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Distinguish between
a. Primary and Secondary Memory
b. RAM ROM
c. Batch Online Processing
d. Intranet Extranet
2. Explain following Terms
a. SDLC & system Analyst
b. Utility Software
c. Impact Printer
d. URL
e. Cache Memory
f. Mother Board
g. Protocol
h. Fibre Optics
3. Answer Briefly
a. Explain the steps in SDLC clearly specifying the activities in each
stage From Norton
b. Explain the evolution of Programming Languages from m/c language
to natural Language (5th Generation) From Norton
4. Short Notes
a. Internet Security
b. E-commerce
c. E-CRM
d. Date Warehousing and Data mining
5. Projects
Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form
images or characters with little dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny
droplets of ink. Ink-jet printers form characters on paper by spraying ink from
tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the charged ink particles
into characters at the rate of approximately 250 characters per second. The
ink is absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can
also be used.
One or more nozzles in the print head emit a steady stream of ink drops.
Droplets of ink are electrically charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets
are then guided to the paper by electrically charged deflecting plates [one
plate has positive charge (upper plate) and the other has negative charge
(lover plate)]. A nozzle for black ink may be all thats needed to print text,
but full-color printing is also possible with the addition of needed to print
text, but full-color printing is also possible with the addition three extra
nozzles for the cyan, magenta, and yellow primary colors. If a droplet isnt
needed for the character or image being formed, it is recycled back to its
input nozzle.
Several manufacturers produce color ink-jet printer. Some of these printers
come with all their color inks in a cartridge; if you want to replace on color,
you must replace all the colors. Other color ink-jet printers allow you to
replace ink individually. These printers are a better choice if user uses one
color more than other colors. These printers produce less noise and print in
better quality with greater speed.
Laser printers
Impact printers
Dot-Matrix Printers
Dot-matrix printers print about 40-300 characters per second (cps) and
can print some graphics, although the reproduction quality is poor. Color
ribbons are available for limited use of color. Dot-matrix printers are noisy,
inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms, creating several
copies of a page at the same time,
Daisy-Wheel Printer
A type of printer that produces letter-quality type.daisy-wheel is a serial
printer A daisy-wheel printer works on the same principle as a ball-head
typewriter. The daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on which
characters stand out in relief along the outer edge. To print a character, the
printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a
hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving
an impression of the character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel
to print different fonts.
Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy
and slow, printing from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the
price of laser and ink-jet printers has declined, and the quality of dot-matrix
printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become obsolete.
Drum Printer
Chain Printer
Line Printer
A high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at one time. A
fast line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The
disadvantages of line printers are that they cannot print graphics, the
print quality is low, and they are very noisy.
Nonimpact Printers
Nonimpact printers, used almost everywhere now, are faster and quieter
than impact printers because they have fewer moving parts. Nonimpact
printers form characters and images without direct physical contact between
the printing mechanism and the paper.
Two types of nonimpact printers often used with microcomputers are laser
printers and ink-jet printers.
Laser Printer:
Ink-jet printer:
Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images with
little dots. Ink-jet printers spray small, electrically charged droplets
of ink from four nozzles through holes in a matrix at high speed onto paper.
- Ink-jet printers can print in color and are quieter and much less expensive
than a color laser printer. However, they are slower and print in a somewhat
lower resolution (300-720 dpi) than laser printers. Some new, expensive
ink-jet printers print up 1200 or 1400 dpi. High resolution output requires
the use of special coated paper, which costs more regular paper. And, if you
are printing color graphics at a high resolution on an ink-jet printer, it may
take 10 minutes or more for a single page finish printing.
Plotter
In general, plotters are considerably more expensive than printers. They are
used in engineering applications where precision is mandatory.
We summarized all the differences between impact printer and non-impact printer regarding to
their features.
