Steel Structures PDF

CSE 28300
Construction Technology and Temporary Works

Steel structures
Professor K.F. Chung

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong SAR, China
Outline
Material properties of structural steel

Types of structural steel sections
Bolts and welds
Types of connections
Types of steel frames
Floor slabs
Erection of steel buildings
Fire Protection of structural steel
2
Steel is the most widely used constructional metals, and structural

steel has the following advantages: fast erection, possible
alternation and addition, small self-weights and good dimensional
control. They are easy to fabricate with suitable equipment.
Structural steel possesses

high strengths,
a high strength to self weight ratio,
good ductility (an ability to deform without fracture), and
high stiffness (an ability to exhibit very small deformation under
large loads).
Because of these properties, they permit heavy loads to be carried

by relatively small members. Hence, the self-weights of the steel
buildings are reduced, and so are the costs of foundation and
superstructures.
3
Chemical composition
The composition of steel mainly consists of iron with small amounts of

other elements which greatly affect its physical properties.
Carbon (0.15% to 0.3%) is the most important of these elements.

Increasing the carbon content of steel will increase its strength and
hardness, but at the same time, decrease its ductility and toughness.
Other elements such as manganese, phosphorous, sulphur, nickel,

chromium etc can also be added to the steel to produce various desirable
properties, such as corrosion resistance, improved weldability and
ductility etc.
4
Stress-strain curves
The most commonly used description on the strength of structural
steel is the so-called stress-strain curve, as shown in Figure 1.
The stress strain curve is obtained from a tension test of a steel

sample. Stress (force/area) and strain (extension /original length)
are measured for the assessment of strength and ductility of the
steel.
Steel possesses a high ductility (20-30%), and the common

design strengths for steel are 235, 275 and 355 N/mm2.
Steel material behaves linearly and elastically when the applied

stress is small. When the steel is stressed above its yield stress,
permanent deformation of the material will occur, which is called
yielding.

Stress-strain curves
Stress,
(force/area)
(MPa)
Tensile strength u
Yield stress y
fracture
Yield strain y
Strain (deformation/original length)
Figure 1. Typical stress-strain curve for structural steel.

6
There are various types of structural steel sections commonly used

in the construction industry. The use of these sections depend very
much on the required functions of the structural members.
As shown in Figure 2, typical steel sections include:

Universal Beams
Universal Columns
Channels
Equal and Unequal Angles
Tees
Structural Hollow Sections
Figure 2. Standard steel sections.

8
Bolts and welds
Before examining the structural behaviour of a steel frame, it is

important to discuss briefly the types of connectors and connections
used in constructing steel structures. There are basically two main
types of connectors, namely, bolts and welds. Rivets were also
popular connectors but their uses are quite limited nowadays.
Bolts:
Bolted connections are commonly used in steel buildings and bridges.
The bolts are relatively high strength and easy to install and require
minimal supervision.
However, bolted connections require extensive space if the connection
force is high.
Bolted connections also produce a less stiff connection than that of a
welded connection.
Bolts and welds

Bolts
Before examining the structural behaviour of a steel frame, it is
important to discuss briefly the types of connectors and connections
used in constructing steel structures. There are basically two main
types of connectors, namely, bolts and welds. Rivets were also
popular connectors but their uses are quite limited nowadays.
Bolts:
Bolted connections are commonly used in steel buildings and bridges.
The bolts are relatively high strength and easy to install and require
minimal supervision.
However, bolted connections require extensive space if the connection
force is high.
Bolted connections also produce a less stiff connection than that of a
welded connection.
10
Bolts and welds
Bolts
There are three types of commonly used structural bolts:

ISO metric black hexagon head bolts to BS 4190 (black)
ISO metric precision hexagon head bolts to BS 3692 (precision)
High strength friction grip bolts to BS 4395(HSFG)
Black bolts are made to less stringent tolerances than are precision
bolts; both are normally used in clearance holes 2 mm greater in
diameter than the nominal bolt size. Steel bolts are identified by
their gross diameter, strength (bolt grade), and use. The preferred
sizes of bolts in general use are M16, M20, M24, M30 and M36
(where the numbers represent the nominal bolt diameter). Other
bolt diameters such as M22, M27 and M33 are also available.
11
Bolts and welds

Bolts
There are generally two grades of bolts, namely; Grade 4.6 and
Grade 8.8. The Grade 8.8 bolts are normally used for structural
connections whereas the Grade 4.6 bolts are reserved for
secondary connections. Typical black bolt is shown in Figure 3.
Installation of black bolts is usually accomplished by wrench and
spanner.
washer
Figure 3a. Black bolt.

