STANDARD PROCESS INPUT

In analyzing process dynamic and process control

systems, it is important to know how the process
responds to changes in the process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are
widely used for two reasons:
1. They are representative of the types of changes
that occur in plants.
2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.
1. Step Input
A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by
a step change of magnitude, M:

The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0.

Special Case: If M = 1, we have a unit step change. We
give it the symbol, S(t).
Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly
switched from one supply to another, causing sudden
changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
Example:
The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter 2 is
suddenly changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by changing the
electrical signal to the heater. Thus,

Q t 8000 2000 S t , S t unit step

and
Q t Q Q 2000 S t , Q 8000 kcal/hr

2. Ramp Input
Industrial processes often experience drifting
disturbances, that is, relatively slow changes up or down
for some period of time.
The rate of change is approximately constant.
We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp input:

Examples of ramp changes:

1. Ramp a setpoint to a new value. (Why not make a step

change?)
2. Feed composition, heat exchanger fouling, catalyst activity,
ambient temperature.
3. Rectangular Pulse
It represents a brief, sudden change in a process variable:

URP
tw Time, t
h

0
Examples:

1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.

2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.

URP
Other Inputs
4. Sinusoidal Input
Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.
They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:

0 for t 0
U sin t (5-14)
A sin t for t 0
where: A = amplitude, = angular frequency
A
U sin ( s ) 2 (5-15)
s 2
Examples:

1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.

2. 60-Hz electrical noise (in USA!)
For a sine input (1st order process)

U (s) 2
s 2
output is...
Kp 0 1s 2
Y (s ) 2 2
2 2
s 1 s s 1 s s 2
2

By partial fraction decomposition,

K p 2
0
2 2 1
K p
1
2 2 1
K p
2
2 2 1
Inverting, this term dies out for large t

K p t
Kp
y( t ) 2 2
e sin(t )
1 2 2 1
arctan( )

note: f is not a function of t but of t and w.

For large t, y(t) is also sinusoidal,

output sine is attenuated by
1
2 2
(fast vs. slow )
1
5. Impulse Input

Here, U I t t and U I ( s ) 1
It represents a short, transient disturbance.
It is the limit of a rectangular pulse for tw0 and h = 1/tw
Examples:
1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.
2. Injection of a tracer dye.

Here,
Y s G s (1)
RESPON FIRST-ORDER PROCESS
First-Order System?
A first order system is one whose output y(t) is modeled by a first
order differential equation. Thus in the case of linier (or linierized)
system, we have

Where f(t ) is the input (forcing function). If ao 0, the yields

Define :
If y(t) and f(t) are in terms of deviation variables around steady state,
the initial condition are

The transfer function of first order process is given by

A first order process with transfer function given by eq. Above is also
known as first-order lag, linier lag, or exponential transfer lag.
Example for First order System
 Step Response
For a step input of magnitude M,
U(s) = M/s, and (5-16) becomes

Using Table 3.1, the time-domain

response is
 A small change in input if K is large (very sensitive system)
A large change in the input if K is small.
 Ramp Response
We now evaluate how a first-order ystem
responds to the ramp input, U(s) = a/s2 of
Eq. 5-8. Performing a partial fraction
expansion yields

The Heaviside expansion (Chapter 3) gives

Using Table 3.1

 Sinusoidal Response
As a final example of the response of first-order processes, consider a
sinusoidal input Usin(t) = A sin wt, with transform given by Eq. (5-15):

Inversion gives

or, by using trigonometric identities,

RESPON SECOND -ORDER PROCESS
Second-Order System?
A second-order system is one whose output y(t) is described by the
solution of a second-order differential equation. For example, the
following equation:

If ao 0, the yields

Standard form of
second-order system

where
 a second-order transfer function can arise physically whenever
two first-order processes are connected in series.
For example, two stirred-tank blending processes, each with a
first-order transfer function relating inlet to outlet mass fraction,
might be physically connected so that the outflow stream of the
first tank is used as the inflow stream of the second tank.
In this chapter we consider the case where the second order
transfer function has the standard form :
There are three important classes of second-order systems as shown in
Table 5.2
Equating the denominators eq. (5-39) and eq. (5-40)

Expanding the right side of (5-41) and equating coefficients of the s

terms,

Alternatively, the left side of (5-41) can be factored:

 Step Response
For the step input (U(s) = M/s) to a process described by (5-40)

After inverting to the time domain, the responses can be

categorized into three classes :
The response can be written

The response can be written

The response can be written
Definitions generally apply to the step
response of any underdamped process:

1. Rise Time. t, is the time the process

output takes to first reach the new
steady-state value.
2. Time to First Peak. tp is the time
required for the output to reach its
first maximum value.
3. Settling Time. ts is the time
required for the process output to
reach and remain inside a band whose
width is equal to 5% of the total
change in y for 95% response time
(99% response time is also used for
some applications).
4. Overshoot. OS = a/b (% overshoot is
100 a/b).
5. Decay Ratio. DR = c/a (where c is the
height of the second peak).
6. Period of Oscillation. P is the time
between two successive peaks or two
successive valleys of the response.
Analytical expressions for some of these characteristics. Using Eq. 5-51
Note that OS and DR are functions of only. For a second-order system, the
decay ratio is constant for each successive pair of peaks. Figure 5.11
illustrates the dependence of overshoot and decay ratio on damping
coefficient
 Sinusoidal Response

The output amplitude A is

For 0.707, there is no
maximum, as Fig. 5.12
illustrates