1. Descriptions :
Impact printer - Produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink
ribbon by physically contacting the paper
Non-impact printer - Produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper
2. Types :
Impact printer - Dot-matrix printer
Non-impact printer - Inkjet printer, laser printer and thermal printer
3. Speed :
Impact printer - Low printing speed
Non-impact printer - Reasonably fast
4. Quality :
Impact printer - Print quality lower in some types
Non-impact printer - High quality of output, capable of printing fine and smooth details
5. Letter quality :
Impact printer - Produce near letter quality (NLQ) print only, which is just suitable for printing
mailing labels, envelopes, or invoices
Non-impact printer - Letter-quality printouts
6. Consumption :
Impact printer - Not commonly used today
Non-impact printer - Most commonly used printer today
7. Tools :
Impact printer - Uses ink ribbon
Non-impact printer - Uses ink spray or toner powder
8. Cost :
Impact printer - Less expensive
Non-impact printer - More expensive
9. Durability :
Impact printer - Reliable, durable (lasting for a long time)
Non-impact printer - Print head is less durable, inclined towards to clogging and damage
As the secondary memory is permanent, all the files and programs are
stored in the secondary memory most and as the primary memory
interacts very fast with the micro processor, when the computer needs
to access the files that are stored in the secondary memory, then such
files are first loaded into the primary memory and then accessed by
the computer.
The following table list out some of the key differences between the
primary and secondary memory:
The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.
These memories are also called as These memories are also called as
internal memory external memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into
large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address
which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k
words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address
of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Cache Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory
which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to
cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can
access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
It is very expensive.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU
directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory,
and then CPU can access it. For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is
switched off.
Webopedia also states that the extranets are becoming a very popular
means for business partners to exchange information. However, the
extranets require security and privacy, so that the information on the
network is not wrongly accessed or misused by external parties. In order
to protect the network, the extranets can incorporate firewall server
management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means
of user authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual
private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.
The Internet is the most commonly and widely used computer network,
but it isn't the only type of computer network for sharing information
digitally. The Internet, an intranet and an extranet are three similar, but
distinct types of networks. While the Internet is open to anyone and
everyone, intranets and extranets are designed for smaller groups of
people. Think of the latter two as larger versions of a personal home
network.
Internet
Intranet
Extranet
Main Differences
URL
URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. URL is the global
address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.
Parts of a URL
The first part of the URL is called a protocol identifier and it indicates what
protocol to use, and the second part is called a resource name and it
specifies the IP address or the domain name where the resource is located.
The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a colon and
two forward slashes.
For example, the two URLs below point to two different files at the domain
webopedia.com. The first specifies an executable file that should be fetched
using the FTP protocol; the second specifies a Web page that should be
fetched using the HTTP protocol:
A URL is a URI
A URL is one type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI); the generic term for all
types of names and addresses that refer to objects on the World Wide Web.
The term "Web address" is a synonym for a URL that uses the HTTP or HTTPS
protocol.
URL
Overview of a URL
Below is additional information about each of the sections of the http URL for
this page.
The http:// stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol and enables the browser to
know what protocol it is going to use to access the information specified in
the domain.
Tip: A URL is not explicit to HTTP addresses; HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, and
other addresses are also considered URLs and may not follow the same
syntax as our example.
Next, www. that stands for World Wide Web, is used to distinguish the
content. This portion of the URL is not required, and many times can be left
out. For example, typing "http://computerhope.com" would still get you to the
Computer Hope web page. This portion of the address can also be substituted
for an important sub page known as a subdomain. For example,
http://support.microsoft.com is the support section of Microsoft's page.
Next, computerhope.com is the domain name for the website. The last portion
of the domain is known as the "domain suffix" or TLD and is used to identify
the type or location of website. For example, .com is short for commercial,
.org is short for organization, and .co.uk is United Kingdom. There are dozens
of other domain suffixes available.
Next, the jargon and u portions of the above URL are the directories of where
on the server the web page. In this example, the web page is two directories
deep, so if you were trying to find the file on the server it would be in the
/public_html/jargon/u directory.
Finally, url.htm is the actual web page on the domain you're viewing. The
trailing .htm is the file extension of the web page that indicates the file is an
HTML file. Other common file extensions on the Internet include .php, .asp,
.cgi, .xml, .jpg, and .gif. Each of these file extensions performs a different
function, just like all the different types of files on your computer. See our
index.htm definition for additional information about this important file.
