SEDIMENT DATA COLLECTION IN RIVERS, RESERVOIRS AND LAKES

Manfred Spreafico
Institute of Geography, University of Berne
Switzerland

ABSTRACT

Sediment observations are important baseline information for the optimal use of the water
resources, for the protection against harmful impacts of the water and sediment as well as for
the protection of the water and the environment.
For that reason various types of sediment data are needed. In the paper an overview of the
necessary sediment observations and sediment related information to solve important
problems are presented. Some selected methods and equipments for the measurement of
bed load and suspended sediment issues are shown . Problems related to the measurement
are discussed.

1. GENERAL USERS AND USES OF SEDIMENT DATA DETERMINING THE

NECESSARY SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS

Knowledge of the quantity, quality and dynamics of sediments is essential for managing our
water resources systems. Sediment is an important factor governing the aquatic ecosystems
as well as having a social and economic value. Sediment observations are a necessary basis
for solving major water management problems. They help to ensure that our water resources
are used to the best advantage and at the same time protected, as well as protecting the
population against negative effects. Sediment observations support therefore a large number
of users and uses. See Figure 1.

Flood
protection

Infrastructure Agriculture/
forestry

Tourism Industry/
residential

Recreation Sediment Navigation

quantity
and
Economy quality Water quality

Floodplains Habitats
& marshes

Hydraulic Geo-
engineering morphology

Figure 1: General users and uses of sediment (after Owens et al. 2004)

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2. NECESSARY SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS IN TORRENTS, RIVERS, RESERVOIR
AND LAKES

Type and frequency of sediment observations depend on the needs of the users. They are
needed to describe the most relevant processes and to understand how they are influenced
by natural and anthropogenic changes. The sediment observations are needed for all issues
related to the optimal use of the water resources, protection of the water and the protection
of the poulation against harmful impact of the water. Methods and tools as e.g. soil erosion
assessment, sediment transport equation, methods of assessment of sediment potential and
sediment budget, mathematical and empirical models for rock fall, debris flow a.s.on., risk
assessment procedures, chemical methods to provide qualitative information and decision
support systems need a large number of sediment observations. Sustainable sediment
management is based on sediment observations, but als on ecological, economical and
sociological information and needs, which must be in an equilibrium.

In Table 1 an overview of necessary sediment observations is listed.

Torrents Rivers Reservoirs and lakes

Bed load
Bed load potential
Transportcapacity
(maximum bed load
discharge)
Bed lod discharge during
floods
Bed load discharge graph
Grain size distribution
during flood events
Bed load discharge of
floods of different size
(recurrence intervals)
Suspended sediment
Suspended sediment
concentration
Relation between water
discharge and suspended
sediment concentration
Suspended sediment
discharge
Sediment features
Grain size distribution
Grain shape and
petrography
Bulk density of
accumulations
Table 1: Necessary sediment observations for sediment management
Bed load
Bed load potential
Transportcapacity
(maximum bed load
discharge)
Bed lod discharge during
floods
Bed load discharge graph
Grain size distribution at
flood events
Bed load discharge of
floods of different size
(recurrence intervals)
Suspended sediment
Suspended sediment
concentration
Relation between water
discharge and suspended
sediment concentration
Suspended sediment
discharge
Sediment features
Grain size distribution (as
function of place, time and
water discharge) of moving
and laying bed load and
suspended sediment
Grain shape and
petrography
Specific weight
Transported wood volume
per flood event
Sediment in-and output
Sediment load (to be
determined in in-and
outflowing rivers)
Bed load
Delta survey
Suspended sediments
Suspended sediment
concentration (as function of
time and space)
Turbidity profiles
Composition of suspended
sediments (grain size
distribution,
organic/inorganic,
chemical/mineralogical,
clastic)
Features of adsorption
Sedimentation rate
Volume change by
redeposition and diagenesis
of sediments
Grain shape and
petrography
Composition of suspended
sediments (grain size
distribution,
organic/inorganic, chemical/
mineralogical, clastic)
Transported wood volume
per time

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3. SUPPLEMENTARY SEDIMENT RELEVANT OBSERVATIONS IN TORRENTS,
RIVERS, RESERVOIRS AND LAKES

In Table 2 some selected properties are listed, which are important for the investigation of
sediment related problems.