12
Bolts and welds
Bolts
shank nut
Figure 3b. Black bolt.
13
Bolts and welds

Bolts
HSFG bolts are used when a more rigid connection is required or

slip of the connection is not allowed due to serviceability
requirement of the connected parts. HSFG bolts are made from
high-tensile steel and are tightened sufficiently with special torque
(tension control bolt or load indicator washers) to produce a
predetermined shank tension and a high clamping force, thereby
enabling shear resistance to develop between the connected parts
as results of friction.
The tension control bolt and typical installation procedure, as

shown in Figure 4, have a splined end which will be twisted off by
the electric wrench if the required tension in the bolt is reached.
14
Bolts and welds
Bolts
Figure 4. A tension control bolt and installation procedure. 15
Bolts and welds

Welds
A weld is produced by passing a high current, typically between 50 and
400 amperes, through an electrode or filler wire to the parts being welded
so as to produce an electric arc which generate heat as high as 6000oC.
This significant amount of heat is able to melt both the electrode and also
the metal in the joint face and this leads to a desirable penetration of the
electrode metal into the joint.
16
Figure 5. Electric arc welding process.
Bolts and welds
Welds
There are generally two types of welds, namely, groove weld and fillet
weld. Groove weld is usually used in a butt joint and fillet weld is used in
lap joint. Typical examples of groove weld and fillet weld are shown in
Figure 6 and Figure 7, respectively. Manual welding is usually slow and
requires considerable amount of skills. Therefore, whenever possible
automatic welding should be used.
17
Figure 6. Grove weld.
Bolts and welds

Welds
Figure 7. Fillet weld.
18
Bolts and welds
Welds
A properly welded connection requires the knowledge of the

effects of welding on the material properties, choice of electrode
and the rate of cooling of the metals.
Since the control of the welding quality is quite difficult, therefore,

inspection should be done on at least important connections.
The non-destructive testing technique includes methods such as

magnetic particle, dye penetrant, ultrasonic, or radiographic testing
that search for hidden voids and flaws in each weld.
19
Steel connections can be generally classified into simple

connections, rigid connections and semi-rigid connections. Simple
connections are only able to transfer shear forces from supported
beams to the supporting columns. Rigid connections are able to
transfer both shear forces and bending moments while semi-rigid
connections can transfer shear forces and small amounts of the
bending moments.
A properly welded connection requires the knowledge of the effects

of welding on the material properties, choice of electrode and the
rate of cooling of the metals.
20
Simple connections
Simple connections are only able to transfer the shear forces from beams
to columns. Usually, the transfer of this shear force will also be
accompanied by a rotation of the beam at the connection. Sometimes, a
shear connection can be visualized as a hinge which allows free rotation.
In practice, nominal hinges resisting certain moments are possible.
A typical simple connection between a beam and a column using bolts and
clip angles is shown in Figure 8.
The beam is bolted to a pair of clip angles which are in turn bolted to the
column flange. When the beam is loaded, there will be a rotation occurred
at the end of the beam. This rotation is due to the deformation of the clip
angles and the slip of the bolts as the bolt hole is 2 to 3 mm larger than the
bolt diameter.
It should be noted that the bolts only connect the beam web and the
column flange.
21
Simple connections
Figure 8. Simple beam to column connections using double clip angles.

22
Simple connections
Figure 9 shows a single-tab shear connection where a single plate

is welded to the column flange in shop, and then bolted onto the
beam on site.
Figure 9.Simple beam to column using shear tab. 23
Simple connections
Figure 10 illustrates the double clip angles for a beam to beam
connection. The connection is usually bolted on site. Note that a
part of the top flange of the small supported beam is cut (coped) in
order to maintain the same elevation as the large supporting beam.
24
Figure 10. Simple beam to beam using double clip angles.
Rigid connections
Rigid connections are connections which are able to resist both shear
forces and bending moments. In order for a beam to transfer a bending
moment to a column through the connection, the beam flanges must be
connected directly to the column flange. A commonly used rigid connection,
or sometimes called a moment connection, is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Beam to column moment connection with bolted clip angles
connecting the web and beam flanges welded to the column flange. 25
Rigid connections
As can be seen from this figure, the beam web is connected to the
column flange using bolted connection (to transfer the shear force)
and the beam flanges are welded (groove weld) to the column
flange to transfer the bending moment.
A set of stiffeners are also welded onto the flanges and the web of
the column in order to transfer the flange forces from one side of
the column to another side. Usually there is another beam provided
on the other side of the column.
26
Rigid connections
Figure 12 shows another rigid connection which is connected about the

weak axis of the column.
A single plate shear tag is welded onto the column web and extended
outward to connect the beam web with bolts. Two stiffener plates are
welded onto the flanges and the web of the column, and they are extended
outward to connect to the beam flanges using groove welds.
Figure 12. Beam to column moment

connections with shear tab bolted to the
web and beam flanges welded to the
column stiffeners (which are welded to
the column flanges and web). 27
Rigid connections
It is important to note that there is theoretically no rotation at the

ends of the beam if rigid connections are used.
In practice, there are many other possible types of rigid connections.

