EVALUATION OF LAND USE AND CROP MANAGEMENT IMPACTS ON SOIL QUALITY:

APPLICATION OF QBS METHODS

Gardi, Ciro1 (presenter), Jacomini, Carlo2, Menta, Cristina3 & Parisi, Vittorio3
1
Dept. of Environmental Sciences, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze, 43100 Parma, Italy.
E-mail: ciro.gardi@unipr.it
2
APAT, Italian Agency for Environment Protection and Technical Services, Via V. Brancati, 48, 00144, Rome,
Italy. Email: jacomini@apat.it
3
Dept. of Evolutionary and Functional Biology, section Museum of Natural History, University of Parma, via Farini,
90, 43100 Parma, Italy. Email: mus.st.nat@unipr.it; cristina.menta@unipr.it.

Abstract
The soil fauna is composed by organisms very sensitive to variation, natural or human-induced, of soil
environment. Due to this behavior, the characters of soil microarthropods population and its biodiversity
can provide useful information on soil status. In this paper the results of three years application of a soil
quality index based on the evaluation of soil microarthropods (QBS) were presented.
Data presented were obtained in soils of different environment and allowed to assess the reliability of this
method for the evaluation of biological quality of northern Italian soils. The experiments tried to evaluate
the variations in QBS values according to different land use and crop management practices. Arable lands
generally showed QBS values lower than 100, while permanent grasslands and forest soils were
characterized by the highest QBS values. The biological soil quality of arable lands was also affected by
agronomic management, showing highest values in organic farming soils and/or low input crops. A
significant correlation between QBS values and the intensity of human disturbance was also shown.
Keywords:
microarthropods, soil quality, indicators.

Introduction

Modern agriculture has led to deep changes in the agroecosystems and to severe impacts on the
environment. Among these impacts reduction of biodiversity and degradation of soil quality are often
viewed as major threat for the future (Solbrig, 1991). Although soil quality represent a value-based
concept, related to the objectives of ecosystem management (Schoenolttz et al., 2000) it is possible to
achieve a general definition of it. Synthesising the concepts expressed by the Soil Science Society of
America (Karlen, 1997) and by the International Soil Science Society (1998), we can define soil quality as
the functionality of a soil in its own environment, the capability to sustain plants and animal productivity,
and to maintain or improve the air and water quality. Soil quality can be evaluated by using a large
number of indicators (chemical, physical, biological) depending on the scale and the objective of the
evaluation; the importance of some of these parameters is generally accepted. A review of soil quality
indicators showed that few of them are largely dominant. Soil organic matter among chemical indicators,
bulk density and aggregate stability among physical indicators, were the most represented, while few
researches deals with biological indicators of soil quality.
Recently new methods for soil quality assessment, based on soil mesofauna, were proposed by different
authors. Some of these methods are based on the global evaluation of microarthropods (Parisi, 2001), while
other are based on the evaluation of a single taxa (Paoletti, 1999; Paoletti et al., 1999; Parisi, 2001). The
application of these bioindicators are often limited by the difficulty of microarthropods classification, that
quite often require very specialistic work. The introduction of simplified eco-morphological index, that do
not require the classification of organism at species level, allowed a wider application of these
methodology.

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In this paper the results of three years application of QBS - Qualit Biologica del Suolo, i.e. Biological
Quality of Soil - are presented.

Materials and methods

QBS index

The biological soil quality may be evaluated by using the QBS index, proposed by Parisi (2001) and Parisi
et al. (2003). The QBS is based on the following concept: the higher is soil quality, the higher will be the
numbers of microarthropod groups adapted to the soil habitat.
Further details on the QBS index can be found in Parisi et al. (2003), published in these proceedings.

Sampling

For each site a homogeneous sampling area (slope, aspect, vegetation cover) was chosen. Soil sample
collection and microarthropod extraction is performed according to the standard methodology applied in
soil biology: soil core samples (10 x10 x5 cm) and extraction by using the modified BerleseTullgren
funnel (Philippson, 1971).

Case studies

In order to verify the applicability of QBS for soil quality evaluation, this methodology has been applied in
different Northern Italian sites, characterised by various soil types, land use and agricultural system, over a
period of three years.

