MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

1
INTRODUCTION
In this lab test we are determining the behavior of timber samples when it
is subjected to external loads. There are 2 tests mainly,
Bending test
Compression Test
Bending Test
We can determine the elastic modulus by taking the deflection readings to
each increment of external load.at the failure of specimen we can also
conclude which failure was occurred at the scene.
P (KN)

300 mm
** Note :- the length of sample 300mm
Compression Test
In this lab test we can determine the modulus of rupture by giving an axial
load to the sample.At the failure of specimen we can also conclude
which failure was occurred at the scene.

P (KN)

P (KN)
OBJECTIVES
(a) The bending test to determine the modulus of elasticity and the stress
at the limit of proportionality
(b) The Compression test to determine the compressive strength and the
plane along which the material shears
APPARATUS
1. Timber specimens
300mm long specimen
62.9mm long specimen
2. Amsler wood testing machine
THEROY AND PROCEDURE
(a) Bending Test
1. The dimensions were measured of the specimen.
2. In this test the beam was simply supported at its ends and loaded
centrally. The central deflection is given by
3
WL
Y=
48 EI

Y= { }
L3
48 EI
W

Y= m X
3. The load is measured 1 mm change of deflection change until the
specimen fails.

(b) Compression Test

1. The dimensions of the specimen were measured.
2. Then, the load was applied parallel to the grain and load is gradually
increased until specimen fails
CALCULATIONS
(A). Determination of density
Width = 19.25 mm
Thickness = 19.1 mm
Height = 62.9 mm
Mass = 17 g

17103 Kg
Density=
19.25 m19.1 m62.9 m109

Density = 735.08 Kg/m3

(B) Determination of compression strength parallel to the grain

Width = 19.25 mm
Thickness = 19.1 mm
Load = 1610 kg

1610 Kg
Compressive Strength= 6
19.25 m19.1 m10

Compressive Strength = 42.95 N/mm 2

The typical failure pattern is observed as crushing

(C) Determination of moisture content

Natural specimen Mass = 17g

Reading Oven
(mm) dry mass =
Deflection(mm) Load (Kg)
16.5
(D) Determination 0
of modulus of elasticity 0
17.0 0.5 4
18.0 1.5 68
19.0 2.5 94
20.0 3.5 122
21.0 4.5 142
22.0 5.5 156
23.0 6.5 166
24.0 7.5 172
25.0 8.5 176
26.0 13.5 176
 3
L
m=
48 EI

We know m = I = 11,177.626 mm 4 , L =300 mm

Therefore we can calculate E

E= { }{ }
L3
48 I

1
m

Therefore E =

(E) Determination of modulus of rupture

Width = 18.81 mm
Thickness = 16.5 mm
Maximum load = 176 kg

1769.81 N
Modulus of rupture=
18.81 m16.5 m106

Modulus of rupture = 5.56 N/mm 2

DISCUSSION

1. The tested specimen was Mahogany it failed in Simple Tension by

observing the failure pattern under bending test and due to compression test it
failed under Crushing.

We can conclude that each specimen is failing in a unique way due to the way of
specimen is being loaded.

In bending failure there are other types,

a) Cross grain tension

b) Splintering tension

c) Brash tension

d) Compression

e) Horizontal shear

in compression test there are other modes of failures,

a) Crushing

b) Wedge splitting

c) Shearing

d) Crushing and splitting

e) Brooming and endroll

TESTS ON AGGREGATES
INTRODUCTION

Aggregate used in concrete are divided into two categories as coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate. Crushed roc is used as coarse aggregate in Srilanka while
river sand with particles smaller than 5mm are used as fine aggregate.

Since approximately three quarters of the volume of concrete is occupied by

aggregate, its quality has a considerable influence on the durability and
structural performance of concrete.

OBJECTIVES

Some of the important properties of aggregate which affect the properties

therefore have to be determined. They are,

1. Particle size distribution (grading)

2. Shape and surface of texture of particles

3. Physical properties (ex-specific gravity, water absorption, porosity)

4. Mechanical properties (ex-strength, toughness, hardness etc.)

5. Chemical and thermal properties

Only grading characteristics and the important physical properties of aggregates

are determined in this experiment.

THEORY AND PROCEDURE

There are several tests we need to conduct, namely

1. Sieve Analysis

2. Determination of dry loose bulk density of fine and coarse aggregates.

3. Determination of relative density and water absorption of coarse aggregates.

Sieve Analysis

This is a sample operation of dividing a sample of aggregates into fractions, each

consisting of particles between specific limits, these being the openings of
standard test sieves. The sieves are placed one above the other in order of size
with the largest sieve at the top and the material retained on each sieve after
shaking, represent the fraction of aggregates coarser than the sieve in question
but finer than the sieve above

Procedure for Coarse aggregate

1. Aggregate mass was measured by taking a representative mass (for coarse

aggregate = 2 kg,

2. Sieves are being placed orderly and top sieve the largest.

3. Soil mass has been poured into the arranged sieves and the entire apparatus
has been shaken for 3mins

The retained soil mass has been measured

Procedure for Fine aggregate

1. Aggregate mass was measured by taking a representative mass (for fine

aggregate = 500g)

2. Sieves are being placed orderly and top sieve the largest.

3. Soil mass has been poured into the arranged sieves and the entire apparatus
has been shaken for 3mins

Relative Density And Water Absorption

Aggregates normally contain pores (voids) and therefore the term relative density
or specific gravity must be carefully defined. Although some of the pores are
impermeable, water can penetrate into the aggregate through permeable pores
which are open onto the surface of the particles. When all the permeable pores
are filled with water, the aggregate is said to be saturated and surface dry. If
aggregate in this condition are allowed to dry in air, part of the water will
evaporate resulting air dry aggregates .prolonged drying in an oven will remove
moisture completely and the aggregate is said to be oven dry.