For instance, both the flanges and the web of the beam may be
welded directly onto the column flange to achieve a rigid connection.
28
Semi-rigid connections
Semi-rigid connections are somewhat in between simple connections and

rigid connections. They are able to transfer shear forces and certain
bending moments.
In terms of beam end rotations, semi-rigid connections do not allow
rotations as large as those permitted in simple connections. One example
of semi-rigid connections is an extended end plate connection, as shown in
Figure 13. It is widely used in the U.S.A.. The end plate is usually welded
in shop, and then bolted onto the column flange on site.
Figure 13. Extended end plate connection.

29
Column to column connections
In steel construction, steel columns are usually fabricated in a

length suitable for delivery to sites. Therefore, all columns must be
connected on site.
Column connections are usually made by splice plates which are
bolted to the flanges and the web of the columns. The contact
surface between the two columns should be milled so that even and
direct bearing are readily achieved.
If columns of two different sizes are required to be connected, a set
of filler plates should be used to make up the differences in
thickness between the flanges.
Small columns can also be directly seated on a thick end plate
which is welded to the end of a large column.
30
Column to column connections
Figure 14. Column to column connections.
31
There are various types of steel framing systems that can be used
for todays high-rise steel buildings. They can be broadly classified
as follows:
Simple frames
Semi-rigid frames
Rigid frames
Braced frames
Belt truss and Outrigger systems
Tube systems
The use of these systems usually depends on the height and the
usage of the building. The structural efficiency of various kinds of
structural steel systems is shown schematically in Figure 15.
32
Figure 15. Various types of structural systems. 33

Simple steel frames
Simple steel frames use simple connections to connect the beam and
columns. However, it is quite easy to see that a simple frame is not stable
(as for a building frame). Therefore, for simple steel frames, a rigid core
must be provided either by a reinforced concrete corewall or a steel brace.
Figure 16 shows a simple frame with a reinforced concrete corewall.
Figure 16. A simple frame with a

reinforced concrete corewall. 34
Semi-rigid steel frames
This type of the steel frame resists the lateral loads using frame action
(bending of the beams and columns). However, since semi-rigid connections
are used to connect the beams and columns, the overall stiffness of the
frame is reduced. Semi-rigid steel frames may be more economical if the
buildings are less than 25 storeys. A schematic of a semi-rigid steel frame is
shown in Figure 17. Note the deformation of the connection (i.e. the angles
o
between the beam and column are no o
longer 90 due to the bending
moment. If the connection is rigid, the 90 will be maintained).
Figure 17. Schematic of a semi-rigid

frame subject to lateral load. 35

Rigid steel frames
For rigid frames all the beam to column connections should be rigid so that
maximum frame action can be activated when the frame is subjected to
wind load. The rigid connections used can be the ones that have been
described in the previous sections. The rigid frame can be used alone or it
can be combined with reinforced concrete core. A deformed rigid frame is
shown in Figure 18. Note the 90o angle between the beam and column.
Figure 18. Schematic of a rigid

frame subject to lateral load. 36
Braced steel frames
A simple frame can be supported by a bracing system which provides the
lateral stiffness for the building. And a braced steel frame is relatively
efficient for buildings above 30 storeys (but roughly less than 50 storeys).
The bracing system can also be combined with a rigid frame which
produces very rigid structure. The connections for the bracing system can
be either rigid or simple. There are various types of bracing systems such
as the K brace and the X brace as shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Types of braced frame. 37

Braced steel frames
Figure 20 shows the deformed shapes of a braced frame and a moment
frame. Note the difference in the shape of the frame deformation.
Figure 20. Deformed shapes of braced frame and moment frame. 38

Belt truss outrigger system
For tall buildings in excess of 50 storeys, the use of braced frame

system may no longer be efficient. The belt truss outrigger system
provides a means to stiffen the steel frame. In general, a central
reinforced concrete corewall (or a braced steel core) and a
perimeter steel frame is used along with the system.
At various levels of the building outrigger trusses are strategically

installed to rigidly tie the corewall to the perimeter steel frame.
Therefore, at these levels the building is in fact a very stiff structure

which combines the stiffness of the corewall and the perimeter
frame. In order to mobilize the entire perimeter frame at those
levels, belt trusses are used to tie all the columns in the perimeter
frame.
39