Case study 1: permanent grasslands and arable lands

This research deals with the evaluation of agriculture sustainability, based on biodiversity measures and
soil quality parameters, over areas with different agricultural land uses. The study area is located in the Po
River valley (Northern Italy), Northeast of Modena (lat. 4439N, long. 1056W); the mean elevation is
28 m a.s.l.. Soils were developed on recent alluvial deposits, aged between middle-age and modern-age;
from a geomorphologic point of view, these deposits are considered to be built by the secondary
hydrographic network. The annual average rainfall is 594 mm and the average air temperature is 13.7 C
(1967 1997).
According to soil taxonomy, soils of the investigated area may be classified as Fluventic ustochrepts fine,
mixed, mesic, while according to WRB classification these soils belong to Fluvic Cambisol. A summary of
soil chemical and physical analyses is reported in table 1.
The landscape is dominated by agricultural land use and the main agricultural activities are related to
animal husbandry (in particular dairy farms). Permanent grasslands or meadows (alfalfa) represent a large
part of the investigated area; winter wheat, corn, sugar beet and other annual crops are also cultivated in
the area. The land use units have a field-size (0.52 ha); four of these units are located within a distance of
300 m, while the fifth one (Balugola) is located 2 km Northwest of this area.
In the present study, a long record of changes in land use was obtained from both farmers knowledge and
historical data. It was possible to summarize the main agronomic events for the investigated sites:
x Balugola (BA): this is the oldest permanent grassland, established around 1736 and irrigated by
traditional flood irrigation method until some years ago.
x Botti (BO): flood irrigated permanent (> 100 years) grassland.
x Galli (GA): permanent (> 100 years) grasslands, but not irrigated in the previous 20 years.

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x Medica (ME): former vineyard (30 years ago). At the time of sampling it had been cultivated with
alfalfa for 2 years.
x Troni (TR): former permanent grassland (> 100 years), ploughed for the first time 20 years ago. At the
time of sampling it was cultivated with sugarbeet.

The biological soil quality was evaluated by using the QBS Collembola (QBS-c) and QBS Arthropods
(QBS-ar).
The QBS-c values were particularly high in the irrigated permanent grassland (Botti), owing to the high
occurrence of species well adapted to edaphic life and submersion (Folsomides parvulus) (Table 2). The
soils of Botti and Medica are very similar in species richness, but quite different as far as QBS-c is
concerned (Table 2). The QBS-c values are, in fact, 144 in Botti and 71 in Medica. The soil of Troni is the
poorest in Collembola species (only 3), while the other soils showed a more homogeneous species
richness. The QBS-ar values (Table 3) showed the same trend as QBS-c, with the exception of Botti. In
this unit the waterlogging favoured Collembola whilst other edaphic microarthropods were disadvantaged.
According to the increasing values of QBS-ar and QBS-c, the soils of the study sites can be ordered along
the following sequence Troni Medica Balugola Galli.
In the soils under study, microarthropod fauna is well differentiated, as shown by the data reported in table
3. Nevertheless, some important groups, such as Protura and Pauropoda, are entirely lacking and
Diplopoda and Chilopoda occur only in some soil samples. This result is consistent with the data obtained
in previous work and with the literature concerning agricultural soils. Collembola are represented by hemi-
edaphic or epigean species (only in Botti was an eu-edaphic Neanurinae found). Despite the fairly high
number of recorded species (21 species), surprisingly, the Onychiuridae are also completely absent in the
waterlogged soils of the irrigated permanent grasslands. This result needs to be clarified by research at
other sites.
The QBS values appears to be sensitive to short term variations in the agronomic management, such as the
crop cultivated in the arable land parcels, but it is less sensitive towards large variations in important soil
parameters such as the organic carbon content. Values of QBS-c seem to be more related to the organic
carbon content and soil aggregate stability with respect to QBS-ar. Animal biodiversity, expressed as
number of species or number of taxa, was markedly higher in the permanent grasslands. This study
emphasizes the importance of permanent grasslands as biodiversity hot spots within the Northern Italian
agroecosystems. Furthermore, this kind of land use acts as a carbon sink and improves the quality of the
soil.