Torrents Rivers Reservoirs and lakes

Cross section profiles
Longitudinal profiles of
torrents and their changes
with time
Flood traces
Accumulation volumes in
and out of river bed
Volumes of landslides and
bank erosion
Volumes of erosion in
torrents
Waterquality
Channel roughness
Table 2: Supplementery information for solving sediment related problems
River morphology Reservoir, lake geometry
River shape (outlines) Soil mechanic parameters
Cross section profiles Origins of sediments
Bed shape (banks, Rivers
Thalweg, etc.) and the Bank erosion
changes by time including Rockfall
the features derived (Slope, Landslides
accumulation and erosion Avanlanches
volumes etc.) Dust fall
River bed roughness Artificial earth deposits and
Water quality intakes
Longitudinal profiles Chemical and biogenic
production
Dredgings
Survey of extraordinary
events
Bathymetric surveys, delta
formation
Sediment budget of
catchment area
Water quality
Flow measurements

4. MONITORING EQUIPMENTS AND METHODS

In the following some selected methods and equipments for the observation of bed load,
suspended sediment, lake sediment and deltas are presented.

4.1 Measurement of bed load

4.1.1 Measurement with hydrophone installations in torrents

The direct measurement of bed load discharge in turbulent torrents is very difficult and cost
intensive and therefore normally limited to a small number of research stations.
Installations with underwater microphones allow a continues recording of the bed load
discharge. The sensor is positioned at the bottom of a steel slab that is installed in a concrete
check dam. The most important element of the sensor is a piezoelectric crystal. If stones roll
over the steel slab, the strokes of the stones cause oscillations, which are transmitted onto
the piezoelectric crystal. The oszillations make a tension in the criystal, which is amplified
and mesured. From the size of the tension conclusions can be drawn with respect to the
strength of the stroke. An impulse is registered each time the tension exeeds a minimum
value (boundary value). The number of impulses measured per unit time is a measure for the
intensity of the bed load transport. See Figure 2.

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 Discharge
measurement

Steel slab Bed load

Bed load sensor retention Suspended
basin sediment
measurement.

Connection cable

Shelter with data registration

Figure 2: Schematic sketch of a hydrophone installation (BWG,2005)

The installation of hydrophone devices is costly, whereas the expenditures for the operation
and maintenance are low. The sensitivity of the bed load sensors must be checked every 3-5
years.
The analysis of the long-term measurements shows that errors by the transformation of the
sum of hydrophone impulses in maximum could reach +/- 100 % of the bed load discharge.
Therefore a relation between the hydrophone impulses and the real bed load transport must
be determined by calibration. Hereto a sediment retention basin is necessary (See Figure 3).
A periodic measurement of the accumulated sediments in the retention basin allows to
compare the registration of the hydrophone impulses with the transported sediment volume.
In addition water discharge and suspended sediment must be measured.
With such hydrophone stations the direct measurement of bed load discharge e.g. during
floods can be measured. But a sediment retention basin must be available close to the
station.

Figure 3: Relation between the hydrophone impulses and bed load volume in the torrents of
Erlenbach and Pitzbach. On the left side the results of a laboratory experiment is shown.
(Rickenmann, 1997)

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4.1.2 Measurement of bed load volume in sediment retention basins
Bed load volume can be measured in sediment retention basins. Bed load is kept back in the
retention basin and can be measured by profile measurement or registration of the sediment
volume during excavation of the basin. Estimation only is not recommendable.
Since 1987 the Swiss Hydrological Survey operates a network of sediment retention basins.
Goals of this monitoring network are:
- Provision of long term monitoring of sediment load in sediment retention basins in
different types of catchments.
- Harmonization of observation methods
- Centralized data processing and analysis of observations for different users.

In Figure 4 the analysis of the measurements of the last 20 years, structured after geological
formations is shown.

Figure 4: Specific sediment volumes [m3/km2] of catchments in different geological

formations

The set-up of sediment retention basins is costly. Therefore normally the monitoring is taking
place in retention basins, which are part of the protection measures for downstream urban
areas. Because such protection retention basins must be emptied after flood events by the
local authorities, the operation cost of the monitoring network is low.
For the determination of total load single retention basins are sometimes unsuitable, because
often the suspended sediments are washed out. Thats why some retention basins are
installed in series. In the upper laying retention basin bed load is measured, in the
downstream suspended sediment volume is determined. The experiences show that the
accuracy of the measurements is good enough for solving practical problems. The results
from the network already have been used for the setting-up of two expert systems for the
estimation of sediment transport in small mountain catchments (Spreafico et al. 2010).

