) Moment at Column top - Bent 2
Dead load and additional dead load moments (Figure 21.3-10)

col,bottom
Column moment at base, M dl 0 kip - ft (CTBridge Output)
Column moment at deck soffit,
M dlcol,top @ jo int 1,148 207 1,355 kip - ft
Secondary Prestress Moments (Figure 21.3-11)

Column moment at base, M col
ps
,bottom
0 kip - ft (CTBridge Output)
Column moment at deck soffit, M col
ps
,top @ jo int
204 kip - ft

CL BRIDGE
(positive rotation)
My My
Mz
Mz
(positive skew)
Tx = Tx (out of page)
CL BENT
Column
Mz = Mz cos - My sin (Longitudinal Moment)

My = Mz sin + My cos (Transverse Moment)
Tx = Tx (Torsional Moment)
Figure 21.3-9 Coordinate Transformation from Skewed to

Unskewed Configuration
Deck Soffit
30.8 kips
1,355 kip-ft
Column
30.8 kips
Figure 21.3-10 Free Body Diagram Showing Equilibrium

of Dead Loading at Bent 2

204 kip-ft Deck Soffit

4.6 kips
Column
4.6 kips
Figure 21.3-11 Free Body Diagram Showing Equilibrium of

Secondary Prestress Forces at Bent 2
(2) Moment at Column Top - Bent 3
Dead load and additional dead load moments

col,top @ jo int
Column moment at base, M dl 0 kip - ft (CTBridge Output)
Column moment at deck soffit,

M dlcol,top @ jo int 1,227 220 1,447 kip - ft
Secondary Prestress Moments
Column moment at base, M col
ps
,bottom
0 kip ft (CTBridge Output)
Column Moment at deck soffit, M col
ps
,top @ jo int
218 kip - ft
21.3.15.2 Determine Earthquake Moments in the Superstructure
(1) Dead Load and Additional Dead Load Moments
CTBridge output lists these moments at every 1/10th point of the span length and
at the face of supports (see Table 21.3-2).
(2) Secondary Prestress Moments
CTBridge output lists these moments at every 1/10th point of the span length and
at the face of supports (see Table 21.3-2).

Table 21.3-2 Dead Load and Secondary Prestress Moments

from CTBridge Output
Location Whole Superstructure Width Per Girder

x/L x M DL M ADL M PS M DL M ADL M PS
(ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
Support 1.5 619 114 647 124 23 129
0.1 12.6 7110 1275 1462 1422 255 292
0.2 25.2 12158 2178 2272 2432 436 454
0.3 37.8 14741 2640 3096 2948 528 619
0.4 50.4 14857 2661 3956 2971 532 791
Span 1
0.5 63 12508 2240 4705 2502 448 941

0.6 75.6 7693 1377 5617 1539 275 1123
0.7 88.2 412 74 6400 82 15 1280
0.8 100.8 -9334 -1671 7911 -1867 -334 1582
0.9 113.4 -21553 -3857 8498 -4311 -771 1700
Support 123 -32599 -5819 8672 -6520 -1164 1734
Support 129 -33654 -6009 8468 -6731 -1202 1694
0.1 142.8 -17502 -3136 9516 -3500 -627 1903
0.2 159.6 -1955 -354 9005 -391 -71 1801
0.3 176.4 9208 1645 8318 1842 329 1664
0.4 193.2 15989 2859 8281 3198 572 1656
Span 2
0.5 210 18388 3289 8027 3678 658 1605

0.6 226.8 16406 2935 8072 3281 587 1614
0.7 243.6 10043 1795 7905 2009 359 1581
0.8 260.4 -699 -128 8355 -140 -26 1671
0.9 277.2 -15820 -2835 8645 -3164 -567 1729
Support 291 -31614 -5646 7554 -6323 -1129 1511
Support 297 -30429 -5434 7482 -6086 -1087 1496
0.1 305.8 -20789 -3723 7275 -4158 -745 1455
0.2 317.6 -9854 -1766 6861 -1971 -353 1372
0.3 329.4 -1093 -197 5559 -219 -39 1112
0.4 341.2 5506 986 4870 1101 197 974
Span 3
0.5 353 9943 1781 4085 1989 356 817

0.6 364.8 12219 2189 3417 2444 438 683
0.7 376.6 12333 2210 2669 2467 442 534
0.8 388.4 10286 1844 1945 2057 369 389
0.9 400.2 6077 1091 1230 1215 218 246
Support 410.5 637 117 529 127 23 106

(3) Case 1 Earthquake Loading: Bridge moves from Abutment 1 towards Abutment 4
As shown in Figure 21.3-12, such loading results in positive moments in the

columns according to the sign convention used here.
Abut 1 Abut 4
Bent 2
Bent 3
Figure 21.3-12 Seismic Loading Case 1 Producing
Positive Moments in Columns
As calculated previously, the columns have already been pre-loaded by:

col @ soffit
M dl M col
ps
@ soffit
(1,355) (204) 1,151kip - ft (Bent 2)
col @ soffit
M dl M col
ps
@ soffit
(1,447) (218) 1229 kip - ft (Bent 3)
Column moment generated by seismic loading at column soffit is:
col @ soffit
M eq 1.2M col
p
@ soffit
(M dlcol M col
ps
@ soffit
)
1.2(2)(13,838) (1,355) 0) 34,566 kip - ft (Bent 2)
It should be noted that the secondary prestress moment is neglected because
doing so results in increased seismic demand on the column and hence in the
superstructure. Figure 21.3-13 schematically explains this superposition approach.
col @ soffit
M eq 1.2(2)(13,777) (1,447 218) 31,835 kip - ft (Bent 3)
It should be noted that for Bent 3, the effect of secondary prestress moments is
included because doing so results in increased seismic moment in the columns and
hence in the superstructure.

Deck Soffit 4.6

30.8 kips kips col
S Veq
1,355 kip-ft o 204 kip-ft
f col
f
M eq
Column
n i
+ t +
30.8 kips 4.6 col

Veq
kips
Dead Load and Additional Secondary
Secondary Prestress State
Prestress Seismic State
Dead Load and
Dead Load
Additional Dead State
755
Load State kips
M 0col 1.2M Pcol 33,211kip - ft
755
kips
Collapse Limit State
Figure 21.3-13 Superposition of Column Forces at

Bent 2 for Loading Case 1
(4) Case 2 Earthquake Loading: Bridge moves from Abutment 4 towards Abutment 1
As shown in Figure 21.3-14, such loading results in negative moments in the

columns according to our sign convention.
Abut 1 Abut 4
Bent 2
Bent 3
Figure 21.3-14 Seismic Loading Case 2 Producing
Negative Moments in Columns

Bent 2
col @ soffit
M eq 1.2M col
p ( M dl M ps )
col col
1.2(2)(13,838) (1,355 204) 32,060 kip ft

Bent 3
col @ soffit
M eq 1.2M col
p ( M dl M ps )
col col
1.2(2)(13,777) (1,447 0) 34,512 kip - ft
Figure 21.3-15 schematically shows the Free Body Diagram at Bent 2 for this
seismic loading case.
30.8 kips 4.6 kips

Deck Soffit
Veqcol
204 kip-ft col
1,355 kip-ft M eq
Column
+ +
+
col
30.8 4.6 kips Veq
kips
Dead Load and Additional Secondary Prestress State Seismic State
Dead Load and Secondary Prestress
Dead Load
Additional Dead Load State
755 kips
State
M 0col 1.2M Pcol 33,211 kip - ft
755 kips
Limit State
Figure 21.3-15 Superposition of Column Forces at Bent 2

for Loading Case 2

21.3.16 Step 14 - Distribute M eqcol @ soffit into the Superstructure
The static non-linear push-over frame analysis program wFRAME is used to

col @ soffit
distribute the column earthquake moments M eq into the superstructure.
Note the difference in sign convention between the wFRAME model and the one
adopted here. Therefore, for the input file, the positive column earthquake moments
corresponding to Case 1 loading are used as negative column moment capacities
for pushover analysis while the negative column earthquake moments corresponding
to Case 2 are modeled as positive column moment capacities. Also, the
superstructure dead load is removed from the wFRAME model. Appendix 21.3-15
shows portions of the output file for Case 1 (i.e., right push). Table 21.3-3 lists the
distribution of earthquake moments in the superstructure as obtained from these
pushover analyses.
21.3.17 Step 15 - Calculate Superstructure Seismic Moment Demand at Location

of Interest
Let us calculate superstructure moment demand at the face of the cap on each
side of the column.
(1) Example Calculation - Bent 2: Left and Right Faces of Bent Cap
The effective section width is:

beff = Dc + 2Ds = 6.00 + 2(6.75) = 19.50 ft. (SDC 7.2.1.1-1)
Based on the column location and the girder spacing, it can easily be concluded
that the girder aligned along the centerline of the bridge lies outside the effective
width. Therefore, at the face of bent cap, four girders are within the effective section.
All five girders fall within the effective width for all the other tenth point locations
(see Table 21.3-4). Note that the per-girder values used below have previously been
listed in Table 21.3-2.
Case 1
M dlL 6,520 1,164(4 ) 30,736 kip - ft
M dlR 6,731 1,202(4 ) 31,732 kip - ft
L
M ps 1,7344 6,936 kip - ft
R
M ps 1,6944 6,776 kip - ft
L
M eq 15,015 kip - ft (see Table 21.3-3)
R
M eq 21,135 kip - ft (see Table 21.3-3)

The superstructure moment demand is then calculated as:

M DL M dlL M ps
L
M eqL = (-30,736) + (6,936*) + (-15,015) = -45,751 kip - ft
M DR M dlR M ps
R
M eqR = (-31,732) + (6,776) + (21,135) = -3,821 kip - ft
Table 21.3-4 lists these superstructure seismic moment demands.
Case 2
L
M eq 13,201kip - ft; M eqR = -20,299 kip - ft
M DL = (-30,736) + (6,936) + (13,201) = -10,599 kip - ft
M DR = (-31,732) + (6,776*) + (-20,295) = -52,027 kip - ft
*
The prestressing secondary effect is ignored as doing so results in a
conservatively higher seismic demand in the superstructure.
(2) Bent 3
Similarly, we obtain the following:

49,702 kip - ft Case 1
M DL
3,001kip - ft Case 2

M DR
Seismic moment demands along the superstructure length have been summarized
in the form of moment envelope values (see Table 21.3-4).
M positive M EQ,max M DL M ADL M *ps
M negative M EQ,min M DL M ADL M *ps*
* Only include Mps when it maximizes Mpositive

**
Only include Mps when it minimizes Mnegative

Table 21.3-3 Earthquake Moments from wFRAME Output

M EQ (kip-ft)
Location wFRAME Convention Standard Convention
Case 1 Case 2 Case 1 Case 2
0.0 0 0 0 0
Support -183 161
0.1 -1538 1352
0.2 -3076 2705
0.3 -4614 4057
0.4 -6152 5409
Span 1
0.5 -7691 6761

0.6 -9229 8114
0.7 -10767 9466
0.8 -12305 10818
0.9 -13843 12170
Support -15015 13201
1.0 -15381 13523 -15381 13523
0.0 -21895 21055 21895 -21055
Support 21135 -20295
0.1 17640 -16798
0.2 13385 -12540
0.3 9131 -8282
0.4 4876 -4024
Span 2
0.5 621 234

0.6 -3634 4492
0.7 -7889 8750
0.8 -12144 13008
0.9 -16399 17266
Support -19894 20763
1.0 -20653 21524 -20653 21524
0.0 -13620 15621 13620 -15621
Support 13274 -15223
0.1 12258 -14059
0.2 10896 -12496
0.3 9534 -10934
0.4 8172 -9372
Span 3
0.5 6810 -7810

0.6 5448 -6248
0.7 4086 -4686
0.8 2724 -3124
0.9 1362 -1562
Support 173 -199
1.0 0 0 0 0
Start Node Start Node
End Node End Node
wFRAME Positive Convention Standard Positive Convention

Table 21.3-4 Moment Demand Envelope
No. of
Case 1 Case 2 Case 1 Case 2 Envelope
Girders in
Location
Effective
M DL M ADL M PS M EQ M EQ M postive M negative M positive M negative M positive M negative
Section
x/L x (ft) 4 (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft)
Support 1.5 4 496 91 517 -183 161 921 403 1265 748 1265 403
0.1 12.6 5 7110 1275 1462 -1538 1352 8309 6847 11199 9737 11199 6847
0.2 25.2 5 12158 2178 2272 -3076 2705 13532 11260 19313 17041 19313 11260
0.3 37.8 5 14741 2640 3096 -4614 4057 15862 12766 24533 21438 24533 12766
0.4 50.4 5 14857 2661 3956 -6152 5409 15321 11365 26883 22927 26883 11365
0.5 63.0 5 12508 2240 4705 -7691 6761 11762 7057 26213 21509 26213 7057
Span 1
0.6 75.6 5 7693 1377 5617 -9229 8114 5459 -159 22801 17184 22801 -159
0.7 88.2 5 412 74 6400 -10767 9466 -3881 -10281 16352 9952 16352 -10281
0.8 100.8 5 -9334 -1671 7911 -12305 10818 -15399 -23310 7724 -187 7724 -23310
0.9 113.4 5 -21553 -3857 8498 -13843 12170 -30755 -39254 -4742 -13240 -4742 -39254
Chapter 21 Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges

Support 123.0 4 -26079 -4656 6937 -15015 13201 -38815 -45751 -10599 -17535 -10599 -45751
Support 129.0 4 -26923 -4807 6774 21135 -20295 -3821 -10597 -45251 -52027 -3821 -52027
0.1 142.8 5 -17502 -3136 9516 17640 -16798 6518 -2998 -27920 -37436 6518 -37436
0.2 159.6 5 -1955 -354 9005 13385 -12540 20082 11077 -5843 -14848 20082 -14848
0.3 176.4 5 9208 1645 8318 9131 -8282 28301 19984 10889 2571 28301 2571
0.4 193.2 5 15989 2859 8281 4876 -4024 32005 23724 23105 14824 32005 14824
0.5 210.0 5 18388 3289 8027 621 234 30324 22297 29938 21911 30324 21911
Span 2
0.6 226.8 5 16406 2935 8072 -3634 4492 23779 15707 31905 23833 31905 15707
0.7 243.6 5 10043 1795 7905 -7889 8750 11854 3950 28493 20588 28493 3950
0.8 260.4 5 -699 -128 8355 -12144 13008 -4616 -12970 20536 12181 20536 -12970
0.9 277.2 5 -15820 -2835 8645 -16399 17266 -26409 -35054 7256 -1390 7256 -35054
Support 291.0 4 -25291 -4517 6043 -19894 20763 -43658 -49702 -3001 -9045 -3001 -49702
Support 297.0 4 -24344 -4347 5986 13274 -15223 -9434 -15418 -37931 -43915 -9434 -43915
0.1 305.8 5 -20789 -3723 7275 12258 -14059 -4979 -12254 -31296 -38571 -4979 -38571
0.2 317.6 5 -9854 -1766 6861 10896 -12496 6138 -724 -17255 -24116 6138 -24116
0.3 329.4 5 -1093 -197 5559 9534 -10934 13804 8244 -6665 -12224 13804 -12224
0.4 341.2 5 5506 986 4870 8172 -9372 19533 14663 1988 -2881 19533 -2881
0.5 353.0 5 9943 1781 4085 6810 -7810 22619 18534 7999 3913 22619 3913
Span 3
0.6 364.8 5 12219 2189 3417 5448 -6248 23273 19856 11576 8159 23273 8159
0.7 376.6 5 12333 2210 2669 4086 -4686 21298 18629 12526 9857 21298 9857
0.8 388.4 5 10286 1844 1945 2724 -3124 16799 14854 10950 9006 16799 9006
0.9 400.2 5 6077 1091 1230 1362 -1562 9760 8530 6836 5606 9760 5606
Support 410.5 4 509 94 423 173 -199 1199 776 827 404 1199 404
21-77
B
21.3.18 Step 16 - Calculate Superstructure Seismic Shear Demand at Location of

Interest
Values of shear forces due to dead load, additional dead load, and secondary
prestress, as read from CTBridge output, are listed in Table 21.3-5.
Superstructure Seismic Shear Forces due to Seismic Moments, Veq
Span 1, Case 1
(1)
Seismic Moment at Abutment 1, M eq 0 kip - ft
( 2)
Seismic Moment at Bent 2 M eq 15,381kip - ft
Shear force in Span 1, Veq

M ( 2)
eq M eq
(1)
=
15,381 0 122 kips
Length of Span 1 126
Span 1, Case 2
(1)
Seismic Moment at Abutment 1, M eq 0 kip - ft
( 2)
Seismic Moment at Bent 2, M eq 13,523 kip - ft
Shear force in Span 1, Veq

M ( 2)
eq M eq
(1)
=
13,523 0 107kips
Length of Span 1 126
Similarly, the seismic shear forces for the remaining spans are calculated to be:
253 kips Case 1

Span 2, Veq
253 kips Case 2
115 kips Case 1

Span 3, Veq
133 kips Case 2
Table 21.3-6 lists these values. Table 21.3-7 lists the maximum shear demands
summarized as a shear envelope.
V positive VEQ,max VDL VADL V ps

*
Vnegative VEQ,min VDL VADL V ps

**
Vmax Greater of Absolute (V posittive ) or Absolute(Vnegative )

*
Only include VPS when it maximizes Vpositive
**
Only include VPS when it minimizes Vnegative

Table 21.3-5 Dead Load and Secondary Prestress Shears Forces

from CTBridge Output
Whole Superstructure Width Per Girder

Location
V DL V ADL V PS V DL V ADL V PS
x/L x (ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
Support 1.5 671 120 79 134 24 16
0.1 12.6 498 89 78 100 18 16
0.2 25.2 303 54 76 61 11 15
0.3 37.8 107 19 76 21 4 15
0.4 50.4 -89 -16 75 -18 -3 15
Span 1
0.5 63.0 -284 -51 75 -57 -10 15

0.6 75.6 -480 -86 75 -96 -17 15
0.7 88.2 -675 -121 75 -135 -24 15
0.8 100.8 -871 -156 75 -174 -31 15
0.9 113.4 -1070 -191 30 -214 -38 6
Support 123.0 -1232 -218 134 -246 -44 27
Support 129.0 1287 227 -44 257 45 -9
0.1 142.8 1056 189 -22 211 38 -4
0.2 159.6 795 142 2 159 28 0
0.3 176.4 534 96 2 107 19 0
0.4 193.2 273 49 2 55 10 0
Span 2
0.5 210.0 13 2 2 3 0 0
0.6 226.8 -248 -45 1 -50 -9 0
0.7 243.6 -509 -91 1 -102 -18 0
0.8 260.4 -770 -138 1 -154 -28 0
0.9 277.2 -1031 -185 -28 -206 -37 -6
Support 291.0 -1261 -223 37 -252 -45 7
Support 297.0 1171 207 -118 234 41 -24
0.1 305.8 1021 182 -69 204 36 -14
0.2 317.6 834 149 -48 167 30 -10
0.3 329.4 651 117 -48 130 23 -10
0.4 341.2 468 84 -48 94 17 -10
Span 3
0.5 353.0 284 51 -49 57 10 -10

0.6 364.8 101 18 -48 20 4 -10
0.7 376.6 -82 -15 -48 -16 -3 -10
0.8 388.4 -265 -47 -48 -53 -9 -10
0.9 400.2 -448 -80 -48 -90 -16 -10
Support 410.5 -608 -109 -68 -122 -22 -14