Case study 2: land use comparison at Rubiano site

A comparison between soil mesofauna samples extracted from different land use parcels was carried out
during 2000 in a study area of Province of Parma (Italy). The study area is located on the first Apennine
relief (lat. 44 45N, long. 10 5W), with elevation ranging from 160 to 200 m a.s.l.. The landscape is
dominated by the agricultural land use in the bottom of the valley and by a mosaic of arable land,
permanent grasslands, shrublands and woodlands in the slope.
The objective of the research was to evaluate the biodiversity and the soil quality associated to different
land uses. For this purpose, ten study sites were chosen; main characteristics of these sites are listed in
table 4.
For each site, a mini pit was dug and described; from the surface horizon two soil samples were collected,
the first one for the chemical-physical analysis and the second one for soil microarthropods extraction. Soil
texture, pH, organic carbon content and bulk density were determined applying the Italian standard
methodology (D.M. 13/09/1999). Soil microarthropods extraction was realized according to the
methodology described in case study n.1.

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In table 5, the soil microarthropods taxa extracted from soil samples and the associated EMI (Eco-
morphological Index) value (Parisi, 2001) are reported. The QBS, reported at the bottom of the table,
represents the sum of the EMI values. It is possible to evidence a good correlation between land use classes
and QBS values: all the arable land parcels, except parcel n.5, have QBS value equal or lower than 100.
The parcel n.5 is an old alfalfa meadow and the high QBS value is determined by the long period without
any soil disturbance (8 years). The highest QBS value was found in a well-established wooded area, while
the other wooded area and the shrubland showed intermediate QBS values.
The intensity of human disturbance on soil (SDI Soil Disturbance Intensity) was expressed as the inverse
of the number of the years since the last tillage operation; for shrubland and wood, conventional values of
0.03 and 0.01 respectively were adopted. In Fig. 1, the regression of QBS on SDI is shown; the analysis of
these data produced a significant fitting: r2 dG0.83 (P <0.01).

Case study 3: Sewage sludge impact on soil microarthropods and earthworms

The objective of this experiment was the evaluation of the effects of sewage sludge application on
microarthropods communities and the possible heavy metals accumulation in earthworm. The study area is
represented by Cremona province, in Po valley (Northern Italy). Inside the study area three experimental
sites, corresponding to the more diffuse soil types, were chosen; for each site we sampled one field treated
with sewage sludge (during a period ranging between 1 and 3 years) and a second one, with the same crop
and management, but without sewage sludge application.
Soil microarthropods extraction and QBS computation was realized according to the methodology
described in case study n.1. Earthworms were dried (105 C for 24 hours), digested (0.3 g of soft tissue
was mineralized by adding 3 ml HNO3 suprapure and 0.5 ml H2O2 36% at 110 volumes) and Cu, Zn, Pb,
Hg e Cd concentrations were detected by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission spectrometer.
Concentrations were obtained by direct comparison with standard solutions.
The results showed that the application of sewage sludge to the investigated soils not reduced the
biodiversity of soil microarthropods. In effect, two of the three treated sites showed higher QBS index
value (Table 6) and that suggested the presence of higher numbers of microarthropods more adapted to
soil. In this case, sludge added to the soil not caused an increment of toxic substances in soil for
microarthropods community.

Case study 4: land use and crop types in the Taro River Regional Park (Peretti, 2000)

The present research was aimed to characterise microarthropod communities in relation to land use and
crop type within the Taro River Regional Park (Parma). The study sites were located in the areas used by
the bird Burhinus oedicnemus during the feeding activity, as a part of the LIFE Project 98NAT/IT/5138
Restoration of river habitat for bird communities. Fifteen areas were sampled, with three replicates for
each area. The sampling campaign was carried out between May and October 2000.
The average QBS and the standard deviation for each crop were reported in table 7. It was confirmed that
permanent grasslands are characterised by microarthropods communities well adapted to soil environment
as evidenced by the higher QBS values. Alfalfa was characterised by QBS values lower than permanent
grasslands, but larger than the other crops. In effect in alfalfa fields some eu-edaphic taxa, such as Protura,
Diplura and Pseudoscorpionida were found. Corn and sugarbeet, typical high input crops, showed the
lowest QBS values; in this fields only eu-edaphic Collembola and Mites, Staphylinidae, Coleoptera and
Diptera larvae were found, while Protura, Diplura and Pseudoscorpionida were absent.