Procedure

1. The weight of vessel filled with water was measured using a digital weighting
scale

2. Then aggregates were poured to the vessel which is already filled with water
and measured the weight

3. The aggregates were taken out and kept outside with contact air to dry up.

4. The weights of moist aggregates were measured.

5. Finally the aggregates were put in to an oven to dry the water which is
naturally trapped inside and the weight of dry aggregates were measured

Bulk Density Of Aggregates

Bulk density of aggregates can be defined as the weight of aggregates that
would fill a container of unit volume. This property describes the aggregates are
densely packed or loosely packed.by knowing the bulk density we can determine
the void ratio of the aggregates.

Procedure
1. The weight of vessel filled with water was measured using a digital weighting
scale
2. Then aggregates were poured to the vessel which is already filled with water
and measured the weight
3. The aggregates were taken out and kept outside with contact air to dry up.
4. The weights of moist aggregates were measured.
5. Finally the aggregates were put in to an oven to dry the water which is
naturally trapped inside and the weight of dry aggregates were measured
MEASUREMENTS & CALCULATIONS

Relative Density And Water Absorption

Mass of saturated and surface dry sample in air = 0.733kg
Mass & vessel containing sample filled with water = 3.194kg
Mass of vessel filled with water only = 2.729kg
Mass of oven dried sample in air = 0.730kg

0.733
Relative Density on saturatedsurface dried basis=
[ 0.733( 3.1942.729 ) ]

Relative Density on saturatedsurface dried basis= 2.735

0.730
Apparent relative density=
[ 0.730( 3.1942.729 ) ]

Appararent relative density= 2.754

0.730
Relative Density on an ovendried basis=
[ 0.733 (3.1942.729 ) ]

Relative Density on an ovendried basis= 2.724

 Water absorbtion= ( 0.7330.730
0.730 )100
Water absorbtion=0. 41%

Bulk Density of Aggregates and Void Ratio

Bulk density of aggregates=Bulk density of saturated surface dry condition 1+

[ Water aborbtion
100 ]
= 3856.35 kg/m3

Void Ratio of aggregates=1 [ Bulk Density

Relative DensityDensity of Water ]
1 [ 2735
3.8561000 ]
0.365

DISCUSSION
1.)Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for
aggregate. Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because
these properties affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and
water requirements, workability, pump ability, and durability of concrete. In
general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading
can be used without a major effect on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are
specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size
continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in
exposed aggregate concrete. Close control of mix proportions is necessary to
avoid segregation

2.)The gap-graded concrete compacts more rapidly under vibration and a given
strength can usually be obtained more economically with a low slump, gap-
graded mix. Several factors often militate against such mixes. The first, as with
ideal continuous grading, is that suitable aggregates may not be economically
available. The second is that gap-graded mixes have a strong tendency to
segregate at anything more than low (say 50 mm) slump. Although such concrete
is easier to consolidate than a continuously graded mix of similar slump, it is
sometimes difficult to convince workmen of this and water is frequently added
with disastrous effects. In short, gap-graded mixes can be unbeatable when used
by those familiar with such mixes, and in suitable conditions, but are not to be
recommended for general use. Another property of gap-graded mixes is that,
with a very stable coarse aggregate, very low drying shrinkage is attainable. This
is taken to the ultimate in pre-packed concrete. This technique involves filling
the formwork to be concreted with a large single-sized aggregate and then
pumping in an appropriate mortar from the bottom up.

3.) The absorbed water remains within aggregate pores and does not affect the
slump of concrete and is not included when calculating the w/cm. The surface
moisture makes up a portion of the mixing water, affects slump and is included
when calculating the w/cm of the mixture. If the moisture content of wet
aggregate is not compensated for, the slump may be too high and w/cm will not
conform to the mixture requirement. The batched water should be less than the
mixing water required by the amount of free moisture on the aggregate. The
aggregate in storage prior to batching in concrete can also be in an air- dry state.
In this case, the aggregate when batched in concrete will absorb water from the
batch water resulting in a lower slump. This water that will be absorbed by dry
aggregates needs to be accounted for by adding additional water to the mixture.
Therefore the aggregate moisture has to be measured and the amount of batch
water adjusted accordingly.

4.) The void ratio of the aggregates affects the amount of water we should add to
the mix design. When the grading is increasing for example say the aggregate
size is 28mm ,then the amount of water of the that can store within the
aggregates is large ,for sand or fine aggregates the voids are small, due to this
we must calculate the adequate water amount for the mix design . Also the
grading or size distribution of aggregate is an important characteristic because it
determines the paste requirement for workable concrete. This paste requirement
is the factor controlling the cost, since cement is the most expensive component.
It is therefore desirable to minimize the amount of paste consistent with the
production of concrete that can be handled, compacted, and finished while
providing the necessary strength and durability. The required amount of cement
paste is dependent upon the amount of void space that must be filled and the
total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of uniform size
the spacing is the greatest, but when a range of sizes is used the void spaces are
filled and the paste requirement is lowered. The more these voids are filled, the
less workable the concrete becomes, therefore, a compromise between
workability and economy is necessary.

