Keller1988 PDF

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Rock
Properties
and Mineral
Downloaded 09/20/15 to 130.194.20.173. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Rock and Mineral Properties

George V. Keller*
Physical Laws, Electromagnetic Induction, and Rock Properties
Maxwell's equationsprovide the startingpoint to obtain an understandingof how electro-

magneticfields can be used to study the structureof the earth and determine its electric or
magneticproperties(Maxwell, 1954; Ward and Hohmann, this volume). One equationis
usedto representthe fact that magneticfields are causedby electric current flow:
0D
V x H = J + , (1)
Ot
whereH is the magneticfield, J is the currentdensity, and D is the electric displacement.

This equationrepresentstwo kinds of currentflow, one (J) in which charge carriers flow
througha mediumwithouthindrance,andanother,OD/Ot,in whichchargeseparation,
and
hencean impedingelectric field, arises. The first type of current is often called ohmic, or
galvanic,while the secondtype of currentis known by the name displacementcurrent.
A secondequationwhich representsthe physicallaw that electric fields result from time-
varying magneticinductionfields is
0B
I7 x E = (2)
Ot
where
E istheelectric
fieldvector
andB isthemagnetic
induction
vector.
Conductivity
Thesetwo equationsof Maxwell characterizeelectromagnetic field behaviorvery well for
any applicationin geophysicalexploration.However, as the equationsare expressedabove,
thereis no obviousrelationshipof the behaviorof the electromagneticfield to the subsurface
structureof the earth or its properties.To see where suchdependenciesarise, we turn to a
variety of relationshipsknown as constitutiveequations.
Perhapsthe most importantof the constitutiveequationsin terms of inductive methodsof
geophysical prospectingis Ohm's law, relatingcurrentdensityto electricfield intensityas
*Departmentof Geophysics,ColoradoSchool of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401
13
14 Keller
J = tE, (3)
wheretr, definedby thisequation,is a propertyof themedium.The quantityhasbeennamed

the electricalconductivityof the medium.

Becauseboth the electric field intensityE, and the currentdensityJ, are vectors, the
quantitytr mustbe a tensor,whichin Cartesian
coordinates
will havethe components
O'xx O'xy O'xz

O'yx O'yy O'yz (4)
O'zx O'zy O'zz
The conductivity
tensorhasa simpleform if two of the orthogonal
coordinatedirections
are selectedto lie in the directionof maximumconductivityand minimum conductivity(the
principaldirectionsof the conductivity
tensor):
O'xx 0 0
0 O'yy 0 (5)
0 0 O'zz
that is, the nondiagonalterms are zero. If the coordinatesystemis arbitrarily oriented, the
off-diagonalterms will have symmetricallyequal values written as
O'xy
= O'y
x andsoon. (6)
In isotropicminerals or rocks, the three principal values of conductivity are the same.
Becausefew earth materialshave a completely symmetricalstructureor composition,iso-
tropic mineralsand rocks are in the minority. Materials in which a property such as con-
ductivity dependson the directionin which it is measured(probablythe direction of the E
vector) are termed anisotropic.If the nonsymmetryexists at the atomic or molecular level,
the anisotropyis termed intrinsic. In addition, an aggregateof otherwiseisotropicmineral
particlesor rock units, can exhibit a dependenceof averageconductivityon the direction of
the appliedelectricfield, and appearto be anisotropicin bulk. Such behavioris commonly
known as "structural"anisotropy.
In somerocks and mineralsthat exhibit uniformity of structurein a plane, two of the three
principalvaluesof conductivityare equal (normallythesetwo are the maximumconductivity
value).Suchmaterialsare termedg.yrotropic.
In other applicationsof electrical geophysics,as in dc resistivity soundingsor induced
polarizationsurveys,the term electricalresistivity is often used. For an isotropicmaterial,
the "resistivity"is the reciprocalof the conductivity.For an anisotropicmaterial, the resis-
tivity tensoris the inverseof the conductivitytensor.
The conductivityof a materialneednot be a linear property;that is, the conductivitymay
be a functionof currentdensityor electricfield intensity.For most earth materials,linearity
of conductivityas a propertyis well observed.One exceptionwhich is easily recognizedis
the nonlinearity of current flow in air. When the electric field exceedsa threshold value,
breakdownoccurs,and enormouscurrentsflow, as in a lightning stroke. In exploration, the
electricfield intensitiesgeneratednever approachthe thresholdfor breakdown.
Conductivityof a mineral or rock need not be a constant.Its value can changewith time,
temperature,pressure,and variousenvironmentalfactors.
Dielectric perrnittivity
In formulatingthe equationsthat bear his name, Maxwell recognizedthat there must be a
constitutiveequationwhich relateselectric field intensityto displacement,
D = eE, (7)
Rock and Mineral Properties 15
and which definesanotherpropertyof the medium e, known as the dielectricpermittivity.

Like the conductivity,the dielectricpermittivity is a tensorand most rocks and minerals are
anisotropic.In contrastto conductivity,dielectricpermittivity has a well definedvalue even
in theabsence
of matter,thisvaluebeing8.854 x 10-22Faradspermeterin freespace.
In the classic theory of dielectric materials, displacementis attributed to the motion of
electrons,nuclei and polar moleculesfrom neutral equilibrium positionsto displaced, non-
neutralpositionsunder the effect of an applied electric field (Ioffe, 1960; Bottcher, 1952;
Frolich, 1949; von Hippel, 1954 a, b). Chargesseparateuntil the Coulomb force between
them balancesthe appliedforce of the electricfield. Polarizationof suchchargecarriershas
been well studied and is well known.
In additionto theseclassicmechanismsfor polarization, at the low frequenciesoften used
in geophysicalexplorationa variety of other less well known polarizationmechanismsare
recognized.The most importantin terms of its use in explorationis "inducedpolarization"
(Sumner,1976; Bertin and Loeb, 1976). While the inducedpolarizationphenomenonserves
as the basisfor a set of explorationmethods,it is becomingapparentthat the samephysical
processes are significantin the low-frequencyelectromagneticexplorationmethods,partic-
ularly when measurementsare made with high accuracy(Wait and Debroux, 1984).
Magnetic permeability
The third of the main constitutiveequationswhich play a 'role in the applicationof Max-
well's equationsto the earth is that which relatesmagneticfield strengthand magneticin-
duction and is written as
B = IxH (8)
in which the quantity Ix, a third property of the medium, is defined as the magnetic per-
meability.This propertyservesas the basisfor magneticmethodsin geophysicalexploration,
but also plays an essentialrole in the electromagneticmethods.As with conductivityand
dielectricpermittivity, the magneticpermeability is a tensorquantity, and more often than
not is anisotropic.
In contrastto the dielectricpermittivity and conductivitypropertieswhich are usually con-
sideredindependentof the applied field strengthsat the levels used in exploration, magnetic
permeabilitycan have a complicateddependenceon magneticfield strength(Brown, 1958;
Strangway,1967a, b). If no materialis present,a free-spacerelationshipexistsbetweenfield
strengthand induction
B = xoH, (9)
whichdefinesan importantquantityfor usein calculationsof electromagnetic

field behavior
Ix0= 4vrx 10-7 H/m. (10)
In additionto the threeconstitutiveequationslisted similar equationsexist which represent

more exoticinteractionsbetweenelectromagneticfields and materials.Theseare not normally
consideredin geophysicalexploration,but shouldbe mentionedfor completeness.One such
exotic phenomenonis that of piezoelectricity(Parkhomenko,1971). Piezoelectricpolariza-
tion can be observedeither in a single crystal with an appropriateinternal structure, or in
aggregatesof crystals(rocks) with an appropriateinternal structure.A fundamentalfeature
of mineralsand rockswhich exhibitspiezoelectricityis the absenceof a centerof symmetry.
When the piezoelectriceffect is present,thereis a linear relationshipbetweenthe components
of the polarizationintensityvectorand the mechanicalstressvector. Becausethe piezoelectric
effectoccursonly in anisotropicmedia, the modulusof piezoelectricityd, which is a physical
propertycharacterizinga rock or mineral, relatesthe polarizationvector P to the mechanical
strain tensor S and is written as
16 Keller
P- dS. (11)
The polarizationis a vectorwith threecomponents andthe strainis a tensorwith nine com-

ponents,so the modulusof piezoelectricity might have 27 components. In fact, becauseof
symmetryof someof thecomponents, the modulusof piezoelectricity

canbe writtenin terms
of 18 componentsas,
Sll S22 S33 2S23 2S3 2S2
P1 d d122 d133 2d23 2d3 2d2

P2 d2 d222 d233 2d223 2d23 2d22
P3 d311 d322 d333 2d323 2d331 2d312, (12)
wherePi are the componentsof the polarizationintensityvector, Sikare the componentsof

the stresstensor,and diklare the coefficientsof proportionality,which are called the pie-
zoelectricmoduli. Data on appropriatevaluesfor the modulusof piezoelectricityare given
in Parkhomenko (1971).
When a magneticfield is present, conductioncurrentswill be diverted from their normal
directionof flow in a phenomenoncalled the "Hall effect" (Putley, 1968),
Eu-RB x J, (13)
whereEn is the additionalelectricfield generatedby the Hall phenomenon,andR is the Hall

coefficient,again a propertyof the material. The Hall coefficient is largest in metals and
very small in other types of conductors.
Other exotic effectscan be considered.Usually they exist when an electromagneticfield
interactswith anotherforce field, and energy is transferredbetweenthe two.
So far, we haveconsidered the constitutiveequationsseparately,sothat eachrock property
appearsto affect the electromagnetic field independently.In fact, in most applications,the
physicalpropertiesdefinedby the first threeconstitutiveequationscombineto form a single
characteristic of the medium, the "wave number," which determines the behavior of the
electromagnetic field. The expressionfor the wave numbercan be developedby substituting
the threeconstitutiveequationsinto the two Maxwellian equations,and then expressingthe
latter in terms of only the magneticand electric field strengths
0
V x H- o'E +- (eE),
Ot
and
V x E- (xH). (14)
Ot
In a separatestep, and for demonstrationpurposesonly, the time derivatives in the two

equationscan be replacedwith the operationalnotation
0
--= ico where to- 2,rf. (15)
Ot
The procedureis acceptableonly if the dielectricpermittivity and the magneticpermeability

can be consideredtime-independent(independentof the history of field behavior). This ex-
cludesconsiderationof realistic behavior in ferromagneticrocks. However, by using this
operatorrepresentation,the Maxwellian equationsbecome
V x H- (o' +/toe)E,
V x E = - ilxooH, (16)
and the two fields E and H can be separatedby simple algebraicoperations

