Experiment No.

Aim: To find the earth resistance using three spikes.

Equipments and Apparatus required: Megger, Three electrodes or spikes, connecting leads,
test device etc.

Learning Objectives:
This experiment helps student to understand the concept of grounding system. The Earth
Resistance Measurement experiment is:
i. To measure the earth resistance and then compare with the required value as per Indian
Electricity Rules.

Introduction:
System grounding has been used since electrical power system began. However, many companies
and industrial plants have used system-grounding methods differently.
Grounding of many systems has been based upon past experience rather than engineering
analysis. This experiment explains how to measure ground resistance in order to maintain the
grounding system.
Ground or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low-
impedance path back to the source to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment.
(The terms "ground" and "earth" are used synonymously here. "Ground" is more common in North
American English, and "earth" is more common in British English.) Under normal conditions, a
grounding conductor does not carry current.
Neutral is a circuit conductor that may carry current in normal operation, and is connected to
ground (earth) at the main electrical panel.
Basically, the purpose of the Neutral wire is to provide a return path to the circuit current. The
purpose of the Ground wire is mainly operator safety.
At the electrical service panel, Neutral and Ground are connected together. This must be the only
place that they meet, or the premise of human safety is violated.

Earth Resistivity
The term earth resistivity expressed in ohm-centimeters (abbreviated ohm-cm) is one basic
variable affecting resistance to earth of an electrode system. But the actual value of earth resistivity
need not be measured to check the electrode earth resistance.

Nature of an Earth Electrode

Resistance to current through an earth electrode actually has three components:
1. Resistance of the electrode itself and connections to it.
2. Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil adjacent to it.
3. Resistance of the surrounding earth.
Electrode Resistance: Rods, pipes, masses of metal, structures, and other devices are commonly
used for earth connections. These are usually of sufficient size or cross-section that their
resistance is a negligible part of
the total resistance.

Electrode-Earth Contact Resistance: This is much less than you might think. If the electrode is
free from paint or grease, and the earth is packed firmly, contact resistance is negligible. Rust on
an iron electrode has little or no effect; the iron oxide is readily soaked with water and has less
resistance than most soils. But if an iron pipe has rusted through, the part below the break is not
effective as a part of the earth electrode

Fig1:Components of earth resistances in an earth electrode

Resistance of Surrounding Earth: An electrode driven into earth of uniform resistivity radiates
current in all directions. Think of the electrode as being surrounded by shells of earth, all of
equal thickness (see Fig. 1).
The earth shell nearest the electrode naturally has the smallest surface area and so offers the
greatest resistance. The next earth shell is somewhat larger in area and offers less resistance.
Finally, a distance from the electrode will be reached where inclusion of additional earth shells
does not add significantly to the resistance of the earth surrounding the electrode. It is this critical
volume of soil that determines the effectiveness of the ground electrode and which therefore must
be effectively measured in order to make this determination. Ground testing is distinct
when compared to more familiar forms of electrical measurement, in that it is a volumetric
measurement and cannot be treated as a point property. Generally, the resistance of the
surrounding earth will be the largest of
the three components making up the resistance of a ground connection. There are several factors
that can affect this value like earth resistivity depends on the soil material, the moisture content,
and the temperature. It is far
from a constant, predictable
value ranging generally from
500 to 50,000 ohm-cm

Principles Involved in Earth

Resistance Testing
The resistance to earth of any
system of electrodes
theoretically can be calculated
from formulas based upon the
general resistance formula:
L
R=
A

where is the resistivity of the

earth in ohm-cm, L is the length
of the conducting path, and A is
the cross-sectional area of the
path. Prof. H.B. Dwight of
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology developed rather

complex formulas for the calculation of the resistance to earth for any distance from various
systems of electrodes. Because the formulas are complicated, and earth resistivity is neither
uniform or constant, a simple and direct method of measuring earth resistance is needed. This is
where we come in with our Megger Ground Resistance Tester, a self-contained portable instrument
that is reliable and easy to use. With it, you can check the resistance of your earth electrode while
it is being installed; and, by periodic tests, observe any changes with time.

To understand the principle of earth testing, consider the schematic diagram in Fig 2(a). Bear in
mind our previous observation with reference to the earth shell diagram in Fig.1 with increased
distance
from an electrode, the earth shells are of greater surface area and therefore of lower resistance.
Now, assume that you have three rods driven into the earth some distance apart and a voltage
applied, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The current between rods 1 and 2 is measured by an ammeter; the
potential difference (voltage) between rods 1 and 3 is measured by a voltmeter. If rod 3 is located
at various points between rods 1 and 2, preferably in a straight line7, you can get a series of voltage
readings. By Ohms Law (R = E/I) you can determine the earth resistance at any point measured.
For example, if the measured voltage E between rods 1 and 3 is 30 V and the measured current I
is 2 A, the resistance of the earth R at that point would be 15 .
The series of resistance values can be plotted against distance to obtain a curve (Fig. 2(b)). Note
that as rod 3 is moved away from rod 1, the resistance values increase, but the amount of increase
gets less and less until a point is reached where the rate of increase becomes so small that I can
almost be considered constant (20 in Fig. 2b). The earth shells between the two rods (1 and 3)
have so great a surface area that they add little to the total resistance. Beyond this point, as rod 3
approaches the earth shells of rod 2, resistance gradually picks up. Near rod 2, the values rise
sharply. Now, lets say that rod 1 is our earth electrode under test. The correct resistance is usually
obtained if P (rod 3) is placed at a distance from the center of the earth electrode (rod 1) about
62 percent of the distance between the earth electrode and C (rod 2).

Procedure:

Fig 3: three-terminal earth resistance test

1. P1 and C1 terminals on the instrument are jumpered and connected to the earth electrode
under test.
2. P2 and C2 terminals are connected to the two auxiliary rods respectively.
3. The driven reference rod C should be placed as far from the earth electrode as practically
possible; this distance may be limited by the length of extension wire available, or the
geography of the surroundings Potential-reference rod P is then driven in at a number of
points roughly on a straight line between the earth electrode and C. Resistance readings are
logged for each of the points.
Cautions:
i. The pipe should not be painted or coated with any non-conducting material.
ii. The material of plate, wire, bolts and washers should be of same to avoid corrosion.
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To find the earth resistance using three spikes.

Observation Table:
S.No. Position of auxiliary electrode Earth Average value
P resistance
1.
2.
3.

Result: The Mean value of earth resistance is

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

1. Understanding of the student about 20
the
procedure/apparatus
2. Observations and analysis including 20
learning outcomes
3. Completion of Experiment, Discipline 10
and Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained
 Experiment 2
Aim: To study the time-current characteristics of a given fuse.

Equipments and Apparatus required: Fuse wire, Ammeter AC (0-10 A), Stop watch, Loading
Rheostat, Rheostat (38 Ohm, 8.5 A), Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires etc.

Learning Objectives:
i. To find the operating characteristics of a fuse.
ii. To learn the safety benefits of protective devices like fuse.

Theory: A fuse is nothing more than a short length of wire designed to melt and separate in the
event of excessive current. Fuses are always connected in series with the component(s) to be
protected from over-current, so that when the fuse blows (opens) it will open the entire circuit and
stop current through the component(s). Fuses are primarily rated in terms of maximum current,
but are also rated in terms of how much voltage drop they will safely withstand after interrupting
a circuit.
In simplified terms, the melting function depends upon the power expression of P = V * I, where
P is the power in Watts. By algebraic substitution with Ohm's Law, the expression becomes P = I2
* R, showing that a linear change in current produces an exponential change in power dissipation,
which is useful in a fuse. But how quickly should the fuse respond? Fast? Slow? How fast or slow?
The capabilities can be summarized with a TCC (Time-Current characteristics) curve as shown in
the fig. 2.1 below:

Fig. 2.1 Time-current characteristics of a fuse

Outline of the Procedure:
i. Make the connections as shown in the fig. 2.2 below:

Fig. 2.2 Circuit diagram

ii. Switch on the supply and keep the full load in the on position. Adjust the current to certain
value with the help of dimmerstat.
iii. Stop watch is stopped when the fuse element is blown which is indicated by decreasing of
current in ammeter to zero. Note down the time of stop watch.
iv. Again after changing the fuse element increase the current to certain value and repeat above
procedure.

Result: The characteristic of fuse wire is studied in this experiment and is found to be inverse
type and is plotted on graph paper.
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To study the time-current characteristics of a given fuse.

Observation Table:
S. No. Current ( Amperes) Time (seconds)

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty
S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observations and analysis including 20
learning outcomes
3. Completion of Experiment, Discipline and 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained
 Experiment No. 3

Aim: To determine location of fault in a cable using cable fault locator.

Equipments and Apparatus required: Cable fault locator, cable, connecting leads etc.

Learning Objectives:
i. To find the exact location of a fault in a faulty cable.

Theory: A cable tester is used to verify that all of the intended connections exist and that there are
no unintended connections in the cable being tested. When an intended connection is missing it is
said to be "open". When an unintended connection exists it is said to be a "short". If a connection
"goes to the wrong place" it is said to be "miswired" (the connection has two faults: it is open to
the correct contact and shorted to an incorrect contact). Generally, the testing is done in two phases.
The first phase, called the "opens test" makes sure each of the intended connections is good. The
second phase, called the "shorts test" makes sure there are no unintended connections.
A cable fault locator setup is made for locating the distance from test site to fault side of a faulty
cable. This is achieved using MURRAY LOOP & VARLEY LOOP algorithms. It consists of a
sound wire and faulty wire with fault at three positions indicating the ground fault.

Fig 1: cable fault locator kit ( Murray and Varley loop Test)

MURRAY LOOP
This test is used to find the fault location in an underground cable by making one Wheatstone
bridge in it and by comparing the resistance we shall find out the fault location. But we should use
the known length of the cables in this experiment. The necessary connection of the Murray loop
test is shown in figure 2 & 3. The figure 2 shows that the circuit connection for finding the fault
location when the ground fault occurs and the figure 3 shows that the circuit connections for
finding the fault location when the short circuit fault occurs.
In this test, the faulty cable is connected with sound cable by a low resistance wire, because that
resistance should not affect the total resistance of the cable and it should be able to circulate the
loop current to the bridge circuits without loss. The variable resistors R1 and R2 are forming the
ratio arms. Balance of the bridge is achieved by adjusting the variable resistors. G is the
galvanometer to indicate the balance. [R3 + Rx] is the total loop resistance formed by the sound
cable and the faulty cable. At the balance condition,

R1 R R R2 R Rx
3 1 3
R2 Rx R2 Rx
R2
Rx ( R3 R x )
R1 R2
When the cross section area of the both sound cable and faulty cable are equal, then the resistance
of the conductors are directly proportional to their lengths. So, if Lx represents the length between
test end to the fault end of the faulty cable and if L represents the total length of the both cables,
then the expression for Lx is as follows;
R2
Lx L
R2 R2

The above test is only valid when the lengths of the cables are known. In Murray Loop Test,
the fault resistance is fixed and it may not be varied. Also it is difficult to set the bridge as balance.
Thus, the determination of the fault position is not accurate. Then the current circulation through
the cable would cause temperature rises due to high voltage or high current. If the resistance varies
according to the temperature, then the balance collapses. So, we need to apply less voltage or less
current to this circuit.

Procedure:
1. Connect the sound wire as shown in set up.
2. Connect the faulty wire as shown in set up, Both red connectors of faulty wire must be
connected to both ends of faulty cable as indicated on the set up.
3. Now connect any one fault point out of three fault points given in the cable in the ground
fault point as sown in set up.
4. After connecting the power cable to the supply, toggle the power switch to the left side.
5. Also toggle the galvanometer switch to the left side to ensure the connections of
galvanometer to the MURRAY LOOP.
6. Now, you will see the galvanometer needle moving from its zero/balanced point. Rotate
both R1 & R2 potentiometers until the galvanometer is balanced or indicates the zero value.
7. Write the readings of both R1 & R2 potentiometers. They are R1 & R2 values of MURRAY
LOOP formula.
8. At last, calculate the length of the total sound and faulty cable wire which will be indicated
as L by reading the length of each wire segment indicated on wire itself.
9. Putting all these readings in formula, calculate the value of Lx and match this result with
physical wire length.
Note: calculated length and actual length may differ slightly due to tolerance of 3-6% in
set up.
10. Repeat the above steps with different fault points on faulty cable.

Observation Table
S.No. R1 R2 R3 Rx Lx

Varley Loop

This test is used to find the fault location in an underground cable by making one Wheatstone
bridge in it and by comparing the resistance we shall find out the fault location instead of
calculating it from the known lengths of the cable. The necessary connection of the Varley loop
test is shown in figure 4 & 5. The figure 4 shows that the circuit connection for finding the fault
location when the ground fault occurs and the figure 5 shows that the circuit connections for
finding the fault location when the short circuit fault occurs.
3 +
= 1 (1)
1 2
This expression gives the value of [R3 + RX], if the value of R1, R2 and RS1 are known. If the switch
S is in position 2, then again we need to adjust the variable resistance R to balance the bridge
circuit. Let us assume that the new R value as RS2. At this position, the expressions are as
follows;

By solving the equation (1) and (2),

In this test, the faulty cable is connected with sound cable by a low resistance wire, because that
resistance should not affect the total resistance of the cable and it should be able to circulate the
loop current to the bridge circuits without loss. A single pole double through switch S is used in
this circuit. There would be a variable resistor R which is used to balance the bridge circuit
during the working period.

Where,
Rx= Resistance of wire from test end to the fault end.
R1= Resistance value of R1 resistor written on top left side of the stamp.
R2=Resistance of R2 resistor written on top left side of the stamp.

Procedure:
1. Connect the sound wire as shown in set up.
2. Connect the faulty wire as shown in set up, Both red connectors of faulty wire must be
connected to both ends of faulty cable as indicated on the set up.
3. Now connect any one fault point out of three fault points given in the cable in the ground
fault point as sown in set up.
4. After connecting the power cable to the supply, toggle the power switch to the right side.
5. Also toggle the galvanometer switch to the right side to ensure the connections of
galvanometer to the VARLEY LOOP.
6. Toggle the third switch or ground toggling switch to RS1.
7. Now, you will see the galvanometer needle moving from its zero/balanced point. Rotate
potentiometer R until the galvanometer is balanced or indicates the zero value.
8. Write the reading of potentiometer R. This is the value of RS1 in the formula.
9. Now, toggle the ground toggling switch to RS2 and again balance the galvanometer.
10. Write the reading of potentiometer R. This is the value of RS2 in the formula
11. Putting all the desired values of RS1 RS2 R1 and R2 written on the set up in the formula,
calculate the value of Rx which is the resistance of wire from test end to fault end of faulty
cable indicated as Lx on set up.
12. Now, you can calculate length of the wire from test end to fault end of faulty cable using
the value of Rx.
 Note: calculated length and actual length may differ slightly due to tolerance of 3-6% in
set up.
13. Repeat the above steps with different fault points on faulty cable.

Observation Table
S.No. R1 R2 R3 Rx Lx

Result:
The length of the cable is
a) MURRAY LOOP Test: .
b) VARLEY LOOP Test: ..
The distance of the faulty point from one of the ends is
a) MURRAY LOOP Test: .
b) VARLEY LOOP Test: ..
 Worksheet of the student

Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To determine location of fault in a cable using cable fault locator.

Observation Table:
S.No. R1 R2 R3 Rx Lx

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

To be filled in by Faculty
S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of the student about the 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observations and analysis including 20
learning outcomes
3. Completion of Experiment, Discipline and 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks
Obtained
 Experiment No. 4

Aim: To study the IDMT over current relay and determine the time current
characteristics.

Equipments and Apparatus required: IDMT over current relay, Timer, Auxiliary D.C.
supplies = 110 V, 1 phase Dimmer stat = 230V, 10A, Ammeter AC (0-15A), Rheostat
(38ohm, 8.5 Amp),Connecting wires etc.

Learning Objectives:
i. To study the operation of IDMT O/C relay.
ii. To analyze the time-current characteristics of IDMT O/C relay.
iii. To understand the concept of plug setting multiplier.

Theory: A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value
is called an over-current relay. The IDMT relays are widely used for the protection of
distribution lines.
The relay gives an inverse time current characteristics at lower values of the fault current
and definite-time characteristic at higher value of fault current.
Generally an inverse-time characteristics are obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier
is below is 10.
The over load inverse time relay consists of an upper electromagnet that has been
provided with two windings one primary and one secondary. Primary is connected to a
current transformer in the line which is under protection and is provided with eight tapings.
These tapings are connected to a plug setting bridge by which number of turns to be
usedcan be adjusted in order to have desired current setting. The secondary winding
called secondary is energized by the induction effect and is wound over the central limb
of the upper magnet as well as it is spread over the two limbs of the lower magnet. The
deflecting torque is produced on the disc in the fashion .The spindle of the disc carries a
moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts after the disc has rotated through a
certain angle which has been set before. Any setting for this angle is possible through a
certain angle which has been set before. Any setting for this angle is possible varying
from0 to 3600 .
The variation of this angle imparts to the relay, various time settings. Plug setting-the
seven plug positions are marked i.e.; 0.5, 0.5, 1.0,1.25,1.5,.75,2.0 the effect of altering
the plug setting is that for given current, the greater the plug setting ,longer the time of
operation.
Time setting-the TM setting of the relay adjusts the backstop of rotating disc. The time of
operation is proportional to the distance through which the disc must rotate in order to
operate the contacts. With the time multiplier set to one, the back stop is as far back as it
can go(1800),and the disc has to move through its maximum travel in order to operate
contacts. If the time multiplier is set to zero then backstop is positioned that the contacts
are permanently closed.
Outline of the Procedure:
i. Make the connection as shown in the fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1

ii. Select current setting (set phase trip) less than 100%, keeping phase TMS at
maximum position.
iii. Select any time setting.
iv. Switch on variac and check power ON indication provided on relay front
panel.
v. Vary dimmer stat and observe current value till Pick-Up will show Red
indication when current value exceeds set phase trip position.
vi. Switch OFF dimmer stat without disturbing its position with the help of DPT
switch. Also reset time.
vii. Measure the relay time from timer by switching on DPT switch.
viii. Now increase the fault current and note down timer time after switching OFF
and DPT switch every time with same time setting.
ix. Repeat same procedure for different time setting keeping current setting
same.

General Calculations:

PSM =

Where, Is = secondary current, PS= Plug setting Ir = Rated current

Secondary current, Is = Fault current x

Observation Table:

Result: For lower values of current the time-current characteristics are inverse and for
higher value for current observed times are constant.

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
i. Electric Power Systems by C. L. Wadhwa, New Age International Ltd., India,
6th edition, (2014)
ii. Power System Protection and Switchgear by Badri Ram, D. N. Vishwakarma,
Tata Mcgraw Hill Education, 2nd edition, (2011)
iii. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution by S. N. Singh, PHI
learning Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2nd edition, (2008)
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To study the IDMT over current relay and determine the time current characteristics.

Observation Table:

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

 Experiment No. 5
Aim: To study the performance of under voltage and over voltage relay.
Equipments and Apparatus required: Under Voltage Relay, Regulated power supply, Voltmeter,
Ammeter etc.
Learning Objectives:
i. To study the operation of under voltage and over voltage relay.
ii. To analyze the time-current characteristics of under voltage and over voltage relay.

Theory: The relay works under the principle of electromagnetic induction and is an instantaneous relay.
This relay actuates when the fault voltage value is below the set value. The relay voltage can be set using
the voltage setting plungers present in the relay.
By setting different values and by varying the fault voltage accordingly, relay operation can
be studied. The experiment is intended to study the operation of electromechanical type under/over voltage
relay, by setting the voltage at various values using plug setting and by varying the fault voltage using
voltage adjustment. The fault voltage should be set in such a value, below the set input voltage of the relay.
So that the relay operates to trip the circuit.

Outline of the Procedure:

i. Make the connection as shown in fig. 5.1

Figure 5.1

ii. Chose the required relay setting (% of 110V) and TSM

iii. By the Autotransformer set the circuit to a particular PSM with DPDT at 1
iv. Put the DPDT to 2 to reset the Relay (disc should return to its original position) 4.
Switch over to 1 (DPDT), record the time of operation of the Relay, till the contactor
trips.
v. When the voltage is below set voltage the relay operate and the NC contact opens and
NO contact closes. Note down the trip time.
 vi. Repeat 1-4 for at least two TSMs by setting the voltage at various values and by varying
the fault voltage the operations of instantaneous under voltage can be studied.

Observation Table:

Result:
i. Studied the operating characteristics of Electromechanical under voltage.

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
i. Electric Power Systems by C. L. Wadhwa, New Age International Ltd., India, 6th
edition, (2014)
ii. Power System Protection and Switchgear by Badri Ram, D. N. Vishwakarma, Tata
Mcgraw Hill Education, 2nd edition, (2011)
iii. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution by S. N. Singh, PHI
learning Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2nd edition, (2008)
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To study the performance of under voltage and over voltage relay.
Observation Table:

Calculations

Result and Discussion:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

 Experiment No. 6
Aim: To plot the operating characteristics of differential relay

Equipments and Apparatus required: Static Differential Relay, 1 Ph Dimmerstat 230V,10 A,

2 CT (10/ 5A and 20/5A), Ammeter AC (0- 15 A) 3 No., Ammeter AC (0- 5 A) 2 No.,
Rheostat (38 ohm, 8.5 A), Loading Rheostat, Multimeter, 1 ph Transformer 230/115V, 50 Hz, 1
KVA, Connecting wires etc.

Learning Objectives:
i. To study the operation of differential relay.
ii. To analyze the operating characteristics of differential relay.

Theory: A differential relay is responsible to vector difference between two or more similar
electrical quantities.
Let X is the winding of the protected machine. When there is no internal fault, the current entering
in X is equal in phase and magnitude to current leaving X. the CTs are of such a ratio that during
the normal conditions or for the external faults (Through Faults) the secondary currents of the CTs
are equal. These currents say I1 and I2 circulate in the pilot wires. The polarity connections are
such that the currents I1 and I2 are in the same direction in pilot wires, during normal conditions
or external faults. Relay operating coil I connected at the middle of the pilot wires. Relay unit is
of over-current type.
During normal condition and external fault the protection system is balanced and the CTs ratio
are such that secondary current are equal. These currents circulate in pilot wires. The vector
differential current I1 - I2 flows through the relay coil is zero.

I1 - I2 = 0 (normal condition or external faults)

This balance is disturbed for internal faults. When faults occurs in the protected zone, the current
entering the protected winding is no more equal to the leaving the winding because some current
flow to the fault. The differential I1 -I2 flows through the relay operating coil and the relay
operates if the operating torque is more than restraining torque.
Outline of the Procedure:
i. Make circuit connection as shown in fig. 6.1

Figure 6.1

ii. Open the parallel path of secondary transformer containing rheostat with ammeter.
Transformer is connected now at full load condition.
iii. With the help of dimmerstat, give some supply voltage to primary side of transformer
and observe its current. Make sure secondary current is varying in proportion to turn
ratio. And current through secondary side of two CTs are zero.
iv. Now connect the parallel path of secondary transformer by touching wire to the
secondary terminal of transformer and observe the current through secondary side of
two CTs. There is a difference of two CTs currents and at this condition differential
relay will trip.
v. Note down values of these currents through secondary side of two CTs.
vi. Plot the characteristics between summation and difference of these two currents.
Observation Table:

Results: Transformer differential relay is studied. The characteristics between restraining and
operating torque are straight line.

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
i. Electric Power Systems by C. L. Wadhwa, New Age International Ltd., India, 6th
edition, (2014)
ii. Power System Protection and Switchgear by Badri Ram, D. N. Vishwakarma, Tata
Mcgraw Hill Education, 2nd edition, (2011)
iii. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution by S. N. Singh, PHI
learning Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2nd edition, (2008)
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To plot the operating characteristics of differential relay.

Observation Table:

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

 Experiment No. 7
Aim: To study the operating characteristics of earth fault protection relay.

Equipments and Apparatus required: Static IDMT earth fault relays, Rheostat (100 ohm,5
A).3 Nos., Ammeter AC ( 0- 5A).3 Nos., Ammeter AC ( 0- 1A), Experimental kit,
Aux. DC supply- 110 V DC, Timer, 3 ph Dimmerstat, Connecting wires etc.

Learning Objectives:
i. To study the operation of earth fault protection relay.
ii. To analyze the operating characteristics of earth fault protection relay.

Theory: Earth-fault relay is used to protect feeder against faults involving ground. Typically, earth
faults are single line to ground and double line to ground faults. For the purpose of setting and
coordination, only single lines to ground faults are considered. A relay used in the power system
to detect neutral or ground faults measure the vector difference of the three phase power, or
measure the neutral current directly. If current is above a set trip point, the relay will operate.

Outline of the Procedure:

i. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 8.1

Figure 8.1

ii. Set current and time setting of relays as per requirement.

iii. Give 3 ph. Supply to star connected rheostat (load).
iv. Balance the load by making all three phase currents equal in magnitude.
 v. Create a fault by short circuiting some of the winding of a single phase load.
vi. Note down fault current and take corresponding time for tripping relay by resetting
relay and timer by switching off without disturbing dimmerstat position.
vii. Repeat same procedure with different fault current and plot characteristics between
PSM and operating time.

Observation Table:
Relay current Setting -
TMS

Result: The unrestricted earth fault relay is studied.

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
i. Electric Power Systems by C. L. Wadhwa, New Age International Ltd., India, 6th
edition, (2014)
ii. Power System Protection and Switchgear by Badri Ram, D. N. Vishwakarma, Tata
Mcgraw Hill Education, 2nd edition, (2011)
iii. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution by S. N. Singh, PHI
learning Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2nd edition, (2008)
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To study the operating characteristics of earth fault protection relay.

Observation Table:
Relay current Setting -
TMS

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

 Experiment 10
Aim: To Draw Output char of solar power plant under loaded conditions
Equipment and Apparatus Required: PV module, DC battery, D.C. Voltmeter and D.C. Ammeter, Inverter,
A.C. Ammeter and A.C. Voltmeter.
Learning Objective:
i) To draw the Efficiency vs. Output Power Characteristics of Solar Power plant

Theory: The solar PV system is designed with either mono/ poly crystalline silicon modules or using thin
film photovoltaic cells or any other superior technology having higher efficiency.
Two key elements in a solar cell form the basis of their manufacturing technology. The first is the
semiconductor, which absorbs light and converts it into electron-hole pairs. The second is the
semiconductor junction, which separates the photo-generated carriers (electrons and holes). The two
main categories of technology are defined by the choice of the semiconductor: either crystalline silicon in
a wafer formor or in thin films of other materials.

The grid interactive roof top solar PV system generally comprises the following equipment:
i). SPV Power Source
ii). Inverter (PCU)
iii). Mounting Structure
iv). AC and DC Cables
v). Earthing equipment /material
vi). Junction Boxes or combiners
vii). Instruments and protection equipment

Photovoltaic solar system use the light available from the sun to generate electricity and feed this into
the main electricity grid or load as the case may be. The PV panels convert the light reaching them into
DC power.
The amount of power they produce is roughly proportional to the intensity and the angle of the light
reaching them. They are therefore positioned to take maximum advantage of available sunlight within
siting constraints.
Maximum power is obtained when the panels are able to 'track' the sun's movements during the day
and the various seasons. However, these tracking mechanisms tend to add a fair bit to the cost of the
system, so a most of installations either have fixed panels or compromise by
incorporating some limited manual adjustments, which take into account the different 'elevations' of
the sun at various times of the year.
The best elevations vary with the latitude of the load location.

The power generating capacity of a photovoltaic system is denoted in Kilowatt peak (measured at
standard test conditions of solar radiation of 1000 W per m2).
A common rule of thumb is that average power is equal to 20% of peak power, so that each peak kilowatt
of solar array output power corresponds to energy production of 4.8 kWh per day (24 hours x 1 kW x 20%
= 4.8 kWh) Solar photovoltaic modules can be developed in various combinations depending upon the
requirements of the voltage and power output to be taken from the solar plant. No. of cells and modules
may vary depending upon the manufacturer prudent practice.
Solar photovoltaic modules can be developed in various combinations depending upon the requirements
of the voltage and power output to be taken from the solar plant. No. of cells and modules may vary
depending upon the manufacturer prudent practice
Inverter
i). The DC power produced is fed to inverter for conversion into AC.
ii). The output of the inverter must synchronize automatically its AC output tothe exact AC voltage and
frequency of the grid.
iii). Inverter Efficiency of 98.3% is considered in the PV system.

Protection and Controls:

i). Inverter shall be provided with islanding protection to isolate it from the grid in case of no supply,
under voltage and over voltage conditions so that in no case there is any chance of accident.
ii). In addition to above, PV systems shall be provided with adequate rating fuses, fuses on inverter input
side (DC) as well as output side (AC) side for overload and short circuit protection and disconnecting
switches to isolate the DC and AC system for maintenances are needed.
iii). Fuses of adequate rating shall also be provided in each solar array module to protect them against
short circuit.
Arrangement of PV Modules:-
20 modules in series are joined such that these 20 posseses a total group. Then 4 group of these types are
formed which are joined in parallel connected to inverter (DC output). Inverter has 6 slots for these
parallel connections but only 4 are used to reduce load on inverter. There are 5 inverters, so total 20
parallel connections. Wire from each inverter is connected to LT panel (AC output). Then a single wire
from LT panel goes to Substation for supply

Outline of Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.1

Fig. 10.1 A.C. Inverter Circuit Diagram with solar system

2). Measure the intensity of light by Lux meter and propensity of solar panel for capturing maximum
solar radiations depending upon time of taking readings.
3). Measure the Output values of Voltage, Current, and Power of a solar plant at present load in D.C.
4).Measure the Output values of Voltage, Current, and Power of inverter circuit in A.C.
5). Calculate Efficiency of solar power plant
 6).Draw the curve between Efficiency and Maximum power output.

Fig 10.2 Efficiency of the system based on the available Output Power of the system

Observation Table:
Sr. No. Time Load Vdc(V) Idc(A) Pin(W) Vrms(V) Irms(A) Pout(W) Efficiency
1
2
3
4
5

Result: The efficiency vs. Output power characteristics have been studied for loaded conditions
 Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance:
Registration Number:

Aim: To Draw Output char of solar power plant under loaded conditions
Observation Table:

Sr. No. Time Load Vdc(V) Idc(A) Pin(W) Vrms(V) Irms(A) Pout(W) Efficiency
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):