5.)
 TESTS ON ORDINARY PORTLAND
CEMENT

INTRODUCTION
In the construction field ordinary Portland cement or so called OPC is generally
used. This is a basic ingredient for concrete, mortar and grout. The common
chemical compositions are,Calcium Silica Alumina, Iron.

The following test are done for determine the quality of OPC,

Determination of consistence
Determination of initial setting time
Determination of compressive strength
AIM
Testing for compressive strength
Determination of consistence of cement paste
Determination of initial setting time for a given cement sample

THEORY
The quality of cement is very important for the production of good quality
concrete. The following tests must be carried out to check whether a cement
sample is of the desired conforms to relevant standards (SLS 107)
Fineness
Chemical composition
Strength
Setting time
Soundness
Procedures for the tests are given in SLS 107: Part 2:2002
 I. FINENESS The cement shall be tested for fineness by determination of specific
surface area square meters per kilogram. Air permeability method is used to
determine the specific surface area. The cement shall have a specific area of not
less than 225 m2/kg when tested for fineness according to the method given in
SLS 107: Part 2.
2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: The cement shall be tested for compressive in
accordance with the method given in SL 107: Part 2: 2002 For mortar cubes: 3
day strength not less than 20 N./n=2 and 28 day strength not 14 than 40 N/mm2
3. SETTING TIME: The setting time of cement shall be tested in accordance with
the method given in SIS 107. Part 2: 2002 Initial setting time not less than 30
minutes. Final setting time not greater than 10 hours.
4, SOUNDNESS: The cement is tested for soundness by the "Le Chatelier-
method of measuring its expansion. The method is described in SIS 107: Part 2:
2002. The cement shall not have an expansion of more than 10mm when tested
for soundness according to the above method
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCE OF STANDARD CEMENT PASTE
1. The quantity of water required to produce a paste of standard consistence
shall be that required to give a paste which will permit of the settlement Vicat
plunger to a depth of 5 mm to7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat mold.
2. The time for gauging, that is the time elapsing from the moment of add to the
dry cement until to fill the mold, shall be (4+1/4) mins& the gauging shall be
completed before any signs of setting
. 3. The Vicatmould resting on a non-porous plate shall be filled with cement
paste, the mold was completely filled in one layer & the surface of the paste shall
be smoothed off level with the top of the mold as quickly as possible.
4. The test block confined in the mold and resting on the plate was placed under
the rod bearing of the plunger, the latter was lowered gently into contact with the
surface of the test block and quickly released and allowed to sink in. This
operation was carried out immediately after filling the mold..
5. Trial paste has been made up of varying percentage of water until the amount
necessary for determining the stated consistence. The amount of water used
shall be recorded and expressed as percentage by weight of the dry cement.

DETERMINATION OF INITIAL SETTING TIME

I. Neat cement paste has formed by mixing cement with the quantity of water
required to give paste of standard consistence. The paste was gauged in the
manner arid under the condition described in (a).

2. The test block has been made by filling the paste, into the Vicatmnould. The
mold was completely filled and the surface of the paste shall then be smoothed
off level with the top of the mold.
3. The test block has been placed under the rod bearing the needle for initial
setting time test; the latter has been then be lowered gently into contact with the
test block and quickly released and allowed to sink in.

4. The process was repeated until the needle, when brought into contact with the
test block and released as described above does not penetrate beyond the point
approximately 5 mm from the bottom of the mold.

5. The period elapsing between the time when the water is added to the cement
and the time at which the needle ceases to pierce the test block shall be the
initial setting time.

TEST FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT USING MORTAR CUBES

1. The test specimen cubes was having a length of side of 70.7 mm., the area of
each face equaling 5000 mm2.
2. The sand for cubes passed through an 850 m BS test sieve and not more than
10% by weight passed 600 m BS test sieve.

3. The mix proportion is 1:3 cement - sand (by weight). The cement and sand
shall be mixed dry with a trowel as a non-porous place for 1 minutes and then
with water 4 minutes.

4. The material for each cube shall be mixed separately and the quantities of
cement sand and water be as follows: a Cement 185g. b. Sand 555g. c. Water
74g. 5. The assembled mold shall be placed on the table of the vibration
machine, A hopper shall be securely attached to the top of the mold to facilitate
filling. 6. Immediately after mixing the whole of the mortar shall be placed in the
hopper of the cube mold and then be compacted by vibration for 2 minutes,

7. After 24 hours the cubes were be marked for identification, removed from the
mold, immediately submerged in water and kept these until taken out just prior
to testing.

8.Three cubes were tested for compressive strength at 3 days and 28 days, the
ages being reckoned from the completion of vibration, and the compressive
strength shall be the average compressive strength of the 3 cubes for each
period respectively. The load shall be steadily & uniformly applied, starting from
zero, at the rate of 35 MN/m2/min

9. The compressive strength was calculated from the crushing load and the area
over which the load is applied shall be expressed to the nearest 0.5 MN/m 2
CALCULATIONS
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCE OF STANDARD CEMENT PASTE

Cement (g) Water (ml) Final readings (mm) Deflection (mm)

400 182 4 0
400 160 4 0
400 150 39 35
400 130 11 7

** Thickness of base plate = 4mm

NOTE 0mm Deflection means the rod has been pierced through the entire
specimen.