[V2 - i00D(cr
+ i00e)]E= 0. (17)
The resultof this procedureis that all the rock propertiesand frequencygroupinto one term
which can be treatedas a singleparametercharacterizingthe interactionof the electromag-
netic field with the medium.
k2 = -i001x(cr
+ i00e)= elx002-ilxcr00. (18)
Considera uniform medium with properties, e, and {r completelyfilling all space. As-
sumea planar electromagneticfield presentin this medium, in which the electric field has
only an x component,the magneticfield has only a y component,and the amplitudesof the
two fields vary only in the z direction. For this case, the field equationshave a simple so-
lution:
Ex- Ex,o
e-a:z- E,oe
-('+ io,) (19)
whereGRand G are the real and imaginarypartsof the quantity, -ik, respectively.Ex,ois
the strengthof the electric field at somereferencepoint in the medium, perhapsz - 0.
The real GRand imaginaryG partsaffect the field strengthdifferently. The real part, G,
causesthe field strengthto decreaseexponentially, or attenuate,in the +z direction. It is
reasonable to expectthat this is the directionin which the energyin the electromagnetic
field
is flowing, and that the reductionin strengthis causedby the conversionof the energy of
the electromagnetic field to heat, as conductioncurrentsflow in the medium. In practice,
we specifythe attenuativecharacteristicof the medium in termsof the distanceg, over which
thefield strength
is reducedby the factor1/e. This quantity,knownas the "skindepth,"is
defined as
1
s = --. (20)
The imaginarypart of G causesthe amplitudeof the field strengthto vary sinusoidally

with distancez, with no decreasein averagestrength.Each time the argumentof the trig-
onometricfunctionsin equation(19) increasesby 2,r, the term assumesthe samevalue. This
distance,
2,11'
, (21)
G
is known as the "wave length" of the propagatingfield.

The quantityk is known as the wave number.It is a functionof three (or more) physical
propertiesof the earth and of frequency.Frequencycan be considereda designparameter,
in that selectionof an operatingfrequencyis largely at the discretionof the explorationist.
The behaviorof the wave numberwith changein frequencyis importantto an understanding
of the use of variouselectromagneticmethods.At very low frequencies,for which the be-
haviorof the electromagneticfield is saidto be diffusion,the wave numberis approximately
k2 -icrlx00. (22)
The dependenceon dielectricpermittivity disappears(we can neglectdisplacementcurrents),
and the wave numberhas equal real and imaginary parts expressedas
18 Keller
(23)
In one wave length, the attenuationof the field is 2,r. The field strengthis large enoughto
measureonly at a distancecomparableto a few skin depths;becauseof this, in the low
frequencyrange, the skin depth is also known as an "electrical unit of distance." At fre-
quencieslow enoughthat the secondterm in the wave numbercan be ignored, attenuation
is sorapid that radiatingfields cannotbe detected.This regimeis known as the "inductive"
regimein the applicationof electromagneticmethods.
In the other extreme, at high frequencies,the wave number is
k2 to21a,8. (24)
In this regime, the propagationof the electromagneticfield proceedswithout significantat-

tenuation.Wave length dependsonly on the dielectric constant
27I'
- )1/2' (25)
Propagatingfields can be usedto measurethe distanceto reflectingrock massesin terms
of the time required for the field to travel from a transmitter, be reflected, and travel back
to a receiver--the principleof ground-probingradar.
In the intermediaterange where neither displacementcurrentsnor inductioncurrentscan
be neglected,the behaviorof the field is more complicated.The midpoint of this transition
range is specifiedby the conditionthat
= 1. (26)
This conditionspecifiesthat conductionand displacementcurrentsare of equal importance

in the wave number. The ratio is known as the loss factor, since it grows in size with the
importanceof the conductioncurrentswhich give rise to loss of the electromagneticfield
strengthto heat. The loss factor is often expressedin terms of the loss tangent, defined as
8 10
100 102 104 106 10 10
FREQUENCY, HERTZ
FIG. 1. Values for loss tangentof typical rocks over a geophysicalrange of frequencies.
tan = . (27)
The changein losstangentwith frequencyis shownin Figure 1 for the three simple cases
a, b, and c:
a. Conductivity= 1.0 mho/meter,permittivity= 177 F/m.

b. Conductivity= .01 mho/meter,permittivity= 88.5 F/m.
c. Conductivity= .0001 mho/meter, permittivity= 50 F/m.
Case(a) representsa water filled sedimentaryrock, case(b) representsthe medianrock seen

at the surfacein the United States,and case(c) is a water-free igneousor metamorphicrock.
The examplesin Figure 1 are basedon the idea that each rock can be characterizedby
valuesfor dielectricconstant,electricalconductivityand magneticpermeability that are in-
dependentof frequency.As will be shownin the following discussion,thesepropertiesdo
have valueswhich vary with frequency, a phenomenonknown as dispersion.
When the propertiesof a material vary with frequency,a simple physicalconsideration
showsthat each is not permittedto vary independentlyof the others. When an electric field
at a specificfrequencyis appliedto an elementof a material, that material reactsas though
it were a lumped circuit having a capacitance
A
C = e- (28)
and a conductance
A
S = tr- (29)
whereA is the cross-sectional area and if the thicknessof the sample.

If one of the elementshas a value that dependson frequency, the other element must be
dispersiveas well. This can be arguedby recognizingthat if an electricalimpulse were to
be appliedto a circuitsuchas that shownin Figure 2, a realizablevoltageand currentwave-
form would result. Becausethe time-domainwaveform is simply the Fourier transform of
A R=p.
c= l A
FIG. 2. Lumpedcircuit representation

of the resistivityand dielectricpermittivityof a material.
20 Keller
DIELECTRIC
LOSS, 4 no'
i{,
>- INCREASING
o z
FREQUENCY
DIELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY, C
FIG. 3. A Cole-Coleplot, or plot of conductivityand permittivityin the complexplane for an ideal

dispersivedielectricmaterial.The form of the curveis a semicircle.
the impedanceof the equivalentcircuit,
Z=R+iX (30)
where
1 1
R - - and X =
S
This conditionplacesrestrictionson the way in which the real and imaginary parts of the
impedancecan vary with frequency(Papoulis, 1962, Ch. 10). Based on the Hilbert Trans-
form, the relationshipbetween the real and imaginary parts of the specific impedanceare
related as
X(too)-
1 R(to)
dto 'IT 0 -- oo
and
] x(to)
R(too) - R(o) +- dto. (31)
'IT 000 -- O0
As a consequenceof the nonindependence of the real and imaginary parts of the wave
number,it is often desirableto examineboth parts of the parametersimultaneouslyin a
graphicpresentation.This is commonlydone using a Cole-Cole plot (Cole and Cole, 1941),
whichis a plot of the real andimaginarypartsof the impedancein the complexplane.One
of the simplerfrequency-dependent behaviorsin electricalpropertiesis causedby electron
resonance,which is characterizedby simple harmonicbehavior of an electron in its orbit
when an oscillatoryelectricfield is applied(see von Hippel (1954a, b) for example):
e - e = (32)
1 + (j02T
2'
This behavioris shownas a plot in the complexplanein Figure 3. The form of the plot is
thatof a semicircle,a shapethatis characteristicof simpleharmonicmotion.Often in dealing
with real materialswhere the laws governingresonanceare more complicated,the Cole-Cole
plot has the form of an arc of a circle with the origin droppedbeneaththe real axis and is
written as
APPARENT
DIELECTRIC
LOSS, 4n (o+o')
/ DISPLACEMENT
-- I v ___TRUE
DOMINATES
i DOMINATES
! I i i i
DIELECTRIC PERMITTIVlTY,
FIG. 4. Cole-Coleplot for a materialwhich exhibitsboth ideal dispersionand steadyconduction.
e -- eo+ (e0- eo0/(1+ i(o'r)

- . (33)
In the simplepolarizationmechanisms,the real conductionterm is zero at extremelyhigh

and low frequencies;no steadyconductiontakes place. In real materials, there is almost
alwaysan independentconductionterm. For an ideal nondispersive material, if suchwere
to exist, with a singlevalue of conductivityand a single value of dielectric constant,the
Cole-Coleplot takeson the form shownin Figure4. The plot has the shapeof a line rising
with a constantslope. Often, severalconduction-polarization mechanismsare present si-
multaneouslyin a material, and the Cole-Cole plot will be a combinationof several such
simple shapes.
Finally, it shouldbe notedthat the threeequationsdefiningthe conductivity,permittivity,
and permeabilityof a matehal do not guaranteethat theseparametersare real; in general,
equations(3), (7), and (8) permit theseparametersto be complex(Olhoeft and Strangway,
1974). Thus, each tensorelement would have to be characterizedas
IX = IX + i lx/
(34)
wherethe subscripts I andR indicateimaginaryandreal partsof the corresponding parameter.