Case study 5: Organic and conventional farming (Ferri, 2000)

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The aim of this study was the comparison of the impacts on soil microarthropods, caused by different
agricultural systems (organic and conventional) on different crops. For this purpose two study areas, both
within Parma province, were chosen: Fraore and Bazzano. Fraore is located in the upper part of Po valley,
near Parma; the elevation is 55 m a.s.l., the landscape is dominated by agricultural land uses with few trees
or hedges and high inputs of fertilisers and pesticides. Bazzano is located on the Apennine, the elevation is
470 m a.s.l..; the land use is characterised by extensive agricultural areas and wooded areas. For each study
area soil samples for microarthropods extraction were collected from fields cultivated with different crops
and with different systems (organic and conventional); from the microarthropds extracted the QBS and the
Collembola/Acari ratios were calculated (Table 8).
The experimental data demonstrated the effectiveness of the organic agriculture in reducing the impact on
soil fauna with respect to conventional agriculture; this impact reduction is more evident for high input
crops, such as corn and tomato. Permanent grasslands and poliennial crops (alfalfa) are characterized by
the highest QBS. Data of Bazzano are somewhat controversial; the high variability within the same crop
and system (i.e. organic wheat) do not allows to compare the organic and conventional agricultural system.
It should be noted that conventional and organic agriculture, in mountain region, are both low input and
with similar crop management practices.

Conclusions

The analysis of the overall data showed significant differences in QBS values determined by land use type.
Three main land use types were found among the case studies: forest, permanent grasslands + poliennial
crops, arable lands (annual crops); the QBS average values increase according to the anthropic pressure
reduction. The analysis of single eu-edaphic taxa as a function of land use showed that some groups, such
as Acari or Collembola are not or weakly affected by land use type, while Protura, Diplopoda, Chilopoda
and Pseudoscorpionida are strongly affected.
Also the agricultural system (i.e. conventional, organic) generally determines significant differences in
QBS values; however these differences are larger for the most intensive crops, such as corn or tomato, and
smaller (in some case not significant) for the low input crops, such as wheat and barley.

References

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and subsequent wheat yield. Soil Sci. 165, 516-522.
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indicators: I. Central and Southern high plains. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64: 2115-2124.
Decreto Ministeriale (D.M.) 13/09/1999. Metodi Ufficiali di Analisi di Chimica del Suolo. Supplemento
Ordinario alla Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 248 del 21/10/1999.
Ferri, L., 2000. Agricoltura biologica: aspetti ecologici e contributi per lo sviluppo sostenibile. Tesi laurea.
Gardi, C., Tomaselli, M., Parisi, V., Petraglia, A., Santini, C., 2002. Soil quality indicators and biodiversity
in northern Italian permanent grassland. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 38: 103-110.
Gilley J.E., Doran J.W., Eghball B., 2001. Tillage and fallow effects on selected soil quality characteristics
of former conservation reserve program sites. J. of Soil and Water Cons. 56: 126-132.
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concept, definition, and framework for evaluation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61: 4-10.
Kettler T.A., Lyon D.J., Doran J.W., Powers W.L., Stroup W.W., 2000. Soil quality assessment after
weed-control tillage in a no-till wheat-fallow cropping system. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64: 339-346.

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Li Y., Lindstrom M.J., Zhang J., Yang J., 2001. Spatial variability of soil erosion and soil quality on
hillslopes in the Chinese Loess Plateau, Acta Geologica Hispanica 35: 261-270.
Liebig M.A., Doran J.W., 1999. Impact of organic production practices on soil quality indicators. J. Env.
Qual. 28: 1601-1609.
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and use as bioindicators. Agric., Ecosyst. and Environ. 74: 157-165.
Paoletti M.G., 1999. The role of earthworms for assessment of sustainability and as bioindicators. Agric.,
Ecosyst. and Environ. 74: 137-155.
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"LAteneo Parmense" 37: 97-106.
Parisi V., Menta C., Gardi C. & Jacomini C, 2003. Evaluation of Soil Quality and Biodiversity in Italy: the
Biological Quality of Soil Index (QBS) approach. Proceedings OECD Expert Meeting on Soil
Erosion and Soil Biodiversity Indicators, Rome, March 25-28, 2003.
Peretti, P., 2001. Qualit biologica del suolo:analisi svolte in aree di importanza trofica per la
popolazione di occhione nidificante nel parco regionale del Taro, Relazione Museo di Storia Naturale,
Parma.
Sacchi C. F., Testard P., 1971. Ecologie animale. Doin, Parigi.
Schoenholtz S.H., Van Miegroet H., Burger J.A., 2000. A review of chemical and physical properties as
indicators of forest soil quality: challenges and opportunities, Forest Ecology and Management 138:
335-356.
Six J., Elliott E.T., Paustian K., 2000. Soil structure and soil organic matter: II. A normalized stability
index and the effect of mineralogy. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64: 1042-1049.
Solbrig O.T., 1991. From Genes to Ecosystems: a Research Agenda for Biodiversity. IUBS-SCOPE-
UNESCO.