The correct consistence giving when the deflection in a range of 5mm - 7mm,
hence the amount of water content is 130ml.

DETERMINATION OF INITIAL SETTING TIME

Time duration (min) Final readings (mm)

0 7
10 7
15 7
20 7
30 7
35 12

TEST FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT USING MORTAR CUBES

Cube dimensions,
Width = 71mm
Length = 71mm
Height = 70mm
Compressive force = 82.8kN,hence we can calculate the compressive strength
Compressive force
Compressive strength=
WidthLength

82.8 kN

71 mm71mm

16.425 MPa

DISCUSSION
 1. Nowadays cements come in a wide variety of formulations including
Ordinary Portland cement, White cement, Rapid hardening cement,
Sulphate resisting cement and Masonry cement. They can also come as
blends to include Portland blastfurnace cement incorporating ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and Portland fly ash cement
incorporating fly ash.

2. Sandberg offers a comprehensive range of cement testing encompassing

both physical and chemical cement testing utilizing BS,ASTM methods.
Due to independence cement testing can be carried out as part of routine
quality control for cement manufacturers or as part of a materials failure
investigation.

Physical cement testing carried out includes

Density, Fineness

Compressive and flexural strengths

Setting times and soundness

Portland cements are commonly characterized by their physical properties

for quality control purposes. Their physical properties can be used to
classify and compare portland cements. The challenge in physical
property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily
characterize key parameters.

Fineness

Fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus
the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the
surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-
cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness on
strength are generally seen during the first seven days .When referring to
Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement
paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed destructive
expansion. This destructive expansion is caused by excessive amounts of
free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most portland cement specifications
limit magnesia content and expansion. The typical expansion test places a
small sample of cement paste into an autoclave (a high pressure steam
vessel). The autoclave is slowly brought to 2.03 MPa.then kept at that
pressure for 3 hours. The autoclave is then slowly brought back to room
temperature and atmospheric pressure. The change in specimen length
due to its time in the autoclave is measured and reported as a
percentage. ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland cement
specifies a maximum autoclave expansion of 0.80 percent for all Portland
cement types.

Setting Time

Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including:

cement fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum
content) and admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a
particular cement paste sets. For construction purposes, the initial set
must not be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Additionally,
setting times can give some indication of whether or not a cement is
undergoing normal hydration). Normally, two setting times are ,
 Initial set. : Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
Final set. : Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at
which it can sustain some load.

Strength

Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive,

tensile and flexural. These strengths can be affected by a number of items
including: water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, type and
grading of fine aggregate, manner of mixing and molding specimens,
curing conditions, size and shape of specimen, moisture content at time of
test, loading conditions and. Since cement gains strength over time, the
time at which strength test is to be conducted must be specified. Typically
times are 1 day (for high early strength cement), 3 days, 7 days, 28 days
and 90 days (for low heat of hydration cement). When considering cement
paste strength tests, there are two items to consider. Cement mortar
strength is not directly related to concrete strength. Cement paste
strength is typically used as a quality control measure.Strength tests are
done on cement mortars (cement + water + sand) and not on cement
pastes.

Compressive Strength

The most common strength test, compressive strength, is carried out on a

50 mm (2-inch) cement mortar test specimen. The test specimen is
subjected to a compressive load (usually from a hydraulic machine) until
failure.

Tensile Strength

Although still specified by ASTM, the direct tension test does not provide
any useful insight into the concrete-making properties of cements. It
persists as a specified test because in the early years of cement
manufacture, it used to be the most common test since it was difficult to
find machines that could compress a cement sample to failure.

Flexural Strength

Flexural strength (actually a measure of tensile strength in bending) is

carried out on a 40 x 40 x 160 mm (1.57-inch x 1.57-inch x 6.30-inch)
cement mortar beam. The beam is then loaded at its center point until
failure.

Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning calculations. The

specific gravity of Portland cement is generally around 3.15 while the
specific gravity of portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan
cements may have specific gravities near 2.90 .

Loss on Ignition
 Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample) until a
constant weight is obtained. The weight loss of the sample due to heating
is then determined. A high loss on ignition can indicate pre-hydration and
carbonation, which may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport or transfer . The standard loss on ignition
test is contained in.

BRE MIX DESIGN METHOD(DOE MIX

DESIGN METHOD)
BRE MIX DESIGN METHOD (DOE mix design method)
INTRODUCTION

The Department of the Environment of the Building Research Establishment

(BRE) of United Kingdom published the document "Design of normal concrete
mixes in 1975) originated from long established Road Note 4 and revised in 1988.
The second edition of this publication was published in 1997 with minor
amendments to allow for changes in the terminology and properties of the
materials used and for changes in various British Standard Specifications. This
method is known as DoE method which replaces traditional- method based on
Road Note 4 but this method follows broadly similar principles to those used in
Road Note 4,

PROCEDURE

STEP 1: Estimation of free w/c ratio

In order to allow for the variability of concrete strength, a target mean strength is
defined as follows

Where

fm =target mean strength

fc= specified characteristic strength

K = probability factor (depends on the % defectives)

S = standard deviation ( based on the past test results)

Since the strength of a concrete mainly depends on the free water cement ratio
consideration of strength leads to the determination of' the free/water cement
ratio. (Using compressive strength vs. free water/cement ratio graph)
STEP 2: Estimation of free water content

Since the workability of concrete depends on the size and type of aggregate and
water content , the free water content is found it1ing the three factors (i.e. -
specified slump max. size of tc-1g and type of agg.) which are known. I he free
water content is obtained from Table 3)

STEP 3: Estimation of cement content

The cement content was determined from the free water content and the free
water/cement ratio. This cement content should he check against the minimum
and maximum values specified in BS 8110

STEP 4 - Estimation of aggregate content

The free water content and the relative density of the aggregate on saturated
surface dry basis are used to determine the density of the fully compacted
concrete, and hence the total aggregate content. If no information is available
regarding relative density, an approximation can be made by using a value of 2.6
for uncrushed and 2.7 for crushed aggregate.