The necessityof consideringthe propertiesof the earthto be complexis usuallyavoidedby
usingarbitrarydefinitions.Since the early days of electromagnetictheory, conventionhas
incorporated the imaginarypart of conductivitywith the permittivity and the complexpart
of the permittivitywith the real part of conductivity(see Hartshorn, 1927, for example).
It is usually assumedthat the permeabilityhas the value appropriatein a vacuum, and
therefore,no dispersionexistswhich would require the use of a complexvalue for I0. In
thosefew casesin which rocks have a significantlydifferent magnetic permeability, that
permeabilitywill probablyexhibitdispersionover someportionof the frequencyrange(Miles
et al., 1957; Olhoeft and Strangway, 1974). In such cases, the magnetic susceptibilityis
separatedinto real and imaginaryparts as
IX = IX + ilx/. (35)
The wave number is then written as
k2= -i(o(Ix + il&)[((y+ i(h) + i(o(e+ i/)] (36)

22 Keller
and can be separatedinto two parts, one behavingas the complex wave numberfor a non-
dispersivemagneticsusceptibility,and the otherrepresentingthe dispersionin magneticsus-
ceptibility.The losstangentis:
tan be - tan (b3- be)/2 (37)
in which
(J'R 0EI
tan = (38)
and the magnetic loss tangenthas been defined as
tan b3- !x/!x. (39)
Properties of Minerals
A startingpoint for the discussionof the electricalpropertiesof rocks is a discussionof

the propertiesof the individualmineralsthat comprisethe rock. While it may neverbe pos-
sibleto measurethe propertiesof an individual mineral with an explorationmethod, it often
is of interestto attemptto build a rock conceptuallyfrom mineralsfor which the properties
are known and to predict the propertiesof the aggregate.
In tabulatingthe propertiesof minerals,the mineralsseparatenaturallyinto two groups;
(1) metalsand (2) semiconductors, as opposedto insulators.The first group occursrarely
but is of great economicinterest;the secondgroup includesthe commonrockformingmin-
erals and comprisesthe host in which the first type of mineral must be recognized. The
differencebetweenthe two groupsthat leadsto their separationinto this classificationis the
fact that for metals and semiconductors, the conductivityis the importantproperty, with
dielectricconstantbeingdifficult to measureandrarely of any importance.On the otherhand,
for the insulatingrockforming minerals, conductivityis rarely large enough to contribute
significantlyto the wave numberfor a rock; as a consequence,the dielectric constantis often
the propertymost easily determined.
Conductivity of metals and semiconductors

The physicsof metalsand semiconductors is coveredextensivelyin literature(Kittel, 1953;
Jones, 1956; Mott and Jones, 1958; Shuey, 1975). Metals are materials in which electrons
becomeavailablefor conductionwith little or no excitationenergy. An integral number of
electronsare expectedto be availableper atom in conduction,and conductivityis expected
to be very high. Conductionis limited only by interferencebetweennuclear motion and the
free movementof electronsunder an applied electric field. Becausethe nuclei in a metal
move aboutmore at higher temperatures,metalsare characterizedby a positivecoefficient
of resistancewith temperature.The conductivitydecreaseswith increasingtemperature.At
very low temperatures,somemetals(perhapsall) becomesuperconductors. The properties
of metalsare well known, but nativemetalsoccuronly very rarely at the surfaceof the earth.
Copper,iron, gold, platinum,and a few otherelementsoccur,but are far lessimportantthan
the occurrenceof variouscompoundsof the samemetals. A few values for conductivitiesof
metals are given in Table 1.
Combinations of metalsas alloys may also exhibit the high conductivityof pure metals.
Someof thecombinations of metalswith arsenic,tellurium,andseleniumappearto be alloys,
with high conductivitytypical of metals (Table 2).
The more importantcategoryof economicore minerals, which are usually sulfidesor ox-
ides, appearsto be semiconductors. In such materials,relatively high conductivitycan be
present,but normally, not as high as in metals. Conductionoccursby transferof electrons
Table 1. Resistivities of metals and metallic minerals (zero frequency).
Refined metals at 0C (ohm-m)

Lithium 8.5 x 10-8

Beryllium 5.5 x 10-8
Sodium 4.3 x 10-8
Magnesium 4.0 x 10-8
Aluminium 2.5 x 10-8
Potassium 6.3 x 10-8
Calcium 4.2 x 10-8
Titanium 83 x 10-8
Chromium 15.3 x 10-8
Iron 9.0 x 10-8
Cobalt 6.3 x 10-8
Nickel 6.3 x 10-8
Copper 1.6 x 10-8
Zinc 5.5 x 10-8
Gallium 41 x 10-8
Arsenic 35 x 10-8
Rubidium 11.6 x 10-8
Strontium 33 x 10-8
Zirconium 42 x 10-8
Molybdenum 4.3 x I0 -8
Ruthenium 11.7 x 10-8
Rhenium 4.5 x 10-8
Palladium 10.0 x 10-8
Silver 1.5 x 10-8
Cadmium 6.7 x 10-8
Indium 8.5 x 10-8
Tin 10.0 x 10-8
Antimony 36 x 10-8
Cesium 18 x 10-8
Barium 59 x 10-8
Lanthanum 59 x 10-8
Cerium 71 x 10-8
Praseodymium 62 x 10-8
Hafnium 29 x 10-8
Tantalum 14 x 10 -8
Tungsten 5.0 x 10-8
Osmium 9.1 x 10-8
Iridium 5.0 x 10-8
Platinum 9.8 x 10-8
Gold 2.0 x 10-8
Tellurium 14 x 10-8
Lead 19 x 10-8
Bismuth 100 x 10-8
Metallic minerals
Native copper 1.2to30 x 10-8 ohm-m
Graphite(carbon) 36 to 100 x 10-8 (currentflow parallelto cleavage)
28 to 9900 x 10-6 (currentflow acrosscleavage)
Ulmanite, NiSbS 9.0 to 120 x 10-8
Breithauptite,NiSb 3.0 to 50 x 10-8
whichrequiresomeenergyto be driveninto conduction bands.The energyis providedby

thermalagitation,and so, the conductivityof semiconducting
material often is seento in-
creasewith temperature.
Informationon the electricalpropertiesof metalsand semiconductorsis reportedin four
extensivestudies,Harvey (1928), Parasnis(1956), Parkhomenko(1967), and Shuey(1975).
Table 2 lists valuesfor conductivitiesreportedfor suchminerals.
24 Keller
Table 2. Resistivities of semiconductingminerals (zero frequency).
Native elements p (ohm-m)

Diamond (C) 2.7
Sulfides
Argentite, Ag2S 1.5 to 2.0 x 10-3
Bismuthinite, Bi2S3 3 to 570
Bornite, Fe2S3' nCu2S 1.6 to 6000 x 10-6
Chalcocite, Cu2S 80 to 100 x 10-6
Chalcopyrite,Fe2S3'Cu2S 150to9000 x 10-6
Covellite, CuS 0.30to83 x 10-6
Galena, PbS 6.8 x 10-6 to 9.0 x 10-2
Haverite, MnS2 10 to 20
Marcasite, FeS2 1 to 150 x 10-3
Metacinnabarite, 4 HgS 2 x 10-6 to 1 x 10-3
Millerite, NiS 2to4 x 10-7
Molybdenite, MoS2 0.12 to 7.5
Pentlandite, (Fe, Ni)oS8 1 to 11 x 10-6
Pyrrhotite,.Fe7S8 2 to 160 x 10-6
Pyrite, FeS2 1.2to600 x 10-3
Sphalerite,ZnS 2.7 x 10-3 to 1.2 x 104
Antimony-sulfur compounds
Berthierite, FeSb2S4 0.0083 to 2.0
Boulangerite,PbsSb4S 2 x 103 to4 x 104
Cylindrite, Pb3Sn4Sb2S4 2.5 to 60
Franckeite, PbsSn3Sb2S4 1.2 to 4
Hauchecornite, Nio(Bi, Sb)2S8 1 to 83 x 10-6
Jamesonite, Pb4FeSb6S4 0.020 to 0.15
Tetrahedrite, Cu3SbS3 0.30 to 30,000
Arsenic-sulfurcompounds
Arsenopyrite,FeAsS 20 to 300 x 10-6
Cobaltite, CoAsS 6.5 to 130 x 10-3
Enargite, Cu3AsS4 0.2 to 40 x 10-3
Gersdorffite, NiAsS 1 to 160 x 10-6
Glaucodote, (Co, Fe)AsS 5 to 100 x 10-6
Antimonide
Dyscrasite,Ag3Sb 0.12 to 1.2 x 10-6
Arsenides
Allemonite, SbAs3 70 to 60,000
Lollingite, FeAs2 2to270 x 10-6
Nicollite, NiAs 0.1 to 2 x 10-6
Skutterudite, CoAs3 1 to 400 x 10-6
Smaltite, CoAs2 1 to 12 x 10-6
Tellurides
Altaite, PbTe 20 to 200 x 10-6
Calavarite, AuTe2 6 to 12 X 10-6
Coloradoite, HgTe 4 to 100 x 10-6
Hessite, Ag2Te 4 to 100 x 10-6
Nagyagite, Pb6Au(S, Te)14 20 to 80 x 10-6
Sylvanite, AgAuTe4 4 to 20 x 10-6
Oxides
Braunite, Mn203 0.16 to 1.0
Cassiterite, SnO2 4.5 to 10-4 to 10,000
Cuprite, Cu20 10 to 50
Hollandite, (Ba, Na, K)Mn806 2 to 100 x 10-3
Ilmenite, FeTiO3 0.001 to 4
Magnetite, Fe304 52 x 10-6
Manganite, MnO. OH 0.018 to 0.5
Melaconite, CuO 6000
Psilomelane, KMnO. MnO2' nH20 0.04 to 6000
Pyrolusite,MnO2 0.007 to 30
Rutile, TiO2 29 to 910
Uraninite, UO 1.5 to 200
Someminerals
havea widerangeof conductivities
reported,
whileothershavea narrow
range
(seeFigure
5). Although
thevariability
mayreflect
to some
extent
thenumber
of
measurements
made,therearevarious
factors
whichaffecttheuniformity
of theconductivity
ofa highly
conducting
mineral.
In semiconductors,
impurities
maycontribute
electrons
for
conduction
withlowactivation
energy;
inthiscase,theconductivity
of a mineral
iscontrolled
bytheconcentration
of such
minor
constituents,
whichcanvarybyorders
of magnitude.
Also,microfractures
or crystal
domain
boundaries
canimpede
conduction,
causing
mea-
surements
to be unexpectedly
high.
It isunlikely
thattheconductivity
ofmetals
andsemiconductors
willchange
withfrequency
overtherangeof frequencies
usedin geophysics.
Dielectricproperties
of rockforming
minerals
In a strictsense,
all materials
thatarenotmetals
aresemiconductors.
However,
in many
materials,
theenergyrequired
foractivation
ofconduction
electrons
issolargethatvirtually
noconduction
takes
place.Suchmaterials
aretermed
insulators.
Mostsilicates,
carbonates,
and other common mineralsfall into this category.
In insulating
minerals,
semiconduction
isoftensosmall
thatanother
mechanism,
electro-
lyticconduction,
dominates.
Thermal
agitation
ofthecrystal
lattice
candisplace
ionsfrom
theirnormal
positions,
sothattheybecome
available
forconduction
whenanelectric
field
isapplied.
Suchionswillmove through
thecrystal
lattice,
andrecombine
when anoppor-
tunitypresents
itself.
Electrolytic
conduction
insolids
isdescribed
inLidiard
(1957)
andin
Stevel (1957).
Processes
contributing
todielectric
displacement
andpolarization
havebeenidentified
as
being
electronic,
atomic,
molecular,
andspace
charge
derived
innature
(von
Hippel,
1954a,
b).
P .m
23
lO
1013
'""DIAMOND
'""'
109
C
u I,,,,,,,,,A,g,
....
L
iBeB
N'agA
I
il
4 5
FIG.5. Resistivity
of theelemental
materials
asa function
of atomicnumber.
26 Keller
Each processis illustratedin simplified form in Figure 6. Electrons are displacedfrom