4.1.3 Bed load measurement in large rivers

The systematic measurement of bed load transport in large rivers is difficult and time
consuming. Normally bed load samplers, e.g. Helley Smith, are used for the measurement of
bed load transport. A more recent type, the bed load sampler Arnheim-Koblenz has been
developed by the Federal Institute of Hydrology in Coblence, Germany (See Figure 5). This
bed load sampler consists of a heavy frame, a sampling basket with a mobile rectangular
mouth (16 to 8 cm) and a so called diffusor between mouth and basket. When lowered to the
river bed the mobile mouth nestles closely to the bed surface. To control the correct hub of
the sampler and the undisturbed inflow of sediment a video camera is mounted directly
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above the mouth. The measurements are made by boat. First the cross section profile is
surveyed by echo sounding. Depending on the width, 5 to 8 verticals are defined, where the
vessel is anchored successively for sampling. The sampler is lowered by a winch to the bed
surface for 5 to 15 minutes, at least three times at each vertical. After each measuring act the
bed load sampler is heaved on deck to collect the trapped sediment for weighing and sieving
in the laboratory.

Figure 5: Bed load sampler Arnheim-Koblenz (BfG, 2008)

The bed load sampler must be calibrated. For a good representativity the measurement
must be repeated at various times, because the size of the transport will vary from time to
time, especially when there are bed forms (dunes) moving over the riverbed. This makes the
quantification of the sediment transport a cumbersome, labour intensive and expensive affair.
Sometimes detailled information about the structure and composition of the riverbed is
needed. In order to get a better understanding of the prevailing channel forming processes,
the Federal Institute of Hydrology in Coblence uses diving-bell watercrafts (See Figure 6) for
the investigation of the riverbed. Such investigations provide e.g. the necessary information
to manage the sediment balance (artificial gravel addition) of navigational river stretches in
the river Rhine.

Figure 6 Diving-bell watercraft Carl Straat (BfG, 2008)

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4.2 Measurement of suspended sediment
A lot of different equipments and methods are used for the determination of suspended
sediments in mountain and lowland rivers.
In alpine rivers of Switzerland suspended sediment concentration is determined by direct
measurement using manual or automatic sampling (See Figure 7 and 8).

Figure 7: Equipment for integrated Figur 8: Automatic sediment sampler

sampling of suspended sediment

The concentration is calculated as the ration between the weight of the filtered matter with
respect to the total sample weight. The concentrations are used to calculate the sediment
load. The operational measurements with manual sampling devices are taken at a
representative point in the measuring section providing a moments concentration value. This
representative point is determined by means of specific concentration measurements over
the whole river width. Based on these specific measurements the most representative point
for the determination of the average suspended sediment transport in the river is selected.
Since the samples are not taken continously, larger flood events can be missed, which leads
to larger uncertainties by the computation of the suspended sediment load. In order to better
interpret the discontinuous concentration measurements, the combination of these
discontinuous concentration monitoring with the continuous turbidity measurements by
nephelometric device is carried-out.
For the estimation of the suspended sediment load the information about concentration and
discharge in continuous form have to be available. The daily suspended load is determined
as a product of the daily average of the suspended matter concentration and mean daily
discharge. While the daily discharge can be determined relatively simple, the estimation of
the daily concentration of the suspended solid is more complex, since the discontinuous
sampling leads to data gaps in the concentration hydrograph curve. Under certain conditions
and assumptions (Grasso, et al. 2007) it is however possible to estimate the suspended
sediment concentration by means of continuous turbidity measurements and to develop a
continuous suspended solid concentration hydrograph curve (See Figure 8).

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Figure 8: Estimation of the daily suspended sediment concentration during the flood of
August 2005 by means of turbity values (CHR 2009)

There are several problems with the measurement of suspendend sediment, e.g. :
- The correlation between the suspended sediment concentration and water discharge is
normally low (See Figure 9) .
Suspended sediment concentration (mg/l)
Suspended sediment concentration

Discharge

Figure 9: Correlation between discharge Figure 10: Suspended sediment

and sediment concentration concentration in different
at the station Linth-Mollis 1976-97 water depths
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- Representativity of sampling point in the cross-section and in the vertical.
The suspended sediment concentration near to the bottom is higher than at the surface
(See Figure 10). This should be taken into account for suspended sediment load
calculation.
- Problem of correlation between turbidity and suspended sediment concentration.
Over longterm measurement periods the concentration between turbidity and suspended
sediment concentration is mostly good enough for practical applications. By monthly time
periods there are monthes with high correlations and others with low correlation, mainly
governed by snow and glacier melt. In March1998 at the station Gsteig in Switzerland a
correlation coefficient of only 0.39 has been calculated, whereas at the same station in
september a coefficient of 0.98 existed (See Figure 11).

March 1998

Tubidity
Turbidity

Figure 11: Correlations in between suspended sediment concentration and turbidity at the
station Gsteig

Therefore for the interpretation of the sediment measurements in addition the rainfall,
discharge and air temperature data must be available.
In 1998 the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland have compared their monitoring
techniques by making simultaneous measurements in the river Rhine. The results show that
despite of the various techniques used, the values of sediment concentration and transport
are in the same range (See CHR, 2000).

4.3 Measurements in lakes and reservoirs

Most of the sediments in lakes are governed by the input of sediments by contributing rivers.

4.3.1 Measurement in delta areas

Delta survey provides an estimate of the total load transported into a lake or reservoir by
rivers. Measurements in the delta area are carried-out by single point measurement in
profiles with the help of a plumb or with echo sounding equipments installed at a boat (See
Figure 12).

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 Delta survey with Echosounding
Sediment input:
1926-32 1.0 x 106 m3 167000 m3 /y
1933-52 4.9 x 106 m3 243000 m3 /y
1953-84 10.4 x 106 m3 324000 m3 /y

Maggia-delta
100209_Combined ISI-
ISI-Inte Management_ Australia 11

Figure 12: Periodic delta survey by echo sounding in the Maggia delta in Switzerland

4.3.2 Suspended sediment observations in lakes and reservoirs

Suspended sediment can be measured e.g. by Ruttner type sampling bottles. Some of them
allow a simultaneous sampling in different depths in a profile. In the sampling point the
closing mechanism is started with the help of a falling weight or through reverse pulling. The
bottle is applicable till a depth of 10 - 15 m. The sediments will be weighted in the laboratory.
The Federal Institute of Hydrology in Germany (BfG) uses a method , which is based on
pumping up of the sediments from different depths and filtering on a boat (See Figure 13).
With the help of a filter the separation of sand and silt fraction can be done. The analysis is
carried-out in the laboratory.
The measurement can also be carried-out by turbidity meters, which has to be calibrated. In
combination with measurement chains containing current meters and flow direction devices,
information related to turbidity flow can be achieved (See Figure 14 and Sinniger (1994)).

Figure 13: Filtering equipment at the measurement Figure 14:

boat of BfG Measurement chain with three
current meters
(1) Sub-surface buoy (2) Recording
unit (3) Flow direction device (4)
Current meter (5) Ballast
The rate of sediment deposition can be measured by sediment traps, sediment gauges and
echo sounding.

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4.3 Sediment coring
With the help of sediment cores important information about the history of sedimentation can
be achieved. Examples of cores are shown in Figure 15.

Photographs of
sediment cores from
reservoirs:
A,B: Core from
Grimselsee: Sediment
from former natural
lakes location showing
diatom-rich gyttja
(dark brown, A)
overlain by 71
proglacial varves (B)
that were deposited
after the first
inundation of the
Grimselsee in 1929.

C: Core from
Oberaarsee showing
details of proglacial
varves. The darker
layers represent fine-
grained sediments that
are deposited during
winter in the frozen
lake.

090625_Ecology and restoration in integrated basin management 293

Figure 15: Photographs of sediment cores from reservoirs in the Aare basin, Switzerland

References
BfG (2008). Unterlagen aus der Bundesanstalt fr Gewsserkunde, Federal Institute of
Hydrology, Coblence, Germany
BWG (2005). Feststoffbeobachtung in der Schweiz, Berichte des BWG, Serie Water, Nr. 8,
Bern
CHR (1996). Spreafico,M. et al., Feststoffbeobachtung im Rhein, Report No II-11of the CHR
CHR (2000). Kos,Th.J.M., Schemmer,H., Jakob,A.. Feststoffmessungen zum Vergleich von
Messgerten und Messmethoden im Rhein. Rapport No I-18 of the CHR
CHR (2009). Erosion, transport and deposition of sediment, case study Rhine, edited by
M.Spreafico and Ch.Lehmann, Report No II-20 of the CHR
Grasso,A., Jakob,A., Spreafico,M. (2007). Abschtzung der Feststofffrachten mittels zweier
Methoden. Wasser,Energie,Luft, 99.Jahrgang,Heft 3
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SedNet Work Package 2 Outcomes, Soils & Sediments 4, 219-222, Landsberg
Rickenmann,D. (1997). Geschiebemessungen mittels Hydrophon, Hydrophone
measurement of bed load transport, Oesterreichische Wasser und Abfallwirtschaft, Jahrgang
49, Heft 11/12
Sinniger, O. (1994). Apports de sediments dans une retenue par courant de densite-mesures
in situ. 12. Conference on large dams,Durban, ICOLD
Spreafico,M., Gertsch,E., Lehmann,Ch. (2010). Methods for the estimation of erosion,
sediment transport and deposition in steep mountain catchments, Web-page of the
International Sediment Initiative of UNESCO, in print

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