Figure 21. Schematic of a belt

truss outrigger system and its
deformation under wind load.
40
Belt truss
Outrigger truss
Transfer truss
Figure 22. Transfer truss, belt truss

and outrigger truss.
41

Tube system
Tube system is one of the most efficient forms of structural systems

to resist lateral load for tall buildings (in excess of 60 storeys). In its
simplest terms the tube design can be defined as a structural
system that prompts the building to behave as an equivalent hollow
tube. The system strives to create a rigid wall-like structure around
the building exterior.
In a tube frame, it is achieved by a closely spaced columns and

deep spandrel beams placed around the entire perimeter of the
building.
One of the advantages of this system is that the interior area of the
building is generally not crowded with bracings and heavy columns
since the lateral load is mainly resisted by the exterior tube.
Therefore, leasable area of the building is increased.
42
Tube system
Figure 23. Schematic of frame tube system.

43
Floor slabs
There are two common floor slab systems for use in typical steel
buildings, namely, composite slabs and concrete decks.
The composite slab consists of a steel decking and concrete fill as

shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24. Schematic of composite slab.

44
Floor slabs
There are two common floor slab systems for use in typical steel
buildings, namely, composite slabs and concrete decks.
The design of the composite slab may allow for unpropped

construction, that is, the composite slab does not require any
support during concrete pouring operation.
This is one of the major advantages of composite slab system

since no propping is required in lower floors; therefore, other
trades (such as electrical, plumbing etc.) can move in to the
building site as soon as possible without much delay. Hence, the
speed of construction will be increased.
45
Floor slabs
The corrugated steel decking may have indentations or embossments

rolled onto it so that the concrete fill can be bonded to the steel decking.
In fact, the steel decking serves two functions, it may act as the steel
reinforcement for the slab (as in the case of reinforced concrete) and
also serves as a formwork work for pouring concrete.
The design of the composite slab may allow for unpropped construction,
that is, the composite slab does not require any support during concrete
pouring operation. This is one of the major advantages of composite
slab system since no propping is required in lower floors; therefore,
other trades (such as electrical, plumbing etc.) can move in to the
building site as soon as possible without much delay. Hence, the speed
of construction will be increased.
46
Floor slabs
The steel decking is usually welded to the steel beam using shear
studs as shown in Figure 25.
Shear studs
47
Figure 25. Steel decking and shear studs.
Floor slabs
For concrete decking construction, conventional formwork system is

required. Therefore, shoring will also be required to prop the formwork
when concreting.
Again, concrete slab and the steel beam are connected by shear
studs so that composite action is achieved.
48
The following discussion will only present a brief review on the

erection procedure of a typical steel building.
To begin with the construction, steel sections are delivered to the site
and stocked in organised piles.
The building of the first tier usually requires the use of mobile crane.
The columns for the first two storeys are then lifted and fixed to the
position of the foundation where anchored bolts have already been
installed.
It is important that the columns must be plumbed and level. This can
be accomplished by the various methods as shown in Figure 26.
49
Figure 26. Steel column base. 50

Beams and girders will then be connected to the columns. When the first two
storeys are constructed, the frame will be plumbed up (straightened and
squared) using diagonal cables and turnbuckles.
Once the frame is plumbed, connections will be tightened and grouting will
be used to fill the space between the column baseplate and the foundation.
The construction of the second tier is similar to that of the first one except
that a tower crane or a guy derrick will be installed to the frame to facilitate
the construction.
The columns for the second tier are hoisted into position and splice with the
first tier columns.
Beams and girders are then connected to the columns and the tier is
plumbed and straightened.
This procedure will continue until the completion of the building. It should be
noted that the crane has to be raised along with the construction. Figure 27
illustrates the sequence of the construction.
51
Figure 27. Schematic of typical construction

sequence for steel frame building Steel
column base.
52
Fire protection of structural steel
The strength of steel reduces as its temperature increases (in fact

this is true for all construction materials). Therefore, it is important to
protect steel from fire so that premature collapse of the steel
structure will not occur and the occupants may seek their way to
escape in case a fire really happens.
In terms of fire resistant design, the Eurocedes provide the technical

guidelines. For fire protection, there are several methods that provide
protection for certain fire ratings.
53