a neutralpositionwith respectto the atomicnucleuswhen an electricfield is applied, giving
rise to electronicpolarization. Becausethe chargeto massratio is very large in electrons,
the displacement of the electronpopulationtakesplacevery rapidly, and so, electronpolar-
ization occursuniformly at all frequenciesused in geophysics,both high and low. The elec-
tronic contributionto permittivity is easiestto evaluateat optical frequencies,becauseit can
be derived from the index of refraction n which is easily measured;
Ke= rt2, (40)
whereKe is the dielectricconstant,and is taken to be the ratio of permittivity of a material

to that of free space
Ke = e/e0. (41)
Somevaluesfor dielectricpermittivity of mineralsat optical frequenciesare listed in Table

3, along with valuesfor permittivity at lower frequencies.
At lower frequencies,includingthe entire range of frequenciesof interestin exploration,
NO FIELD FIELD APPLIED
ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
ATOMIC POLARIZATION
DIPOLAR POLARIZATION
SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION
FIG. 6. Mechanismsfor polarization(from von Hippel 1954 a, b).

Table 3. Dielectric constants of minerals, rocks, and soils at high frequencies.
Dielectric constant
Source and orientation Radio Optical

Mineral or rock of sample frequencies frequencies
PhosphateMinerals
Apatite, Cas(F, C1)(PO4)3 7.40-10.47
Asio, Japan
Across optic axis 7.60 2.69
Along optic axis 10.0 2.71
Kamioka, Japan
Across optic axis 7.43
Along optic axis 6.07
Vivianite, Fe3(PO4)2 8H20 6.07 2.49-2.67
Sulfate Minerals
Anglesite,PbSO4 74.0-500 3.52-3.59

Anhydrite, CaSO4 5.70-6.30
Along a axis 2.48
Along b axis 2.49
Along c axis 2.61
Barite, BaSO4 6.99-12.2
Along a axis 7.10 2.68
Along b axis 8.85-10.0 2.38-2.69
Along c axis 6.72-7.60 2.40-2.71
Trintington, England
(nine samples)
Along a axis 7.85 -+ (0.09)
Along b axis 12.31 -+ (0.05)
Along c axis 7.88 ___(0.05)
Celestite, SrSO4 Sicily
Along b axis 2.64
Along c axis 8.26 2.66
Gypsum,CaSO412H20 5.00-11.5
Along b axis 12.0 2.32
Silicate Minerals
Analcime, NaA1Si204' H20 Tyrol 5.88 2.21
Augite, Ca(Mg, Fe, A1)(A1, Si)206 6.90-10.27

Beryl, Be3A12Si6018 5.48-7.80

Acrossoptic axis 6.59 2.53
Urals
Acrossoptic axis 5.67
Biotite, K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3010(OH)2 6.19-9.30

Along a axis 2.50
Along b axis 2.68
Along c axis 2.68
Sulfide Minerals
Galena, PbS 17.9
Sphalerite,ZnS Titibu, Japan 7.90 5.61 to 6.10

Nakatatu, Japan 12.1
Joplin, Missouri 69.9-7.90
27
28 Keller
Table 3. continued
Dielectric constant

Harz, Germany 69.7-7.88
Oxide Minerals
Corundum, A1203 11.0-13.2


Cassiterite, SnO2 23.4-24.0
Diaspore,A10(OH) Mituisi, Japan

Hematite, Fe203 25.0
Rutile, TiO2 31.0-170
Anatase, TiO2 425
Halide Minerals
Halite, NaC1 5.70-6.20 2.39

Flourite, CaF2 6.79 2.06
Akenobe, Japan 6.26
Saxony 6.61
Okuno, Japan 6.27
Switzerland 6.25
Durham, England 6.30
Freiburg, Saxony 6.60
Sylvite, KC1 4.39-6.20 2.20
Carbonate Minerals
Aragonite, CaCO3 Bohemia


CalCite, CaCO3 7.80-8.50
Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 6.80-8.00

Acrossoptic axis 7.53 2.28
Epidote(averageof 14 samples) Tyrol

Ca2(A1, Fe)3(SiO4)3OH Along a axis 7.60 -+ .13 3.01
Along b axis 9.99 -+ .14 3.11
Along c axis 15.36 -+ .04 3.17
Leucite, KA1Si206 Italy 7.13

Muscovite, KA13Si30o(OH)2 6.19-8.00
Along a axis 2.46
Along b axis 2.55
Along c axis 2.60
Opal, SiO2' nH20 Bodai, Japan 7.15 2.10

Table 3. continued
Dielectric constant

Takarasaka, Japan 7.43
Opal, var. Hyalite Tateyama, Japan 4.21

Orthoclasefeldsparvar. adularia, Along a axis 5.55 2.30
KA1Si308
Phlogopite,KMg2A12Si30o(OH)2 5.90-6.50
Along a axis 2.44
Along b axis 2.58
Along c axis 2.58
Plagioclasefeldspar
var. albite Ab97An3 Basi-bergwerk, Japan 5.58 2.33
var. albite Ab99Anl Switzerland 5.45 2.34
var. albite Ab95An5 Tyrol 5.57 2.36
var. albite Ab96An4 Switzerland 5.52 2.36
var. albite Ab98An2 Italy 5.55 2.34
var. albite Ab94An6 Norway 5.63 2.36
var. albite Ab99Anl Urals 5.55 2.33
var. albite Ab98An2 Bavaria 5.39 2.34
var. oligoclaseAb76An24 North Carolina 6.03 2.39
var. oligoclaseAb77An23 Norway 6.06 2.39
var. andesine Ab65AN35 Norway 6.20 2.41
var. andesine Ab6An39 Korea 6.47 2.41
var. andesine Ab52An48 Nakasiota, Japan 6.30 2.43
var. labradorite Ab43An57 Labradore, Italy 6.61 2.45
var. labradorite Ab45An55 North America 6.51 2.45
var. anorthite Ab4An96 Otaru, Japan 7.24 2.51
var. anorthite Ab2An98 Tsushima, Japan 7.14 2.51
var. anorthite Ab7An93 Hokkaido, Japan 7.05 2.49
var. anorthite Ab4An96 Miyakeshima, Japan 7.15 2.49
Quartz SiO2 4.19-5.00
Across optic axis 4.96 2.36
Naegi, Japan
Normal to optic axis 4.11
Parallel to optic axis 4.27
Kinbuzan, Japan
Quartz, bipyramidal Cumberland,
Maryland
Sericite 19.55-25.35
Sillimanite 4.80
A12SiO5 Along a axis 2.78
Along b axis 2.79
Along c axis 2.84
Topaz, A12SiO4(F,OH)2 6.30-7.60
Naegi, Japan
Along a axis 6.31
Along b axis 6.43
Along c axis 6.27
30 Keller
Table 3. continued
Dielectric constant
Sourceand orientation Radio Optical

Tourmaline 5.60-7.10
Ceylon
Normal to optic axis 6.75 2.76
Parallel to optic axis 5.52 2.89
Cumberland,
Maryland
Zircon, ZrSiO4 8.59-12.0 --3.84
atomicpolarizationbecomessignificant.Becauseof the much lower chargeto massratio of

the atomicnucleous,atomicpolarizationrespondsmore slowly to an appliedelectric field
than do the electrons.Even so, polarizationoccursin lessthan a microsecondfor heavy
atoms,and at frequenciesnear the optical range for light atoms. Inasmuchas the force which
preventsan atom from undergoingcontinuousdisplacementis the bondingforce within the
crystallattice, the contributionto permittivityby atomicpolarizationis lesseasily predicted
than in the case of electrons. At radio frequenciesand below, both atomic and electronic
polarizationarepresent.Valuesfor permittivityof somemineralsin thisfrequencyrangeare
listed in Table 3.
There is a usefulcorrelationbetweendielectricpermittivityand density,as mustratedin