STEP 5 - Estimation of coarse & fine aggregate contents

The percentage of fine aggregate content in the total aggregate content

depends on grading of fine aggregate. For a given slump & w/c ratio, the
proportion of fine aggregates is obtained from charts given in BRE publication.
This is used to calculate the fine aggregate content and the coarse aggregate
content.

STEP 6 - Adjustment for moisture in aggregates

The calculations described in Step 5 are based on the assumption that the
aggregates are in the saturated surface dry condition but the actual moisture
content of the aggregates can vary significantly from this condition, and will
influence the amount of water that should be added to the mixture.

If the aggregates are wet (the moisture content is greater than the absorption
capacity), the aggregates contain free moisture that will be added to the batch of
concrete. If the aggregates are air dry (the moisture content is less than the
absorption capacity), the aggregates will pull water from the mixture. In both
cases, the slump of the fresh concrete and the strength of the hardened concrete
will differ from the expected values. Therefore, the actual amount of water
supplied with the aggregates must be calculated so that the correct amount of
water is added to the mixture. In addition, the desired weight of the aggregates
must be adjusted for the change in water content.

OBSERVATIONS

Cube Number Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3

Length (mm) 149 150 150
Width (mm) 149 148 149
Height (mm) 148 147 149
Weight (kg) 8.35 8.30 8.40
Load (kN) 639.3 561.4 604.8

CALCULATIONS

**These calculations were made before doing the lab test

Specified characteristic strength of concrete = 20 N/mm 2 at 28 days with 5%

defective

Target mean strength = 43.12 N/mm2

Cement Type = Ordinary Portland cement

Aggregate Type Coarse - crushed

 Fine - uncrushed

Water/Cement ratio = 0.54

Specified slump = 75 mm

Specified maximum aggregate size = 75 mm

Approximate free water content 225 kg/m3 for crushed aggregates

for crushed uncrushed aggregates 195 kg/m 3 for uncrushed

aggregates

Cement content = 379.63 kg/m 3

Total aggregate content = 1790.37 kg/m 3

For maximum size of aggregate 20mm, slump of 75mm and fine aggregate with
% fines passing through 600m sieve.

Proportion of fine aggregate content = 46%

Fine aggregate content = 823.69 kg/m3

Coarse aggregate content = 966.68 kg/m3

** After doing the lab test these calculations were made

Calculation of strength of concrete

Cube 1

Length = 149 mm

Width = 149 mm

Height = 148 mm

Load = 639.3 kN

Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength

639.31000 N N
Strength of concrete= =28.8
149 mm149 mm mm2

Cube 2

Length = 150 mm
Width = 148 mm

Height = 147 mm

Load = 561.4 kN

Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength

561.41000 N N
Strength of concrete= =25.28
150 mm148 mm mm2

Cube 3

Length = 150 mm

Width = 149 mm

Height = 149 mm

Load = 604.8 kN

Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength

604.81000 N N
Strength of concrete= =27.06
149 mm150 mm mm
2

Hence the average strength can be taken as 27.04 N/mm2

DISCUSSION

Errors in Lab Test

Due to temperature the amount of water included to the mix design is can
slightly change due to evaporation. Even though the slump is in
acceptable range the water content may have not been the exact value as
before therefore the strength of the concrete may change.
There are impurities mixed with In fine aggregates .due to this reason the
expected value for the cube may change.
When the curing was not done in a proper manner the amount of water
that should be in the concrete get less .therefore we can observe some
crack on the surface as well as a reduction in strength.

The DOE method also suffers from some limitations,

 The fine aggregates content calculated from DOE method often is on the
higher side resulting in over sandy mixes. For zone 1 coarse sand
(600micron fraction 15 to 20%) the sand content may exceed 50% for
moderate workability of 30mm to 60mm slump
The fine aggregate content cannot be adjusted for different cement
contents. Hence a rich mix with cement of 400Kg/m3 will have the same
fine aggregate proportion, as a lean mix with 300kg/m3 cement for given
sand. Thus richer mixes may not be as workable because of higher fines,
The DOE method also does not take into account the effect of the surface
texture and flakiness of aggregate on sand and water content although it
distinguishes between crushed stone aggregates and natural aggregates.
The DOE method does not have a specific method of combining 10mm
aggregates with 20 mm aggregates.
No specific graphs are available (to estimate fine aggregate content) for
maximum size of aggregates between 20and 40 mm.
 IN-SITU MEASUREMENT OF
INFITRATION RATE OF SOILS

INTRODUCTION

Soil infiltration testing is a type of field test conducted by an engineer,

geologist .it test the soils and explore the subsurface conditions underneath .The
infiltration rate refers to the speed at which water enters into soil.

The infiltration rate is expressed as the volume of water passing into soil per unit
area per unit time and has the dimensions of velocity. The infiltration rate
determines the time that a given amount of water will take to soak into the soil.