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 200

y = 75.728x -0.1775
150
R2 = 0.8313
QBS

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
SDI

Fig. 1 Regression between SDI (Soil Disturbance Intensity) and QBS for the Rubbiano study area

7
Table 1
Soil physical and chemical parameters of the investigated sites. The indicated values represent the average of three
analyses

CULTIVATED PERMANENT GRASSLANDS

Soil parameters Depth (cm) TR ME BA BO GA

Textural class 0-10 Silty clay Silty clay Clay Clay Clay
Sand 0-10 4.8 2.2 3.70 4.90 3.50
Silt 0-10 41.5 42.2 39.40 37.70 34.40
Clay 0-10 53.7 55.6 56.90 57.40 62.10
Bulk density (g cm-3) 0-5 1.25 1.32 1.03 1.12 1.05
-1
Organic carbon (mg g ) 0-10 23.87 19.04 62.59 74.09 69.64
10-20 24.49 18.89 43.73 48.94 46.54
20-30 25.88 20.21 35.19 30.30 41.88
30-40 26.84 19.86 26.92 17.08 32.11
40-50 21.91 19.06 18.26 12.54 16.75
50-60 21.68 15.06 13.77 10.64 13.02
60-80 16.50 10.08 9.19 8.77 16.45
pH 0-10 7.83 7.73 7.32 7.13 7.22
10-20 7.79 7.77 7.38 7.26 7.46
20-30 7.78 7.87 7.42 7.48 7.57
30-40 7.78 7.83 7.62 7.64 7.68
40-50 7.77 7.93 7.84 7.73 7.78
50-60 7.75 7.94 7.95 7.80 7.58
60-80 7.85 8.01 8.15 7.90 7.58
Calcium carbonate (%) 0-10 16.95 9.97 9.97 12.46 5.48
10-20 12.96 9.97 11.96 14.96 7.98
20-30 11.96 10.97 13.96 15.45 7.48
30-40 10.47 10.47 13.46 14.96 8.97
40-50 18.94 9.97 14.96 13.96 7.98
50-60 13.46 9.97 16.45 14.26 8.97
60-80 13.46 17.95 16.95 14.46 8.97

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Table 2
Ecomorphological index (EMI) for the Collembola species occurring at the Modena study sites and QBS-c

Collembola species TR ME BA GA BO

Frisea sp. - - - - 27
Anurida sp - - - 31 -
Neanurinae (ind.) - - 27 - 40
Folsomides parvulus - - - - 25
Cryptopygus thermophilus - 17 17 17 17
Isotomiella minor - 25 - - 25
Isotoma notabilis - 13 - - -
Isotomurus palustris - 6 - - -
Entomobrya nivalis - 2 - - -
Heteromurus major 3 3 3 3 -
Heteromurus tetrophthalmus - - - 8 -
Lepidocyrtus paradoxus 1 1 - - 1
Lepidocyrtus cfr. cyaneus - - 2 4 2
Lepidocyrtus curvicollis - 1 - - -
Willowsia sp. - - - 7 -
Pseudosinella sp. 9 - 9 - -
Megalothorax minimus - - 31 31 -
Sminthurides sp. - - - 4 -
Sminthurinus sp. - - - - 7
Sminthurus viridis - - 5 - -

QBS-c 13 68 94 105 144

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Table 3
Ecomorphological index (EMI) for the microarthropods species occurring at the Modena study sites and QBS-ar