Figure 7.
Molecularpolarizationcan occurin materialswhich containpolar molecules,or molecules
that have asymmetricstructuresand possessa permanentdipole moment. Of the materials
thatoccurin rocks,thosewhichhavedipolarmoleculesarewaterandhydrocarbons. In water,
whichis a commonconstituent of rock, the molecularstructureis as shownin Figure8. The
hydrogenatoms, which carry an averagepositive charge, have a center of location that is
displaced from the centerof the averagenegativechargedistribution,locatedat the oxygen
nucleus.When an electricfield is applied,the atom will tend to rotateto align itself with
the directionof the appliedfield. Duringrotation,thereis an effectivedisplacement current,
andon completionof rotation,a polarizationwill exist. The speedof rotationdependspri-
marilyon the tightnesswith whichthe water moleculeis held in place. In liquid water, there
is little resistanceto rotation,and polarizationwill occurat high frequencies.In the high
radiofrequencyrangecurvesfor the permittivityof water as a functionof frequencyare
shownin Figure9. In ice, alsoan abundant mineral,polarizationoccursmoreslowly.Curves
for the permittivityand conductivityin ice are shownin Figure 10.
Hydratesof naturalgas,clathrates,arethoughtby someto occuras solidsin manyrocks,
particularlyin permafrostareasandin the sedimentsof the deepseas(Makogon, 1981). Such
materialscanbe expectedto haverelativelyhigh dielectricpermittivitiesat low frequencies,
but no definitivestudiesof the electricalpropertiesof the solidgashydrateshave yet been
reported.
Volume polarizationoccurswhen free charge carriersare available in a material to move
underthe actionof an appliedfield. If the materialis uniform, thesechargecarriersgive
riseto a conduction
current.If, asis morelikely the case,the mobilityof the chargecarriers
24
O
2O
z
<( o
i-
16
Z
o
0
12
i-
0
LU
8 00
LIJ
00);
oo
o
I I I
2 4 6
DENSITY(g/cm
3)
FIG. 7. Correlationbetween relative dielectric constantand density for a number of mineral com-
pounds(from Parkhomenko,1967)
0.1
0-1
0'17
-15 0'2
'2O
0'30
0 '10
FiG. 8. Electron densitycontourmap for the water mol-

ecule showingthe densityof valenceelectronsin the plane
defined by bonding of the molecule (from Eisenberg and
Kauzman, 1969)
32 Keller
changesfrom place to place becauseof defectsin the crystal lattice or changesin crystal
properties,concentrationsor depletionsof ionswill exist at suchdiscontinuities,giving rise
to polarization.Becausethe mobility of ions in a solid structureis often very low, and be-
causethe distancebetweenmobility barriersis often very long on the atomicscale,this type

of polarizationis very slow. Polarizationappearsto increaseeven at frequenciesbelow 1
Hz.
Becausethermal excitationplays such an importantrole in this type of polarization and
conduction,moststudiesof spacechargeeffecthavebeendoneas a functionof temperature.
A seriesof conductivity-temperaturecurvesfor severalmineralsare shownin Figures 11 and
12. On theseplots,conductivityis plottedon a logarithmicscale,while temperatureis plotted
on an inversescale. The advantageof this plotting schemeis that often the data plot as a
seriesof straightline segments,which canbe approximatedwith simplealgebraicexpressions
of the form
o' - Ale-m/r-I-A2e-m2/r (42)
wheremi is the slopeof a straightline segment,andAi is the correspondinginterceptvalue

onthe 1/T = 0 axis.The exponentrepresents thebindingenergyof the chargecarrier,which
is'
lOO
60
.o
2O
I I I I
18 109 1010 1011 1012

FREQUENCY, HERTZ
FIG. 9. Dielectric permittivity of water over frequenciesat which dispersiontakes place.
lOO
80
60
. -1
-3
-,5
40
20
-6o
0.1 1 10 100
(a) FREQUENCY,
kilocycles
persecond
FIG. 10a. The relativedielectricconstantof ice as a functionof temperatureand frequency(from

Eisenbergand Kauzman, 1969)
Ui = Kmi (43)
For the caseof excitationindividualionsfrom the lattice,whereU is the bindingenergy,K

is Kelvin's constant,and T is absolutetemperature.Values for Ui are listed in Table 4.
Magnetic properties of minerals

Magneticpermeabilityis not normally consideredan electricalpropertyof a material, but
as shownabove, its value entersinto the expressionfor wave number, which is the funda-
mentalparameterto considerin the behavior of electromagneticwaves.
-4
10
20 kHz
ILl -5
I-- 10
U.I
ILl -6
03 10
1:3 10-7,
Z
o
o
10-8
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
(b) TEMPERATURE,
C
FIG. 10b. The electricalconductivity

of pureice as a functionof temperature
andfrequency
(from
Eisenbergand Kauzman, 1969)
75
i 5O
0 25 50 75 100 125
(c)
FIG. 10c. Cole-Coleplotfor ice. CurveA represents

a samplewith a fractureplane,curveB is a
sampleof solidice, andcurvesC andD aresampleswithsomeconductivity.Temperature is -10.8C
(From Hasted, 1961)
34 Keller
2
10
101
10 0
10-1
10-2
10-3
10_4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
I I I I I l
0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
I 03OK
-1
FIG. 11. Conductivity

of amphibolite
mineralsas a functionof temperature.
1. tremolite,2., actin-
olite, 3., hornblende, and 4., riebeckite.
o
lO
-1
lO
-2
lO
;
1 0-3
>2 -4
i- lO
o
1 0-5
z
o
o i 0-6
-7
10
-8
10
5
i i i i i i i
z 3
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1' 10 ,*K
FIG. 12. Conductivityof pyroxenemineralsas a functionof temperature.1. aegirine,2., jadeite,

3., spodumene,
4., diopside,and $., enstatite.
Most materialsare diamagneticor paramagnetic.In thesematerials,rotatingelectronsalign

themselveswith or againstthe applied magnetic field. This applied field can be the static
magneticfield, but in our case, we are more interestedin the magneticfield comprisinga
time-varyingelectromagnetic field. Theseeffectscan be expectedto occurvery rapidly, just

as electronpolarizationoccursrapidly. Moreover, the contributionto the magneticfield by
suchelectronorbital alignmentsis quite small. Typical permeabilityvaluesfor diamagnetic
and paramagneticmineralsdiffer from that of free spaceby a few tens or hundredsof parts
per million (see valueslisted in Table 5).
A few mineralsexhibit ferromagnetism,an intensemagneticpolarization which can occur
Table 4. Parameters defining the temperature dependence of resistiv-

ity in solid electrolytes.
Rock A A2 U U2
Granite 5 X 10-4 mho/cm 105mho/cm 0.62 eV 2.5 eV

Gabbro 7 X 10-3 105 0.70 2.2
Basalt 7 x 10-3 105 0.57 2.0
Peridotite 4 x 10-2 105 0.81 2.3
Andesite 6 X 10-3 0.7 1.6
Table 5. Susceptibility of minerals and other materials (at room temperature, unless otherwise
noted).
Density in 10-6
(gm/cm3) cgs/cm 3 in 10-6
Material Composition Notes a b cgs/gm
Minerals
Hematite txFeO3 760C 5.26 18,862 3,586

Wustite FeO 20C 5.75 41,400 7,200
Troilite FeS 20C 4.83 5,187 1,074
Siderite FeCO3 20C 3.96 44,750 11,300
Corundum A1203 4.02 -149 -37
Cassiterite SnO2 6.99 -287 -41
Ruffle TiO2 4.25 25 5.9
Quartz SiO2 2.65 -78 -29.6
Calcite CaCO3 2.71 - 103 -38
Magnesite MgCO3 3-3.4 --- 100 -32
Anhydrite MgSO4 21C 2.96 - 148 -50
Galena PbS 7.58 -637 -84
Millerite NiS 20C 5.5 1045 190
Rock salt NaC1 2.16 -65 -30
Metals, etc.
Gold Au 23C 19.3 -540 -28
Copper Cu 23C 8.95 -49 -5.5
Tin Sn gray; 7C 5.75 -213 -37
Sodium Na 0.97 15.5 16
Gadolinium Gd 27C 7.90 5,965,000 755,000
Diamond C 3.51 -21 -5.9
-1.8
Graphite C 2.1-2.2 -13 -6
-6 to -16
Water H20 liquid, 100C - 13.1
liquid, 0C 1.0 - 12.9 - 12.9
solid (ice), 0C 0.92 - 11.7 - 12.7
Oxygen 02 gas, 20C 3449
36 Keller
Table 6. Susceptibilitiesof rock types, calculated from their magnetite and ilmenite content
Magnetite contentand susceptibility,cgs units

Minimum Maximum Average Ilmenite, average

Material % k x 104 % k X 104 % k x 104 % k x 104
Quartzporphyries 0.0 0 1.4 4,200 0.82 2,500 0.3 410