In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration rate. As
more water replaces the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface
infiltrates more slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. The infiltration rate
depends on soil texture (the size of the soil particles) and soil structure (the
arrangement of the soil particles) and is a useful way of categorizing soils from
an irrigation point of view
APPARATUS

Shovel/hoe
Hammer
Watch or clock
5 liter bucket
Timber (75 x 75 x 400)
Hessian or jute cloth
At least 100 liters of water

Ring infiltro-meter of 30 cm diameter and 60 cm diameter

PROCEDURE

1. A representative field
location has been selected
2. The infilltro-meter has been driven
uniformly into the ground
3. The buffer cylinder around has been set around the infilltro-
meter
4. The buffer cylinder has been filled with water up to 5cm
5. A plastic sheet has been placed on the soil inside the inner ring
6. The infilltro-meter has been filled up to 10cm of water and the data has
been recorded
7. The distance to the water level from datum(taken in field) has been
measured using the hook gauge
8. The plastic sheet has been removed and the time at which the test is
done. This reading is called the initial time reading.
9. Using hook gauge readings at periodic time intervals the record the times.

CALCULATIONS

Instantaneous
Depth Cumulative infiltration(m
Time (min)
(mm) infiltration(m 0.5 t 0.5 t 0.5
t m)
h m)
dI /dt

0 150.0 0 - 0.0 0.00

1 132.4 17.6 17.6 0.50 1.00

2 112.6 37.4 19.8 0.35 1.41

3 97.0 53 15.6 0.29 1.73

4 83.5 66.5 13.5 0.25 2.00

5 69.8 80.2 13.7 0.22 2.24

6 60.0 90 9.8 0.20 2.45

 7 53.2 96.8 6.8 0.19 2.65

8 41.7 108.3 11.5 0.18 2.83

9 32.5 117.5 9.2 0.17 3.00

10 23.7 126.3 8.8 0.16 3.16

11 16.9 133.1 6.8 0.15 3.32

12 9.0 141 7.9 0.14 3.46

140

120

100

80

Cumilative Infilltration (mm)

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time (min)
 25

f(x) = 39.49x + 2.34

20

15

Instantaneous Infilltration (mm)

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0.5 t-.0.5

Equation of approximated line is,

y=39.486 x +2.3415

Hence,
Factor S (Philips sorpitivity factor) = 39.486 (cm/min 2)
Factor K (hydraulic conductivity of soil) = 2.3415 (cm min -1)
 25

20

15

Instantaneous Infilltration (mm)

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Time (min)

DISCUSSION
(C). Effect of infiltration rate on crop water requirement,

Several conservation practices help maintain or improve water infiltration

into soil by increasing vegetative cover, managing crop residues, and
increasing soil organic matter. Generally, these practices minimize soil
disturbance and compaction, protect soil from erosion, and encourage the
development of good soil structure and continuous pore space. As a short-
term solution to poor infiltration, surface crusts can be disrupted with a
rotary hoe or row cultivator and plow plans or other compacted layers can
be broken using deep tillage.
 Long-term solutions for maintaining or improving infiltration include
practices that increase soil organic matter and aggregation, and reduce
soil disturbance and compaction. High residue crops, such as corn and
small grains, perennial sod, and cover crops protect the soil surface from
erosion and increase soil organic matter when reduced tillage methods
that maintain surface cover are used to plant the following crop.
Application of animal manure also helps to increase soil organic matter.
Increased organic matter results in increased aggregation and improved
soil structure leading to improved infiltration rates. Conservation tillage,
reduced soil disturbance, and reducing the number of trips across a field
necessary to produce a crop help leave continuous pore spaces intact and
minimize the opportunity for soil compaction.
(B). Factors affecting infiltration test,

The length of time from the start of the rain event.

Infiltration is usually high at first, decreasing gradually, and
eventually reaching a steady-state of slow infiltration as the soil
profile fills with moisture. No-till soils usually have a higher
infiltration rate than tilled soils at the start of the rain event. But at
steady-state, the infiltration rate of no-till soils is often the same as
tilled soils.

The water content of the soil when rainfall starts.

Soils have a lower infiltration rate when they are wet than dry.

Soil texture and structure

Soils with well-defined structure, stable aggregates, a large number
of pores, and higher organic matter content are best able to conduct
water through the soil. The structural characteristics depend
somewhat upon tillage. Tillage breaks down the soil structure and
decreases initial infiltration rates throughout the soil profile.
Raindrop impacts also break down aggregates during a rain event.
Soils that are not tilled gain some benefit from slightly higher levels
of organic matter, and from the much greater stability of
aggregates.

The condition of the soil surface.

Large soil pores, such as old root channels or other cracks that
extend from the surface well into the soil profile, allow for good
moisture infiltration. Residue lying on the surface slows running
water, giving water more time to infiltrate. Residue also protects the
soil surface from the impact of falling raindrops. Partly buried
residue that creates new flow paths into the soil also can aid
infiltration. Each of these features is characteristic of no-till soils.

The depth and layering of the soil profile.

