Pavement Engineering

ECG 524

TOPIC 2.0
Material Properties & Tests
 Topic Outlines

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Pavement Materials

(Quarry/Aggregate Production &
Asphalt Cement)
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lecture, students should be

able to:

Explain the test process of pavement materials

(aggregate and binder)( CO1-PO4)
Describe the types and characteristics of road
pavements ( CO1-PO3)
Explain the process of rock quarry and aggregate
production( CO1-PO3)
3
 Topic 1.0

Introduction

4
Road/Pavement in Malaysia
Type of pavement:
i) Soil Road
Use the natural earth, compacted as road
surface.
Built in rural area, use laterite soil.
Soil

ii) Gravel road

Gravel stone spread onto compacted soil
Form a better and stronger road surface.

Soil
5
Road/Pavement in Malaysia (cont..)
Type of pavement:
iii) Bituminous road (Flexible pavement)
Hot mix asphaltic concrete
Porous asphalt mix
iv) Concrete road (Rigid pavement)
Road structure as same as asphaltic concrete
Road surface uses reinforced concrete.
v) Interlocking block
Road structure as same as asphaltic concrete.
Road surface uses block
6
Bituminous road Concrete road

Interlocking block 7
Function of Pavements
Support wheel and imposed load
Withstand the stress imposed
Distribute the load
Guide the driver
 Topic 1.1
Pavement Materials
Properties & Tests

9
Pavement Materials

10
 Pavement Materials

A. Aggregate B. Binder
Coarse Bitumen/asphalt
aggregate cement
Fine aggregate Tar
Filler Cutback
Emulsion
 AGGREGATES
Aggregates - the major component for pavement construction
Coarse aggregates: Crushed hard rock.
Aggregates crushed to different sizes
 A. Road Quarry and
Aggregate Production

15
Aggregates

Natural Aggregates
geologically originated from either igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks

Artificial Aggregates
can be manufactured or from industrial
waste by-products such as slag or waste
concrete
 Aggregate Production
Raw materials derived from blasting activities in the quarry

These rocks will be transported to the crushing plant and the

process is split into three stages:

First Stage : The primary crusher crushes the stones to

size 6-9 inch
Second Stage : The 6-9 inc stones will be crushed by
secondary crusher to 3-5 inch size
Third Stage : The 3-5 inch size stones will be crushed
again to smaller size by the tertiary crusher and transported
to the screening house

The screening house will grade the aggregates according to

specific size/ customer requirement
 Process
Holes are drilled either into the quarry wall (face) or into the
quarry floor

The holes are filled with dynamite and blasting takes place.
The rock comes out in large boulders

The rock is unloaded and placed on a conveyor belt which

carries the rock to the crushing machine

The crusher breaks down the rock into many different sizes

Rocks are segregated and placed into stockpiles according to

their individual size
 Blasting

Face Survey

The process begins with a detailed survey of the quarry face.

This allows the explosives engineer to design the blast and to plot
where the shot holes should be drilled so that the blast can be
carried out safely and efficiently.
Drilling the shot holes Checking the holes

Using an air operated After the shot holes have been

drilling rig, the number of drilled, blast engineer will
shot holes required are drills check that they correspond to
at the marked spots to the the blast design required.
hole positions on the blast
design, at the angles and
depths required.
Charging with explosives
The holes are then loaded with
high explosives to within a few
metres of the top using
detonator cord.
Detonating the explosives
Sirens are sounded to make
sure that everyone nearby is
warned
A single blast can fragment up
to 60,000 tonnes of rock.
 Shotpile ready for loading

After the blast, the face and shotpile are inspected to check that
all the shot holes have fired

Take the rock to the crusher correctly.