Most people realize that a space is not allowed in a URL. However, it is also
important to realize as documented in RFC 1738 the URL string can only
contain alphanumeric characters and !$-_+*'(),. Any other characters that are
required in the URL must be encoded.
http://www.computerhope.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?q=example%20search
In this URL the script file being pointed to is the search.cgi in the cgi-bin
directory. Because this file ends with .cgi you can assume it is a Perl script.
After the script name is a ? (question mark), the question mark in a URL
separates the URL from all the parameters or variables that are being sent to
the script. In the above example, the parameter being sent is q=example
%20search. The "q" is a variable name, and the "example%20search" is the
value being sent to that variable. Because no spaces are allowed in a URL,
the space has been encoded to %20. In many scripts, a + (plus) is also used
to represent a space.
When the script is executed it looks for any variables and since this URL has
available variables the URL variables are assigned to variables in the script
that can be processed. Scripts are also not limited to only one variable, if the
script needs multiple variables each variable can be separated with an &
(ampersand) as shown in the example below.
http://www.computerhope.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?q=example
%20search&example=test
In the above example, there are two different variables, "q" that equals
"example search" and "example" that equals "test". If the script was looking
for an example variable it could be processed and perform an additional
feature.
Internet.
b. If the web browser wants some document from web server, just giving
domain name is not sufficient because domain name can only be used for
locating the server.
d. URL formats:
iii. The scheme indicates protocols being used. (Http, ftp, telnet...)
iv. In case of http, the full form of the object address of a URL is as follows:
vi. It cannot use special characters like semicolons, ampersands and colons.
e. URL paths:
i. The path to the document for http protocol is a sequence of directory
names
//fully-qualified-domain-name/path-to-document
ii. The path in a URL can differ from a path to a file because a URL need not
include
iii. A path that includes all directories along the way is called a complete
v. In most cases, the path to the document is relative to some base path that
is
path. specified in the configuration files of the server. Such paths are called
partial paths.
CACHE MEMORY
Memory Caching
L1 and L2 Caches
Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The
Intel 80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and
the Pentium has a 16K cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1
(L1) caches. Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called
Level 2 (L2) caches. These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1
caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger.
Disk Caching
Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead
of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The
most recently accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is
stored in a memory buffer. When a program needs to access data from the
disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk caching can
dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing a
byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte
on a hard disk.
Smart Caching
When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness
of a cache is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems use a technique
known as smart caching, in which the system can recognize certain types of
frequently used data. The strategies for determining which information should
be kept in the cache constitute some of the more interesting problems in
computer science
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a type of memory used to hold frequently used data. Cache
memory is relatively small, but very fast. Most web browsers use a cache to
load regularly viewed webpages fast. The most important type of cache
memory is the CPU cache.
Computer engineers are always looking for ways to make a computer run
faster. A multi-core chip, more memory, and a faster video card can all be
used to improve the performance of a computer. One very effective method
to improve speed is the use of cache memory. Cache is a type of memory that
is relatively small, but can be accessed very quickly. It essentially stores
information that is likely to be used again.
For example, web browsers typically use a cache to make webpages load
faster by storing a copy of the webpage files locally, such as on your local
computer. This is referred to as a web cache. Clever protocols are used to
make sure that the copy is still current - if not, the web browser will get the
new files from the original source. The general purpose of the web cache is to
make the web pages load faster. Cache memory is used in other parts of a
computer system. The most important type is the CPU cache, which will be
the focus of the rest of the lesson.
CPU Cache
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. All of the
instructions have to run through the CPU for the various parts of a computer
to work together. CPU chips have been getting smaller and faster as chip
technology has advanced. One of the slower aspects of computer processing
is the interaction between the CPU chip and the main memory in the form of
random-access memory (RAM). Installing more memory is not always a
solution - the bottleneck is often the time it takes to access the memory.
So, what have chip designers come up with? A small form of memory located
directly on the chip itself. This is the CPU cache. It is much smaller, but can be
accessed much faster than the main memory. The CPU cache stores the most
frequently used pieces of information so they can be retrieved more quickly.
This information is a duplicate of information stored elsewhere, but it is more
readily available.
How the CPU Cache Works
A lot of research has gone into how to optimize the design of cache memory.
The result has been somewhat counter-intuitive: smaller is faster. What this
means is that a relatively small CPU cache improves speed, but as the cache
gets really large, it no longer helps as much, and the CPU might as well look
for the information in the main memory.
Think of it this way: let's say the main memory is like a 500-page textbook
packed with information. It contains everything about the subject, but finding
information means you have to look through the table of contents or search
the index. You know the information is there, but it takes a bit of time to find
the right page. Now, think of the CPU cache as a small notebook with only the
most important information.
Looking through this notebook is very quick, and if you find what you need -
bingo! If not, you turn to the 500-page textbook; however, if you end up with
a notebook of 100 pages, it no longer has the same benefit in terms of speed
as the really small notebook with only a few pages. And, by the way, every
page in the notebook costs a lot more than a page in the textbook. So, we
want to keep the CPU cache small and efficient.
Online Processing: An online system handles transactions when the occur and
provides output directly to users. Because it is interactive, online processing
avoids delays and allows a constant dialog between the user and the system.
The system processes transactions completely when and where they occur.
Users interact directly with the information system. Users can accesss data
randomly. The information system must be available whenever necessary to
support business functions.
Online processing is just like live processing in that case if user input some
data by filling input form on any site then it get processed and data fetch
from the database online at the same time. The online processing involves
database servers, files on hosting and browser to communicate effectively
and do fast work to be responsive. As the name suggests it is online so that
mean it is live to action. The processing just on time.
In batch systems the data enter at any time may get processed days later.
For example data collected about salaries and other transactions about
customers get processed later at the date when reports are generated.
Similarly inventories and salary distributed is processed later. So this batch
processing is schedule based in which processing get time schedule of when
to process data.
In online processing error shown and fixed on exact time while in batch
processing if error occurs then it will be report and printed late. Batch
processing is better to use for massive and sequential records processing
which online processing is used in concurrent updates. Data management is
best handled in online processing. The strategy involved in processing is
critical also privacy is high and online processing is stable at the time when
records get fetch and updated.
Some cms like Joomla, Drupal, Magento get processed and data is correlated
live depending upon server performance. Different components in these cms
are based upon speed of server. More over shopping cart like woocommerce
in wordpress is also processed online.
There are two ways to process transactions: using batches and in real time. In
a batch processing system, transactions are accumulated over a period of
time and processed as a single unit, or batch. For example, a store may
update its sales records every day after the store closes. Or a payroll system
may process all the time cards every two weeks to determine employee
earnings and produce paychecks. Whatever the time period in a batch
system, there is some time delay between the actual event and the
processing of the transaction to update the records of the organization.
In a real-time processing system, transactions are processed immediately as
they occur without any delay to accumulate transactions. Real-time
processing is also referred to as online transaction processing, or OLTP. In this
case, the records in the system always reflect the current status.
Batch Processing
MVS Batch Processing
In the old days of computing, batch jobs had statements on punched cards
and were physically submitted to the system through a machine called a card
reader. One card is one record. Each record is 80 characters in length. These
statements are called Job Control cards and written in Job Control Language
(JCL). Today, there are no machines to read the punched cards. Statements
are now coded interactively with an editor and stored on disks. A program
called an internal reader (INTRDR) reads these cards from disks.
The JCL specifies the name of the job (job name), priority and class of the job.
It also specifies the STEP within a job. A step is identified by a name (step
name) that specifies the program to be executed. The step also specifies the
different files used by the program. These file statements specify the
attributes of the files being used. The file attributes include the name of the
file (Data set nameor DSN), the address of the unit where the file resides, the
type of unit, the physical record length (Block Size or BLKSIZE) and logical
length (logical record length or LRECL) of each record.
These JCL statements are read by a program called the Job Entry Subsystem
(JES). The Job Entry Subsystem for z/OS is called JES2. JES2 is a task within
z/OS that puts these jobs in a queue. JES2 controls Initiators. Each Initiator is
defined to process one or more job classes. When an Initiator is available, it
will process a job based on its class and priority.
Once the job is initiated, batch processing for that job begins. The initiator will
allocate the files for the job to use. It will also load the program to be
executed for that step. Once the program executes, there is no more
intervention needed. The program reads the input files and writes out the
output files. When a step is done, the Initiator looks at the next step and
based on the condition specified for that step, the Initiator will either bypass
that step or will prepare the environment for the next step.
The job ends when all the steps had been executed for that job.
In z/OS, programs end with a return code. The return code can also indicate
the result of the processing for that step. A normal or successful execution
normally has a return code of 0.
These online systems also have JCL statements to control their execution.
However, most of them are not classified as batch jobs. These are classified
as z/OS system tasks because these are normally started from the system
console by an operator. They normally execute under operating system
privilege and also are meant to execute while the system is running.
Most online systems have a control region that controls the traffic into and
out of the system. Most of them also separate the data layer from the
presentation layer. (For those using XML and SOA, does this sound familiar?).
Although there are technologies that now allow for more user-friendly
interfaces, most of these interactive systems still display their output in what
used to be 3270 terminals. The 3270 terminals were physical visual display
units that could only display text in 80 columns and 24 rows. Other models
could display 80 columns and 43 rows. These are what some call 'green
screen terminals' or 'dumb terminals'. There are probably no 3270 terminals
in use today. Most 3270 terminals are emulated on a desktop using emulation
software. This page lists various 3270 emulation software.
The online transaction processing control regions basically accept the data
sent from these 3270 terminals and strips off the overhead characters based
on the terminal map. The online transaction processing control region will
execute the corresponding online program based on the transaction entered.
The control region will pass the input to the online program.
The online transaction program will process the input. Processing may involve
accessing one or more databases. Once processing is done, the online
transaction program will return the result to the online transaction processing
control region. The online transaction processing control region will format the
output based on the defined terminal map and send the output to the 3270
terminal.
If you wish to know more about online transaction processing, you may want
to check my article on: What is an IMS Transaction Manager.
Mainframe Modernization
With mainframe modernization, there are some software products that extend
the capability of these online transaction programs. These software products
provide interface to web applications and communicate with these online
transaction programs. This technique leverages the existing assets and make
them more relevant in current business environments. Companies like
Progress and IBM have products that do this and have written papers
describing their products.
PROTOCOLS
In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that end points
in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols
specify interactions between the communicating entities.
Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive
messages at the Internet address level
Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with
corresponding programs elsewhere on the Internet
There are many other Internet protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
The word protocol comes from the Greek protocollon, meaning a leaf of paper
glued to a manuscript volume that describes the contents.
Internet Protocols
The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most
widely used network protocols.
Beside Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP,
and FTP all integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-
level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. In general,
higher level protocols in the IP family interact more closely with applications
like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact with network adapters
and other computer hardware.
Routing Protocols
A group of network protocols that work together at higher and lower levels
are often called a protocol family.
List of Protocols
Protocol layering
For example, one layer might describe how to encode text (with ASCII, say),
while another describes how to inquire for messages (with the Internet's
simple mail transfer protocol, for example), while another may detect and
retry errors (with the Internet's transmission control protocol), another
handles addressing (say with IP, the Internet Protocol), another handles the
encapsulation of that data into a stream of bits (for example, with the point-
to-point protocol), and another handles the electrical encoding of the bits,
(with a V.42 modem, for example).
The reference model usually used for layering is the OSI seven layer model,
which can be applied to any protocol, not just the OSI protocols. In particular,
the Internet Protocol can be analysed using the OSI model.
In telephony, failure rates of 104 bit per bit are faulty (they interfere with
telephone conversations), while 105 bit per bit or more should be dealt
with by routine maintenance (they can be heard).
Resiliency
FTP sessions work in passive or active modes. In active mode, after a client
initiates a session via a command channel request, the server initiates a data
connection back to the client and begins transferring data. In passive mode,
the server instead uses the command channel to send the client the
information it needs to open a data channel. Because passive mode has the
client initiating all connections, it works well across firewalls and Network
Address Translation (NAT) gateways.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking
framework to implement protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from
one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and
proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and
back up the hierarchy.
There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The
OSI model doesn't perform any functions in the networking process. It is a
conceptual framework so we can better understand complex interactions
that are happening.
The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up into
what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following layers.
Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the
hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including
defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM
are protocols with physical layer components.
Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.
At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the
physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer
on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The
LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE
802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.
Network (Layer 3)
Transport (Layer 4)
Session (Layer 5)
Presentation (Layer 6)
Application (Layer 7)
Summary
The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. This article
describes and explains them, beginning with the 'lowest' in the hierarchy
(the physical) and proceeding to the 'highest' (the application). The layers
are stacked this way:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a
physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and
functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of
the higher layers. It provides: Data encoding: modifies the simple digital
signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate the
characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame
synchronization. It determines:
How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using
a given physical medium
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which
physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of
service, and other factors. It provides:
Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer
software residing in the subnet intermediate systems can recognize them
and use them to route data to the destination address.
This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the
data transmission and intermediate switching technologies used to connect
systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the
intervening communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in
the communication subnet).
In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a
node and its immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through
which data is routed, not the destination station. The source and destination
stations may be separated by many intermediate systems.
TRANSPORT LAYER
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there
are strict message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer.
Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller
units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame.
End-to-end layers
SESSION LAYER
PRESENTATION LAYER
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer serves as the window for users and application
processes to access network services. This layer contains a variety of
commonly needed functions:
Resource sharing and device redirection
Remote file access
Remote printer access
Inter-process communication
Network management
Directory services
Electronic messaging (such as mail)
Network virtual terminals
1. OSI provides layer functioning and also defines 1. TCP/IP model is more based on protocols and
functions of all the layers. protocols are not flexible with other layers.
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets guarantees delivery of packets.
6. Network layer of OSI model provide both connection 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
The following figure shows the relationship between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model.
The TCP/IP network model has four basic layers:
Network interface (layer 1): Deals with all physical components of network connectivity between the
Internet (layer 2): Contains all functionality that manages the movement of data between two network
Host-to-host (layer 3): Manages the flow of traffic between two hosts or devices, ensuring that data arrives
Application (layer 4): Acts as final endpoints at either end of a communication session between two
network hosts
UTILITY SOFTWARES
Utility software is used to keep computers working fast and reliable. Just as
you visit your doctor from time to time for check ups, these four types of
utility software perform check ups on the health of your computer.
Utility software keeps your computer working efficiently and helps you
recover from disasters. Different types of utility software have different
benefits; automate tedious tasks, produce backups, monitor the performance
of the machine and keep your computer operating at maximum speed. In
this article, four types of utilities will be considered: system monitoring,
backup tools, system upkeep and troubleshooting tools. While IT specialists
and enthusiasts will likely use all of these utilities, the average user should
make backup tools and system upkeep a priority.
Core Temp: A small application that reports the current temperature for all
your computer's CPUs.
Down 2 Home: This utility monitors how much data you are uploading and
downloading through an Internet connection; it will be especially helpful for
users with limited Internet services.
Process Explorer: A free replacement for the Windows Task Manger, this
program tells you everything your computer is currently running
Losing your data - digital photos, documents, notes and other information -
due to a hard drive failure, power failure or other computer problems is a
frustrating and painful experience. Backup software can ease the pain by
making it easy for you to restore your data and get back to work quickly.
Most backup programs offer a way to schedule backups on a regular basis
(e.g. daily, weekly, or monthly) for ease of use. Other programs offer a way
to store all of your backup data on DVDs or even at a remote location.
Examples
Mozy: This Internet based service lets users backup 2 GB of data for free
(storage over 2 GB is available for a fee). The advantage to an Internet based
backup service is that you can access your data anywhere and you don't
have to worry about locating DVDs and external hard drives.
Autoruns 9: Detects and lists all programs that are set to run automatically,
useful for hunting down malware)
Disk Defragmenter: This free Microsoft program reorganizes your hard drive
so that it can run faster
Whether you want to fix problems or prevent them from happening in the
first place, these types of utility software are just what you need to keep your
computer in good condition. One type of utility software was not included
here though: antivirus software. Security is an important issue and should
not be ignored in any situation. Keep in mind that antivirus software is not
perfect; it is important to run backups and other software to guard against
disaster.
Examples
Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and
restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files
(e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more
than one user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.
Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve
programming errors. Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or
systems.
Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or
take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide
what to delete when their hard disk is full.
Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives,
each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system
and treated as an individual drive.
Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting
the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive.
showing the distribution of the used space.
Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be
data or an actual program.