Microarthropods
groups TR ME BA GA BO

Diplura - 20 20 20 -
Collembola 5 10 15 15 20
Thysanoptera - 1 1 - -
Homoptera - - 1 1 1
Coleoptera adults - 10 - - 10
larvae 10 - 10 10 10
Diptera adults - 1 - -
larvae - - - 10 -
Lepidoptera larvae - - - 10 -
Hymenoptera 5 5 5 - -
Diplopoda - 5 - - -
Chilopoda - - 20 - -
Symphyla 20 - - 20 -
Isopoda 10 10 - 10 10
Acari 20 20 20 20 20
Araneida - 5 5 - -

BSQ-ar 70 87 97 116 71

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Table 4
Site descriptions and soil parameters for the Rubbiano study area

Site number Land use Crop Top soil

textural class bulk density organic carbon pH
g cm-3 mg g-1
1 Arable land Alfalfa clay loam 1.36 13 6.30
2 Arable land Alfalfa clay loam 1.09 17 6.66
3 Wood -- clay loam 1.01 43 6.58
4 Shrubland -- silty clay loam 1.13 15 6.00
5 Arable land Alfalfa silty clay 1.21 9 7.93
6 Wood -- silty clay loam 0.91 45 7.45
7 Shrubland -- silty clay loam 1.08 24 7.34
8 Arable land Alfalfa silty clay loam 1.27 13 7.69
9 Shrubland -- loam 1.22 19 7.19
10 Arable land Alfalfa loam 1.34 11 7.72

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Table 5
Soil microarthropods taxa, associated EMI (Eco-morphological Index) value and QBS for the Rubbiano sites

Rubbiano sites
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Protura - 20 20 20 - 20 - 20 - -
Diplura - - - 20 20 - 20 - 20 -
Collembola 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 10 20 10
Hemiptera 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 - - -
Tisanoptera - 1 - - - 1 - - - -
Coleoptera adults 20 - - - 10 20 10 10 - 10
Coleoptera larvae - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 - -
Hymenoptera 5 5 - 5 5 5 - - 5 -
Diptera adults 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 - 1 -
Diptera larvae 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - -
Lepidoptera larvae - - - - - - - - 10 10
Aranea - - - - 5 - - - 5 -
Acarina 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Isopoda - 10 - - 10 - - - - 10
Diplopoda - - 20 10 - 20 20 - - 20
Pauropoda - - 20 20 - 20 - - 20 -
Symphyla - - - 20 20 20 20 - 20 -
Chilopoda - 20 20 - - 20 20 20 - 20

QBS 67 97 141 156 132 188 152 100 121 100

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Table 6
QBS index values in three stations

Sample stations Sample date Crop QBS index

Ca dAndrea 08/11/01 Corn (residual) Treated 75 Not treated 117
Vescovato 08/11/01 Grassland Treated 106 Not treated 92
Zanengo 31/10/01 Corn (residual) Treated 120 Not treated 80

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Table 7: QBS values for different crops/land use

QBS values
Tillage Number of sampled areas
(MrSD)
Grassland 3 115r33

Alfalfa 2 91r34

Corn 5 77r16

Beet 5 59r10

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Table 8
QBS and Collembola/Acari ratio (C/A) for organic and conventional crops at Fraore (Parma) and Bazzano (Parma)
sites
Site Crop+agricultural system QBS C/A
Fraore
Barley O 72 0.74
Corn C 41 0.07
Corn O 111 2.04
Green manure O 96 1.42
Green manure O 50 0.21
Meadow O 172 0.75
Meadow O 132 2.67
Meadow O 171 0.53
Sugarbeet C 71 0.4
Tomato C 51 0.02
Tomato O 65 4.16
Wheat C 72 0.51
Wheat C 77 2.16
Wheat C 93 2.12
Wheat O 91 2.44
Bazzano
Alfalfa C 111 0.93
Alfalfa C 184 0.87
Alfalfa O 87 0.1
Alfalfa O 133 0.71
Meadow O 122 1.08
Whaet C 110 2.44
Wheat O 111 2.42
Wheat O 76 2.37
Wheat O 55 1.66
O: organic farming;
C: conventional farming

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