Table 21.3-6 Earthquake Shear Forces from wFRAME Output
V EQ (kip)
Location wFRAME Convention Standard Convention
Case 1 Case 2 Case 1 Case 2
0 0.0 -122 107 -122 107
Support 1.5 0 0 -122 107
0.1 12.6 0 0 -122 107
0.2 25.2 0 0 -122 107
0.3 37.8 0 0 -122 107
0.4 50.4 0 0 -122 107
Span 1
0.5 63.0 0 0 -122 107

0.6 75.6 0 0 -122 107
0.7 88.2 0 0 -122 107
0.8 100.8 0 0 -122 107
0.9 113.4 0 0 -122 107
Support 123.0 0 0 -122 107
1 126.0 -122 107 -122 107
0 126.0 -253 253 -253 253
Support 129.0 0 0 -253 253
0.1 142.8 0 0 -253 253
0.2 159.6 0 0 -253 253
0.3 176.4 0 0 -253 253
0.4 193.2 0 0 -253 253
Span 2
0.5 210.0 0 0 -253 253

0.6 226.8 0 0 -253 253
0.7 243.6 0 0 -253 253
0.8 260.4 0 0 -253 253
0.9 277.2 0 0 -253 253
Support 291.0 0 0 -253 253
1 294.0 -253 253 -253 253
0 294.0 -115 133 -115 133
Support 297.0 0 0 -115 133
0.1 305.8 0 0 -115 133
0.2 317.6 0 0 -115 133
0.3 329.4 0 0 -115 133
0.4 341.2 0 0 -115 133
Span 3
0.5 353.0 0 0 -115 133

0.6 364.8 0 0 -115 133
0.7 376.6 0 0 -115 133
0.8 388.4 0 0 -115 133
0.9 400.2 0 0 -115 133
Support 410.5 0 0 -115 133
1 412.0 -115 133 -115 133
Start Node Start Node
End Node End Node
wFRAME Positive Convention Standard Positive Convention

Table 21.3-7 Shear Demand Envelope
No. of
Case 1 Case 2 Case 1 Case 2 Envelope
Girders in
Location
Effective
V DL V ADL V PS V EQ V EQ V positive V negative V positive V negative V positive V negative V max
Section
x/L x (ft) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip) (kip)
Support 12.6 5 498 89 78 -122 107 543 465 772 694 772 465 772
0.1 12.6 5 498 89 78 -122 107 543 465 772 694 772 465 772
0.2 25.2 5 303 54 76 -122 107 311 235 540 464 540 235 540
0.3 37.8 5 107 19 76 -122 107 80 4 309 233 309 4 309
0.4 50.4 5 -89 -16 75 -122 107 -151 -227 78 3 78 -227 227
0.5 63.0 5 -284 -51 75 -122 107 -382 -457 -153 -228 -153 -457 457
Span 1
0.6 75.6 5 -480 -86 75 -122 107 -613 -688 -384 -459 -384 -688 688
0.7 88.2 5 -675 -121 75 -122 107 -843 -918 -614 -689 -614 -918 918
0.8 100.8 5 -871 -156 75 -122 107 -1075 -1149 -846 -920 -846 -1149 1149
Chapter 21 Seismic Design of Concrete Bridges

0.9 113.4 5 -1070 -191 30 -122 107 -1354 -1383 -1125 -1154 -1125 -1383 1383
Support 123.0 4 -986 -174 107 -122 107 -1175 -1282 -946 -1053 -946 -1282 1282
Support 129.0 4 1029 182 -35 -253 253 958 923 1464 1429 1464 923 1464
0.1 142.8 5 1056 189 -22 -253 253 992 971 1498 1477 1498 971 1498
0.2 159.6 5 795 142 2 -253 253 686 684 1192 1190 1192 684 1192
0.3 176.4 5 534 96 2 -253 253 378 377 884 883 884 377 884
0.4 193.2 5 273 49 2 -253 253 71 69 577 575 577 69 577
0.5 210.0 5 13 2 2 -253 253 -237 -238 269 268 269 -238 269
Span 2
0.6 226.8 5 -248 -45 1 -253 253 -544 -546 -38 -40 -38 -546 546
0.7 243.6 5 -509 -91 1 -253 253 -852 -853 -346 -347 -346 -853 853
0.8 260.4 5 -770 -138 1 -253 253 -1160 -1161 -654 -655 -654 -1161 1161
0.9 277.2 5 -1031 -185 -28 -253 253 -1469 -1496 -963 -990 -963 -1496 1496
Support 291.0 4 -1009 -178 30 -253 253 -1411 -1440 -905 -934 -905 -1440 1440
Support 297.0 4 937 165 -94 -115 133 987 893 1234 1141 1234 893 1234
0.1 305.8 5 1021 182 -69 -115 133 1088 1020 1336 1267 1336 1020 1336
0.2 317.6 5 834 149 -48 -115 133 868 820 1116 1068 1116 820 1116
0.3 329.4 5 651 117 -48 -115 133 652 604 900 852 900 604 900
0.4 341.2 5 468 84 -48 -115 133 436 388 684 636 684 388 684
0.5 353.0 5 284 51 -49 -115 133 220 172 468 420 468 172 468
Span 3
0.6 364.8 5 101 18 -48 -115 133 4 -44 252 204 252 -44 252
0.7 376.6 5 -82 -15 -48 -115 133 -212 -259 36 -11 36 -259 259
0.8 388.4 5 -265 -47 -48 -115 133 -428 -476 -180 -228 -180 -476 476
0.9 400.2 5 -448 -80 -48 -115 133 -644 -692 -396 -444 -396 -692 692
Support 410.5 4 -486 -87 -54 -115 133 -689 -743 -441 -495 -441 -743 743
21-81
B
21.3.19 Step 17 - Perform Vertical Acceleration Analysis
Since the site PRA = 0.5g < 0.6g, vertical acceleration analysis is not required.
21.3.20 Step 18 - Calculate Superstructure Flexural and Shear Capacity
21.3.20.1 Superstructure Flexural Capacity
Table 21.3-8 lists the data that will be used to calculate the flexural
section capacity using the computer program PSSECx. Symbols in Table 21.3-
8 are shown in Figure 21.3-16. Appendix 21.3-16 lists the PSSECx input for
the superstructure section that lies just to the left of Bent 2. The model is
shown in Appendix 21.3-17. The results for negative capacity calculations are
shown in Appendix 21.3-18. The limiting condition for flexural capacity in
this case was the steel reaching its maximum allowable strain.
Figure 21.3-16 Typical Superstructure Cross Section
PSSECx was run repeatedly to calculate superstructure flexural capacities

at various points along the span length. Table 21.3-9 lists these capacities and
also compares them with the maximum moment demands.
As can be seen from these results, the superstructure has sufficient

flexural capacity to meet the anticipated seismic demands. The worst D/C
ratio of 0.63 suggests overdesign. If such case is found across a broad
spectrum of various Caltrans bridges, perhaps the requirement of #8 spaced
12 in. may be revised in the future.

Table 21.3-8 Section Flexural Capacity Calculation Data
For Effective Section Area of

Area of Distance to Distance to
No. PS Force PS Force Bottom
No. Area of Top Mild Top Mild Bottom
Location Eccentricity After All After All Mild
Girders Girders in PS Steel* Steel Mild Steel
Effective Losses Losses Steel*
Section e ps A ps A st,top y st,top A st,bot y st,bot
x/L x (ft) (in.) (kip) (kip) (in.2) (in.2) (in.) (in.2) (in.)
Support 1.5 5 4 -2.6628 7439 5952 38.28 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.1 12.6 5 5 -14.9760 7508 7508 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.2 25.2 5 5 -25.1328 7582 7582 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.3 37.8 5 5 -31.2264 7650 7650 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.4 50.4 5 5 -33.2568 7712 7712 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
Span 1
0.5 63.0 5 5 -31.4076 7766 7766 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.6 75.6 5 5 -25.8576 7814 7814 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.7 88.2 5 5 -16.6068 7859 7859 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.8 100.8 5 5 -3.6576 7839 7839 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.9 113.4 5 5 14.9160 7765 7765 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
Support 123.0 5 4 25.4412 7697 6157 38.28 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
Support 129.0 5 4 25.6116 7595 6076 38.28 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.1 142.8 5 5 12.0432 7413 7413 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.2 159.6 5 5 -8.2824 7370 7370 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.3 176.4 5 5 -22.1568 7327 7327 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.4 193.2 5 5 -30.4824 7272 7272 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
Span 2
0.5 210.0 5 5 -33.2568 7212 7212 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.6 226.8 5 5 -30.4824 7148 7148 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.7 243.6 5 5 -22.1568 7079 7079 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.8 260.4 5 5 -8.2824 6999 6999 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.9 277.2 5 5 12.0432 6922 6922 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
Support 291.0 5 4 25.6116 6844 5475 38.28 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
Support 297.0 5 4 25.3668 6742 5393 38.28 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.1 305.8 5 5 15.1068 6572 6572 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.2 317.6 5 5 -3.6576 6545 6545 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.3 329.4 5 5 -16.6068 6522 6522 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.4 341.2 5 5 -25.8576 6484 6484 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
Span 3
0.5 353.0 5 5 -31.4076 6443 6443 47.85 47.40 31.80 34.76 -42.13
0.6 364.8 5 5 -33.2568 6398 6398 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.7 376.6 5 5 -31.2264 6345 6345 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.8 388.4 5 5 -25.1328 6287 6287 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
0.9 400.2 5 5 -14.9760 6225 6225 47.85 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
Support 410.5 5 4 -2.7900 6174 4940 38.28 8.00 31.80 6.00 -42.13
P jack = 9,689 kips
* Area of mild steel based on minimum seismic requirement only
(Remaining limit state requirements need to be satisfied, A st,top = 56.6 in.2 at right face of Bent 2

Table 21.3-9 Section Flexural Capacity Calculation Data
Moment Demand Moment Capacity D/C Ratio

Location
M positive M negative M positive M negative Postive Negative
x/L x (ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) (kip-ft) Moment Moment
Support 1.5 1265 403 34530 -39444 0.04 0.00
0.1 12.6 11199 6847 54933 -34040 0.20 0.00
0.2 25.2 19313 11260 65503 -23133 0.29 0.00
0.3 37.8 24533 12766 72025 -16558 0.34 0.00
0.4 50.4 26883 11365 73892 -14352 0.36 0.00
Span 1
0.5 63.0 26213 7057 86109 -36067 0.30 0.00

0.6 75.6 22801 -159 81016 -41879 0.28 0.00
0.7 88.2 16352 -10281 71684 -51573 0.23 0.20
0.8 100.8 7724 -23310 58705 -65648 0.13 0.36
0.9 113.4 -4742 -39254 38646 -85898 0.00 0.46
Support 123.0 -10599 -45751 26587 -81787 0.00 0.56
Support 129.0 -3821 -52027 26432 -81933 0.00 0.63
0.1 142.8 6518 -37436 41672 -82802 0.16 0.45
0.2 159.6 20082 -14848 63619 -60763 0.32 0.24
0.3 176.4 28301 2571 77024 -45653 0.37 0.00
0.4 193.2 32005 14824 71217 -17311 0.45 0.00
Span 2
0.5 210.0 30324 21911 73881 -14256 0.41 0.00

0.6 226.8 31905 15707 71218 -17293 0.45 0.00
0.7 243.6 28493 3950 77020 -45591 0.37 0.00
0.8 260.4 20536 -12970 63615 -60698 0.32 0.21
0.9 277.2 7256 -35054 41623 -82794 0.17 0.42
Support 291.0 -3001 -49702 26344 -81924 0.00 0.61
Support 297.0 -9434 -43915 26540 -81708 0.00 0.54
0.1 305.8 -4979 -38571 38316 -86086 0.00 0.45
0.2 317.6 6138 -24116 58628 -65419 0.10 0.37
0.3 329.4 13804 -12224 71666 -51881 0.19 0.24
0.4 341.2 19533 -2881 80998 -41529 0.24 0.07
Span 3
0.5 353.0 22619 3913 86086 -35585 0.26 0.00

0.6 364.8 23273 8159 74193 -13993 0.31 0.00
0.7 376.6 21298 9857 72006 -16314 0.30 0.00
0.8 388.4 16799 9006 65484 -22996 0.26 0.00
0.9 400.2 9760 5606 54917 -34070 0.18 0.00
Support 410.5 1199 404 34611 -39346 0.03 0.00

21.3.20.2 Superstructure Shear Capacity
As shown in Table 21.3-10, seismic shear demands do not control as they are less
than the demands from the controlling limit state (i.e. Strength I, Strength II, etc.)
calculated using CTBridge. Therefore, the superstructure has sufficient shear capacity
to resist seismic demands.
Table 21.3-10 Shear Demand vs. Capacity
Shear Capacity =
Shear
Location Strength Shear D/C Ratio
Demand
Demand
V max V n = V u, strength D/C
Support 1.5 803 2851 0.28
0.1 12.6 772 2317 0.33
0.2 25.2 540 1687 0.32
0.3 37.8 309 1101 0.28
0.4 50.4 227 681 0.33
Span 1
0.5 63.0 457 1207 0.38

0.6 75.6 688 1782 0.39
0.7 88.2 918 2341 0.39
0.8 100.8 1149 2901 0.40
0.9 113.4 1383 3596 0.38
Support 123.0 1282 3966 0.32
Support 129.0 1464 4378 0.33
0.1 142.8 1498 3759 0.40
0.2 159.6 1192 2961 0.40
0.3 176.4 884 2160 0.41
0.4 193.2 577 1399 0.41
Span 2
0.5 210.0 269 686 0.39

0.6 226.8 546 1375 0.40
0.7 243.6 853 2139 0.40
0.8 260.4 1161 2942 0.39
0.9 277.2 1496 3792 0.39
Support 291.0 1440 4367 0.33
Support 297.0 1234 3760 0.33
0.1 305.8 1336 3388 0.39
0.2 317.6 1116 2817 0.40
0.3 329.4 900 2312 0.39
0.4 341.2 684 1774 0.39
Span 3
0.5 353.0 468 1238 0.38

0.6 364.8 252 738 0.34
0.7 376.6 259 1000 0.26
0.8 388.4 476 1548 0.31
0.9 400.2 692 2138 0.32
Support 410.5 743 2653 0.28

21.3.21 Step 19 - Design Joint Shear Reinforcement
Figure 21.3-17 shows the bent cap-to-column joint.
Bent Cap Main Top

Reinforcement: 22 #11
Bent Cap Main Bottom

Reinforcement: 24 #11
5.32 3.06
Basic Development length, ldb = 58.5

8.38
S =2.92 Dc =6.00
14.3
Dimensions along skew direction
Figure 21.3-17 Bent Cap-to-Column Joint
Cap beam short stub length, S = 14.3 8.38 3 = 2.92 ft < Dc = 6 ft (SDC
7.4.3-1). Therefore the joint will be designed as a knee joint in the transverse
direction and a T joint in the longitudinal direction.
21.3.21.1 Transverse Direction (Knee Joint Design)
6.00
S 2.92 ft 3.0 ft
2
Therefore, the joint is classified as Case 1 Knee joint. (SDC 7.4.5.1-1)

(1) Closing Failure Mode - Bent 2 Knee Joint
Given: Superstructure depth, Ds = 6.75 ft

Column diameter, Dc = 6 ft, Concrete cover = 2 in.
Column reinforcement:
Main reinforcement anchored into cap beam: #14 bars, total 26 giving Ast
= 58.50 in.2
Transverse reinforcement: #8 hoops spaced at 5 in. c/c.
Column main reinforcement embedment length into the bent cap,
lac, provided 66 in.
From the xSECTION analysis of Bent 2 with overturning effects (see Appendix
21.3-7):
Column plastic moment, Mp = 14,964 kip-ft
Column axial force (including the effect of overturning), Pc = 2,474 kips
Cap Beam main reinforcement: top: #11 bars, total 2 and bottom: #11 bars, total
24.
Calculate principal stresses, p t and p c

Vertical Shear Stress, jv
Tc 1.2 (2862) kips = 3,434 kips
(Using xSECTION results of Appendix 21.3-7)
A jv l ac Bcap 6696 6,336 in.2 (SDC 7.4.4.1-4)
Tc 3,434
jv 0.542 ksi (SDC 7.4.4.1-3)
A jv 6336
Normal Stress (Vertical), f v
Pc Pc 2,474
fv 0.168 ksi
A jh Dc Ds Bcap 6.00 6.75(8.00)(144)
(SDC 7.4.4.1-5)
Normal Stress (Horizontal)
Assume Pb = 0 since no prestressing is specifically designed to provide

horizontal joint compression. Therefore, horizontal normal stress fh = (Pb /
BcapDs) = 0.

fh fv f fv
2
pt h v2
2 2 jv

0.00 0.168 2
0.00 0.168 2
0.542 (+ for joint in tension)
2 2
0.464 ksi
(SDC 7.4.4.1-1)
pc
0.00 0.168 2
0.00 0.168 2
0.542 (+ for joint in compression)
2 2
0.632 ksi
(SDC 7.4.4.1-2)
Check Joint Size Adequacy
Principal compression, pc = 0.632 ksi [0.25 f c' = 0.25 (4.0) = 1 ksi]

OK (SDC 7.4.2-1)
Principal tension, pt = 0.464 ksi [12fc' 12 4000 / 1000= 0.76 ksi]
OK (SDC 7.4.2-2)
Check the Need for Additional Joint Reinforcement
Since pt = 0.464 ksi > [3.5 f c' 3.5 4000 / 1000 = 0.221 ksi], additional joint
reinforcement is required (see SDC Section 7.4.4.2).
Similar calculations can be performed for Bent 3.
(2) Opening Failure Mode - Bent 2 Knee Joint
From wFRAME push-over analysis results (see Appendix 21.3-6),

Column axial force (including the effect of overturning), Pc = 907 kips*
Column plastic moment, Mp = 12,636 kip-ft*
* These values were obtained from xSECTION analysis of Bent 2 with

overturning effects (see Appendix 21.3-8)
Tc 1.2 (3,148) kips = 3,778 kips using xSECTION results.
Ajv = 66 (96) = 6,336 in.2
3,778
jv 0.596 ksi
6,336

Pc Pc 907
fv 0.062 ksi
A jh Dc Ds Bcap 6.00 6.75 8.00 144
fh = 0 (since Pb = 0)
pt
0.00 0.062 0.00 0.062
2
2
0.596 0.566 ksi
2 2
pc
0.00 0.062 2
0.00 0.062 2
0.596 0.628 ksi
2 2
Principal compression, pc = 0.628 ksi < [0.25 4.0 = 1 ksi] OK

Principal tension, [ p t = 0.566 ksi] < [ 12 4000 / 1000= 0.760 ksi] OK
Since pt = 0.566 ksi > [ 3.5 4000 / 1000 = 0.221 ksi], additional joint
reinforcement is required.
Based upon joint stress condition evaluation for both closing and opening modes
of failure, the joint needs additional joint reinforcement. Refer to Figure 21.3-18
for regions of additional joint shear reinforcement.
Figure 21.3-18 Regions of Additional Joint Shear Reinforcement

Joint Shear Requirement

Bent Cap Top and Bottom Flexural Reinforcement, AsU Bar (Refer to
Figure 21.3-19)
AsU Bar required = 0.33 Ast = 0.33 (58.5) = 19.3 in.2 (SDC 7.4.5.1-3)
The bent cap reinforcement based upon service and seismic loading
consists of:
Top Reinforcement #11, total 22 bars giving Ast = 34.32 in.2
Bottom Reinforcement #11, total 24 bars giving Ast = 37.44 in.2
AsU Bar provided = 12 (1.56) = 18.72 in.2 (within 4 % of 19.3 in.2) Say OK
See Figure 21.3-19 for the rebar layout.
Figure 21.3-19 Location of Joint Shear Reinforcement (Elevation View)
Vertical Stirrups in Joint Region