The presence of different types of soil structure, texture, and
original parent material within the soil profile can affect the rate of
infiltration. Tillage and heavy traffic on the soil also can change the
profile by creating either a subsurface plow pan or a surface crust
that will inhibit water movement. Surface crusts can be broken up
with freezing and thawing, but plow pans are not. Plowmans may
persist in soils for many years and are very difficult to address once
present.
 CONSOLIDATION TEST

OBJECTIVE
To determine the settlement due to primary, consolidation of soil by
conducting one dimensional test to determine

Rate of consolidation under normal road

Degree of consolidation at any time
Pressure void ratio relationship
Coefficient of consolidation at various pressure
Compression index

1. Apparatus consolidation consisting essentially

A ring diameter
Two porous plates
Guide ring
Outer ring
Water jacket with base
Pressure pad
Rubber basket

2. Loading device consisting of frame lever systemloading yoke dial

gauge fixing device and lights

3. Dial gauge to read to an accuracy point 0.002 mm

4. Stopwatch

5. Filter papers

6. Sample containers

THEROY
A saturated fine grained soil when loaded undergoes settlement the low
hydraulic conductivity prevent the escape of water from specimen cause it
to generate to excess pore water pressure when the specimen is subject
to an external stress the load is carried by the soil, Skelton and pore water
with time we find that stress carried by water to transfer to the soil Skelton
in gradual settlement
The consolidation test which allows drainage in the vertical direction which
is same as the direction of stresses and settlement this analogy is to a
field where a large is preloaded.
The test is performed with an apparatus known as the consolido-meter
consisting essentially of loading frame and a consolidation cell in which is
the specimen is kept. Pores stone put on the top and bottom end of the
specimen to ease the drainage process from both ends.

Oediometer
Apperatus
PROCEDURE
1. First an undisturbed sample of soil was placed in a metal cylinder to
ensure one dimensional deformation.
2. Then two porous stone disks were placed at the top and bottom to
permit water escapes
3. To achieve saturated condition, the soil sample was kept in the water
for 24 hours
4. Then the soil sample was placed on an oedometer and on top of it,
dial gauge was sated (specimen is kept saturated at the time by
keeping it submerged in water)
2
5. Our starting load was 100 kN /m . The weight at the weight stack

2
pontoon was 75 kN /m , therefore,the load on the weight stack

2
pontoon was increased to 100 kN /m without applying stress to the

soil sample.
6. With commencement of stopwatch, and by releasing the resting
screw, stress applied to the soil sample and the dial-gauge reading
in major scale and minor scale were recorded.
7. Similarly the dial-gauge readings were recorded for different time
intervals up to 1440minutes.
CALCULATION
Time Root Time Dial Reading Dial Settlement
Elapsed (min)0.5 Major Minor Reading (mm)
(min) (mm)
0 - 1.8 0 1.800 0.000
0.25 0.50 1.8 0.100 1.900 0.100
0.50 0.71 1.8 0.11 1.910 0.110
1 1.00 1.8 0.118 1.918 0.118
2 1.41 1.8 0.132 1.932 0.132
4 2.00 1.8 0.150 1.900 0.150
8 2.83 1.8 0.170 1.970 0.170
15 3.87 1.8 0.180 1.980 0.180
30 5.48 1.8 0.186 1.986 0.186
60 7.74 1.8 0.192 1.990 0.190
120 10.95 1.8
1440 37.94 1.8

TABULATION

Time Root Time Settlement

0 - 0.000
0.25 0.50 0.100
0.50 0.71 0.110
1 1.00 0.118
2 1.41 0.132
4 2.00 0.150
8 2.83 0.170
15 3.87 0.180
30 5.48 0.186
60 7.74 0.190

Time Log Time Settlement

0 - 0.000
0.25 -0.603 0.100
0.50 -0.301 0.110
1 0.000 0.118
2 0.301 0.132
4 0.602 0.150
8 0.903 0.170
15 1.176 0.180
30 1.477 0.186
60 1.778 0.190
 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08
Settlement (mm) 0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

Root Time Plot (TAYLORS METHOD)

1 10 100
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08
Settlement (mm) 0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

Log (time - min)

Square root method
C v t 90
T 90=
H 2dr

0.848 H 2dr
C v=
t 90

H2dr = 10mm
t90 =

0.848 H 2dr
C v=
t 90

Cv

Logarithm of Time Method

C v t 50
T 50= 2
H dr

0.197 H 2dr
C v=
t 50

t50 =

Cv
DISCUSSION

To methods that we used to determine the coefficient of consolidation

contained steps which compensate for difference between actual and
theoretical behaviors a correction for the initial point is usually required
because of apparatuserrors or the errors due to the presence of small
amount of air inside the specimen an arbitrary determination of d90 or
d100 is needed because compression contains to occur even after all the
excess pore pressure is dissipated. The secondary compression occurs
because the mineral skeleton has time dependent stress strain
properties.to get the best possible estimates for the Cv, filling methods
have been developed. But the two methods obtained results are different
from each other above .the square-root method usually provides a largest
value of Cv than the log method, and this is the preferred one usually.

Cv varies from one load increment to increment and also is different for
loading and unloading.
In additionCv usually varies coincidently among sample to sample of the
same soil.