Rhyolites 0.2 600 1.9 5,700 1.00 3,000 0.45 610
Granites 0.2 600 1.9 5,700 0.90 2,700 0.7 1000
Trachyte-syenites 0.0 0 4.6 14,000 2.04 .6,100 0.7 1000
Eruptivenephelites 0.0 0 4.9 15,000 1.51 4,530 1.24 1700
AbyssalNephelites 0.0 0 6.6 20,000 2.71 8,100 0.85 1100
Pyroxenites 0.9 3000 8.4 25,000 3.51 10,500 0.40 5400
Gabbros 0.9 3000 3.9 12,000 2.40 7,200 1.76 2400
Monzonite-latites 1.4 4200 5.6 17,000 3.58 10,700 1.60 2200
Leucite rocks 0.0 0 7.4 22,000 3.27 9,800 1.94 2600
Dacite-quartz-diorite 1.6 4800 8.0 24,000 3.48 10,400 1.94 2600
Andesites 2.6 7800 5.8 17,000 4.50 13,500 1.16 1600
Diorites 1.2 3600 7.4 22,000 3.45 10,400 2.44 4200
Peridotites 1.6 4800 7.2 22,000 4.60 13,800 1.31 1800
Basalts 2.3 6900 8.6 26,000 4.76 14,300 1.91 2600
Diabases 2.3 6900 6.3 19,000 4.35 13,100 2.70 3600
100 000
10 000
O 00 0
1 ooo 0
o
o o
lOO
lO
3 4
DENSITY, TONS PER CUBIC METER
FIG. 13. Summary of magnetic susceptibilitymeasure-

ments (from Hansen, 1966)
Table 7. Piezoelectric effect in rocks containing nepheline.
Piezoelectric
modulus,
Mineral d[i' 10- in

composition, % cgse units
Rock nephline aegerine others
Urtite (coarse-grained) 80 20 -- 30.0 15.0 10.0
Urtite 80 lO lO 3.2 1.3 0.9
Eolite, fine-grained
trachyoidal 45 40 15 0.5 0.4 0.27
Luyavrite (unequalgrain
sizes) 40 15 45 10.0 9.5 5.0
Reischorrite 1.4 0.6
Nepheline-apatiterock 0.8 0.7 0.7
Khibinite 0.3 0.2
Trachyoidalluyavrite 0.8
Trachyoidalluyavrite 0.4 0.4 0.32
in a material when large sectionsof a crystal, called magnetic domains, orient themselves
in unisonto provide a large enhancementof the magnetic field. Minerals that exhibit this
effect includemagnetiteand titano-magnetite.Values for the magneticpermeabilityof mag-
netite and other magneticminerals are listed in Table 6.
Magnetiteoccursin many rocks as an accesorymineral. In most cases,the permeability
of the rock is determinedby the magnetite content. Figure 13 shows correlation between
magnetitecontentand permeability.
Becausethe domainswhichorganizeto contributeto ferromagnetism do so relativelyslowly,
magneticpermeabilitywill exhibitdispersion.Little informationis availableon the frequency
dependence of permeability,but frequencydependenceobviouslywill have an effect on elec-
tromagneticfield behavior. Lee (1984a, b) indicatesthat decay of magnetization near the
sourcecoil in a coincidentloop electromagneticsystemwill give rise to transientsthat are
significantin size.
Piezoelectric properties of minerals

Piezoelectricpropertiesof rocks and minerals have been discussedin detail in Parkho-
menko (1971). Values for the piezoelectriccoefficientsfor minerals and rocks are listed in
Table 7.
Properties of Rocks
A rock is an aggregateof one or more typesof mineral grains.The propertiesof a rock

might be expectedto be some simplecombinationof the propertiesof the mineral constit-
uents.This is not often true, and the causeof the complexityof predictingrock properties
from mineralpropertiesis the presenceof a nonmineralsubstance,water, in virtually all
rocks.Becausewaterhas strongeffectson both conductivityand dielectricpermittivity,the
presenceof evenvery smallamountswill dominatethe behaviorof conductivityanddielectric
permittivity.Electricalpropertiesof rocks are discussedextensivelyin Olhoeft (1980) and
Collett and Katsube (1973).
The propertiesof water as a substanceare documentedin the literature (Hasted, 1961, and
Eisenbergand Kauzman, 1969). Unmineralizedwater is a relativelypoor conductor,but is
38 Keller
90
)-
I-. 85
75
o
7o
.0, 65
6o
55
_.1 50
i11
13:
45 I i i i i
0 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE (C)
FIG.14..Static
dielectric
Kauzman, 1969)
constant
ofliquid
water
asafunction
oftemperature
(from
Eisenberg
and
80
60
0o
40
20
I
20 40 60 80 lOO'
C'
FIG.15. Cole-Cole
plotsforliquidwateratseveral
temperatures.
Table 8. Ion mobilitiesmeasured*in low concentrations

at 25C.
Ion Mobility
H+ 36.2 x 10-8
OH- 20.5 x 10-8
SO] 8.3 x 10-8
Na+ 5.2 x 10-8
C1- 7.9 x 10-8
K+ 7.6 x 10-8
NO- 7.4 x 10-8
Li + 4.0 x 10-8
HCO- 4.6 x 10-8
*Metersper second/volts
per meter.
characterizedby a relatively high value of dielectricpermittivity (see Figure 14). The values
shownin Figure 14 are for deionizedwater under laboratoryconditions.At relatively high
frequencies,both propertiesexhibit dispersion;dielectricpermittivity and conductivityvary
with frequency.In water, molecularpolarizationis significantbecauseof the nonsymmetrical

distributionof electrondensityin the molecule. The moleculehas a permanentdipole mo-
ment, suchthat an appliedelectricfield will causethe moleculeto rotate in the field to align
its moment with the direction of the field. During rotation, a displacementcurrent occurs,
and dielectricdisplacementof chargeaccompaniesthe process.Since the dispersionin both
properties is causedby a singleprocess,molecularpolarization,thereis a specificrelationship
betweenthe real and imaginary parts of the wave number. A Cole-Cole plot of the real and
imaginarywave numberfor pure water is shown in Figure 15.
Water is a solvent, and in nature, it exists as an electrolytewith considerableamountsof
ions presentto add to conductivity.Ground water, the water filling the pore spaceof any
rock, is often an electrolytewith a wide variety of saltsin solutions.However, most ground
waterscan be categorizedas belongingto one of four types, with ionic contentsreflecting
the origin and historyof the groundwater. The mostcommongroundwater is connatewater,
or fossil water left from the depositionof sedimentaryrocks. The salinity of such water
reflectsthe chemistryof the depositionalbasin, and commonly is rich in sodium chloride.
Another commontype of groundwater is bicarbonatewater. These waters usually reflect
erosionon a continent,and containa higher proportionof carbonatesand calcium;they are
also usuallyless concentratedthan connatewaters. In some areas, acid ground waters may
be found. These acid waters are often typical of mining districtswhere sulfide and oxide
mineralsprovide a sourcefor acidson weathering.
The conductivityof an electrolyticsolutiondependson the inobility and number of ions
in solution.Mobilities, the terminal velocity to which ions are acceleratedunder a constant
electricfield, are listed in Table 8 for some of the common ions that occur in ground water.
Mobility is determinedby the viscousfriction to ion movement which in turn dependson
temperatureto some extent, and on pressure.In pore structuresof rock, becauseof the ad-
sorptionof water and ions to the mineral surfaces,pressurescan be high, and mobility sig-
nificantly reducedfrom that in a free solution. The mobilities listed in Table 8 are valid for
standardtemperaturesand pressures;for rocks, the mobility in place must be considered.
An importantfeatureof the valueslisted in Table 8 is that most of the ions have roughly
0.001
0.01
NaHC03
-Ca(HC03)2
0.1
NaCL
HcLNaOH'
,,.Na
2SO
4
10
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 I 10 100
SALINITY. g/I
FIG. 16. Conductivityof solutionsof varioussaltsas a functionof concentration.Temperatureof

20 C.
40 Keller
thesamemobilities.Hydrogenion andhydroxylion areexceptions, havingmobilitiesnearly

anorderof magnitude largerthanthe salts.For neutralgroundwater,eachsaltneednotbe
considered separately,
butthetotaldissolved solidscanbe considered ascharacterizedby an
average mobility.The conductivityof an aqueous electrolyte

as a functionof saltconcen-
trationis showngraphicallyin Figure16 for a numberof salts.The effectof temperature,
whichincreases mobility,is shownby the curvesin Figure 17 for a sodiumchlorideelec-
trolyte.
Note that if only informationon total dissolvedsolidsis available, the high conductivity
of rocks aroundan oxidizing ore body where highly acid groundwater is presentmay be
surprising.
When water is contained in a rock, water-rock interactions will make it difficult to know
the salinityof the electrolytein place. If clay mineralsare present,a relatively large number
of ionsmay be releasedfrom suchmineralsby ion exchangeprocesses(Waxman and Smits,
1968). Typical ion exchangecapacitiesfor someof the clay mineralsare listed in Table 9.
The ions contributedby this processprovide a thresholdconductivityfor water in the pore
structureof a rock, so that a rock with quite pure water in it can appearto be moderately
conductive.Figure 18 illustratesthis effect.
In most rocks, water is the only constituentwith significantconductivitythat is present.
In clay-bearingrocks, clay is sometimesconsidereda conductingmineral, thoughthe clay
must be wet for the conductionprocessto take place (Waxman and Smits, 1968). In this
case, the conductivityof the rock is determinedby the conductivityof the containedwater,
with its shapetakeninto account(the shapeof the pore structure).Pore structureshave highly
complicatedshapes,in terms of conventionalgeometries.Efforts to describepore structures
geometricallyand probabilisticallyhave been only moderatelysuccessful. (Madden, 1976;
Kwon and Pickett, 1975; Jackson et al. 1978).
The most satisfactoryexpressionfor the conductivityof a water-bearingrock is that at-
tributed to Archie (1942) which is
O' = aO'w
wm (44)
where cr is the overall conductivityof the rock, Crwis the conductivityof the electrolytein
placein the pore structure,takinginto accountthe effectsof porepressuresandion exchange,
W is the volume fractionof water presentin the rock, assumingthat the pore spaceis com-
pletely filled with water, and a and rn are parametersusedto force the expressionto fit the
behaviorof a given rock.
In somerocks, part of the pore spacecan be occupiedby a gas suchas air. In this case,
the aboveequationcan be written as
O'= ao'wSn(D
m (45)
where S is the fraction of the pore spacefilled with water and 4) is the volume fraction of
void spacein the rock.
Pore structuresare complicatedin form and difficult to describegeometrically,but at least
three different stylesof pore geometry can be recognized;(1) intergranularspacein sedi-
mentaryrock, (2) fracture,joint, and microcrackpores, usually in crystallinerocks, and (3)
vugs or other large, poorly interconnectedpore structures,as in extrusive volcanic rocks.
For a given porosityand water content,fractureporositywill result in the highestrock con-
ductivityof the threeclassesbecauseof the simplershapeof the void structures,while vuggy
porositywill contributethe lowest conductivitybecauseof the complex structure.
Most measurements have been made on sedimentaryrock becauseof the interestin elec-
trical propertiesof oil reservoirrocks, but a few studiesof the conductivity-porosityrela-
tionshipin igneousand crystallinerocks have been done. In each case, Archie's law seems
to be a goodrepresentation of the measurements.Archie's law representations for thesethree
classesof relationshipare shown graphically in Figure 19 and algebraicallyin Table 10.
In explorationfor geothermalsystems,the conductivityof a rock which may containcon-
ductivemolten mineralshas been of interest.Archie's law has been used as a startingpoint
0.01
0.1
I-
z
O
o
lOO
0.01 0.1 I 10 100 1000
SALINITY, g/I
FIG. 17. Conductivityof a solutionof NaC1as a functionof temperatureand concentration.
Table 9. Exchangecapacitiesbf somecommonclay min-

erals.
Clay Exchangecapacity
Kaolinite 3 to 15 m. equiv/100 g
Halloysite. 2H20 5 to 10
Halloysite. 4H20 40 to 50
Montmorillonite 80 to 150
Illite 10 to 40
Vermiculite 100 to 150
Chlorite 10 to 40
Attapulgite 20 to 30
lOOO
>- lOO VERY LITTLE CLAY

I.-. E
oo lO MODERATE CLAY
HEAVY CLAY
o.1 I I I I
o.1 1 lO lOO lOOO
BULK WATER RESISTIVITY , 11. rn
FIG. 18. Effect of salinityaddedby clay mineralson the apparentconductivityof the solutionfilling
a porousrock (from Keller, 1967).
42 Keller
for describingthe relationshipbetween the conductivityof a partially molten rock and the
melt fraction.Numerousstudiesof partially molten or molten systemshave appearedin the
literature(Shanklandet al., 1981; Shanklandand Waft, 1977; Tyburczy and Waft, 1983,
1985; Waft, 1974, 1976; Waft and Bulau, 1979; Waft and Weill, 1979; and Bulau et al.,
1979).
lO0
ROCKS
u. 1O-3
100
FRACTURED
CRYSTALLINE
ROCK
I
101
I
102
\ '"=":''.'"'::
103
"L.N
FORMATION
FACTOR,
Pr/Pw
Fio. 19. Relationshipbetweenformation factor (ratio of rock resistivity to the resistivity of the water
saturatingit) to the amount of water in a rock for various types of pore structure.
Table 10. Forms of Archie's law which may be used when

!ithology of a rock is known.
Descriptionof rock a m
Weakly-cementeddetrital rocks, such as
sand, sandstone, and some limestones,
with a porosityrange from 25 to 45%,
usually Tertiary in age 0.88 1.37
Moderately well cementedsedimentary

rocks, including sandstonesand
limestones,with a porosity range from
18 to 35%, usually Mesozoic in age 0.62 1.72
Well-cementedsedimentaryrocks with a
porosityrange from 5% to 25%, usually
Paleozoicin age 0.62 1.95
Highly porousvolcanic rocks, such as

tuff, aa and pahoehoe,with porosityin
the range 20% to 80% 3.5 1.44
Rockswith less than 4% porosity,

including denseigneousrocks and
metamorphosed sedimentaryrocks 1.4 1.58
Mixtures of conductive minerals in host rocks
There is far less informationavailable on the bulk resistivityof rocks containinghighly

conductivemineralsthan on rocks containingelectrolyticconductors.As with electrolytes,
the geometricstyleof distributionof the conductingmineralsis expectedto be an important

factorin predictingthe bulk resistivity.Very little studyhasbeenreportedon the dependence
of bulk resistivityon mineral habit, thoughit has been observedthat accicularhematitecan
reducethe resistivityof a rock at far lower concentrationsthan can specularhematite. Also,
it hasbeenreportedthat very small concentrations of graphitecan rendera rock highly con-
ductivebecauseof its tendencyto form thin continuousfilms along grain boundaries.Gen-
erally, however, in resultsof measurements on hand samplescontainingore minerals, it is
observedthat a relatively high concentrationof the ore mineral must be presentbefore the
rock in bulk becomesmarkedly conductive.Figure 20 showsthe combineddata from three
extensivestudiesof the resistivity of ore and mineral-bearing rocks as a function of ore
mineral content(Anderson, 1960; Parkhomenko,1967, 1982; Nelson and Van Voorhis, 1983).
Anotherapproach
to examiningthe behaviorof a rock th/tcontainsconducting
mineral
inclusionsis by mathematicalanalysis,which assumesthat mineral grainshave somesimple,
easily modeled,geometricshape.Calculationswere carried out in the early days of geo-
physics;Heiland (1946) citesa calculationby Maxwell and one by Hummel for an aggregate
consistingof a mediumwith conductivitytr in which sphericalgrainsof conductivitytr2 are
imbeddedin regulararrangementand in sucha mannerthat their separationis large compared
with their radius
108
107
t .t ,G
106
?o
E
::::::::
....
':-'=::'""'iiii:..
\
2
10
SON
1
10
o
lO I
-2 -1 o
10 10 lO
WEIGHT FRACTION OF SULFIDES, OXIDES
FIG. 20. Reportedrelationshipsbetweenrock resistivityand the concentrationof conductingminerals

containedin that rock. Parkhomenko'sdata were obtainedby laboratorymeasurementon pyritic rocks
at high temperature(200 C). Anderson'smeasurements were done on wet samplesof mineralized
gabbro.The other two data setsare in situ measurementsof prophyry copper ores.
44 Keller
3112q- 2V1(111-- 112)

11-- 111 (46)
3111-- V](11]-- 112)
wherev is the volume fractionof conductingmineral. Becauseof the assumptions,this

expression
wouldapplyonly for quitesmallvaluesof the ore mineralconcentration,
v.
However,curvesfor the bulk conductivityas a functionof the volumefractionof ore mineral
andthe contrastin conductivitybetweenthat mineralandthe hostrock (assumedto be mod-
estlyconductive becauseof a pervasiveelectrolytecontent)are shownin Figure21 for a
relativelywiderangeof ore contents.
It canbe seenthatisolatedlow concentrations
of ore
mineralshave little effect on bulk conductivity.A similar conclusioncan be drawn from a
plotof observed conductivity-mineral
contentdatain Figure20.
Similarexpressions havebeendeveloped for higherconcentrations
wheretheeffectof the
restof theparticlesonthefield abouteachparticlemustbe considered,
andon a widevariety
of grainshapes, includingspheroids,ellipsoids,andsoon. Suchelaboration
of the problem
leadsto no differentresultthan Maxwell's original formulation;isolatedconductivegrains
do not stronglyaffectthe overallelectricpropertiesof a rock.
Dielectric permittivity
Becauseit is difficult to measurethe dielectricpermittivityof a conductiverock, the most
credibledatareportedin the literatureare for completelydry rocks,with no electrolytes
or
conductingminerals.In suchcases,simplemixingrulescanbe usedto predictthe dielectric
permittivity
of a rockfromtheproperties of theconstituent
mineralsandtheirconcentrations.
vonHippel(1954a,b) reports thata logarithmic mixingruleworkswell for mixturesin which
all mineralshave the sameconductivity(or all are insulators)
log = 121
log E1 q- 12
2 log 2, (47)
103 -
10
10
>. lO
>.
tO
1 o-1
,,,,, 2
to lO-
o
-3
10
-4
10
-5 I I I
10
-3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10
VOLUME FRACTION OF CONDUCTOR
FIG. 21. Theoretically

computed
resistivity
for spheres
of oneconductivity
embedded
in a hostof
anotherconductivity.
whereV1 andv2are the volumefractionsof two constituents

comprisinga rock. Clearly, the
formulacan be extendedto a larger numberof constituentsby addingadditionalterms of
the same form.
Simplemixingrulescannotbe appliedwheninterfacialpolarizationtakesplace.Interfacial
polarizationoccurswhen abuttingdielectricmaterialsdiffer in conductivityand therefore
requiredifferentvoltagegradientsto transconduct a currentof constantdensity;to achieve
this a chargemust be presentat the interface.The simplestcasein which the effect of in-
terfacialpolarizationcanbe evaluatedis that of a laminatedmaterial(Maxwell, 1954). Con-
sidera laminatedmaterialmadeup of two extensivesheetsas indicatedin Figure 22 (only
two sheetsare shown,but the materialcan consistof any numberof repetitionsof this basic
structurewith no changein the results).If the layers are electricallythin, they can be con-
sideredto react as two lumpedcircuitsin seriesfor a planarelectromagneticfield traveling
throughthem. By solvingfor the impedanceof the two lumpedcircuits,the capacitanceand
conductanceof the systemcan be found. From the capacitance,the compositedielectric
permittivitycan be calculated.as
TI -{-T2 T -{-002T1T2
, (48)
o(91 + 92)(1+ 002'1'2)
wherex is a combinationof propertiesof the systemwhich actsas a time constant
T1 -- E1/(T1, T2 = e:/cr:, r -- d1/d2
and
E1 -{- 2r
T1 - T2r
R1 C1
R2 C2
.
FIG. 22. Simulationof a laminatedmaterial as a lumped circuit.