Asjv required = 0.2 Ast = 0.20 (58.5) = 11.7 in.2 (SDC 7.4.5.1-4)
Provide 5 sets of 6-legged, #6 stirrups so that

Asjv provided = (6 legs)(5 sets)(0.44) = 13.2 in.2 > 11.7 in.2 OK

Place stirrups transversely within a distance Dc = 72 inches extending

from either side of the column centerline. These vertical stirrups are
shown in Figure 21.3-19 and also in Figure 21.3-20.
Horizontal Stirrups in Joint Region

Asjh required = 0.1 Ast = 0.1 (58.5) = 5.85 in.2 (SDC 7.4.5.1-5)
As shown in Figure 21.3-19, provide 3-legged #6 stirrups, total 14 sets
Asjh provided = (3 legs)(14 sets)(0.44) = 18.48 in.2 > 5.85 in.2
Placed within a distance Dc = 72 in. extending from either side of the

column centerline as shown in Figure 21.3-19.
Figure 21.3-20 Location of Vertical Stirrups, Asjv
Horizontal Side Reinforcement

0.1 Acap
top

Assf or (SDC 7.4.5.1-6)
0.1 Abot
cap
top
Acap = 34.32 in.2
bot
Acap = 37.44 in.2

0.1 (34.32) 3.43 in.2

Assf or Assf = 3.74 in.2
0.1 (37.44) 3.74 in.2

As shown in Figures 21.3-21 and 21.3-22, provide #6, total 5 (U

shaped), giving:
Assf provided = (2 legs)(5 bars) (0.44)= 4.4 in.2 > 3.74 in.2
Horizontal Cap End Ties
Asjhc 0.33Asu bar 0.33(19.3) 6.37 in.2 (SDC 7.4.5.1-7)
, provided 10(0.79) 7.9 in. 6.37 in. )

Provide #8, total 10 ( Asjhc 2 2
OK
See SDC Figures 7.4.5.1-2, 7.4.5.1-3, and 7.4.5.1-5 for placement of
Asjhc
J-Dowels
Strictly following SDC guidelines, there is no need for J-Dowels for this
bridge. Let us provide it anyway.
Asj bar = 0.08 Ast = 0.08 (58.5) = 4.68 in.2 (SDC 7.4.5.1-8)
Use 16, #5 J-Dowels.
Asj bar provided = (16 bars)(0.31) = 4.96 in.2 > 4.68 in.2
These dowels are placed within the rectangle defined by Dc on either side
of the column centerline and the cap width. They are shown in Figures
21.3-21 and 21.3-22.
Check Transverse Reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement ratio of transverse reinforcement (hoops)

s, required 0.76
Ast 0.76 58.5 0.00936
Dclac, provided 72(66)

(SDC 7.4.5.1-9)
Column transverse reinforcement that extends into the joint region

consists of #8 hoops at 5 in. spacing.

4 Ab 4(0.79)
s, 0.0095 0.00936 OK
D' s 1.13
provided
72 2(2) 2 5
2
Check Anchorage for Main Column Reinforcement
lac, required = 24dbl = 24 (1.69) = 40.6 in. < [lac, provided = 66 in.]
OK (SDC 8.2.1-1)
Figure 21.3-21 Joint Reinforcement Within the Column Region
Figure 21.3-22 Joint Reinforcement Outside the Column Region

21.3.21.2 Longitudinal Direction (T-Joint)
Let us calculate joint stresses for the tension column, which will provide higher
value of principal tensile stress (generally more critical than principal compressive
stress).
Column plastic moment, Mp = 13,838 kip-ft*

Column axial force, Pc = 1,694 kips*
Cap beam main reinforcement: top: #11 bars, total 22 and bottom: #11 bars, total 24.
* These values were obtained from the xSECTION analysis of Bent 2 columns
without overturning effects (see Appendix 21.3-1).
(1) Calculate Principal Stresses, pt and pc
Tc 1.2(2,948) kips = 3,538 kips using xSECTION results

Ajv = lac Bcap = 66 (96) = 6,336 in.2
Vertical Shear Stress
Tc 3,538
jv 0.558 ksi
A jv 6,336
Normal Stress (Vertical)

Pc Pc 1,694
fv 0.115 ksi
A jh Dc Ds Bcap 6.00 6.75(8.00)(144)
Assume Pb = 0 since no prestressing is specifically designed to provide

horizontal joint compression. Therefore, horizontal normal stress fh = (Pb/BcapDs)
= 0.
pt
0.00 0.115 2
0.00 0.115
0.558 0.503 ksi (i.e., tension)
2

2 2
pc
0.00 0.115 2
0.00 0.115
0.558 0.618 ksi (i.e., compression)
2

2 2
Principal compression, pc = 0.618 ksi [0.25 (4.0) = 1 ksi] OK
Principal tension, pt = 0.503 ksi [ 12 4000 / 1000 = 0.760 ksi] OK


pt = 0.503 ksi > [ 3.5 4000 / 1000 = 0.221 ksi], therefore additional joint
reinforcement is required.
The horizontal stirrups, cap beam u-bar requirements, continuous cap side
face reinforcement, J-dowels, minimum transverse reinforcement, and column
reinforcement anchorage provided for transverse bending will also satisfy the
joint shear requirements for longitudinal bending. The only additional joint
reinforcement requirement that needs to be satisfied for longitudinal bending is to
provide vertical stirrups in Regions 1 and 2 of Figure 21.3-18.
Vertical Stirrups in Joint Region Regions 1 and 2 of Figure 21.3-18

Asjv required = 0.2 Ast = 0.2 (58.5) = 11.7 in.2
Provide: total 14 sets of 2-legged #6 stirrups or ties on each side of the
column.
Asjv provided = (2 legs)(14 sets)(0.44) = 12.32 in.2 > 11.7 in.2 OK
As shown in Figures 21.3-19 and 21.3-20, these vertical stirrups and

ties are placed transversely within a distance Dc extending from either
side of the column centerline.
Note that in the overlapping portions of regions 1 and 2 with region 3,
the outside two legs of the 6-legged vertical stirrups provided for
transverse bending are also counted toward the two legs of the vertical
stirrups required for the longitudinal bending.
21.3.22 Step 20 - Determine Minimum Hinge Seat Width
This bridge is not a multi-frame bridge. Therefore this step does not apply.
21.3.23 Step 21 - Determine Minimum Abutment Seat Width
Minimum required abutment seat width, NA = 30 in. (SDC Section 7.8.3)
NA p/s + cr+sh +temp +eq + 4 (in.) (SDC 7.8.3-1)
The combined effect of p/s, cr+sh, and temp, is calculated as 2.6 inches (see
Joint Movement Calculation form - Appendix 21.3-11).
The maximum seismic demand along the longitudinal direction of the bridge is
calculated in a conservative way assuming that maximum longitudinal and transverse
(along the bent line) demand displacements occur simultaneously, i.e.,

eq,longitudinal = 14.12 + 16.87 sin (20) = 19.89 in.
NA, required (normal to centerline of bearing) = (19.89 + 2.6) cos (20) + 4

= 25.13 in. < 30 in.
Provide abutment seat width NA = 36 in. > 30 in. OK
21.3.24 Step 22 - Design Abutment Shear Key Reinforcement
Shear key force capacity, Fsk (0.75 Vpiles Vww ) (SDC 7.8.4-1)
We shall assume the following information to be available from the abutment

foundation and wingwall design:
14 piles for the abutment, and 40 k/pile as ultimate shear capacity of the pile
(see MTD 5-1)
f c = 3.6 ksi
Wingwall thickness = 12 in.
Wingwall height to top of abutment footing = 14 ft (i.e., 6.75 ft
Superstructure depth + 7.25 ft abutment stem height)
V piles = 14 (40) = 560 kips
Using Method 1 of AASHTO Article 5.8.3.4, the shear capacity of one

wingwall, Vww may conservatively be estimated as follows:
Effective shear depth d v = 0.72 (12 in) = 8.64 in.
Effective width bv = [6.75 1 (7.25)](12) in = 110 in.
3
Vww = 0.0316 fcbv dv = 0.0316(2) 3.6 (110)(8.64) = 114 kips
Assuming 0.75, Fsk 0.75 0.75(560) 114 401 kips
We shall use the Isolated Shear Key Method for this example.
Vertical shear key reinforcement:
F 401
Ask sk 3.28 in.2 (SDC 7.8.4.1A-1)
1.8 f ye 1.8(68)
Provide 8 #6 bundle bars as shown in Figure SDC 7.8.4.1-1A
( Ask , provided = 3.52 in.2 > 3.28 in.2) OK
Hanger bars,
Ash 2.0 AskIso( provided) = 2 (3.52) = 7.04 in.2 (SDC 7.8.4.1B-1)
Provide 5 #11 hooked bars ( Ash, provided = 7.8 in.2 > 7.04 in.2) OK

Place the vertical shear key bars, Ask at least Lmin from the end of the lowest
layer of the hanger bars, where
Lmin,hooked 0.6(a b) ldh (SDC 7.8.4.1B-3)
Assuming 5-inch thick bearing pads and 12 in. vertical height of expansion joint
filler (see SDC Figure 7.8.4.1-1A),
a = (Bearing pad thichness + 6 in.) = 11 in.
Assuming 2 in cover and #4 distribution bars for the hanger bars,
b = 2 + 0.56 + 0.5 (1.63) = 3.4 in. (see SDC Figure 7.8.4.1-1A for definition
of dimension b)
38db 38(1.41)
ldh 28.2 in.
fc 3.6
Lmin,hooked 0.6(a b) ldh 0.6(11 3.4) 28.2 37 in.
Place vertical shear key bars Ask 40 in. from the hooked ends of the hanger bars
Ash .
21.3.25 Step 23 - Check Requirements for No-splice Zone
For this bridge, only columns have been designated as seismic critical
elements.
Maximum length of column rebar can be estimated as

Lmax = 47.00 + 5.5 = 52.5 ft < 60.00 ft
Therefore, we will specify on the plans that no splices will be permitted for
column main reinforcement. The superstructure rebars, however, will need to be
spliced with Service Splice per MTD 20-9 (Caltrans 2001b).

APPENDIX 21.3-1 Output from xSECTION

04/17/2006, 11:45
************************************************************
* *
* xSECTION *
* *
* DUCTILITY and STRENGTH of *
* Circular, Semi-Circular, full and partial Rings, *
* Rectangular, T-, I-, Hammer head, Octagonal, Polygons *
* or any combination of above shapes forming *
* Concrete Sections using Fiber Models *
* *
* VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99 *
* *
* Copyright (C) 1994, 1995, 1999 By Mark Seyed Mahan. *
* *
* A proper license must be obtained to use this software. *
* For GOVERNMENT work call 916-227-8404, otherwise leave a *
* message at 530-756-2367. The author makes no expressed or*
* implied warranty of any kind with regard to this program.*
* In no event shall the author be held liable for *
* incidental or consequential damages arising out of the *
* use of this program. *
* *
************************************************************
This output was generated by running:
xSECTION
VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99
LICENSE (choices: LIMITED/UNLIMITED)
UNLIMITED
ENTITY (choices: GOVERNMENT/CONSULTANT)
Government
NAME_OF_FIRM
Caltrans
BRIDGE_NAME
EXAMPLE
BRIDGE_NUMBER
99-9999
JOB_TITLE
PROTYPE BRIDGE - BRIDGE DESIGN ACADEMY
Concrete Type Information:
----------strains-------- --------strength--------
Type e0 e2 ecc eu f0 f2 fcc fu E W
1 0.0020 0.0040 0.0055 0.0145 5.28 6.98 7.15 6.11 4313 148
2 0.0020 0.0040 0.0020 0.0050 5.28 3.61 5.28 2.64 4313 148
Steel Type Information:
-----strains------ --strength-
Type ey eh eu fy fu E
1 0.0023 0.0150 0.0900 68.00 95.00 29000
2 0.0023 0.0075 0.0600 68.00 95.00 29000
Steel Fiber Information:
Fiber xc yc area
No. type in in in^2
1 2 31.93 0.00 2.25
2 2 31.00 7.64 2.25
3 2 28.27 14.84 2.25
4 2 23.90 21.17 2.25
5 2 18.14 26.28 2.25
6 2 11.32 29.86 2.25

7 2 3.85 31.70 2.25

...
...
25 2 28.27 -14.84 2.25

26 2 31.00 -7.64 2.25
Force Equilibrium Condition of the x-section:
Max. Max.
Conc. Neutral Steel Steel
Strain Axis Strain Conc. force P/S Net Curvature Moment
step epscmax in. Tens. Comp. Comp. Tens. force force rad/in (K-ft)
0 0.00000 0.00 0.0000 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.000000 0
1 0.00029 -12.30 -0.0001 1570 174 -49 0 1.52 0.000006 2588
2 0.00032 -9.09 -0.0002 1585 182 -73 0 0.95 0.000007 2843
...
...
25 0.00322 16.99 -0.0083 3210 889 -2406 0 -0.96 0.000170 12508
26 0.00356 17.39 -0.0094 3249 929 -2483 0 0.66 0.000192 12718
27 0.00394 17.67 -0.0106 3309 952 -2568 0 -1.69 0.000215 12926
28 0.00435 17.91 -0.0119 3361 978 -2646 0 -1.26 0.000241 13129
29 0.00481 18.07 -0.0134 3388 1008 -2703 0 -0.57 0.000269 13267
30 0.00532 18.11 -0.0148 3413 1037 -2756 0 0.59 0.000298 13362
31 0.00588 18.15 -0.0164 3461 1048 -2816 0 -0.56 0.000330 13495
32 0.00650 18.21 -0.0183 3515 1060 -2881 0 -0.42 0.000366 13660
33 0.00718 18.27 -0.0203 3570 1072 -2948 0 -0.93 0.000406 13834
34 0.00794 18.30 -0.0225 3630 1087 -3021 0 1.38 0.000449 14017
35 0.00878 18.33 -0.0249 3686 1103 -3096 0 -1.20 0.000497 14194
36 0.00971 18.34 -0.0275 3743 1122 -3171 0 -0.61 0.000550 14368
37 0.01073 18.34 -0.0304 3792 1148 -3246 0 0.07 0.000608 14536
38 0.01186 18.34 -0.0336 3834 1181 -3321 0 -0.67 0.000672 14695
39 0.01312 18.38 -0.0373 3847 1217 -3371 0 -0.48 0.000745 14841
40 0.01450 18.41 -0.0414 3857 1256 -3420 0 -1.66 0.000825 14976
First Yield of Rebar Information (not Idealized):
Rebar Number 20
Coordinates X and Y (global in.) -3.85, -31.70
Yield strain = 0.00230
Curvature (rad/in)= 0.000054
Moment (ft-k) = 9537
Cross Section Information:
Axial Load on Section (kips) = 1694

Percentage of Main steel in Cross Section = 1.44
Concrete modulus used in Idealization (ksi) = 4313
Cracked Moment of Inertia (ft^4) = 23.717
Idealization of Moment-Curvature Curve by Various Methods:
Points on Curve Idealized Values

=============== =============================
Method Conc. Yield symbol Plastic
ID | Strain Curv. Moment | Curv. Moment for Curv.
| in/in rad/in (K-ft) | rad/in (K-ft) moment rad/in
Strain @ 0.003 0.000155 12388 0.000070 12388 Mn 0.000755
Strain @ 0.004 0.000219 12957 0.000073 12957 Mn 0.000752
Strain @ 0.005 0.000279 13302 0.000075 13302 Mn 0.000750
CALTRANS 0.00720 0.000407 13838 0.000078 13838 Mp 0.000747
UCSD@5phy0.00483 0.000270 13271 0.000075 13271 Mn 0.000750

APPENDIX 21.3-2 Moment Curvature Relationship

APPENDIX 21.3-3 Soil Spring Data
p-y Data - Bent 2 (Location 1)

250
200
Stiffness (lbs/in)
150
100
50
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Displacement (in)

1400
1200
Stiffness (lbs/in)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Displacement (in)


1600
1400
1200
Stiffness (lbs/in)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Displacement (in)

5000
4500
4000
Stiffness (lbs/in)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Displacement (in)

APPENDIX 21.3-4 Bent Cap Positive Bending Section Capacities Select Output
05/16/2006, 10:17
************************************************************
* xSECTION *
* *
* *
* VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************
xSECTION
VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99
..
..
1 0.0020 0.0040 0.0027 0.0115 5.00 5.01 5.35 2.63 4200 148
2 0.0020 0.0040 0.0020 0.0050 5.00 3.52 5.00 2.50 4200 148

1 0.0023 0.0150 0.0900 68.00 95.00 29000
2 0.0023 0.0075 0.0600 68.00 95.00 29000
..
Rebar Number 1


=============== =============================
Strain @ 0.003 0.000520 21189 0.000053 21189 Mn 0.000665
Strain @ 0.004 0.000684 21635 0.000054 21635 Mn 0.000664
Strain @ 0.005 0.000000 0 0.000000 0 Mn 0.000718
CALTRANS 0.00187 0.000306 19484 0.000048 19484 Mp 0.000669
UCSD@5phy0.00126 0.000184 17426 0.000043 17426 Mn 0.000674

APPENDIX 21.3-5 Bent Cap Negative Bending Section Capacities Select Output
05/15/2006, 08:26
************************************************************
* xSECTION *
* *
* *
* VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************
xSECTION
VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99
.
..

1 0.0020 0.0040 0.0027 0.0115 5.00 5.01 5.35 2.63 4200 148
2 0.0020 0.0040 0.0020 0.0050 5.00 3.52 5.00 2.50 4200 148

1 0.0023 0.0150 0.0900 68.00 95.00 29000
2 0.0023 0.0075 0.0600 68.00 95.00 29000

Rebar Number 25
Coordinates X and Y (global in.) 44.80, -34.49


=============== =============================
Strain @ 0.003 0.000593 19436 0.000055 19436 Mn 0.000563
Strain @ 0.004 0.000000 0 0.000000 0 Mn 0.000618
Strain @ 0.005 0.000000 0 0.000000 0 Mn 0.000618
CALTRANS 0.00159 0.000282 17307 0.000049 17307 Mp 0.000569
UCSD@5phy0.00117 0.000183 15735 0.000044 15735 Mn 0.000573

APPENDIX 21.3-6 wFRAME Output File
05/15/2006, 07:47
Design Academy Example No: 1 (Bent 2)
************************************************************
* *
* wFRAME *
* *
* PUSH ANALYSIS of BRIDGE BENTS and FRAMES. *
* *
* Indicates formation of successive plastic hinges. *
* *
* VER._1.12,_JAN-14-95 *
* *
* Copyright (C) 1994 By Mark Seyed. *
* *
* This program should not be distributed under any *
* condition. This release is for demo ONLY (beta testing *
* is not complete). The author makes no expressed or *
* *
************************************************************
Node Point Information:
Fixity condition definitions:

s=spring and value
r=complete release
f=complete fixity with imposed displacement
node name coordinates -----------fixity --------

# X Y X-dir. Y-dir. Rotation
1 S01.00 0.00 0.00 r r r
2 S01.01 4.72 0.00 r r r
3 S01.02 7.72 0.00 r r r
4 C01.01 7.72 -3.38 r r r
5 C01.02 7.72 -15.31 r r r
6 C01.03 7.72 -27.24 r r r
7 C01.04 7.72 -39.17 r r r
8 P01.01 7.72 -41.22 s 1.4e+002 r r
9 P01.02 7.72 -43.27 s 4.1e+002 r r
10 P01.03 7.72 -45.32 s 6.7e+002 r r
11 P01.04 7.72 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
12 S02.01 10.72 0.00 r r r
13 S02.02 17.72 0.00 r r r
14 S02.03 24.72 0.00 r r r
15 S02.04 31.72 0.00 r r r
16 S02.05 38.72 0.00 r r r
17 S02.06 41.72 0.00 r r r
18 C02.01 41.72 -3.38 r r r
19 C02.02 41.72 -15.31 r r r
20 C02.03 41.72 -27.24 r r r
21 C02.04 41.72 -39.17 r r r
22 P02.01 41.72 -41.22 s 1.4e+002 r r
23 P02.02 41.72 -43.27 s 4.1e+002 r r
24 P02.03 41.72 -45.32 s 6.7e+002 r r
25 P02.04 41.72 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
26 S03.01 44.72 0.00 r r r
27 S03.02 49.44 0.00 r r r
Spring Information at node points:
k's = k/ft or ft-k/rad.; d's = ft or rad.

node spring k1 d1 k2 d2

# name
8 P01X01 136.37 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
9 P01X02 414.83 0.105 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
10 P01X03 665.70 0.106 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
22 P02X01 136.37 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
23 P02X02 414.83 0.105 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
24 P02X03 665.70 0.106 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
Structural Setup:
Spans= 3, Columns= 2, Piles= 2, Link Beams= 0
Element Information:
element nodes depth
# name fix i j L d area Ei Ef Icr q Mpp Mpn tol status
1 S01-01 rn 1 2 4.72 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
2 S01-02 rn 2 3 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
3 C01-01 rn 3 4 3.38 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 47.44 0.00 27676 27676 0.02 e
4 C01-02 rn 4 5 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
5 C01-03 rn 5 6 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
6 C01-04 rn 6 7 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
7 P01-01 rn 7 8 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
8 P01-02 rn 8 9 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
9 P01-03 rn 9 10 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
10 P01-04 rn 10 11 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
11 S02-01 rn 3 12 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
12 S02-02 rn 12 13 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
13 S02-03 rn 13 14 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
14 S02-04 rn 14 15 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
15 S02-05 rn 15 16 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
16 S02-06 rn 16 17 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
17 C02-01 rn 17 18 3.38 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 47.44 0.00 27676 27676 0.02 e
18 C02-02 rn 18 19 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
19 C02-03 rn 19 20 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
20 C02-04 rn 20 21 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
21 P02-01 rn 21 22 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
22 P02-02 rn 22 23 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
23 P02-03 rn 23 24 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
24 P02-04 rn 24 25 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 23.72 0.00 13838 13838 0.02 e
25 S03-01 rn 17 26 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
26 S03-02 rn 26 27 4.72 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 27676 27676 0.02 e
bandwidth of the problem = 10
Number of rows and columns in strage = 81 x 30
Cumulative Results of analysis at end of stage 0
Plastic Action at:

Lat. Force / Deflection
Element/ Stage/ Code/ *g (DL= 3381.7) / (in)
node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

Displ.x Displ.y Rotation
1 S01.00 0.00001 0.00633 -0.00136
2 S01.01 0.00001 -0.00014 -0.00140
3 S01.02 0.00001 -0.00450 -0.00152
4 C01.01 -0.00484 -0.00418 -0.00135
5 C01.02 -0.01446 -0.00304 -0.00032
6 C01.03 -0.01376 -0.00191 0.00038
7 C01.04 -0.00662 -0.00078 0.00076
8 P01.01 -0.00503 -0.00058 0.00079
9 P01.02 -0.00338 -0.00039 0.00081
10 P01.03 -0.00170 -0.00019 0.00083
11 P01.04 0.00000 0.00000 0.00083
12 S02.01 0.00001 -0.00941 -0.00170
13 S02.02 0.00000 -0.02023 -0.00121

14 S02.03 -0.00001 -0.02467 0.00000

15 S02.04 -0.00001 -0.02023 0.00121
16 S02.05 -0.00002 -0.00941 0.00170
17 S02.06 -0.00002 -0.00450 0.00152
18 C02.01 0.00483 -0.00417 0.00135
19 C02.02 0.01445 -0.00304 0.00032
20 C02.03 0.01375 -0.00191 -0.00038
21 C02.04 0.00662 -0.00078 -0.00076
22 P02.01 0.00503 -0.00058 -0.00079
23 P02.02 0.00338 -0.00039 -0.00081
24 P02.03 0.00170 -0.00019 -0.00083
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.00083
26 S03.01 -0.00002 -0.00014 0.00140
27 S03.02 -0.00002 0.00633 0.00136
element node -------- local ----------- ------ element ----------

# name fix displ.x displ.y rotation axial shear moment
1 S01-01 rn 1 0.00001 0.00633 -0.00136 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 0.00001 -0.00014 -0.00140 0.00 322.85 -761.94
2 S01-02 rn 2 0.00001 -0.00014 -0.00140 0.00 -322.85 761.93
3 0.00001 -0.00450 -0.00152 0.00 528.05 -2038.28
3 C01-01 rn 3 0.00450 0.00001 -0.00152 1690.85 -34.15 -1605.41
4 0.00418 -0.00484 -0.00135 -1690.85 34.15 1489.98
4 C01-02 rn 4 0.00418 -0.00484 -0.00135 1690.85 -34.15 -1489.98
5 0.00304 -0.01446 -0.00032 -1690.85 34.15 1082.57
5 C01-03 rn 5 0.00304 -0.01446 -0.00032 1690.85 -34.15 -1082.57
6 0.00191 -0.01376 0.00038 -1690.85 34.15 675.15
6 C01-04 rn 6 0.00191 -0.01376 0.00038 1690.85 -34.15 -675.15
7 0.00078 -0.00662 0.00076 -1690.85 34.15 267.73
7 P01-01 rn 7 0.00078 -0.00662 0.00076 1690.85 -34.14 -267.71
8 0.00058 -0.00503 0.00079 -1690.85 34.14 197.70
8 P01-02 rn 8 0.00058 -0.00503 0.00079 1690.85 -33.46 -197.70
9 0.00039 -0.00338 0.00081 -1690.85 33.46 129.10
9 P01-03 rn 9 0.00039 -0.00338 0.00081 1690.85 -32.05 -129.10
10 0.00019 -0.00170 0.00083 -1690.85 32.05 63.39
10 P01-04 rn 10 0.00019 -0.00170 0.00083 1690.85 -30.92 -63.40
11 0.00000 0.00000 0.00083 -1690.85 30.92 0.00
11 S02-01 rn 3 0.00001 -0.00450 -0.00152 34.15 1162.80 3643.68
12 0.00001 -0.00941 -0.00170 -34.15 -957.60 -463.07
12 S02-02 rn 12 0.00001 -0.00941 -0.00170 34.15 957.61 463.06
13 0.00000 -0.02023 -0.00121 -34.15 -478.81 4564.38
13 S02-03 rn 13 0.00000 -0.02023 -0.00121 34.15 478.81 -4564.38
14 -0.00001 -0.02467 0.00000 -34.15 -0.01 6240.23
14 S02-04 rn 14 -0.00001 -0.02467 0.00000 34.15 0.01 -6240.23
15 -0.00001 -0.02023 0.00121 -34.15 478.79 4564.47
15 S02-05 rn 15 -0.00001 -0.02023 0.00121 34.15 -478.80 -4564.46
16 -0.00002 -0.00941 0.00170 -34.15 957.60 -462.91
16 S02-06 rn 16 -0.00002 -0.00941 0.00170 34.15 -957.59 462.89
17 -0.00002 -0.00450 0.00152 -34.15 1162.79 -3643.48
17 C02-01 rn 17 0.00450 -0.00002 0.00152 1690.83 34.15 1605.20
18 0.00417 0.00483 0.00135 -1690.83 -34.15 -1489.77
18 C02-02 rn 18 0.00417 0.00483 0.00135 1690.83 34.15 1489.77
19 0.00304 0.01445 0.00032 -1690.83 -34.15 -1082.42
19 C02-03 rn 19 0.00304 0.01445 0.00032 1690.83 34.15 1082.42
20 0.00191 0.01375 -0.00038 -1690.83 -34.15 -675.06
20 C02-04 rn 20 0.00191 0.01375 -0.00038 1690.83 34.15 675.06
21 0.00078 0.00662 -0.00076 -1690.83 -34.15 -267.70
21 P02-01 rn 21 0.00078 0.00662 -0.00076 1690.83 34.14 267.71
22 0.00058 0.00503 -0.00079 -1690.83 -34.14 -197.71
22 P02-02 rn 22 0.00058 0.00503 -0.00079 1690.83 33.46 197.71
23 0.00039 0.00338 -0.00081 -1690.83 -33.46 -129.11
23 P02-03 rn 23 0.00039 0.00338 -0.00081 1690.83 32.06 129.12
24 0.00019 0.00170 -0.00083 -1690.83 -32.06 -63.39
24 P02-04 rn 24 0.00019 0.00170 -0.00083 1690.83 30.93 63.40
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.00083 -1690.83 -30.93 0.00
25 S03-01 rn 17 -0.00002 -0.00450 0.00152 0.00 528.05 2038.28

26 -0.00002 -0.00014 0.00140 0.00 -322.85 -761.92

26 S03-02 rn 26 -0.00002 -0.00014 0.00140 0.00 322.85 761.93
27 -0.00002 0.00633 0.00136 0.00 0.00 0.00
Plastic Action at:

C02-02 1 rs 0.1712 8.4898
node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 0.70748 0.02708 -0.00378
2 S01.01 0.70748 0.00919 -0.00382
3 S01.02 0.70747 -0.00241 -0.00394
4 C01.01 0.69197 -0.00224 -0.00522
5 C01.02 0.58279 -0.00163 -0.01268
6 C01.03 0.39898 -0.00103 -0.01773
7 C01.04 0.16941 -0.00042 -0.02035
8 P01.01 0.12746 -0.00031 -0.02056
9 P01.02 0.08515 -0.00021 -0.02070
10 P01.03 0.04263 -0.00010 -0.02078
11 P01.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02080
12 S02.01 0.70749 -0.01286 -0.00301
13 S02.02 0.70750 -0.02604 -0.00077
14 S02.03 0.70750 -0.02467 0.00103
15 S02.04 0.70749 -0.01442 0.00165
16 S02.05 0.70746 -0.00595 0.00039
17 S02.06 0.70744 -0.00658 -0.00090
18 C02.01 0.70163 -0.00611 -0.00252
19 C02.02 0.61168 -0.00445 -0.01204
20 C02.03 0.42648 -0.00280 -0.01849
21 C02.04 0.18265 -0.00114 -0.02187
22 P02.01 0.13751 -0.00085 -0.02214
23 P02.02 0.09192 -0.00057 -0.02233
24 P02.03 0.04603 -0.00028 -0.02243
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02246
26 S03.01 0.70745 -0.00948 -0.00102
27 S03.02 0.70745 -0.01442 -0.00106

1 S01-01 rn 1 0.70748 0.02708 -0.00378 27.69 -0.01 -0.01
2 0.70748 0.00919 -0.00382 -27.69 322.85 -761.97
2 S01-02 rn 2 0.70748 0.00919 -0.00382 71.78 -322.85 761.95
3 0.70747 -0.00241 -0.00394 -71.78 528.05 -2038.29
3 C01-01 rn 3 0.00241 0.70747 -0.00394 907.25 253.50 11715.99
4 0.00224 0.69197 -0.00522 -907.25 -253.50 -10859.41
4 C01-02 rn 4 0.00224 0.69197 -0.00522 907.18 253.90 10859.10
5 0.00163 0.58279 -0.01268 -907.18 -253.90 -7830.08
5 C01-03 rn 5 0.00163 0.58279 -0.01268 907.18 253.90 7830.12
6 0.00103 0.39898 -0.01773 -907.18 -253.90 -4801.02
6 C01-04 rn 6 0.00103 0.39898 -0.01773 907.18 253.90 4801.03
7 0.00042 0.16941 -0.02035 -907.18 -253.90 -1771.96
7 P01-01 rn 7 0.00042 0.16941 -0.02035 907.18 253.53 1771.40
8 0.00031 0.12746 -0.02056 -907.18 -253.53 -1250.91
8 P01-02 rn 8 0.00031 0.12746 -0.02056 907.18 236.71 1251.16
9 0.00021 0.08515 -0.02070 -907.18 -236.71 -765.72
9 P01-03 rn 9 0.00021 0.08515 -0.02070 907.18 201.31 766.32
10 0.00010 0.04263 -0.02078 -907.18 -201.31 -353.62
10 P01-04 rn 10 0.00010 0.04263 -0.02078 907.18 172.67 354.11
11 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02080 -907.18 -172.67 0.01
11 S02-01 rn 3 0.70747 -0.00241 -0.00394 -147.11 379.20 -9677.96
12 0.70749 -0.01286 -0.00301 147.11 -174.00 10507.76
12 S02-02 rn 12 0.70749 -0.01286 -0.00301 -88.03 173.93 -10507.76

13 0.70750 -0.02604 -0.00077 88.03 304.87 10049.47

13 S02-03 rn 13 0.70750 -0.02604 -0.00077 -5.78 -304.87 -10049.47
14 0.70750 -0.02467 0.00103 5.78 783.67 6239.57
14 S02-04 rn 14 0.70750 -0.02467 0.00103 76.09 -783.67 -6239.57
15 0.70749 -0.01442 0.00165 -76.09 1262.47 -921.93
15 S02-05 rn 15 0.70749 -0.01442 0.00165 158.08 -1262.47 921.94
16 0.70746 -0.00595 0.00039 -158.08 1741.27 -11435.05
16 S02-06 rn 16 0.70746 -0.00595 0.00039 216.23 -1741.27 11435.04
17 0.70744 -0.00658 -0.00090 -216.23 1946.47 -16966.67
17 C02-01 rn 17 0.00658 0.70744 -0.00090 2474.51 322.57 14926.95
18 0.00611 0.70163 -0.00252 -2474.51 -322.57 -13838.61
18 C02-02 rs 18 0.00611 0.70163 -0.00252 2474.46 322.17 13838.00
19 0.00445 0.61168 -0.01204 -2474.46 -322.17 -9994.56
19 C02-03 rn 19 0.00445 0.61168 -0.01204 2474.46 322.18 9994.59
20 0.00280 0.42648 -0.01849 -2474.46 -322.18 -6150.91
20 C02-04 rn 20 0.00280 0.42648 -0.01849 2474.46 322.18 6150.92
21 0.00114 0.18265 -0.02187 -2474.46 -322.18 -2307.32
21 P02-01 rn 21 0.00114 0.18265 -0.02187 2474.46 322.17 2307.40
22 0.00085 0.13751 -0.02214 -2474.46 -322.17 -1646.88
22 P02-02 rn 22 0.00085 0.13751 -0.02214 2474.46 303.41 1647.21
23 0.00057 0.09192 -0.02233 -2474.46 -303.41 -1024.71
23 P02-03 rn 23 0.00057 0.09192 -0.02233 2474.46 265.35 1024.96
24 0.00028 0.04603 -0.02243 -2474.46 -265.35 -481.13
24 P02-04 rn 24 0.00028 0.04603 -0.02243 2474.46 234.74 481.23
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02246 -2474.46 -234.74 0.07
25 S03-01 rn 17 0.70744 -0.00658 -0.00090 -72.95 528.06 2038.30
26 0.70745 -0.00948 -0.00102 72.95 -322.86 -761.92
26 S03-02 rn 26 0.70745 -0.00948 -0.00102 -28.11 322.85 761.91
27 0.70745 -0.01442 -0.00106 28.11 0.00 0.00

APPENDIX 21.3-7 Select Output from xSECTION, Compression Column

************************************************************
* *
* xSECTION *
* *
* *
* VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************
xSECTION
VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99
UNLIMITED
Government
NAME_OF_FIRM
Caltrans
BRIDGE_NAME
EXAMPLE
BRIDGE_NUMBER
99-9999
JOB_TITLE
1 0.0020 0.0040 0.0055 0.0145 5.28 6.98 7.15 6.11 4313 148
2 0.0020 0.0040 0.0020 0.0050 5.28 3.61 5.28 2.64 4313 148
1 0.0023 0.0150 0.0900 68.00 95.00 29000
2 0.0023 0.0075 0.0600 68.00 95.00 29000
Fiber xc yc area
No. type in in in^2
1 2 31.93 0.00 2.25
2 2 31.00 7.64 2.25
...
25 2 28.27 -14.84 2.25
26 2 31.00 -7.64 2.25

Max. Max.
0 0.00000 0.00 0.0000 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.000000 0
1 0.00029 -29.19 0.0000 2256 222 -2 0 1.88 0.000004 2346
...
24 0.00291 14.11 -0.0061 3742 926 -2194 0 0.52 0.000133 13492
25 0.00322 14.74 -0.0070 3778 963 -2268 0 -1.28 0.000152 13683
26 0.00356 15.28 -0.0081 3813 991 -2330 0 0.34 0.000172 13834
27 0.00394 15.73 -0.0092 3856 1018 -2399 0 0.71 0.000194 14012
28 0.00435 16.07 -0.0104 3904 1049 -2478 0 0.63 0.000219 14204
29 0.00481 16.24 -0.0117 3950 1075 -2552 0 -0.48 0.000244 14332
30 0.00532 16.23 -0.0129 4008 1092 -2623 0 1.90 0.000269 14424
31 0.00588 16.38 -0.0144 4043 1106 -2675 0 -0.34 0.000300 14544
32 0.00650 16.52 -0.0161 4089 1121 -2734 0 1.91 0.000334 14706
33 0.00718 16.66 -0.0180 4135 1137 -2797 0 0.76 0.000372 14879
34 0.00794 16.77 -0.0200 4180 1156 -2862 0 0.35 0.000414 15055
35 0.00878 16.86 -0.0223 4226 1177 -2928 0 1.07 0.000459 15231
36 0.00971 16.91 -0.0248 4271 1201 -2997 0 0.93 0.000509 15403
37 0.01073 16.97 -0.0275 4310 1231 -3069 0 -2.02 0.000565 15573
38 0.01186 16.96 -0.0304 4366 1242 -3132 0 1.47 0.000624 15730
39 0.01312 16.95 -0.0335 4415 1255 -3195 0 0.47 0.000689 15869
40 0.01450 16.91 -0.0370 4458 1269 -3255 0 -1.79 0.000761 15987
Rebar Number 20


=============== =============================
Strain @ 0.003 0.000138 13546 0.000071 13546 Mn 0.000689
Strain @ 0.004 0.000198 14042 0.000074 14042 Mn 0.000687
Strain @ 0.005 0.000253 14366 0.000075 14366 Mn 0.000685
CALTRANS 0.00755 0.000392 14964 0.000079 14964 Mp 0.000682
UCSD@5phy0.00558 0.000283 14479 0.000076 14479 Mn 0.000685

APPENDIX 21.3-8 Select Output from xSECTION, Tension Column
05/10/2006, 07:43
************************************************************
* *
* xSECTION *
* *
* *
* VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************
xSECTION
VER._2.40,_MAR-14-99
UNLIMITED
Government
NAME_OF_FIRM
Caltrans
BRIDGE_NAME
EXAMPLE
BRIDGE_NUMBER
99-9999
JOB_TITLE

1 0.0020 0.0040 0.0055 0.0145 5.28 6.98 7.15 6.11 4313 148
2 0.0020 0.0040 0.0020 0.0050 5.28 3.61 5.28 2.64 4313 148
1 0.0023 0.0150 0.0900 68.00 95.00 29000
2 0.0023 0.0075 0.0600 68.00 95.00 29000
Fiber xc yc area
No. type in in in^2
1 2 31.93 0.00 2.25
2 2 31.00 7.64 2.25
................................
................................
14 2 -31.93 0.00 2.25
15 2 -31.00 -7.64 2.25
16 2 -28.27 -14.84 2.25
17 2 -23.90 -21.17 2.25
18 2 -18.14 -26.28 2.25
19 2 -11.32 -29.86 2.25

20 2 -3.85 -31.70 2.25

21 2 3.85 -31.70 2.25
22 2 11.32 -29.85 2.25
23 2 18.14 -26.28 2.25
24 2 23.90 -21.17 2.25
25 2 28.27 -14.84 2.25
26 2 31.00 -7.64 2.25
Max. Max.
0 0.00000 0.00 0.0000 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.000000 0
1 0.00029 2.87 -0.0003 949 131 -173 0 -0.82 0.000009 2393
...............................................................................
...............................................................................
27 0.00394 19.79 -0.0125 2770 862 -2726 0 -0.83 0.000243 11770
28 0.00435 19.97 -0.0140 2820 878 -2792 0 -0.67 0.000272 11964
29 0.00481 20.02 -0.0156 2862 903 -2859 0 -0.64 0.000301 12123
30 0.00532 19.99 -0.0172 2893 936 -2922 0 -0.21 0.000333 12243
31 0.00588 20.03 -0.0191 2927 973 -2993 0 0.00 0.000368 12404
32 0.00650 20.00 -0.0210 2993 980 -3067 0 -0.17 0.000407 12576
33 0.00718 19.97 -0.0232 3066 989 -3148 0 0.19 0.000449 12758
34 0.00794 20.02 -0.0257 3114 993 -3201 0 -0.80 0.000498 12933
35 0.00878 20.05 -0.0285 3160 999 -3252 0 -0.36 0.000551 13102
36 0.00971 20.08 -0.0316 3203 1005 -3302 0 -0.67 0.000611 13262
37 0.01073 20.10 -0.0350 3245 1016 -3355 0 -0.91 0.000676 13418
38 0.01186 20.10 -0.0387 3280 1032 -3405 0 0.08 0.000747 13563
39 0.01312 20.12 -0.0429 3308 1052 -3453 0 -0.24 0.000827 13700
40 0.01450 20.13 -0.0474 3326 1077 -3496 0 0.08 0.000915 13815
Rebar Number 20


=============== =============================
Strain @ 0.003 0.000176 11159 0.000070 11159 Mn 0.000845
Strain @ 0.004 0.000248 11800 0.000074 11800 Mn 0.000841
Strain @ 0.005 0.000313 12168 0.000076 12168 Mn 0.000839
CALTRANS 0.00673 0.000421 12636 0.000079 12636 Mp 0.000836
UCSD@5phy0.00412 0.000256 11855 0.000074 11855 Mn 0.000841

APPENDIX 21.3-9 wFRAME, Output File
05/15/2006, 08:02
************************************************************
* *
* wFRAME *
* *
* *
* *
* VER._1.12,_JAN-14-95 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************

s=spring and value
r=complete release

1 S01.00 0.00 0.00 r r r
2 S01.01 4.72 0.00 r r r
3 S01.02 7.72 0.00 r r r
4 C01.01 7.72 -3.38 r r r
5 C01.02 7.72 -15.31 r r r
6 C01.03 7.72 -27.24 r r r
7 C01.04 7.72 -39.17 r r r
8 P01.01 7.72 -41.22 s 1.4e+002 r r
9 P01.02 7.72 -43.27 s 4.1e+002 r r
10 P01.03 7.72 -45.32 s 6.7e+002 r r
11 P01.04 7.72 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
12 S02.01 10.72 0.00 r r r
13 S02.02 17.72 0.00 r r r
14 S02.03 24.72 0.00 r r r
15 S02.04 31.72 0.00 r r r
16 S02.05 38.72 0.00 r r r
17 S02.06 41.72 0.00 r r r
18 C02.01 41.72 -3.38 r r r
19 C02.02 41.72 -15.31 r r r
20 C02.03 41.72 -27.24 r r r
21 C02.04 41.72 -39.17 r r r
22 P02.01 41.72 -41.22 s 1.4e+002 r r
23 P02.02 41.72 -43.27 s 4.1e+002 r r
24 P02.03 41.72 -45.32 s 6.7e+002 r r
25 P02.04 41.72 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
26 S03.01 44.72 0.00 r r r
27 S03.02 49.44 0.00 r r r

# name
8 P01X01 136.37 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
9 P01X02 414.83 0.105 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
10 P01X03 665.70 0.106 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
22 P02X01 136.37 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
23 P02X02 414.83 0.105 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
24 P02X03 665.70 0.106 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
Structural Setup:
element nodes depth
1 S01-01 rn 1 2 4.72 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
2 S01-02 rn 2 3 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
3 C01-01 rn 3 4 3.38 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 43.00 0.00 29928 29928 0.02 e
4 C01-02 rn 4 5 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
5 C01-03 rn 5 6 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
6 C01-04 rn 6 7 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
7 P01-01 rn 7 8 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
8 P01-02 rn 8 9 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
9 P01-03 rn 9 10 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
10 P01-04 rn 10 11 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 21.50 0.00 12636 12636 0.02 e
11 S02-01 rn 3 12 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
12 S02-02 rn 12 13 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
13 S02-03 rn 13 14 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
14 S02-04 rn 14 15 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
15 S02-05 rn 15 16 7.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
16 S02-06 rn 16 17 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
17 C02-01 rn 17 18 3.38 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 51.14 0.00 29928 29928 0.02 e
18 C02-02 rn 18 19 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
19 C02-03 rn 19 20 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
20 C02-04 rn 20 21 11.93 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
21 P02-01 rn 21 22 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
22 P02-02 rn 22 23 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
23 P02-03 rn 23 24 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
24 P02-04 rn 24 25 2.05 6.0 28.3 629528 62953 25.57 0.00 14964 14964 0.02 e
25 S03-01 rn 17 26 3.00 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
26 S03-02 rn 26 27 4.72 6.8 62.6 629528 62953 52.25 -68.40 29928 29928 0.02 e
Plastic Action at:

node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 -0.00603 0.00640 -0.00137
2 S01.01 -0.00603 -0.00012 -0.00141
.
..
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.00064
26 S03.01 -0.00606 -0.00012 0.00141
27 S03.02 -0.00606 0.00639 0.00137

1 S01-01 rn 1 -0.00603 0.00640 -0.00137 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 -0.00603 -0.00012 -0.00141 0.00 322.85 -761.94
2 S01-02 rn 2 -0.00603 -0.00012 -0.00141 0.01 -322.84 761.93
3 -0.00603 -0.00450 -0.00153 -0.01 528.04 -2038.28

25 S03-01 rn 17 -0.00606 -0.00450 0.00153 0.00 528.05 2038.27

26 -0.00606 -0.00012 0.00141 0.00 -322.85 -761.93
26 S03-02 rn 26 -0.00606 -0.00012 0.00141 0.00 322.85 761.93
27 -0.00606 0.00639 0.00137 0.00 0.00 0.00
Plastic Action at:

C02-02 1 rs 0.1760 8.7862
node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 0.73219 0.02482 -0.00348
2 S01.01 0.73218 0.00836 -0.00351
3 S01.02 0.73218 -0.00234 -0.00364
4 C01.01 0.71753 -0.00217 -0.00501
5 C01.02 0.60724 -0.00158 -0.01304
6 C01.03 0.41672 -0.00099 -0.01846
7 C01.04 0.17709 -0.00040 -0.02127
8 P01.01 0.13324 -0.00030 -0.02149
9 P01.02 0.08902 -0.00020 -0.02164
10 P01.03 0.04456 -0.00010 -0.02172
11 P01.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02175
12 S02.01 0.73219 -0.01192 -0.00274
13 S02.02 0.73220 -0.02352 -0.00059
14 S02.03 0.73220 -0.02138 0.00106
15 S02.04 0.73218 -0.01148 0.00151
16 S02.05 0.73215 -0.00478 0.00003
17 S02.06 0.73213 -0.00665 -0.00137
18 C02.01 0.72472 -0.00618 -0.00300
19 C02.02 0.62890 -0.00450 -0.01255
20 C02.03 0.43749 -0.00283 -0.01903
21 C02.04 0.18720 -0.00115 -0.02242
22 P02.01 0.14093 -0.00086 -0.02270
23 P02.02 0.09420 -0.00058 -0.02288
24 P02.03 0.04717 -0.00029 -0.02299
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02302
26 S03.01 0.73214 -0.01097 -0.00149
27 S03.02 0.73214 -0.01813 -0.00153

1 S01-01 rn 1 0.73219 0.02482 -0.00348 29.06 -0.01 0.01
2 0.73218 0.00836 -0.00351 -29.06 322.86 -761.97
2 S01-02 rn 2 0.73218 0.00836 -0.00351 74.05 -322.85 761.94
3 0.73218 -0.00234 -0.00364 -74.05 528.05 -2038.29
3 C01-01 rn 3 0.00234 0.73218 -0.00364 879.83 248.18 11431.10
4 0.00217 0.71753 -0.00501 -879.83 -248.18 -10591.82
4 C01-02 rn 4 0.00217 0.71753 -0.00501 879.86 248.19 10591.19
5 0.00158 0.60724 -0.01304 -879.86 -248.19 -7630.29
5 C01-03 rn 5 0.00158 0.60724 -0.01304 879.86 248.21 7630.31
6 0.00099 0.41672 -0.01846 -879.86 -248.21 -4669.24
6 C01-04 rn 6 0.00099 0.41672 -0.01846 879.86 248.20 4669.30
7 0.00040 0.17709 -0.02127 -879.86 -248.20 -1708.25
7 P01-01 rn 7 0.00040 0.17709 -0.02127 879.86 248.12 1708.95
8 0.00030 0.13324 -0.02149 -879.86 -248.12 -1200.10
8 P01-02 rn 8 0.00030 0.13324 -0.02149 879.86 230.01 1200.16
9 0.00020 0.08902 -0.02164 -879.86 -230.01 -728.78
9 P01-03 rn 9 0.00020 0.08902 -0.02164 879.86 192.70 729.12
10 0.00010 0.04456 -0.02172 -879.86 -192.70 -334.12
10 P01-04 rn 10 0.00010 0.04456 -0.02172 879.86 163.00 334.16
11 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02175 -879.86 -163.00 -0.02
11 S02-01 rn 3 0.73218 -0.00234 -0.00364 -137.94 351.79 -9393.48
12 0.73219 -0.01192 -0.00274 137.94 -146.59 10141.05

12 S02-02 rn 12 0.73219 -0.01192 -0.00274 -78.08 146.67 -10141.02

13 0.73220 -0.02352 -0.00059 78.08 332.13 9491.90
13 S02-03 rn 13 0.73220 -0.02352 -0.00059 6.47 -332.13 -9491.90
14 0.73220 -0.02138 0.00106 -6.47 810.93 5491.19
14 S02-04 rn 14 0.73220 -0.02138 0.00106 91.08 -810.93 -5491.19
15 0.73218 -0.01148 0.00151 -91.08 1289.73 -1861.15
15 S02-05 rn 15 0.73218 -0.01148 0.00151 175.49 -1289.73 1861.14
16 0.73215 -0.00478 0.00003 -175.49 1768.53 -12565.08
16 S02-06 rn 16 0.73215 -0.00478 0.00003 236.81 -1768.53 12565.06
17 0.73213 -0.00665 -0.00137 -236.81 1973.73 -18178.47
17 C02-01 rn 17 0.00665 0.73213 -0.00137 2501.90 348.38 16141.41
18 0.00618 0.72472 -0.00300 -2501.90 -348.38 -14963.38
18 C02-02 rs 18 0.00618 0.72472 -0.00300 2501.84 348.05 14964.00
19 0.00450 0.62890 -0.01255 -2501.84 -348.05 -10811.87
19 C02-03 rn 19 0.00450 0.62890 -0.01255 2501.84 348.04 10811.93
20 0.00283 0.43749 -0.01903 -2501.84 -348.04 -6659.75
20 C02-04 rn 20 0.00283 0.43749 -0.01903 2501.84 348.03 6659.80
21 0.00115 0.18720 -0.02242 -2501.84 -348.03 -2507.76
21 P02-01 rn 21 0.00115 0.18720 -0.02242 2501.84 347.72 2507.71
22 0.00086 0.14093 -0.02270 -2501.84 -347.72 -1795.38
22 P02-02 rn 22 0.00086 0.14093 -0.02270 2501.84 328.53 1795.20
23 0.00058 0.09420 -0.02288 -2501.84 -328.53 -1121.56
23 P02-03 rn 23 0.00058 0.09420 -0.02288 2501.84 289.56 1122.16
24 0.00029 0.04717 -0.02299 -2501.84 -289.56 -528.43
24 P02-04 rn 24 0.00029 0.04717 -0.02299 2501.84 257.88 528.77
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02302 -2501.84 -257.88 -0.07
25 S03-01 rn 17 0.73213 -0.00665 -0.00137 -74.72 528.17 2038.64
26 0.73214 -0.01097 -0.00149 74.72 -322.97 -761.94
26 S03-02 rn 26 0.73214 -0.01097 -0.00149 -28.84 322.85 761.91
27 0.73214 -0.01813 -0.00153 28.84 0.00 0.01
Plastic Action at:

C02-02 1 rs 0.1760 8.7862
P02X01 2 2 0.1818 9.4798
P01X01 3 2 0.1847 9.8322
P02X02 4 2 0.1875 10.1774
P01X02 5 2 0.1891 10.3724
C01-02 6 rs 0.1903 10.5239
node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 0.87699 0.03093 -0.00425
2 S01.01 0.87698 0.01084 -0.00428
3 S01.02 0.87698 -0.00217 -0.00441
4 C01.01 0.85928 -0.00201 -0.00605
5 C01.02 0.72688 -0.00147 -0.01563
6 C01.03 0.49873 -0.00092 -0.02210
7 C01.04 0.21194 -0.00038 -0.02546
8 P01.01 0.15947 -0.00028 -0.02572
9 P01.02 0.10654 -0.00019 -0.02590
10 P01.03 0.05333 -0.00009 -0.02600
11 P01.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02603
12 S02.01 0.87699 -0.01377 -0.00332
13 S02.02 0.87701 -0.02802 -0.00079
14 S02.03 0.87702 -0.02622 0.00115
15 S02.04 0.87700 -0.01502 0.00178
16 S02.05 0.87697 -0.00605 0.00039

17 S02.06 0.87696 -0.00682 -0.00100

18 C02.01 0.87079 -0.00634 -0.00263
19 C02.02 0.73519 -0.00462 -0.01588
20 C02.03 0.50407 -0.00290 -0.02235
21 C02.04 0.21424 -0.00118 -0.02573
22 P02.01 0.16121 -0.00089 -0.02600
23 P02.02 0.10771 -0.00059 -0.02618
24 P02.03 0.05392 -0.00030 -0.02628
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02631
26 S03.01 0.87696 -0.01003 -0.00112
27 S03.02 0.87697 -0.01545 -0.00116

1 S01-01 rn 1 0.87699 0.03093 -0.00425 31.37 -0.01 0.00
2 0.87698 0.01084 -0.00428 -31.37 322.86 -761.98
2 S01-02 rn 2 0.87698 0.01084 -0.00428 79.93 -322.85 761.94
3 0.87698 -0.00217 -0.00441 -79.93 528.05 -2038.30
3 C01-01 rn 3 0.00217 0.87698 -0.00441 814.86 295.87 13637.29
4 0.00201 0.85928 -0.00605 -814.86 -295.87 -12636.74
4 C01-02 rs 4 0.00201 0.85928 -0.00605 814.88 295.88 12636.00
5 0.00147 0.72688 -0.01563 -814.88 -295.88 -9106.20
5 C01-03 rn 5 0.00147 0.72688 -0.01563 814.88 295.89 9106.22
6 0.00092 0.49873 -0.02210 -814.88 -295.89 -5576.25
6 C01-04 rn 6 0.00092 0.49873 -0.02210 814.88 295.88 5576.32
7 0.00038 0.21194 -0.02546 -814.88 -295.88 -2046.37
7 P01-01 rn 7 0.00038 0.21194 -0.02546 814.88 295.73 2047.11
8 0.00028 0.15947 -0.02572 -814.88 -295.73 -1440.69
8 P01-02 rn 8 0.00028 0.15947 -0.02572 814.88 275.51 1440.64
9 0.00019 0.10654 -0.02590 -814.88 -275.51 -876.00
9 P01-03 rn 9 0.00019 0.10654 -0.02590 814.88 231.57 876.37
10 0.00009 0.05333 -0.02600 -814.88 -231.57 -401.75
10 P01-04 rn 10 0.00009 0.05333 -0.02600 814.88 196.02 401.81
11 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02603 -814.88 -196.02 -0.02
11 S02-01 rn 3 0.87698 -0.00217 -0.00441 -176.75 286.81 -11599.76
12 0.87699 -0.01377 -0.00332 176.75 -81.61 12152.41
12 S02-02 rn 12 0.87699 -0.01377 -0.00332 -112.03 81.70 -12152.37
13 0.87701 -0.02802 -0.00079 112.03 397.10 11048.49
13 S02-03 rn 13 0.87701 -0.02802 -0.00079 -20.60 -397.10 -11048.48
14 0.87702 -0.02622 0.00115 20.60 875.90 6593.00
14 S02-04 rn 14 0.87702 -0.02622 0.00115 70.88 -875.90 -6593.00
15 0.87700 -0.01502 0.00178 -70.88 1354.70 -1214.09
15 S02-05 rn 15 0.87700 -0.01502 0.00178 162.24 -1354.70 1214.09
16 0.87697 -0.00605 0.00039 -162.24 1833.50 -12372.80
16 S02-06 rn 16 0.87697 -0.00605 0.00039 228.60 -1833.50 12372.78
17 0.87696 -0.00682 -0.00100 -228.60 2038.70 -18181.08
17 C02-01 rn 17 0.00682 0.87696 -0.00100 2566.87 349.18 16143.98
18 0.00634 0.87079 -0.00263 -2566.87 -349.18 -14963.33
18 C02-02 rs 18 0.00634 0.87079 -0.00634 2566.81 348.82 14964.00
19 0.00462 0.73519 -0.01588 -2566.81 -348.82 -10802.60
19 C02-03 rn 19 0.00462 0.73519 -0.01588 2566.81 348.82 10802.66
20 0.00290 0.50407 -0.02235 -2566.81 -348.82 -6641.19
20 C02-04 rn 20 0.00290 0.50407 -0.02235 2566.81 348.81 6641.24
21 0.00118 0.21424 -0.02573 -2566.81 -348.81 -2479.92
21 P02-01 rn 21 0.00118 0.21424 -0.02573 2566.81 348.49 2479.88
22 0.00089 0.16121 -0.02600 -2566.81 -348.49 -1765.94
22 P02-02 rn 22 0.00089 0.16121 -0.02600 2566.81 328.24 1765.77
23 0.00059 0.10771 -0.02618 -2566.81 -328.24 -1092.73
23 P02-03 rn 23 0.00059 0.10771 -0.02618 2566.81 284.77 1093.33
24 0.00030 0.05392 -0.02628 -2566.81 -284.77 -509.41
24 P02-04 rn 24 0.00030 0.05392 -0.02628 2566.81 248.60 509.76
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02631 -2566.81 -248.60 -0.07
25 S03-01 rn 17 0.87696 -0.00682 -0.00100 -80.75 528.17 2038.65
26 0.87696 -0.01003 -0.00112 80.75 -322.97 -761.94
26 S03-02 rn 26 0.87696 -0.01003 -0.00112 -31.13 322.85 761.91
27 0.87697 -0.01545 -0.00116 31.13 0.00 0.01

APPENDIX 21.3-10 Force Displacement Relationship, Bent 2, Right Push with

Overturning

APPENDIX 21.3-11 Joint Movement Calculation
STATE OF CALIFORNIA.DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

a
JOINT MOVEMENTS CALCULATIONS
DS-D-0129(Rev.5/93) Note: Specific instructions are included as footnotes.
EA DISTRICT COUNTY ROUTE PM (KP) BRIDGE NAME AND NUMBER
910076 59 ES 999 99 Prototype Bridge

TYPE OF STRUCTURE TYPE ABUTMENT TYPE EXPANSION(2" elasto pads, etc.)
CIP/PS BOX GIRDER Seat Elastomeric Bearing Pads
(1) TEMPERATURE EXTREMES(from Preliminary Rerport) (2)THERMAL MOVEMENT ANTICIPATED SHORTENING (3)MOVEMENT FACTOR
Type Of Structure (inches/100 feet) (inches/100 feet) (inches/100 feet)

o o
MAXIMUM 110 F Steel Range( F)(0.0000065X1200) = + 0 =
o o
- MINIMUM 23 F Concrete (Conventional) Range( F)(0.0000060X1200) = + 0.06 =
o g
Concrete(Pretensioned) Range( F)(0.0000060X1200) = + 0.12 =
o o g
= Range 87 F Concrete(Post Tensioned) Range( 87 F)(0.0000060X1200) = 0.6264 + 0.63 = 1.26
ITEM(1) DESIGNER DATE ITEM(2)CHECKED BY DATE
DESIGNER CHECKER
b c
To be filled in by Office of Structures Design To be filled in by SR Date:
d
Seal Width Limits Groove (saw cut) Width
e
Skew (4) Calculated M.R. Seal Type or Installation Width
(degrees) Contributing Movement (inches) A,B, Catalog W1 (5) W2 Structure (6)Adjust from Width at
Location Do not Length (inches) (Round up (Others) Number (inches) (inches) Temperature Maximum Temp. Temp. Listed
o f
use in (feet) (3)X(4)/100 to 1/2") or Maximum Min.@Max. ( F) (inches) (inches)
calculation Open Joint Temperature /(1)X(2)X(4)/100 w=(5)+(6)
Abut 1 0 202 2.53 2.50 Joint Seal Assembly(strip seal)
Abut 4 0 210 2.64 3.00 Joint Seal Assembly(strip seal)

see XS-12-59
1.26 202 210

Anticipated Shortening = 2.60 in.
100 2

APPENDIX 21.3-12 wFRAME Longitudinal Push Over Force/Displacement

Relationship, Right Push

APPENDIX 21.3-13 wFRAME Longitudinal Push Over Force vs. Displacement

Relationship

APPENDIX 21.3-14 Cap Beam Seismic Moment and Shear Demands

05/15/2006, 15:50
************************************************************
* *
* wFRAME *
* *
* *
* *
* VER._1.12,_JAN-14-95 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************

s=spring and value
r=complete release

1 S01.00 0.00 0.00 r r r
2 S01.01 4.72 0.00 r r r
3 S01.02 7.72 0.00 r r r
4 C01.01 7.72 -3.38 r r r
5 C01.02 7.72 -15.31 r r r
6 C01.03 7.72 -27.24 r r r
7 C01.04 7.72 -39.17 r r r
8 P01.01 7.72 -41.22 s 1.4e+002 r r
9 P01.02 7.72 -43.27 s 4.1e+002 r r
10 P01.03 7.72 -45.32 s 6.7e+002 r r
11 P01.04 7.72 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
12 S02.01 10.72 0.00 r r r
13 S02.02 17.72 0.00 r r r
14 S02.03 24.72 0.00 r r r
15 S02.04 31.72 0.00 r r r
16 S02.05 38.72 0.00 r r r
17 S02.06 41.72 0.00 r r r
18 C02.01 41.72 -3.38 r r r
19 C02.02 41.72 -15.31 r r r
20 C02.03 41.72 -27.24 r r r
21 C02.04 41.72 -39.17 r r r
Plastic Action at:

P02X01 1 2 0.1863 9.3076
P01X01 2 2 0.1958 9.7870
P02X02 3 2 0.1966 9.8292
P01X02 4 2 0.2059 10.3036
C02-02 5 rs 0.2147 10.7599

C01-02 6 rs 0.2275 12.3779
node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 1.03149 0.03456 -0.00466
2 S01.01 1.03149 0.01254 -0.00469
3 S01.02 1.03148 -0.00170 -0.00482
4 C01.01 1.01183 -0.00158 -0.00679
5 C01.02 0.85856 -0.00115 -0.01829
6 C01.03 0.59020 -0.00072 -0.02608
7 C01.04 0.25113 -0.00029 -0.03015
8 P01.01 0.18897 -0.00022 -0.03047
9 P01.02 0.12627 -0.00015 -0.03069
10 P01.03 0.06321 -0.00007 -0.03081
11 P01.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.03085
12 S02.01 1.03150 -0.01419 -0.00350
13 S02.02 1.03152 -0.02840 -0.00064
14 S02.03 1.03153 -0.02512 0.00137
15 S02.04 1.03151 -0.01281 0.00182
16 S02.05 1.03148 -0.00492 -0.00001
17 S02.06 1.03145 -0.00729 -0.00167
18 C02.01 1.02247 -0.00677 -0.00363
19 C02.02 0.86615 -0.00493 -0.01853
20 C02.03 0.59507 -0.00310 -0.02630
21 C02.04 0.25323 -0.00126 -0.03039
22 P02.01 0.19057 -0.00095 -0.03072
23 P02.02 0.12734 -0.00063 -0.03095
24 P02.03 0.06376 -0.00032 -0.03107
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 -0.03111
26 S03.01 1.03146 -0.01250 -0.00179
27 S03.02 1.03147 -0.02108 -0.00183

1 S01-01 rn 1 1.03149 0.03456 -0.00466 37.40 -0.01 0.01
2 1.03149 0.01254 -0.00469 -37.40 322.86 -761.98
2 S01-02 rn 2 1.03149 0.01254 -0.00469 95.50 -322.85 761.94
3 1.03148 -0.00170 -0.00482 -95.50 528.05 -2038.30
3 C01-01 rn 3 0.00170 1.03148 -0.00482 639.94 353.65 16359.82
4 0.00158 1.01183 -0.00679 -639.94 -353.65 -15163.66
4 C01-02 rs 4 0.00158 1.01183 -0.00679 639.98 353.64 15163.00
5 0.00115 0.85856 -0.01829 -639.98 -353.64 -10944.11
5 C01-03 rn 5 0.00115 0.85856 -0.01829 639.98 353.66 10944.14
6 0.00072 0.59020 -0.02608 -639.98 -353.66 -6725.06
6 C01-04 rn 6 0.00072 0.59020 -0.02608 639.98 353.64 6725.13
7 0.00029 0.25113 -0.03015 -639.98 -353.64 -2506.10
7 P01-01 rn 7 0.00029 0.25113 -0.03015 639.98 353.51 2506.99
8 0.00022 0.18897 -0.03047 -639.98 -353.51 -1782.15
8 P01-02 rn 8 0.00022 0.18897 -0.03047 639.98 333.29 1782.11
9 0.00015 0.12627 -0.03069 -639.98 -333.29 -1099.10
9 P01-03 rn 9 0.00015 0.12627 -0.03069 639.98 289.29 1099.54
10 0.00007 0.06321 -0.03081 -639.98 -289.29 -506.62
10 P01-04 rn 10 0.00007 0.06321 -0.03081 639.98 247.19 506.68
11 0.00000 0.00000 -0.03085 -639.98 -247.19 0.00
11 S02-01 rn 3 1.03148 -0.00170 -0.00482 -211.27 111.89 -14322.39
12 1.03150 -0.01419 -0.00350 211.27 93.31 14350.28
12 S02-02 rn 12 1.03150 -0.01419 -0.00350 -133.82 -93.18 -14350.24
13 1.03152 -0.02840 -0.00064 133.82 571.98 12022.15
13 S02-03 rn 13 1.03152 -0.02840 -0.00064 -24.49 -571.98 -12022.14
14 1.03153 -0.02512 0.00137 24.49 1050.78 6342.45
14 S02-04 rn 14 1.03153 -0.02512 0.00137 84.84 -1050.79 -6342.45
15 1.03151 -0.01281 0.00182 -84.84 1529.59 -2688.86
15 S02-05 rn 15 1.03151 -0.01281 0.00182 194.14 -1529.59 2688.86
16 1.03148 -0.00492 -0.00001 -194.14 2008.39 -15071.78
16 S02-06 rn 16 1.03148 -0.00492 -0.00001 273.35 -2008.39 15071.76
17 1.03145 -0.00729 -0.00167 -273.35 2213.59 -21404.73

17 C02-01 rn 17 0.00729 1.03145 -0.00167 2741.74 417.33 19367.77

18 0.00677 1.02247 -0.00363 -2741.74 -417.33 -17956.42
18 C02-02 rs 18 0.00677 1.02247 -0.00706 2741.69 417.18 17957.00

19 0.00493 0.86615 -0.01853 -2741.69 -417.18 -12980.05
19 C02-03 rn 19 0.00493 0.86615 -0.01853 2741.69 417.18 12980.12
20 0.00310 0.59507 -0.02630 -2741.69 -417.18 -8003.12
20 C02-04 rn 20 0.00310 0.59507 -0.02630 2741.69 417.17 8003.17
21 0.00126 0.25323 -0.03039 -2741.69 -417.17 -3026.31
21 P02-01 rn 21 0.00126 0.25323 -0.03039 2741.69 416.81 3026.30
22 0.00095 0.19057 -0.03072 -2741.69 -416.81 -2172.40
22 P02-02 rn 22 0.00095 0.19057 -0.03072 2741.69 396.55 2172.30
23 0.00063 0.12734 -0.03095 -2741.69 -396.55 -1359.19
23 P02-03 rn 23 0.00063 0.12734 -0.03095 2741.69 353.00 1359.84
24 0.00032 0.06376 -0.03107 -2741.69 -353.00 -635.98
24 P02-04 rn 24 0.00032 0.06376 -0.03107 2741.69 310.33 636.35
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.03111 -2741.69 -310.33 -0.06
25 S03-01 rn 17 1.03145 -0.00729 -0.00167 -96.61 528.16 2038.61
26 1.03146 -0.01250 -0.00179 96.61 -322.96 -761.93
26 S03-02 rn 26 1.03146 -0.01250 -0.00179 -37.19 322.85 761.91
27 1.03147 -0.02108 -0.00183 37.19 0.00 0.01

APPENDIX 21.3-15 wFRAME Select Output File To Determine Superstructure

Forces due to Column Hinging, Case 1
10/26/2013, 09:39
Design Academy Example No: 1 (Superstructure Right Push)
************************************************************
* *
* wFRAME *
* *
* *
* *
* VER._1.12,_JAN-14-95 *
* *
* *
* *
************************************************************

s=spring and value
r=complete release

1 S01.00 0.00 0.00 r r r
2 S01.01 2.00 0.00 r r r
3 C01.01 2.00 -1.00 r r r
4 P01.01 2.00 -2.00 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
5 S02.01 12.57 0.00 r r r
6 S02.02 23.14 0.00 r r r
7 S02.03 33.71 0.00 r r r
8 S02.04 44.28 0.00 r r r
9 S02.05 54.85 0.00 r r r
10 S02.06 65.42 0.00 r r r
11 S02.07 75.99 0.00 r r r
12 S02.08 86.56 0.00 r r r
13 S02.09 97.13 0.00 r r r
14 S02.10 107.70 0.00 r r r
15 S02.11 115.70 0.00 r r r
16 S02.12 123.70 0.00 r r r
17 S02.13 127.96 0.00 r r r
18 C02.01 127.96 -3.38 r r r
19 C02.02 127.96 -15.31 r r r
20 C02.03 127.96 -27.24 r r r
21 C02.04 127.96 -39.17 r r r
22 P02.01 127.96 -41.22 s 2.7e+002 r r
23 P02.02 127.96 -43.27 s 8.3e+002 r r
24 P02.03 127.96 -45.32 s 1.3e+003 r r
25 P02.04 127.96 -47.37 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
26 S03.01 132.22 0.00 r r r
27 S03.02 140.22 0.00 r r r
28 S03.03 148.22 0.00 r r r
29 S03.04 160.97 0.00 r r r
30 S03.05 173.72 0.00 r r r
31 S03.06 186.47 0.00 r r r
32 S03.07 199.22 0.00 r r r
33 S03.08 211.97 0.00 r r r
34 S03.09 224.72 0.00 r r r

35 S03.10 237.47 0.00 r r r

36 S03.11 250.22 0.00 r r r
37 S03.12 262.97 0.00 r r r
38 S03.13 275.72 0.00 r r r
39 S03.14 283.72 0.00 r r r
40 S03.15 291.72 0.00 r r r
41 S03.16 295.98 0.00 r r r
42 C03.01 295.98 -3.38 r r r
43 C03.02 295.98 -15.33 r r r
44 C03.03 295.98 -27.28 r r r
45 C03.04 295.98 -39.23 r r r
46 P03.01 295.98 -41.46 s 3.2e+002 r r
47 P03.02 295.98 -43.69 s 9.2e+002 r r
48 P03.03 295.98 -45.92 s 1.5e+003 r r
49 P03.04 295.98 -48.15 s 2e+003 r r
50 P03.05 295.98 -50.38 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
51 S04.01 300.24 0.00 r r r
52 S04.02 308.24 0.00 r r r
53 S04.03 316.24 0.00 r r r
54 S04.04 326.01 0.00 r r r
55 S04.05 335.78 0.00 r r r
56 S04.06 345.55 0.00 r r r
57 S04.07 355.32 0.00 r r r
58 S04.08 365.09 0.00 r r r
59 S04.09 374.86 0.00 r r r
60 S04.10 384.63 0.00 r r r
61 S04.11 394.40 0.00 r r r
62 S04.12 404.17 0.00 r r r
63 S04.13 413.94 0.00 r r r
64 C04.01 413.94 -1.00 r r r
65 P04.01 413.94 -2.00 f 0.0000 f 0.0000 r
66 S05.01 415.94 0.00 s 7.1e+003 r r

# name
22 P02X01 272.74 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
23 P02X02 828.36 0.105 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
24 P02X03 1326.91 0.106 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
46 P03X01 317.46 0.149 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
47 P03X02 919.77 0.110 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
48 P03X03 1476.21 0.109 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
49 P03X04 2038.47 0.109 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
66 S05X01 7061.00 0.272 0.00 1.000 0.00 1000.000
Structural Setup:
element nodes depth
1 S01-01 rn 1 2 2.00 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
2 C01-01 rs 2 3 1.00 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 94.88 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
3 P01-01 rn 3 4 1.00 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
4 S02-01 rn 2 5 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
5 S02-02 rn 5 6 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
6 S02-03 rn 6 7 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
7 S02-04 rn 7 8 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
8 S02-05 rn 8 9 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
9 S02-06 rn 9 10 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
10 S02-07 rn 10 11 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
11 S02-08 rn 11 12 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
12 S02-09 rn 12 13 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
13 S02-10 rn 13 14 10.57 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
14 S02-11 rn 14 15 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
15 S02-12 rn 15 16 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e

16 S02-13 rn 16 17 4.26 6.8 115.6 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
17 C02-01 rn 17 18 3.38 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 94.88 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
18 C02-02 rn 18 19 11.93 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
19 C02-03 rn 19 20 11.93 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
20 C02-04 rn 20 21 11.93 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
21 P02-01 rn 21 22 2.05 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
22 P02-02 rn 22 23 2.05 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
23 P02-03 rn 23 24 2.05 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
24 P02-04 re 24 25 2.05 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.44 0.00 32060 34566 0.02 e
25 S03-01 rn 17 26 4.26 6.8 115.6 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
26 S03-02 rn 26 27 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
27 S03-03 rn 27 28 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
28 S03-04 rn 28 29 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
29 S03-05 rn 29 30 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
30 S03-06 rn 30 31 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
31 S03-07 rn 31 32 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
32 S03-08 rn 32 33 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
33 S03-09 rn 33 34 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
34 S03-10 rn 34 35 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
35 S03-11 rn 35 36 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
36 S03-12 rn 36 37 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
37 S03-13 rn 37 38 12.75 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
38 S03-14 rn 38 39 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
39 S03-15 rn 39 40 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
40 S03-16 rn 40 41 4.26 6.8 115.6 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
41 C03-01 rn 41 42 3.38 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 94.44 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
42 C03-02 rn 42 43 11.95 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
43 C03-03 rn 43 44 11.95 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
44 C03-04 rn 44 45 11.95 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
45 P03-01 rn 45 46 2.23 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
46 P03-02 rn 46 47 2.23 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
47 P03-03 rn 47 48 2.23 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
48 P03-04 rn 48 49 2.23 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
49 P03-05 re 49 50 2.23 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 34512 31835 0.02 e
50 S04-01 rn 41 51 4.26 6.8 115.6 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
51 S04-02 rn 51 52 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
52 S04-03 rn 52 53 8.00 6.8 109.6 629528 60480 778.93 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
53 S04-04 rn 53 54 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
54 S04-05 rn 54 55 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
55 S04-06 rn 55 56 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
56 S04-07 rn 56 57 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
57 S04-08 rn 57 58 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
58 S04-09 rn 58 59 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
59 S04-10 rn 59 60 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
60 S04-11 rn 60 61 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
61 S04-12 rn 61 62 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
62 S04-13 rn 62 63 9.77 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 731.10 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
63 C04-01 rs 63 64 1.00 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 94.44 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
64 P04-01 rn 64 65 1.00 6.0 56.5 629528 62107 47.22 0.00 99999 99999 0.02 e
65 S05-01 rn 63 66 2.00 6.8 103.5 629528 60480 826.75 -0.01 99999 99999 0.02 e
----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------
Plastic Action at:

S05X01 1 2 574.4611 3.3364
P03X02 2 2 693.4553 6.8393
P03X01 3 2 697.6155 6.9630
P02X01 4 2 773.7037 9.2504
P02X02 5 2 790.2726 9.7509
P03X03 6 2 800.7841 10.0718
C02-02 7 rs 823.1016 10.7641
C03-02 8 rs 826.2495 10.9793

node# name ---------- GLOBAL ---------

1 S01.00 0.91494 -0.00139 0.00070
2 S01.01 0.91494 0.00001 0.00070
3 C01.01 0.45747 0.00000 -0.45747
4 P01.01 0.00000 0.00000 -0.45747
5 S02.01 0.91493 0.00733 0.00068
6 S02.02 0.91490 0.01435 0.00064
7 S02.03 0.91487 0.02074 0.00057
8 S02.04 0.91481 0.02619 0.00046
9 S02.05 0.91474 0.03040 0.00033
10 S02.06 0.91466 0.03304 0.00017
11 S02.07 0.91457 0.03381 -0.00003
12 S02.08 0.91446 0.03238 -0.00025
13 S02.09 0.91433 0.02846 -0.00050
14 S02.10 0.91419 0.02172 -0.00078
15 S02.11 0.91409 0.01461 -0.00100
16 S02.12 0.91397 0.00569 -0.00123
17 S02.13 0.91391 0.00017 -0.00136
18 C02.01 0.90584 0.00016 -0.00339
19 C02.02 0.78568 0.00012 -0.01570
20 C02.03 0.54645 0.00007 -0.02377
21 C02.04 0.23382 0.00003 -0.02801
22 P02.01 0.17604 0.00002 -0.02835
23 P02.02 0.11766 0.00001 -0.02858
24 P02.03 0.05892 0.00001 -0.02871
25 P02.04 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
26 S03.01 0.91389 -0.00523 -0.00118
27 S03.02 0.91386 -0.01338 -0.00086
28 S03.03 0.91381 -0.01907 -0.00057
29 S03.04 0.91372 -0.02355 -0.00015
30 S03.05 0.91360 -0.02325 0.00018
31 S03.06 0.91347 -0.01929 0.00042
32 S03.07 0.91332 -0.01282 0.00058
33 S03.08 0.91314 -0.00498 0.00064
34 S03.09 0.91294 0.00309 0.00061
35 S03.10 0.91273 0.01025 0.00050
36 S03.11 0.91249 0.01537 0.00029
37 S03.12 0.91223 0.01729 0.00000
38 S03.13 0.91195 0.01487 -0.00039
39 S03.14 0.91178 0.01070 -0.00066
40 S03.15 0.91160 0.00425 -0.00096
41 S03.16 0.91150 -0.00020 -0.00113
42 C03.01 0.90448 -0.00018 -0.00301
43 C03.02 0.79901 -0.00014 -0.01407
44 C03.03 0.58202 -0.00009 -0.02167
45 C03.04 0.29496 -0.00004 -0.02580
46 P03.01 0.23698 -0.00003 -0.02619
47 P03.02 0.17826 -0.00003 -0.02646
48 P03.03 0.11906 -0.00002 -0.02662
49 P03.04 0.05959 -0.00001 -0.02671
50 P03.05 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
51 S04.01 0.91145 -0.00476 -0.00102
52 S04.02 0.91133 -0.01206 -0.00081
53 S04.03 0.91121 -0.01776 -0.00062
54 S04.04 0.91104 -0.02267 -0.00039
55 S04.05 0.91086 -0.02546 -0.00019
56 S04.06 0.91067 -0.02639 -0.00001
57 S04.07 0.91047 -0.02567 0.00015
58 S04.08 0.91025 -0.02355 0.00028
59 S04.09 0.91002 -0.02025 0.00039
60 S04.10 0.90978 -0.01601 0.00047
61 S04.11 0.90953 -0.01107 0.00053
62 S04.12 0.90926 -0.00565 0.00057
63 S04.13 0.90898 -0.00001 0.00058
64 C04.01 0.45449 0.00000 -0.45449
65 P04.01 0.00000 0.00000 -0.45449
66 S05.01 0.90892 0.00116 0.00058


1 S01-01 rn 1 0.91494 -0.00139 0.00070 7.84 -0.01 -0.02
2 0.91494 0.00001 0.00070 -7.84 0.03 -0.12
2 C01-01 rs 2 -0.00001 0.91494 -0.45747 -121.46 -6.52 -0.08
3 0.00000 0.45747 -0.45747 121.46 6.52 -7.69
3 P01-01 rn 3 0.00000 0.45747 -0.45747 -121.46 2.15 2.75
4 0.00000 0.00000 -0.45747 121.46 -2.15 -0.30
4 S02-01 rn 2 0.91494 0.00001 0.00070 66.87 -121.49 0.11
5 0.91493 0.00733 0.00068 -66.87 121.59 -1284.78
5 S02-02 rn 5 0.91493 0.00733 0.00068 154.24 -121.59 1284.77
6 0.91490 0.01435 0.00064 -154.24 121.70 -2570.58
6 S02-03 rn 6 0.91490 0.01435 0.00064 241.60 -121.69 2570.61
7 0.91487 0.02074 0.00057 -241.60 121.80 -3857.45
7 S02-04 rn 7 0.91487 0.02074 0.00057 328.86 -121.79 3857.49
8 0.91481 0.02619 0.00046 -328.86 121.90 -5145.39
8 S02-05 rn 8 0.91481 0.02619 0.00046 416.22 -121.90 5145.38
9 0.91474 0.03040 0.00033 -416.22 122.01 -6434.50
9 S02-06 rn 9 0.91474 0.03040 0.00033 503.69 -122.01 6434.51
10 0.91466 0.03304 0.00017 -503.69 122.12 -7724.70
10 S02-07 rn 10 0.91466 0.03304 0.00017 590.80 -122.12 7724.80
11 0.91457 0.03381 -0.00003 -590.80 122.23 -9016.16
11 S02-08 rn 11 0.91457 0.03381 -0.00003 678.33 -122.23 9016.11
12 0.91446 0.03238 -0.00025 -678.33 122.33 -10308.64
12 S02-09 rn 12 0.91446 0.03238 -0.00025 765.50 -122.32 10308.56
13 0.91433 0.02846 -0.00050 -765.50 122.43 -11602.05
13 S02-10 rn 13 0.91433 0.02846 -0.00050 852.83 -122.42 11602.07
14 0.91419 0.02172 -0.00078 -852.83 122.53 -12896.67
14 S02-11 rn 14 0.91419 0.02172 -0.00078 929.37 -122.52 12896.78
15 0.91409 0.01461 -0.00100 -929.37 122.60 -13877.32
15 S02-12 rn 15 0.91409 0.01461 -0.00100 995.44 -122.61 13877.38
16 0.91397 0.00569 -0.00123 -995.44 122.69 -14858.62
16 S02-13 rn 16 0.91397 0.00569 -0.00123 1045.39 -122.66 14858.62
17 0.91391 0.00017 -0.00136 -1045.39 122.71 -15381.25
17 C02-01 rn 17 -0.00017 0.91391 -0.00136 -129.65 802.62 37277.89
18 -0.00016 0.90584 -0.00339 129.65 -802.62 -34564.80
18 C02-02 rs 18 -0.00016 0.90584 -0.00381 -129.70 803.15 34566.00
19 -0.00012 0.78568 -0.01570 129.70 -803.15 -24984.42
19 C02-03 rn 19 -0.00012 0.78568 -0.01570 -129.70 803.20 24984.50
20 -0.00007 0.54645 -0.02377 129.70 -803.20 -15402.33
20 C02-04 rn 20 -0.00007 0.54645 -0.02377 -129.70 803.19 15402.42
21 -0.00003 0.23382 -0.02801 129.70 -803.19 -5820.25
21 P02-01 rn 21 -0.00003 0.23382 -0.02801 -129.70 802.91 5819.92
22 -0.00002 0.17604 -0.02835 129.70 -802.91 -4173.36
22 P02-02 rn 22 -0.00002 0.17604 -0.02835 -129.70 763.19 4173.73
23 -0.00001 0.11766 -0.02858 129.70 -763.19 -2608.48
23 P02-03 rn 23 -0.00001 0.11766 -0.02858 -129.70 675.43 2608.88
24 -0.00001 0.05892 -0.02871 129.70 -675.43 -1224.02
24 P02-04 re 24 -0.00001 0.05892 -0.02871 -129.70 596.96 1223.94
25 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02876 129.70 -596.96 0.19
25 S03-01 rn 17 0.91391 0.00017 -0.00136 274.71 -252.37 -21895.31
26 0.91389 -0.00523 -0.00118 -274.71 252.41 20820.07
26 S03-02 rn 26 0.91389 -0.00523 -0.00118 323.11 -252.43 -20820.31
27 0.91386 -0.01338 -0.00086 -323.11 252.51 18800.50
27 S03-03 rn 27 0.91386 -0.01338 -0.00086 389.44 -252.52 -18800.52
28 0.91381 -0.01907 -0.00057 -389.44 252.60 16780.05
28 S03-04 rn 28 0.91381 -0.01907 -0.00057 475.44 -252.60 -16780.07
29 0.91372 -0.02355 -0.00015 -475.44 252.73 13558.60
29 S03-05 rn 29 0.91372 -0.02355 -0.00015 580.52 -252.73 -13558.60
30 0.91360 -0.02325 0.00018 -580.52 252.86 10335.48
30 S03-06 rn 30 0.91360 -0.02325 0.00018 685.74 -252.86 -10335.48
31 0.91347 -0.01929 0.00042 -685.74 252.98 7110.72
31 S03-07 rn 31 0.91347 -0.01929 0.00042 791.29 -252.99 -7110.76
32 0.91332 -0.01282 0.00058 -791.29 253.11 3884.34
32 S03-08 rn 32 0.91332 -0.01282 0.00058 896.76 -253.11 -3884.34
33 0.91314 -0.00498 0.00064 -896.76 253.24 656.30
33 S03-09 rn 33 0.91314 -0.00498 0.00064 1001.66 -253.24 -656.33
34 0.91294 0.00309 0.00061 -1001.66 253.37 -2573.29

34 S03-10 rn 34 0.91294 0.00309 0.00061 1106.93 -253.37 2573.29

35 0.91273 0.01025 0.00050 -1106.93 253.49 -5804.54
35 S03-11 rn 35 0.91273 0.01025 0.00050 1211.99 -253.49 5804.56
36 0.91249 0.01537 0.00029 -1211.99 253.62 -9037.39
36 S03-12 rn 36 0.91249 0.01537 0.00029 1317.09 -253.62 9037.42
37 0.91223 0.01729 0.00000 -1317.09 253.75 -12271.85
37 S03-13 rn 37 0.91223 0.01729 0.00000 1422.49 -253.74 12271.87
38 0.91195 0.01487 -0.00039 -1422.49 253.87 -15507.92
38 S03-14 rn 38 0.91195 0.01487 -0.00039 1508.34 -253.87 15507.96
39 0.91178 0.01070 -0.00066 -1508.34 253.95 -17539.28
39 S03-15 rn 39 0.91178 0.01070 -0.00066 1574.11 -253.95 17539.29
40 0.91160 0.00425 -0.00096 -1574.11 254.03 -19571.26
40 S03-16 rn 40 0.91160 0.00425 -0.00096 1624.06 -254.03 19571.27
41 0.91150 -0.00020 -0.00113 -1624.06 254.07 -20653.43
41 C03-01 rn 41 0.00020 0.91150 -0.00113 139.21 721.18 34272.36
42 0.00018 0.90448 -0.00301 -139.21 -721.18 -31834.75
42 C03-02 rs 42 0.00018 0.90448 -0.00301 139.37 721.63 31835.00
43 0.00014 0.79901 -0.01407 -139.37 -721.63 -23211.55
43 C03-03 rn 43 0.00014 0.79901 -0.01407 139.37 721.60 23211.56
44 0.00009 0.58202 -0.02167 -139.37 -721.60 -14588.34
44 C03-04 rn 44 0.00009 0.58202 -0.02167 139.37 721.60 14588.36
45 0.00004 0.29496 -0.02580 -139.37 -721.60 -5965.18
45 P03-01 rn 45 0.00004 0.29496 -0.02580 139.37 721.93 5964.92
46 0.00003 0.23698 -0.02619 -139.37 -721.93 -4354.71
46 P03-02 rn 46 0.00003 0.23698 -0.02619 139.37 675.41 4356.28
47 0.00003 0.17826 -0.02646 -139.37 -675.41 -2849.53
47 P03-03 rn 47 0.00003 0.17826 -0.02646 139.37 573.88 2849.93
48 0.00002 0.11906 -0.02662 -139.37 -573.88 -1570.10
48 P03-04 rn 48 0.00002 0.11906 -0.02662 139.37 412.94 1570.30
49 0.00001 0.05959 -0.02671 -139.37 -412.94 -649.82
49 P03-05 re 49 0.00001 0.05959 -0.02671 139.37 291.44 649.96
50 0.00000 0.00000 -0.02673 -139.37 -291.44 0.02
50 S04-01 rn 41 0.91150 -0.00020 -0.00113 935.80 -114.87 -13619.84
51 0.91145 -0.00476 -0.00102 -935.80 114.91 13130.47
51 S04-02 rn 51 0.91145 -0.00476 -0.00102 983.99 -114.90 -13130.79
52 0.91133 -0.01206 -0.00081 -983.99 114.98 12211.27
52 S04-03 rn 52 0.91133 -0.01206 -0.00081 1049.77 -114.98 -12211.27
53 0.91121 -0.01776 -0.00062 -1049.77 115.06 11291.09
53 S04-04 rn 53 0.91121 -0.01776 -0.00062 1122.99 -115.04 -11291.09
54 0.91104 -0.02267 -0.00039 -1122.99 115.14 10166.65
54 S04-05 rn 54 0.91104 -0.02267 -0.00039 1203.85 -115.16 -10166.64
55 0.91086 -0.02546 -0.00019 -1203.85 115.26 9041.13
55 S04-06 rn 55 0.91086 -0.02546 -0.00019 1284.17 -115.24 -9041.08
56 0.91067 -0.02639 -0.00001 -1284.17 115.34 7914.66
56 S04-07 rn 56 0.91067 -0.02639 -0.00001 1364.86 -115.36 -7914.64
57 0.91047 -0.02567 0.00015 -1364.86 115.46 6787.06
57 S04-08 rn 57 0.91047 -0.02567 0.00015 1445.46 -115.47 -6787.07
58 0.91025 -0.02355 0.00028 -1445.46 115.56 5658.43
58 S04-09 rn 58 0.91025 -0.02355 0.00028 1526.44 -115.57 -5658.45
59 0.91002 -0.02025 0.00039 -1526.44 115.67 4528.83
59 S04-10 rn 59 0.91002 -0.02025 0.00039 1607.02 -115.68 -4528.86
60 0.90978 -0.01601 0.00047 -1607.02 115.78 3398.19
60 S04-11 rn 60 0.90978 -0.01601 0.00047 1687.98 -115.78 -3398.23
61 0.90953 -0.01107 0.00053 -1687.98 115.88 2266.51
61 S04-12 rn 61 0.90953 -0.01107 0.00053 1768.74 -115.89 -2266.52
62 0.90926 -0.00565 0.00057 -1768.74 115.99 1133.80
62 S04-13 rn 62 0.90926 -0.00565 0.00057 1849.31 -115.99 -1133.79
63 0.90898 -0.00001 0.00058 -1849.31 116.09 0.10
63 C04-01 rs 63 0.00001 0.90898 -0.45449 116.10 3.57 -4.40
64 0.00000 0.45449 -0.45449 -116.10 -3.57 -2.28
64 P04-01 rn 64 0.00000 0.45449 -0.45449 116.10 -8.59 -4.71
65 0.00000 0.00000 -0.45449 -116.10 8.59 -3.97
65 S05-01 rn 63 0.90898 -0.00001 0.00058 1913.55 0.03 -0.06
66 0.90892 0.00116 0.00058 -1913.55 -0.01 0.02

APPENDIX 21.3-16 PSSECx Input File

PSSEC300,_OCT_26_2005
Bridge Design Academy - Prototype Supestructure Capacity S1 1.0NEG
Number of different types of concrete
1
For each concrete type input:
Type number; Model code= 0 simple(unconfined/confined), 1 Mander's (unconfined)
strength f'c0 (ksi), strain ec0, strength fcu (ksi), ult. strain ecu, conc. density
1 1
5.200 .002 0.5 0.0025 150
Number of different types of P/S steel
1
For each type, 1st line for tensile parameters,2nd line for cmpressive parameters
type#;E;fy;strain hard. factor;fu;ult. strain;PS-code: 0 tendons, 1 otherwise
E;fy;strain hard. factor;fu;ult. strain
1 28500 245 2 270 0.030 0
0 0 0 0 0
Number of different types of mild steel
1
For each steel type input:
Type number;Model code= 0 simple, 1 complex
E(ksi);fy(ksi);strain hard. factor;fu(ksi);ultimate strain
1 1
29000 68 6.41 95 0.09
Number of Conc. Subsections
1
For each Subsec.:Subsection #,Section shape type, Concrete type, No. of fibers
Subsec. Dim.(in):(See Manual for input parameters.)
Subsec. Dim.(in):(See Manual for input parameters.)
Global coord. of the center of Subsec.: Xg, Yg
1 I-shaped, 1 200
706.0 48.0 517.0
81.0 9.125 8.25
0 -5.26
Number of P/S steel groups
1
For each group:group#;P/S type;x-coord.(in);y-coord.(in);area(in^2);P/S force
1 1 0 25.4412 38.28 6157
Number of mild steel rebar cages (rebar distributed around the perimeter)
0
cage#;steel type;cage shape;#of bars;x(in) of 1st bar(y=0);area(in^2)of bar
Number of mild steel groups (no logical pattern for distribution)
2 n
group#;steel type;x-coord.(in); y-coord.(in); area(in^2)
1 1 0 31.80 47.40
2 1 0 -42.13 34.76
Non P/S Axial load on mid-depth of section (Kips)(+ sign=compression)
0
Numerical Computation Factor (1 to 10)
5
Computer Graphics Card identifier: 0 none; 2 CGA; 3 Hercules; 9 EGA; 12 VGA
12
Output control: 0 short; 1 long output
1
X-Sec. plot control (0=no plot, 1=each stage, 2=every iteration of each step)
0
Analysis Control: p - Positive moment, n - Negative moment
n

APPENDIX 21.3-17 PSSECx Model for Superstructure

APPENDIX 21.3-18 Partial Output from PSSECx Run

05-15-2006
******** SECx ********
DUCTILITY and STRENGTH of

Rectangular, T-, I-, Hammer, Octagonal, Circular, Ring,
and Hollowed shaped Prestressed and Reinforced
Concrete Sections using fiber models
Ver. 3.00, OCT-26-2005
Copyright (C) 2005 By Mark Seyed and Don Lee.
This program should not be distributed under any condition.
This release is for demo ONLY (beta testing is not complete).
Caltrans or the author make no expressed or implied warranty of any

kind with regard to this program. In no event shall the author or
Caltrans be held liable for incidental or consequential damages
arising out of the use of this program.
JOB TITLE: Bridge Design Academy - Prototype Supestructure Capacity S1 1.0NEG
Concrete Data, Complex Model, Mander's unconfined
Concrete Type = 1
Compressive Strength (max.) (ksi) = 5.200
Strain at max. Strength = .00200
Strength at Ultimate Strain (ksi) = 0.000
Ultimate strain = .00500
Unit Weight (pcf) = 150.00
Prestressing Steel Data
Material Yield Hardening Ultimate Yield Ultimate Modulus

No. Strain Strain Strain Stress Stress of Elasticity
ksi ksi ksi
1 0.00860 0.00860 0.03000 245.10 270.00 28500.00 Tensile prop.
0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00 0.00 0.00 Compressive prop.
Prestress element type # 1 is 7-wire and Low-Relaxation Tendon
with 270 ksi strands.
( Refer to PCI Design Handbook 4th Edition.)
Mild Steel Reinforcing Data
Material Yield Hardening Ultimate Yield Ultimate

No. Strain Strain Strain Stress Stress
ksi ksi
1 0.00234 0.01503 0.09000 68.00 95.00
Rectangular, T-, or I-shaped section information
Depth of Section (in.) = 81.00

Top Flange width (in.) = 706.00
Top Flange thickness (in.) = 9.13
Bot Flange width (in.) = 517.00
Bot Flange thickness (in.) = 8.25
Web thickness (in.) = 48.00
Concrete fiber information
Fiber Material x y area

# # (in) (in) (in^2)
1 1.0 0.00 -45.56 203.11
2 1.0 0.00 -45.17 203.11

197 1.0 0.00 33.79 292.83
199 1.0 0.00 34.62 292.83
200 1.0 0.00 35.03 292.83

Prestressing Steel Fiber Data
Fiber Material x y area P/S force

No. No. (in) (in) (in^2) Kips
1 1 0.00 25.44 38.28 6157.00
Total P/S force on the section = 6157.0 kips

Total moment due to P/S about point (0, 0) = 13053.5 ft-kip
Mild Steel Fiber Data
Fiber Material x y area

No. No. (in) (in) (in^2)
1 1 0.00 31.80 47.40

2 1 0.00 -42.13 34.76
Axial load at mid-depth of section (kip)(positive means compression) = 0.0
***************************************************
* Analysis Results --- Negative Moment Capacity *
***************************************************
Initial state due to P/S without non-P/S axial force:

N.A. Loc. Curvature Conc. Strain @ max. compressed fiber
-41.50 0.0000023 0.00017950
Undeformed P/S element position w.r.t. reference plane

P/S Fiber Loc.(y) Undef. pos. Conc. Strain @ same loc.
1 25.44 -0.0058006 -0.0001570
Max. Max.
step epscmax in. Tens. Comp. Comp. Tens. force force in/in (K-ft)
0 -.00001 -41.50 -.00000 5923. 236. -1. -6157. -0.8 0.000002 -4.
1 -.00001 -42.26 0.00000 5923. 235. 0. -6158. -0.4 0.000002 -147.
2 -.00001 -43.05 0.00000 5923. 236. 0. -6158. -0.5 0.000002 -307.
3 -.00000 -43.86 0.00000 5923. 236. 0. -6159. 0.3 0.000002 -486.
4 -.00000 -44.70 0.00000 5924. 237. 0. -6160. 0.2 0.000002 -683.
5 0.00000 -45.56 0.00000 5925. 237. 0. -6161. -0.7 0.000002 -899.
6 0.00010 9055.25 0.00000 5983. 237. 0. -6220. -0.4 -.000000 -13142.
7 0.00011 362.50 0.00000 5990. 237. 0. -6227. -0.3 -.000000 -14634.
8 0.00013 174.76 0.00000 5997. 237. 0. -6235. 0.8 -.000001 -16309.
9 0.00014 110.77 0.00000 6006. 237. 0. -6244. 0.9 -.000001 -18186.
10 0.00016 78.67 0.00000 6017. 237. 0. -6254. -0.1 -.000001 -20287.
11 0.00018 59.45 0.00000 6028. 238. 0. -6265. -0.7 -.000002 -22643.
12 0.00020 46.72 0.00000 6041. 238. 0. -6278. -0.3 -.000002 -25286.
13 0.00022 37.74 0.00000 6055. 238. 0. -6292. -1.0 -.000003 -28243.
14 0.00025 29.97 -.00001 6079. 242. -8. -6312. -0.1 -.000003 -31443.
15 0.00028 14.77 -.00008 6224. 268. -109. -6383. 0.4 -.000005 -33995.
16 0.00032 2.23 -.00020 6470. 296. -269. -6496. -0.7 -.000007 -36442.
17 0.00035 -6.69 -.00035 6806. 326. -483. -6648. -0.9 -.000009 -39119.
18 0.00040 -12.96 -.00055 7231. 359. -751. -6840. 0.5 -.000012 -42153.
19 0.00045 -17.40 -.00078 7745. 395. -1072. -7069. 0.4 -.000016 -45615.
20 0.00050 -20.61 -.00105 8346. 435. -1445. -7336. 0.3 -.000020 -49549.
21 0.00056 -22.97 -.00136 9034. 480. -1872. -7642. -0.4 -.000025 -53987.
22 0.00063 -24.75 -.00171 9811. 530. -2354. -7987. -0.2 -.000030 -58960.
23 0.00071 -26.11 -.00210 10680. 587. -2893. -8372. -1.0 -.000036 -64494.
24 0.00079 -27.79 -.00266 11498. 645. -3223. -8920. 0.4 -.000045 -69683.
25 0.00089 -30.09 -.00356 12094. 698. -3223. -9568. -0.5 -.000058 -73488.
26 0.00100 -32.67 -.00499 12356. 739. -3223. -9872. 0.3 -.000077 -75410.
27 0.00112 -34.65 -.00682 12476. 774. -3223.-10027. 0.9 -.000103 -76502.
28 0.00126 -36.06 -.00897 12528. 809. -3223.-10115. 0.1 -.000132 -77210.

29 0.00141 -37.05 -.01141 12543. 848. -3223.-10168. 0.6 -.000166 -77720.

30 0.00158 -37.76 -.01411 12533. 893. -3223.-10204. 0.9 -.000203 -78121.
31 0.00178 -38.26 -.01704 12639. 948. -3360.-10228. 0.9 -.000243 -79244.
32 0.00199 -38.64 -.02027 12782. 1012. -3546.-10247. -0.3 -.000288 -80600.
33 0.00223 -38.94 -.02388 12893. 1084. -3716.-10261. 0.6 -.000338 -81787.
34 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
35 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
36 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
37 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
38 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
39 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
40 0.00000 0.00 0.00000 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0 0.000000 0.
Prestress Tendon Strain on the x-section:
Max.
Conc. Neutral P/S Steel Strain
Strain Axis
step epscmax in. No. Strain No. Strain No. Strain No. Strain No. Strain
0 -.00001 -41.50 1 -.005644
1 -.00001 -42.26 1 -.005644
2 -.00001 -43.05 1 -.005645
3 -.00000 -43.86 1 -.005646
4 -.00000 -44.70 1 -.005647
5 0.00000 -45.56 1 -.005648
6 0.00010 9055.25 1 -.005701
7 0.00011 362.50 1 -.005708

22 0.00063 -24.75 1 -.007321

23 0.00071 -26.11 1 -.007674
24 0.00079 -27.79 1 -.008176
25 0.00089 -30.09 1 -.008996
26 0.00100 -32.67 1 -.010301
27 0.00112 -34.65 1 -.011970
28 0.00126 -36.06 1 -.013932
29 0.00141 -37.05 1 -.016152
30 0.00158 -37.76 1 -.018616
31 0.00178 -38.26 1 -.021292
32 0.00199 -38.64 1 -.024243
33 0.00223 -38.94 1 -.027534
34 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
35 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
36 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
37 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
38 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
39 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
40 0.00000 0.00 1 -.005801
Recommended value of 'effective moment of inertia' based on

initial slope of moment-curvature diagram (ft^4) = 211.8303
Yield pt. is defined as the First mild steel yields.

The first mild steel yields between the following Steps: 23 and 24
The computation of mild steel yield point IS within 2% tolerance.
The first P/S steel yields between the following Steps: 24 and 25
The computation of P/S steel yield point IS NOT within 2% tolerance.
Curvature(rad/in) Moments (ft-K)

Yield 0.000040 67871
Nominal See force equilibrium table at concrete strain of .003
Ultimate 0.000000 0
End

NOTATION
AASHTO = AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications with Interims and California
Amendments
Ab = area of individual reinforcing steel bar (in.2)
top
Acap = area of bent cap top flexural steel (in.2)
bot
Acap = area of bent cap bottom flexural steel (in.2)
Ae = effective shear area; effective abutment wall area (in.2)

Ajh = effective horizontal area of a moment resisting joint (in.2)
Ajv = effective vertical area for a moment resisting joint (in.2)
Aps = prestressing steel area (in.2)
As = area of supplemental non-prestressed tension reinforcement (in.2)

Asjh = area of horizontal joint shear reinforcement required at moment resisting
joints (in.2)
Asjhc = total area of horizontal ties placed at the end of the bent cap in Case 1 Knee
joints (in.2)
Asjv = area of vertical joint shear reinforcement required at moment resisting joints
(in.2)
Asj bar = area of vertical J bar reinforcement required at moment resisting joints
with a skew angle > 20 (in.2)
Assf = area of bent cap side face steel required at moment resisting joints (in.2)
Ask = area of interface shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (Vertical shear
key reinforcement) (in.2)
Ast ,max = maximum longitudinal reinforcement area (in.2)
Ast ,min = minimum longitudinal reinforcement area (in.2)

Ast = total area of column longitudinal reinforcement anchored in the joint; total
area of column/pier wall longitudinal reinforcement (in.2)

Asu bar = area of bent cap top and bottom reinforcement bent in the form of U bars in
Knee joints (in.2)
Ash = area of horizontal shear key reinforcement (hanger bars) (in.2)
AskIso( provided) = area of interface shear reinforcement provided for isolated shear key (in.2)
iso
AskNon
( provided) = area of interface shear reinforcement provided for non-isolated shear key
(in.2)
Av = area of shear reinforcement perpendicular to flexural tension reinforcement
(in.2)
BDD = Caltrans Bridge Design Details
Beff = effective width of the superstructure for resisting longitudinal seismic
moments (in.)
Dc = column cross sectional dimension in the direction of interest (in.)
Dftg = depth of footing (in.)
Ds = depth of superstructure at the bent cap (in.)
DSH = Design Seismic Hazards

D' = cross-sectional dimension of confined concrete core measured between the
centerline of the peripheral hoop or spiral (in.)
Dc' = confined column cross-section dimension, measured out to out of ties, in the
direction parallel to the axis of bending (in.)
EDA = Elastic Dynamic Analysis
ESA = Elastic Static Analysis
Fsk = abutment shear key force capacity; Shear force associated with column
overstrength moment, including overturning effects (ksi)
Ieff , I e = effective moment of inertia for computing member stiffness (in.4)
ISA = Inelastic Static Analysis

K abut = abutment backwall stiffness (kip/in./ft)
Keff = effective abutment backwall stiffness (kip/in./ft)

Ki = Initial abutment backwall stiffness (kip/in./ft)

L = member length from the point of maximum moment to the point of contra-
flexure (in); length of bridge deck between adjacent expansion joints
Lmin,headed = minimum horizontal length from the end of the lowest layer of headed
hanger bar to the intersection with the shear key vertical reinforcement (in.)
Lmin,hooked = minimum horizontal length from the end of the lowest layer of hanger bar
hooks to the intersection with the shear key vertical reinforcement (in.)
Lp = equivalent analytical plastic hinge length (in.)
Mdl = moment attributed to dead load (kip-ft)
M eqcol = column moment when coupled with any existing Mdl & Mp/s will equal the
columns overstrength moment capacity, Mocol (kip-ft)
M eqR , L = portion of Meqcol distributed to the left or right adjacent superstructure spans
(kip-ft)
Mn = nominal moment capacity based on the nominal concrete and steel strengths
when the concrete strain reaches 0.003 (kip-ft)
Mne = nominal moment capacity based on the expected material properties and a
concrete strain, c = 0.003 (kip-ft)
sup R , L
M ne = expected nominal moment capacity of the right and left superstructure spans
utilizing expected material properties (kip-ft)
M ocol = column overstrength moment (kip-ft)
Mpcol = Idealized plastic moment capacity of a column calculated by M- analysis

(kip-ft)
Mp/s = moment attributed to secondary prestress effects (kip-ft)
My = Moment capacity of a ductile component corresponding to the first reinforcing
bar yielding (kip-ft)
M- = moment curvature analysis
MTD = Caltrans Memo To Designers
NH = minimum hinge seat width normal to the centerline of bent (in.)
NA = abutment support width normal to centerline of bearing (in.)
P = absolute value of the net axial force normal to the shear plane (kip)
Pb = beam axial force at the center of the joint including prestressing (kip)
Pc = column axial force including the effects of overturning (kip)

Pdia = passive pressure force resisting movement at diaphragm abutment (ksf)
Pdl = superstructure dead load reaction at the abutment plus weight of the abutment
and its footing (kip)
Pdlsup = superstructure axial load resultant at the abutment (kip)
P/S = prestressed concrete; prestressing strand

Pjack = total prestress jacking force (kip)
Pn = nominal axial resistance (kip)
Pbw = passive pressure force resisting movement at seat abutment (ksf)
RA = abutment displacement coefficient
S = cap beam short stub length (ft)

SDC = Seismic Design Criteria
T = natural period of vibration, (seconds), T = 2 m k
Tc = total tensile force in column longitudinal reinforcement associated with Mocol

(kip)
Ti = natural period of the stiffer frame (sec.)
Tj = natural period of the more flexible frame (sec.)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (kip)
Vn = nominal shear strength (kip)
Vo = overstrength shear associated with the overstrength moment Mo (kip)
Vocol = column overstrength shear, typically defined as Mocol /L (kip)
V pcol = column plastic shear, typically defined as Mpcol/L (kip)
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (kip)

Vww = shear capacity of one wingwall (kip)
a = demand spectral acceleration

bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the shear depth
d v (in.)
dbl = nominal bar diameter of longitudinal column reinforcement (in.2)

dv = effective shear depth defined as the distance between resultants of tensile and
compressive forces due to flexural, but need not be taken less than 0.9d e or
0.72h (in.)
fh = average normal stress in the horizontal direction within a moment resisting
joint (ksi)
fv = average normal stress in the vertical direction within a moment resisting joint
(ksi)
fy = nominal yield stress for A706 reinforcement (ksi)
fye = expected yield stress for A706 reinforcement (ksi)
fyh = nominal yield stress of transverse column reinforcement, hoops/spirals (ksi)
f c' = compressive strength of unconfined concrete (psi)
f cc' = confined compression strength of concrete (psi)
f ce' = expected compressive strength of unconfined concrete (psi)
f1 , f 2 = concrete shear factors for ductile members
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft sec2

h = distance from the center of gravity of the tensile force to the center of gravity
of the compressive force of the column section (in.)
hdia = backwall height for diaphragm abutment (in.)
hbw = backwall height for seat abutment (in.)

k ie , k ej = smaller and larger effective bent or column stiffness, respectively (kip/in.)
lac = minimum length of column longitudinal reinforcement extension into the

bent cap (in.)
lac,provided = actual length of column longitudinal reinforcement embedded into the bent
cap (in.)
ld = development length of the main reinforcement (in.)
l dh = development length in tension of standard hooked bars (in.)
mi = tributary mass of column or bent i, m = W/g (kip-sec2/ft)

mj = tributary mass of column or bent j, m = W/g (kip-sec2/ft)
pbw = maximum abutment backwall soil pressure (ksf)
pc = nominal principal compression stress in a joint (psi)

pt = nominal principal tension stress in a joint (psi)

s = spacing of shear/transverse reinforcement (in.)
t = top or bottom slab thickness (in.)
vjv = nominal vertical shear stress in a moment resisting joint (psi)
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete (psi)
w = width of the backwall or diaphragm, as appropriate (in.)
= factor defining the range over which Fsk is allowed to vary
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension

and shear
suR = reduced ultimate tensile strain for A706 reinforcement
c = local member displacement capacity (in.)

col = displacement attributed to the elastic and plastic deformation of the column
(in.)
C = global displacement capacity (in.)
cr+sh = displacement due to creep and shrinkage (in.)
d = local member displacement demand (in.)
D = global system displacement (in.)
eff = effective longitudinal abutment displacement at idealized yield (in.)
eq = relative longitudinal displacement demand at an expansion joint due to

earthquake (in.)
p = idealized plastic displacement capacity due to rotation of the plastic hinge
(in.)
p/s = displacement due to prestress shortening (in.)
r = relative lateral offset between the point of contra-flexure and the base of the
plastic hinge (in.)
tem = displacement due to temperature variation (in.)
Y = idealized yield displacement of the subsystem at the formation of the plastic
hinge (in.)
Y(i) = idealized yield displacement of the subsystem at the formation of plastic
hinge (i) (in.)

col
Y = idealized yield displacement of a column at the formation of the plastic hinge
(in.)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (radians)
p = plastic rotation capacity (radians)
sk = skew angle (degree)
s = amount of transverse reinforcement expressed as volumetric ratio
= resistance factor
p = idealized plastic curvature (1/in.)
u = ultimate curvature capacity (1/in.)
y = yield curvature corresponding to the first yield of the reinforcement in a
ductile component (1/in.)
Y = idealized yield curvature (1/in.)
d = local displacement ductility demand
D = global displacement ductility demand
c = local displacement ductility capacity

REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, (2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, U.S. Customary

Units 2012 (6th Edition), American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D.C.
2. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendments to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

3. Caltrans, (2013). Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.7, California Department of

4. Caltrans (2009). Bridge Memo To Designers 6-1 Column Analysis Consideration,

California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, February 2009.
5. Caltrans, (2007). CTBridge Help System, Version 1.3 (Online), Caltrans Bridge Analysis
and Design, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
6. Caltrans, (2001a). Bridge Memo To Designers 20-6 Seismic Strength of Concrete Bridge
Superstructures, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
7. Caltrans, (2001b). Memo To Designers 20-9 Splices in Bar Reinforcing Steel, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, August 2001.
8. CSI, (1976-2007). SAP2000 Advanced 11.0.8, Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis of Structures, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, CA.
9. Mahan, M., (2006). Users Manual for xSECTION, Cross Section Analysis Program,
Version 4.00, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
10. Mahan, M., (1995). Users Manual for wFRAME, 2-D Push Analysis Program,
Version 1.13, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.

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Division of Engineering Services

BRIDGE DESIGN PRACTICE

VOLUME I: FUNDAMENTALS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

Chapter 1, Bridge Design Specifications was written by Lian Duan.

VOLUME II: SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN

VOLUME III: SEISMIC DESIGN

1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1-1

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-i

This page is intentionally left blank.

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-ii

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-1

1.2 LIMIT STATES

1.3 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

where Qi is a load effect; Rn is the nominal resistance and FS is a factor of safety.

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-2

1.4 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD)

where i is a load factor and is the strength reduction factor.

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-3

1.5 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

1.5.2 Probabilistic Basis of the LRFD Specifications

Figure 1.5-1 Relative Frequency Distribution of Load Effect Q and Resistance R

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-4

Figure 1.5-2 Reliability Index

The probability of R < Q depends on the distribution shapes of each of many

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-5

1.5.3 Calibration of Load and Resistance Factors

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-6

Quantify variability in loads and materials by deciding on coefficients of

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-7

1.5.4 Load and Resistance Factors

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-8

be recalculated accordingly. This ability to adjust the design parameters in a

Table 1.5-1 Considered Resistance Factors in LRFD Calibration

1.5.5 General Design Requirements

where i is a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-9

For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate:

i D R I 0.95 (AASHTO 1.3.2.1-2)

For loads for which a minimum value of i is appropriate:

where D , R and I are factors relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational

1.5.6 Serviceability Requirements

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-10

1.5.7 Constructability Requirements

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-11

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-12

9. Caltrans, (2014). California Amendments to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-13

Chapter 1 Bridge Design Specifications 1-14

2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 2-1

Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-i

2.4.15 Sound Wall Pilaster Design ........................................................................... 2-29

Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-ii

2.2 BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE AND AESTHETICS

The Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics (BA&A) Design Branch is an

Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-1

research and development of material specifications, estimates for application, and

2.2.2 Context Sensitive Design

The approach to context sensitive structure aesthetics is a an iterative process, with

2.2.3 Route and Corridor Themes

Route and corridor themes are established by developing a complimentary

Chapter 2 Bridge Architecture and Aesthetics 2-2

2.2.4 Products and Services

Drawings: Sketches, preliminary drawings, and finished contract drawings.