Aggregate Processing

Excavation
Transportation
Crushing
Sizing
 Excavation
dry or wet excavation from original source
(blasting, secondary blasting, drop balling, wet or
dry excavation gravels/sand)
 Transportation

Once materials are obtained, they are usually transported by land, rail, or barge
to a centrally located plant for separation into specific sizes.
 3. Crushing
crushing to desirable size (compression or
impact crusher)

impact crusher produces favourable

shaped aggregates for asphalt mix

The first step in preparing stockpiles for

specific uses is the crushing the larger
boulders and aggregates into usable sizes

Crushing is the breaking or grinding by

mechanical means of rock, stone or
recycled materials, for direct use or further
processing

The main objective of crushing in

aggregate production is to reduce the
material to a specified size range
Aggregate Crushing
 Several Stages of Crushing

Primary crushing

usually using jaw, roller or impactor-type crushers depending on

the characteristics of the rock

Jaw crushers can both handle hard, abrasive rocks

Roller crushers are rarely installed in new quarries but may still
be found in some of the older limestone quarries

Material is loaded into the primary crusher by dump trucks, and

the crushed material is then transported to the processing plant
by conveyor.
 Scalping screen

Scalping screens are used to allow rock fragments and fines

that do not require crushing to bypass further crushing stages

install a scalping screen after the primary crusher

scalping screen is often used to remove excessive amounts of

clay before the mineral is fed into the primary crusher

However the material removed at this stage will usually still

contain some useable rock and is therefore washed to recover
the maximum amount of mineral before being fed into the
sizing screens.
Scalping
 Secondary crushers

The secondary crusher breaks rock fragments down into sizes

that are suitable for the market

A variety of crushers can be used depending on the rock type

Historically, cone and roll crushers were the most common

choice crushers, but in recent years impact crushers are more
widely used

It is normal in some hard rock quarries to crush the rock a third

time before sizing to produce the final aggregate size and shape.
4. Sizing
wire screen mesh
 Lowers drying costs Increases production capacity

Reduces penalties from segregation and Lowers drying costs

gradation problems
Decreases material loss
 Sizing

Once the rock has been sufficiently reduced in size, it is separated into individual
stockpiles with specific ranges of particle sizes.

Large screening operations have a number of wire mesh screen decks with each deck
having progressively smaller openings between the wires.

These screens are slanted and empty the material retained on each screen out onto
conveyor belts. These belts then move the material into individual stockpiles of a
particular size.
Stockpiling

Conveyor

Aggregate
Stockpile
 Importance of Stockpiling
Prevent segregation & contamination
Good stockpiling = uniform gradations
-short drop distances
-minimize moving via trucks
-dont use single cone method
-separate stockpiles
-prevent contamination by foreign materials or
surface water
Gemencheh Quarry
Can you explain about segregation during stockpiling and how to
overcome this type of problem?
Segregation is a separation of large aggregates and small aggregates. The
smaller size aggregates is in the middle while larger aggregates tend to flow
to the side of stockpile.

What is scalping process?

Scalping process is similar to screening process where the fine aggregates
and flaky aggregates are screened out.

How do the aggregates from the surge pile (6-9) go to the conveyor
before fed into secondary crusher?
The aggregates from stockpile move to the conveyor via vibrating feeder
under the surge pile.

Is there any pollution at the premix plant due to the premix activities?
Yes, but there is decreasing percentage of air pollution due to sedimentation
pond near to the premix plant to trap the dust
 Sampling
to obtain a representative sample
WHY SAMPLING IS IMPORTANT?
to evaluate the potential quality of a proposed
aggregate source
-Does new source meet aggregate
specifications?
to determine compliance with project specification
requirements
-Do current aggregates meet specifications?
WHY SAMPLING IS IMPORTANT?

to obtain a representative sample

to evaluate the potential quality of a proposed aggregate
source
-Does new source meet aggregate
specifications?
to determine compliance with project specification
requirements
-Do current aggregates meet specifications?
 Aggregates Used As Paving Materials

Function as an important role in providing interlocking structure to cater

traffic load and distribute to underlying layer.
Acquired from natural sources or processed one.
Classified into 3 different sizes:

Coarse aggregates Retained at sieve of size 2.36mm.

Fine aggregates Passing sieve of size 2.36mm, retained at

sieve of size 75m
Filler Dust that passing sieve 75m; i.e
aggregates dust, hydrated lime, Portland
Cement
Aggregates Characteristics
Strength To endure the action of construction machine and
traffic load.
Durable Hardly break, crack under adverse weather

Good surface To provide strength and stability through

texture and shape interlocking feature
Cleanliness and To preserve uniformity and quality of mixing
purity
Affinity towards To ensure the good ties with the binder
bitumen
Low water To ease drying and mixing task and to avoid
absorption binder from taken off
Good grade Appropriate size to provide good and strong
pavement
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Coarse Aggregates - Section 4.3.3.2 (JKR/SPJ/2008-S4)
Physical and Mechanical Qualities

Coarse aggregate shall be screened crushed hard rock, angular in

shape and free from dust, clay, vegetative and other organic matter, and
other deleterious substances. They shall conform to the following
physical and mechanical quality requirements:

1. The Los Angeles abrasion value when tested in accordance with ASTM
C131 shall be not more than 25%
2. The weighted average loss of weight in the magnesium sulfate soundness
test (5 cycles) when tested in accordance with AASHTO Test Method T104
shall not be more than 18%
3. The flakiness index when tested in accordance with MS30 shall be not
more than 25%
4. The water absorption when tested in accordance with MS30 shall be not
more than 2%
5. 5. The polished stone value when tested in accordance with MS30 shall be
not less than 40 (only applicable to aggregates for wearing course)
 Wearing course

Aggregates are coarser here

Coarser aggregate materials used under the wearing course layer

Limestone aggregates are NOT permitted in wearing course
Basalt Granite
Fine Aggregates - Section 4.3.3.2 (JKR/SPJ/2008-S4)
Physical and Mechanical Qualities

Fine aggregate shall be screened quarry dust. Other types of fine aggregates
may be used subject to the approval of the S.O. Fine aggregate shall be non-
plastic and free from clay, loam, aggregation of material, vegetative and other
organic matter, and other deleterious substances. They shall conform to the
following physical and mechanical quality requirements:

1. The sand equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No.4 (4.75mm) sieva
when tested in accordance with ASTM D2419 shall be not less than 45%
2. The fine aggregate angularity when tested in accordance with ASTM C1252
shall be not less than 45%
3. The Methylene Blue value when tested in accordance with Ohio
Department of Transportation Standard Method shall be not more than
10mg/g
4. The weighted average loss of weight in the magnesium sulphate soundness
test (5 cycles) when tested in accordance with AASHTO Test Method T104
shall be not more than 20%
5. The water absorption when tested in accordance with MS 30 shall be not
more than 2%
Mineral Filler- Section 4.3.3.2 (JKR/SPJ/2008-S4)
Mineral filler shall be incorporated as part of the combined aggregate
gradation. It shall of finely divided mineral matter of hydrated lime (calcium
hydroxide). At the time of mixing with bitumen, hydrated lime shall be
sufficiently dry to flow freely and shall be essentially free from
agglomerations. Not less than 70% by weight shall pass the BS 75 microns
sieve.
The total amount of hydrated lime as mineral filler shall be limited such that
the ratio of the combined coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral
filler of the final gradation passing 75 microns sieve to bitumen, by weight,
shall be in the range of 0.6 to 1.2.
As a guide, the total amount of hydrated lime shall be approximately 2% by
weight of the combined aggregates. The hydrated lime shall also be
treated as an anti-stripping agent. If hydrated lime is not available, ordinary
Portland cement shall be used as an alternative.
 Cement or limestone*?
* Limestone dust (calcium carbonate)
* Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide)

Mineral filler:
Rock dust, limestone dust, hydrated lime or
hydraulic cement
Anti-stripping agent:
Ordinary Portland cement
Engineering Properties of Aggregates

Particle size and gradation

Sieve analysis

Durability or resistance to weathering

Soundness test

Hardness and resistance to wear

Polish stone value
LA abrasion test
Aggregate impact value
Aggregate crushing value
Aggregate Characteristics &
Tests
WHY AGGREGATE TESTS ARE
REQUIRED?
conformity to specification or standard

monitoring quarry product

monitoring quality of construction

assessing potential of new source

point of reference or database

for research
 Characteristics & Tests of
Aggregate for HMA
Characteristics Test Malaysian Requirement
Hardness/Toughness MS-30, ACV < 30, LAAV < 40
ASTM C131
Soundness AASHTO T104 Loss < 12%
Shape & Texture MS-30 FI < 30, > 80% fracture
Polishing resistance MS-30 PSV > 40
Stripping resistance AASHTO T182 Coated > 95%
SG and Water Abs MS-30 WA < 2%
Gradation and size BS 1377 Minimum & maximum depends on
use & mix
Cleanliness & BS 1377 Free from dust, clay, vegetative
deleterious material and organic, and deleterious
substances
PI < 6%
LA Abrasion Test (ASTM C131)
Resistance of coarse aggregate to
abrasion & mechanical degradation
during handling, construction.

Soundness Test (ASTM C 88)

Estimates resistance to weathering

Clay Content
Used to estimate the relative
proportions of fine aggregate and clay-
like or plastic fines and dust

Flakiness and Elongation

Better interlocking & internal friction,
better workability and less compactive
effort
 Percent Crushed Fragments in
Gravels

Quarried materials always 100%

crushed
Minimum values depended upon traffic
level and layer (lift)
Defined as % mass with one or more
fractured faces
Percent Crushed Fragments in
Gravels
0% Crushed 100% with 2 or More
Crushed Faces
Flat and Elongated Particles

ASTM D4791
Flat
Elongated
Total flat and elongated
Superpave
Flat and Elongated
Maximum to minimum dimension
5:1
3:1
2:1
Flakiness and Elongation Test
 Flakiness & Elongation
Significance and use : This particle shape of the aggregate is
determined by :
1. The percentage of flaky and elongated particles that it contains
2. Its angularity number

Why flaky and elongated particles are to be avoided?

Flaky and elongated particles are to be avoided in flexible pavements
because these causes weakness and breakdown under heavy traffic
loads. In concrete pavements these reduces the workability

BS Specification
According to BS Specifications, flakiness index of the aggregate used for
the road construction should not be greater than 35% and Elongation
index should not be greater than 45%
 Fine Aggregate Angularity
(Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate)

Fine aggregate at a specified gradation is allowed

to flow freely into a 100 cm3 cylinder.

*Knowing the specific gravity of the aggregate, the

voids between aggregate particles can be determined

* The more angular the aggregate, the higher the

void content
 Fine Aggregate Angularity

Natural sands:
typically < 45
Manufactured sands:
typically > 42
 Clay Content
(Sand Equivalent Test)
* ASHTO T176, ASTM D2419
- Used to estimate the relative proportions
of fine aggregate and clay-like or plastic fines
and dust.

SE = Sand Reading
Clay Reading *100 Flocculating
Solution

Clay Reading Suspended

Clay
Sand
Reading Sedimented
Aggregate
 Bottle of
Solution on
Shelf Above
Top of
Cylinder

Hose and
Irrigation Tube

Measurement Rod
Marker on Measurement
Rod

Top of Suspended
Material
Top of Sand
Layer
Asphalt Cements
Background
History of Specifications
 Background
Asphalt
Soluble in petroleum products
Generally a by-product of petroleum distillation process
Can be naturally occurring

Tar (coal-by-product)
Resistant to petroleum products
Generally by-product of coke (from coal) production
Background

First US hot mix asphalt (HMA)

constructed in 1870s
Pennsylvania Ave. (in front of
White House)
Used naturally occurring
asphalt from surface of lake on
Island of Trinidad

Two sources
Island of Trinadad
Bermudez, Venezuela
 Background
Eachlake asphalt source vary in
consistency
Used solubility test to determine source
Insolubles differed substantially between
sources

Demand for paved roads exceeded the

supply of lake asphalts in late 1800s
Led to use of petroleum asphalts
 Petroleum-Based Asphalts
Asphalt is waste product from refinery processing
of crude oil
Sometimes called the bottom of the barrel

Properties depend on:

Refinery operations
Composition crude source-dependent
Gasoline
Kerosene
Barrel of Crude Oil
Lt. Gas Oil
Diesel
Motor Oils

Asphalt
 Asphalt Cement Components
Asphaltenes
Vary considerably from asphalt to asphalt
Large, discrete solid inclusions (black)
High viscosity component

Resins
Semi-solid or solid at room temperature
Fluid when heated
Brittle when cold
Oils
Colorless liquid
Soluble in most solvents
Allows asphalt to flow
 Refinery Operation

LIGHT DISTILLATE

PUMPING MEDIUM DISTILLATE

FIELD STORAGE STATION

HEAVY DISTILLATE
TOWER
DISTILLATION
REFINERY

RESIDUUM
PROCESS
UNIT
OR
STORAGE TUBE CONDENSERS
HEATER AND ASPHALT
GAS COOLERS CEMENTS
AIR
PETROLEUM BLOWN FOR PROCESSING INTO
ASPHALT EMULSIFIED AND
CUTBACK ASPHALTS
SAND AND WATER AIR

STILL
Air Blown Asphalt Cement
Purchasing of Asphalt Cements

Need to be able to specify desirable

characteristics

Desirable characteristics have evolved over

time and with increasing technological
advances

Purchasing requires specifications (parameters

presented in written form)
Types of Binder

Bitumen/Asphalt
Cutback Bitumen
Bitumen Emulsion
Road Tars
Bitumen / asphalt cement Cutback
The pure crude oil refinery produced Liquid bitumen; Mixture of bitumen
material (50-80%) and petroleum solvent

Black color, sticky, semi-solid and Reduce bitumen viscosity, used at

highly viscous at room temperature lower temperature

Become liquid at high temperature,

easily mixed with aggregates to form
Hot Mix Asphalt

Emulsion Road Tar

Liquid bitumen; Mixture of bitumen Obtained from distillation of organic
(55-65%), water and emulsifying agent materials as coal
 TAR and BITUMEN

Bitumen is a petroleum product whereas tar is

produced by distillation of coal or wood
Tar coats aggregates more easily and retains it
better in presence of water than bitumen
Tar is more temperature susceptible, resulting in
great variation in viscosity with temperature but
bitumen are less susceptible
The free carbon content is more in tar as seen from
the solubility test using carbon disulphide.
Bitumen

Bituminous material asphalt cement and tar

Bitumen - Waste product from refinery processing crude oil.
Tar By product of coal production
Function as binder, to bind aggregates resulting to
a stable firm and strong mix.
UK; bitumen, mix of bitumen + aggregates called asphalt
US; asphalt, mix of bitumen + aggregate called asphaltic
concrete
2 main sources:
i) Natural From geologic effect; Trinidad Lake, Canada
ii) Processed Crude oil refinery process.
86
 The Desirable Properties of Bitumen

The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction

should be adequate. This is achieved by heating the bitumen and
aggregate prior to mixing or by use of cutbacks or emulsions of
suitable grade.

The bituminous material should not be highly temperature

susceptible. During the hottest weather of the region the bituminous
mix should not become too soft or unstable. During cold weather the
mix should not become too hard and brittle, causing cracking of
surface. The material should be durable.

In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the
aggregate. There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion between
the bitumen and aggregate used in the mix.
 Early Specifications
Lake Asphalts
Appearance
Solubility in carbon disulfide

Petroleum asphalts (early 1900s)

Consistency
Chewing
Penetration machine
Measure consistency
Bitumen (Asphalt) Tests
 Penetration Testing
Sewing machine needle
Specified load, time, temperature

100 g Penetration in 0.1 mm

Initial After 5 seconds

Several tests shall be
conducted to ensure the
bitumen complies to the
specification of usage:

Penetration Test
Softening Point Test
Ductility Test
Flash and Fire Point Test
Viscosity Test
Loss on Heating
Thin Film Oven Test
Specific Gravity Test
Solubility Test
91
1) Penetration Test (ASTM 5)
To measure the penetration value of the
bitumen/asphalt

2) Softening Point test (ASTM D5)

To determine the softening point of bitumen
by using ring and ball method.

3) Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT)

This is actually not a test, but a procedure
that measures the changes take place in
bitumen by subjecting the material to
hardening condition during mixing and laying
process.

4) Ductility Test
Ductility is defined as distance in cms to
which a standard of bitumen can be
stretched before the thread breaks.
Penetration Specification

PEN 60 70
PEN 80 - 100
Penetration Gradation Specification
Uses penetration results to specify
Adds
Flash point test
Ductility
Solubility
Thin film oven aging
Penetration
Ductility
 Flash Point (Safety)

Thermometer

Cup filled with

asphalt

Wand attached
to gas line
Ductility
Solubility (Purity)
 Thin Film Oven

Pan
Thermometer

Rotating Shelf

Outside of Oven
 Mixing/Compaction Temps
Viscosity, Pa s
10
5

1
.5
.3 Compaction Range
.2 Mixing Range

.1
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Temperature, C