46 Keller
d 1
OO AGO (1__+ 1__)

C I C2
T1+'r2-T d
I0 .......
/
__ I I i I i
COMPOSITE DIELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY, I
FIG. 23. Cole-Coleplot for a laminatedmaterial.
The dispersionexhibitedby a laminateddielectricconsistingof uniform alternatinglayers

has the sameform as the dispersionfor a simple harmonicoscillator;this is demonstrated
by the semicircularCole-Coleplot shownin Figure 23, computedfor a model of a rock made
up of alternatinglayersof a conductingmineraland a lessconducting,water-saturatedgangue
material.
Very large valuesof dielectricpermittivitycan be obtainedwith the propercontrolof the
propertiesand proportionsof materialsin a laminateddielectric. If the laminated sequence
consistsprimarily of conductivematerial, the compositedielectricpermittivitycan be greater
thanthe permittivityof eithercomponentby a very large factor. In real rocks, the conductive
componentis commonlythe less abundantcomponent,and in sucha case, the composite
dielectricpermittivity is only modestlyenhanced.
Other, more complicatedprocessescan also occur in rocks with even minor amountsof
water. The largestof theseeffectsincludeelectrolyticpolarizationand polarizationthat oc-
curs when current in a rock flows between one medium which is an ionic conductor and
another medium which is an electronic conductor. These effects have served as a basis for
an extremelyimportantmethodin mineralsexploration,the inducedpolarizationmethod,but
with improvedcapabilitiesof inductionmethods,as describedin Nabighian(1984), it may
well be necessaryto include considerationof theseeffectson electromagneticinduction as
well.
Electrolyticpolarizationseemsto occur when the mobility of ions varies along the con-
ductionpathsin a water-ladenrock. These variationsin mobility are probably causedby
changesin viscosityof the pore water, resultingfrom adsorptionpressureson the mineral
grains.Ions will moverapidlyin openporesandlessrapidly in tight pores.After a persistent
currentflow in one direction, ions may become more concentratedin the areas of low mo-
bility, and lessconcentrated in areasof normalmobility. Then, when the appliedvoltageis
removed,the ions will diffusefrom the areasof concentration to areasof impoverishment,
giving rise to a transientcurrentdischarge.The chargeQ dischargedin this processcan be
calculatedfrom the integral of the transientvoltage
Q = (yfE(t)dt. (49)
For very long chargingperiods,this dischargedchargecan be usedto computethe limiting

dc capacitance,and hence, dielectricpermittivity of a rock (Keller, 1959)
ldc-- E(t)
JpEss
dt (50)
lO
06 12
10 10 13 I
10 105
RESISTIVITY, . m
FIG. 24. Observedrelationshipbetweeninductivecapacitymeasuredat low frequencies(with in-

ducedpolarizationpresent)and resistivity.
where Essis the steady-statevoltage.

The polarizationwhich occursin a rock containingelectron-conducting mineralsis very
similar. In order to achievecontinuity of currentflow from an electrolytein the pores of a
rock through electron conductingmineral grains, the chemical processesof oxidation and
reductionare required. At the low current densitiesused in geophysicalexploration, the
amountof oxidationand reductionwhich occursis probably quite small. Rather, ions in the
electrolytewill concentrateon either side of an electron-conducting grain, forming concen-
trationcells similarto thoseformedin electrolyticpolarization.When excitationis removed,
theseconcentrations will discharge,giving rise to a transientcurrentand voltage. Again, dc
dielectricpermittivitycan be calculatedfrom the chargerepresentedin a transientdischarge

when the excitationhas been sufficientlylong to saturatethe polarizationprocess.

A graphicalsummaryof the correlationbetweendc dielectricpermittivity and dc conduc-
tivity for a variety of rock samplesis given in Figure 24.
Much of the early researchon inducedpolarizationwas done using time-domain (step)
techniques(Wait, 1959). In addition to providing a specificationof the limiting dielectric
permittivityand conductivityat low frequencies,informationcan alsobe obtainedfrom such
studiesaboutthe electricalpropertiesat intermediatefrequencies.Faroham(1947) was among
thefirstto observe
thatby usinga t-/2 scale,graphs
of voltage
versus
timecouldbelin-
earized.This behavioris representativeof processescontroledby diffusion, and the polariza-
tion processhas come to be known as a Warburg impedance,in which the simple resistor-
capacitorcircuit representingthe processcontainsa capacitancethat varies as the squareroot
of frequency(see Figure 25).
c= AI.U -1/2
FIG. 25. Lumped circuit for a Warburg impedance.

48 Keller
In an alternateapproach,Keller (1959) analyzeda numberof observedtransientdischarge

curvesandrepresented them as a sumof parallelresistor-capacitor
circuitswith differenttime
constants,a processoriginally proposedin Wagner (1913) in connectionwith Maxwell in-
terfacialpolarization.
Megascopic Considerations
In explorationfor ore bodies,it is not alwayspossibleto determinethe conductivityof a

rockmassindependentlyof its geometry.Only in large, extensiveore bodiescan the electrical
propertiesbe determinedindependentlyof the dimensions.In many cases,the ore body is
not this large, and the parametersdeterminedfrom field surveysare usually some combi-
nation of dimensionsand electrical properties.
For tabular (two-dimensional)conductive bodies, the parameter that can be determined
from inductive field surveysis the conductance,S. Unfortunately, no tabulation of these
valuesis availablein the literaturefor typical tabularor dike-like ore bodies;suchdataprob-
ably exist, and shouldbe collected.
Three-dimensionalore bodiesare probably more commonthan tabular ore bodies. In such
cases,again,only a singlesummaryparametercombiningthe geometryand the electricprop-
ertiesof the ore body can be determined.Kaufman and Keller (1985) pointed out that for
three-dimensional bodieswhich can be approximatedas spheres,the parameterthat can be
determinedis a combinationof dimensionsand conductivitywhich acts as a time constant.
For a sphericalmass,this time constantx, is
'r = o'l&a2/'rr
2, (51)
where a is the radius of the body in meters. For a disc with constantthickness, the time
constant is
'r = IxSa/5.51 (52)
where S is the conductance in the disc, and a is its radius.

Ore bodiesexist in barrenor alteredrock massesagainstwhich an economicore body
must be discriminated.To completethe discussionof rock propertiesas they apply in the
inductionmethodsof mineralsprospecting,it is necessaryto point out that huge volumesof
data exist on the conductivitiesof rock massesin the form of well log libraries. The great
majorityof theselogs are run in wells in sedimentaryrocks, but significantnumbersare now
becomingavailable from crystalline and igneous rocks, which are more common hosts to
mineralization.
References
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Rock and Mineral Properties

Physical Laws, Electromagnetic Induction, and Rock Properties

Maxwell's equationsprovide the startingpoint to obtain an understandingof how electro-

whereH is the magneticfield, J is the currentdensity, and D is the electric displacement.

*Departmentof Geophysics,ColoradoSchool of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401

wheretr, definedby thisequation,is a propertyof themedium.The quantityhasbeennamed

the electricalconductivityof the medium.

O'xx O'xy O'xz

and which definesanotherpropertyof the medium e, known as the dielectricpermittivity.

whichdefinesan importantquantityfor usein calculationsof electromagnetic

Ix0= 4vrx 10-7 H/m. (10)

In additionto the threeconstitutiveequationslisted similar equationsexist which represent

The polarizationis a vectorwith threecomponents andthe strainis a tensorwith nine com-

symmetryof someof thecomponents, the modulusof piezoelectricity

Sll S22 S33 2S23 2S3 2S2

P1 d d122 d133 2d23 2d3 2d2

wherePi are the componentsof the polarizationintensityvector, Sikare the componentsof

whereEn is the additionalelectricfield generatedby the Hall phenomenon,andR is the Hall

In a separatestep, and for demonstrationpurposesonly, the time derivatives in the two

The procedureis acceptableonly if the dielectricpermittivity and the magneticpermeability

and the two fields E and H can be separatedby simple algebraicoperations

The imaginarypart of G causesthe amplitudeof the field strengthto vary sinusoidally

is known as the "wave length" of the propagatingfield.

In this regime, the propagationof the electromagneticfield proceedswithout significantat-

This conditionspecifiesthat conductionand displacementcurrentsare of equal importance

a. Conductivity= 1.0 mho/meter,permittivity= 177 F/m.

Case(a) representsa water filled sedimentaryrock, case(b) representsthe medianrock seen

whereA is the cross-sectional area and if the thicknessof the sample.

FIG. 2. Lumpedcircuit representation

FIG. 3. A Cole-Coleplot, or plot of conductivityand permittivityin the complexplane for an ideal

the impedanceof the equivalentcircuit,

FIG. 4. Cole-Coleplot for a materialwhich exhibitsboth ideal dispersionand steadyconduction.

e -- eo+ (e0- eo0/(1+ i(o'r)

In the simplepolarizationmechanisms,the real conductionterm is zero at extremelyhigh

wherethe subscripts I andR indicateimaginaryandreal partsof the corresponding parameter.

The wave number is then written as

k2= -i(o(Ix + il&)[((y+ i(h) + i(o(e+ i/)] (36)

tan be - tan (b3- be)/2 (37)

and the magnetic loss tangenthas been defined as

tan b3- !x/!x. (39)

A startingpoint for the discussionof the electricalpropertiesof rocks is a discussionof

Conductivity of metals and semiconductors

Table 1. Resistivities of metals and metallic minerals (zero frequency).

Refined metals at 0C (ohm-m)

Lithium 8.5 x 10-8

whichrequiresomeenergyto be driveninto conduction bands.The energyis providedby

Native elements p (ohm-m)

Each processis illustratedin simplified form in Figure 6. Electrons are displacedfrom

Ke= rt2, (40)

whereKe is the dielectricconstant,and is taken to be the ratio of permittivity of a material

Somevaluesfor dielectricpermittivity of mineralsat optical frequenciesare listed in Table

NO FIELD FIELD APPLIED

SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION

FIG. 6. Mechanismsfor polarization(from von Hippel 1954 a, b).

Source and orientation Radio Optical

Anglesite,PbSO4 74.0-500 3.52-3.59

Analcime, NaA1Si204' H20 Tyrol 5.88 2.21

Augite, Ca(Mg, Fe, A1)(A1, Si)206 6.90-10.27

Beryl, Be3A12Si6018 5.48-7.80

Biotite, K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3010(OH)2 6.19-9.30

Galena, PbS 17.9

Sphalerite,ZnS Titibu, Japan 7.90 5.61 to 6.10