Spray applied protection
Spray on fire proofing is one of the cheapest ways to achieve fire protection.
The spray-on is basically consists of a fiber and a binder or cementitious
mixture. The spray-on materials act primary by insulating the steel for long
period of time. The disadvantages of these materials are that they are
applied wet and therefore can be messy and their appearance is often poor.
Figure 28 shows a spray-on protected beam and composite decking.
Figure 28. Spray-on fire protection. 54

Board protection
Boards of gypsum or other fire-resistance materials can be used to encased

the steel members.
These boards are fastened mechanically around the steel section and
therefore can also serve as the finishing surface for the member. However,
the installation of the boards is labour intensive and therefore, the cost of
installation is relatively high. Figure 29 shows a steel column protected by
gypsum board.
Figure 29. Gypsum board fire protection. 55

Intumescent coatings (paints)
Intumescent coatings protect steel by forming an insulating layer by

the action of the heat during a fire.
The coating is applied as a thin layer and it contains a compound in

its formulation which releases a gas when heat is applied. This gas
inflates the coating into a thick carbonaceous foam, which provides
heat insulation to the steel underneath.
56
Concrete encasement
This is the most traditional way to protect steel from fire. However,
concrete or mortar blocks will add considerable weight to the
structure and therefore the cost of the overall structure will be
increased.
The encasement is effective to absorb heat into their great mass and
dissipating some of it through dehydration of the mortar and concrete.
57
References
Chew, Y L M (2001), Construction Technology for Tall Buildings. Singapore

University Press.
Chudley, R (1999), Advanced Construction Technology. Longman.
Allen E (1999), Fundamentals f Building Construction Materials and Methods.
Wiley.
Foster J S and Harington R (1994), Structure & Fabric, Part 2. Longman.
Wong R W M. http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bswmwong/pl.html#
Structural Systems for Tall Buildings (1995), Council on Tall Buildings and
Urban Habitat, McGraw-Hill.
Taranath, B.S. (1988), Structural Analysis & Design of Tall Buildings, McGraw-
Hill.
Owens G.W. and Knowles, P.R. (2012), The Steel Designers Manual,
Blackwell Science.
58

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CSE 28300

Construction Technology and Temporary Works

Professor K.F. Chung

Material properties of structural steel

Steel is the most widely used constructional metals, and structural

Structural steel possesses

Because of these properties, they permit heavy loads to be carried

Material properties of structural steel

The composition of steel mainly consists of iron with small amounts of

Carbon (0.15% to 0.3%) is the most important of these elements.

Other elements such as manganese, phosphorous, sulphur, nickel,

The stress strain curve is obtained from a tension test of a steel

Steel possesses a high ductility (20-30%), and the common

Steel material behaves linearly and elastically when the applied

Material properties of structural steel

Figure 1. Typical stress-strain curve for structural steel.

There are various types of structural steel sections commonly used

As shown in Figure 2, typical steel sections include:

Types of structural steel sections

Figure 2. Standard steel sections.

Before examining the structural behaviour of a steel frame, it is

Bolts and welds

There are three types of commonly used structural bolts:

Bolts and welds

Figure 3a. Black bolt.

Figure 3b. Black bolt.

Bolts and welds

HSFG bolts are used when a more rigid connection is required or

The tension control bolt and typical installation procedure, as

Figure 4. A tension control bolt and installation procedure. 15

Bolts and welds

Bolts and welds

Figure 7. Fillet weld.

A properly welded connection requires the knowledge of the

Since the control of the welding quality is quite difficult, therefore,

The non-destructive testing technique includes methods such as

Steel connections can be generally classified into simple

A properly welded connection requires the knowledge of the effects

Figure 8. Simple beam to column connections using double clip angles.

Figure 9 shows a single-tab shear connection where a single plate

Figure 9.Simple beam to column using shear tab. 23

Figure 12 shows another rigid connection which is connected about the

Figure 12. Beam to column moment

It is important to note that there is theoretically no rotation at the

In practice, there are many other possible types of rigid connections.

Semi-rigid connections are somewhat in between simple connections and

Figure 13. Extended end plate connection.

In steel construction, steel columns are usually fabricated in a

Figure 14. Column to column connections.

Types of steel frames

Figure 15. Various types of structural systems. 33

Types of steel frames

Figure 16. A simple frame with a

Figure 17. Schematic of a semi-rigid

Types of steel frames

Figure 18. Schematic of a rigid

Figure 19. Types of braced frame. 37

Types of steel frames

Figure 20. Deformed shapes of braced frame and moment frame. 38

For tall buildings in excess of 50 storeys, the use of braced frame

At various levels of the building outrigger trusses are strategically

Therefore, at these levels the building is in fact a very stiff structure

Types of steel frames