Therefore the value estimated for Cv cannot be used for using a particular
engineering problem.so it is difficult to predict the rate of the settlement
accurately .the reason for this deviation can be identified as follows. When
we estimate the Cv value using undisturbed sample, we make the use of
liner theory of consolidation which includeseveral short comings. Also
there can be applied to one dimensional, here errors may be due to the 2D
and 3D effects

Often the actual rate of the settlement or heave of a structure is 2 to 4

times faster than the rate predicted on the basis of Cv estimated using
undisturbed samples. Predictions of the rate of consolidation are useful
only to indicate in advance of construction the approximate time required
for the consolidation. If the actual rate of consolidation is critical to the
design ,as in certain stability problems where the excess pore pressures
must be known accurately, pore pressures must be measured actually in
the field as construction proceeds.
Time varying loads
In many problems, the time required to increase the load to its final values
is significant past of the time required for consolidation. Actually, in
practice ,when we construct a building ,we dont apply the whole load
instantaneously. Hence initially there is an interval during which
consolidation occurs simultaneously with the increase of the load.
The consolidation due to every load increment proceeds independently of
the consolidation due to the preceding succeeding load increments
therefore to get the actual rate of consolidation during the period of
transitional process of superposition needed.

Effect of more than consolidation layer

The common situation involving to 2 compressible layers to illustrated.
Even in such a relatively simple system, thebehavior of it begins to be
quiet complicated and depends upon the relative values of K and mv.For
the 2 strata. Even though the upper strata consolidate much more quickly
than the lowest strata, pore pressures must still be existing. Within the
upper strata to provide the gradient for the flow of water and such pore
pressures such persist so long as there are pore pressures within the lowest
strata

Increments in a conventional consolidation test are generally of 24hour

duration and load is doubled in the successive increment. But in this
practical, what we have done was , one increment of a multi increment
consolidation test is conduct and the data analyse to obtain the
compressibility characteristic of soil .our group incremented the load from
800 kN/m2 to 1600 kN/m2 s.so from the initial stage of the practical ,a
long period of time the soil specimen was subjected to loading before we
do it . so the time needed to get the desired shape to determine
coefficients is high at this stage .but we have got the readings as same as
other groups. Therefore the risk to be an error is high .last reading was not
suitable with the others so it was ignored. May be there was some
disturbance during the test was the reason for that.
SHEAR TEST
OBJECTIVE
To determine the consolidated drained shear strength of a sandy silty
soil.
INTRODUCTION
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils
introduced.in this experiment ,a direct shear device will be used to
determine the shear strength of a cohesion-less soil. From the graph of the
shear stress Vs horizontal displacement, the minimum shear stress is
obtained for a specific vertical confining stress .the experiment has to be
done several times for various vertical confining stresses ,a graph which
gives the maximum shear stresses Vs. the vertical (normal) confine stress
for a each of the test is produced.
From the results we obtained we can draw a graph which represent the
mohr-columb failure envelope for the respective soil. Since the cohesion is
zero (c=0) the failure envelope intercept at the origin. The representative
equation will get a form as shown below.

= tan()
CALCULATION
For 50 kN/m2 of axial stress,
Shear stress Normal stress
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
18.71 50
20.64 100

Shear stress Shear

(kN /m2 ) displacement
(mm)
0.000 0
0.020 0.02
0.024 0.04
0.026 0.04
0.028 0.08
0.030 0.1
0.140 0.2
0.160 0.3
0.180 0.4
0.190 0.5
0.200 0.6
0.210 0.7
0.220 0.8
0.230 0.9
0.240 1.0
0.250 1.25
0.270 1.50
0.270 1.75
0.280 2.00
0.290 2.25
 21

20.5

20

19.5
Shear stress
19

18.5

18

17.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Nomral Stress

Void Ratio Shear

(x 10-3 ) displacem
ent (mm)
- 0
2 0.02
2 0.04
3 0.04
3 0.08
4 0.1
4 0.2
4 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
5 0.6
5 0.7
5 0.8
5 0.9
5 1.0
6 1.25
6 1.50
6 1.75
6 2.00
 0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
Shear Stress ( kN/m2)
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Shear Displacement (mm)

4
Void Ratio
3

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Shear displacement (mm)

 For 100 kN/m2 of axial stress,

Shear
Void Ratio Shear
displacement
displacem
(mm)
ent (mm)
0.485 0
0.484 0.02
0.483 0.04
0.483 0.04
0.482 0.08
0.481 0.1
0.480 0.2
0.480 0.3
0.480 0.4
0.480 0.5
0.480 0.6
0.480 0.7
0.480 0.8
0.480 0.9
0.480 1.0
0.479 1.25
0.479 1.50
Shear stress
(kN /m2 )
0.00 0
8.580 0.02
9.410 0.04
10.05 0.04
10.57 0.08
10.90 0.1
11.67 0.2
12.64 0.3
13.17 0.4
12.67 0.5
12.56 0.6
12.57 0.7
12.38 0.8
12.00 0.9
12.02 1.0
22.81 1.25
27.16 1.50
29.90 2.00
31.48 2.25
32.28 2.50
DISCUSSION

1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its
weakest plane but along a predetermined or induced failure plane
i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the shear box.
This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading,
the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only
at failure condition that is Mohr-s circle can be drawn at the
failure condition only. Also failure is progressive.

2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner

specimens are used in shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore
water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also
useful to study friction between two materials one material in
lower half of box and another material in the upper half of box.

3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of

compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness
of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28 o(uniformly
graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46 o(well
graded sand with angular grains in dense state).

4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon

depending on gradation, particle shape, state and type of
packing, orientation of principal planes, principal stress ratio,
stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of
apparatus, test procedure, method of preparing specimen etc. In
general loose sands expand and dense sands contract in volume
on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either expansion
 contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio is called critical
void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the
movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.

5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling

friction and interlocking action.

PERFORMACNCE OF A CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP