It has b een my obj ect i n the prepara

t ion of this work to make it a complete

,

e x positi o n of the theory an d practice of

transmitting power by wire ropes .

No complete treatise on this subj ect

has yet b een published in the E nglish
l anguage although the practical part of
,

the mat ter is well e x plained by the U S . .

Commissioners in their report on the

P aris E xposition of 1 8 6 7 an d by an ex ,

c o llent pamphl et written by W A . .

Roebling C E to which I am indebted

, . .
,

for much practical information .

In E urope this metho d of t ransmitting

,

power has found many ardent supporters .

A mong them I may mention P rof F

, . .

R e u e a x of Berlin
l u w
h o has devoted a
,

number of chapters t o it in his various

scientic publications an d M essrs J J
,
. . .
 4

Rieter Co of Winterthur S wit z erland

.

,
.

Th e latter gentlemen hav e erecte d by

far the greatest number of transmission s
there ; and their engineer M r D H ,
. . .

Z iegler has written quite e x ten sively on

,

the matter .

In this country the J ohn A Roebling s.

S ons Co are the largest manufacturers

. .

It is to the publication s above m en

ti o n e d that much of the matter in th e
,

following p ages is due .

TRANSMISSION OFP OWER

BY WIRE ROP ES .

SECTI ON I .

I NTR O D U CTI ON
.

IT is a noteworthy historical fact that

,

economy in the generation of p ower in

the motor and economy in its utilization
,

in the machine have in most countries ,

, ,

been far in advan ce of its economical

transmission from the one to the other .

E ver since the steam engin e became

an established fact in the hands of Watt ,
inventors h ave been engaged in making
improvements to render it still more e f
cient The i mmen se strides taken in a d
.

vance may be well appreciated by even

the most casual comparison of the e n

gine of Watt s time , with one of the
 6

p owerful an d economical engines of the

p resent .d ay
Not only h ave such ideas as the e x
,

a n s i o n of steam been developed to a

p ,

r emarkable e x tent but even in the small

,

e s t details the watchful eye of th e m e

c hanie has ever been n ding room for

i mp rovement .

In the course of invention the prin

,

c ipl e s up on which the steam engine has

been m ade a practical success have been

d eveloped ; and during the p resent cen
t ury the chief application of inventive
,

genius has b een turne d in the direction

of improvement in the combination of
th e parts of the engine itself There h a s
.

been n o fundamental ch ange in th e con

c e pti o n of the n ecessary p art s of the
s team engin e ; but variou s modicatio n s

o f the mechanism have b een introduced ,

wh ereby the p o wer has been economize d ,

o r the necessary friction of the p art s has

been lessened Inuenced by the same

.

s pirit which h a s characterize d th e s eien

ti c advance of this century ; by the i n

c reasing n ecessity o f more accurate

7

m et h o d s ; forced by th e industri al
an d

co m petition of the age to consider th e

im portance of economy of time and e u
e rg y the improvers of the steam engin e
,

h ave seen th at their inventions would .

be recognized as valuable only as they ,

attained th e same results with increa sed

simplicity of action with less was t e of
,

power in the working of the mechanism ,

or with a less supply of fuel .

A s th e E nglishman Watt in the l ast

, ,

century foun d th e steam engin e an i m

,

p erfect an d wasteful arrangement for

utilizing only a small portion of th e e n
e rg y o f the steam supplied to i t and by ,

his invention of a separate c ondenser ,

an d then by his m ethod of making the

engine double acting made it really a
-
,

steam engin e ; so i n this ce n tury th e

credi t is largely due to A mericans such ,

as A llen Corliss and others for improve

, ,

ments by which in the engines known

,

un der their respective n ames simplicity ,

of constru ction together with perfection

,

of economy in working h ave been se ,

cured .
 8

While in the dep artment of ste a m

,

engineering as well as in the no less i m

,
~

portant d omain of boiler making we are -

,

thus devoting all our energies to i n cre as

ing the efciency of the pri me mover a ,

pa i nful lack of care i s m anifest in the

utiliz ation of the power whic h we pur
chased s o de arly O btaini n g only a
.

small fraction of th e theoretical power ,

it becomes us to husban d it with the

greatest care an d to allow it to do its
,

allotte d work wi th the least p ossible

waste in the tran smission from the prime
mover to the machine .

Y ears ago there were excellent water

wh eels an d by them were driven ma
,

chin es of surp rising ingenuity but the ,

p ower was convey e d to the machi nes by

means of cumbersome wooden shafts ,

upon which were wooden drums for the

driving b elts ; gearing too made of , ,

woo d ; slow moving aw kw ard co n tri v

-
,

a n ce s for th e p urpose and very wasteful

,

of power In O liver E van s
. M ill

wright s Gui de which is recognized as

,

the stan dard book o f hi s time we read ,

 9

of wooden shaf ts wooden drums an d

, ,

wooden gearing only .

A t a later day gear wh eel s were used

,

to tran smit the p ower from the moto r

to the shaft wh i le belts or band s were
,

only use d to transmit the power from

the shafts to the individual machines .

The tran smission of p ower to distan ce s

was accomplished by line s of shafti n g ,

either laid in ditches undergroun d or ,

supported on columns high enough not

to impede p assage beneath the shafts .

But even thi s method was seldom used ,

e x cept i n cases of necessity owing to its

'

immen se rst cost .

A lthough among the most e fcient

means of transmittin g power to short
distances both belting an d sh a f ti n g hav e
,

the disadvantage that when the distance

,

becomes great the intermediate m e ch a n

,
o

ism absorbs an important p ortion of th e

power b y v ibrations friction and resist
, ,

a n ce s of every n ature ; and for a distanc e

,

of several hundre d feet we d o not get

, ,

at one end of the transmission mor e ,

than an extremely small fraction of th e

power applied to the other .
 10

In the case of a m ere dea d pull as i n ,

working a pump work is an d has long , ,

been transmitted to great distances ; as

,

by the long lines of draw rods used -
,

in mining regions to tran smit the power

o f a water wh eel b y mean s o f a crank
-

o n its main axi s pullin g during h alf its

, ,

revolution against a h ea vy weight and

, ,

thus storing up e nergy for th e return

s troke as the rods on account of their
, ,

exibility cannot be used to exert a

,

pushing strain Rotary m otion h o w

.
,

e ver cannot be economically produce d in

,

this manner .

A nother method which h as been much ,

e mployed re ce n tl
y i s that known as h
, y
d ra u l i c connection ; an d A rmstrong has
e ven perfected app aratu s by which water

pressure thu s trans m itted through per

, ,

haps miles of pipe may be converted

, ,

into rotary motion .

Compressed air has also come largely

into u se an d there i s n o doubt th at
,

power may b e tran smitte d to great dis

t ances by raree d or compre ssed a ir and ,

m ay be converte d into rotary motion at

 11

any desired point But in the compres .

sion of air heat is generated ; an d th e

,

latter being con ducted rapidly away by

the sides of the tube the loss from this ,

source alo n e become s very serious An .

other disadvantage incident on both o f ,

th e last two cases is tha t unless the area

,

of the tubes is very large compared with

th e current owing through them the ,

loss by friction rises to a large percent

age o f the p o wer transmitted Th e .

capital to b e sunk in pip es therefore i s , ,

v ery large and both this expenditure

,

and the waste of power increase directly

with the distance .

S uch were some of the method s em

ployed to transmit power to great di s
tances before th e invention of tran s
,

mission o f p ower by wire ropes by the

Brothers H i rn of M ulhausen S witzer
, ,
!
lan d These gentlemen have stated the
.

question of the transmission of p owe r in

th e most general mann er i n d e pe n d ,

ently of the intensity of the pressure to be

See N ti c
o e s ur l a ran s mi ss i o n
t te lo d yn ami que , par
C F Hi rn ( C o l mar
. . ,
 12
O

tran smitted and of the distan ce to be

,

p assed over ; and the solution which they

h ave given to this grand problem is so sim
ple that the app aratu s propo sed seems
, ,

to the casual observ er to be little else ,

th an a more exten ded application of that

c omm onpl ace wrapping connector th e ,

b elt and p ulley The principle involved

.
,

h owever is something entirely d ife re n t

,
.

S implicity al ways the fundament al

,

characteristic of great inventions rarely ,

shows itself more clearly than in as th ey ,

are calle d the telodyn amic cabl es To

, .

a person seeing th em i n operation th ey ,

seem the embodiment of simplicity ;

neverth eless th e Brothers Hirn have th e
,

undi sputed honor of inventing them .

To satisfy themselves on this point the ,

Internation al J ury a t the P aris E x po s i

tion in 1 8 6 7 made a deep research an d ,

examined the patent registers for m a n v

years back but failed to nd anything
,

bearing the least resemblance t o the

telodynamic cab l es .

This metho d of transmitti n g power

depends up on two principles in mech an
1 08 2
 13

( ) Th e dynamic for ce is measured by

1

the product of the force and the veloci

ty with which it moves

( ) In mechanical work power may

2 ,

be exchanged for velocity an d velocity ,

for power .

To illustrate let us suppose a bar of iron

, ,

h aving a cross sectional area of one square

inch to move en dlong at the rate of two
,

feet per second Now if the resist ance

.
,

overcome i s say pounds work will ,

be performed at the rate of foot

pounds p er second Now if we double
.
,

the velocity of th e bar we will tran smit

,

twice the amount of work with th e sam e

strain or the same work m ay be pro
,

d u ce d with only half the form er strain ,

by a bar h aving an area of only half

a square inch In a similar manner if
.
,

we move the bar with the vel ocity em

ployed in telodynamic transmission viz ,
.
,

about eighty feet per second th en while

, ,

doing the same amount of work th e ,

strain on th e bar will be reduced from

5 000 to 1 2 5 p oun ds and the bar will only
,

need a section of 1 40 square inch To

-
.
 14

put an extreme ill ustration we might ,

conceive of a spee d at which an iron

wire as ne as a human hair would b e
, ,

able to transmit the same amount of

work as the original o n e i n ch b ar .
.

By the app l ication of these simple

p rinciples in Hirn s apparatus the greater ,

part of the force is rst converte d into

velocity an d at the place where the
,

p ower is req uired the velocity is change d

,

back into force .

SE CTI O N II .

TH E D R IV I N G W HE E LS .

The con stru ction of the app aratus is

very simple A tol erably large iron
.

wheel having a V sh aped groove in its

,

rim is connected with th e motor an d

, ,

driven with a p erimetral velocity of from

sixty to on e hundre d feet .

Round this wheel is passed a thi n wire

rop e which is led away to almost any
,

reasonable distance ( the limit bei n g

measurable by mil es) where it p asses ,

over a simil ar wheel and then returns ,

 15

as an endless band to the wheel whence

it started .

The p eripheries of the driving wheels

m ay have an angular velocity as great
as possible ; the only limit in fact being
, ,

that the sp ee d shall not b e likely to

d estroy the whee ls by centrifugal force .

The sp eeds which h ave been actually

employed in the examples to which I
propose to refer vary from 2 5 to 1 00
,

feet p er second at the circumference of

,

the pulley .

The wheels themsel ves are made as

light as is consistent with strength not ,

only for the sak e of reducing the inertia

of the moving mass an d the friction on
,

the axis to a mini m um but for the equal

,

1y important obj ec t of di m inishing the

resistance of the air It c an hardly be
doubte d that ab an doning spokes e n
t i re l y an d making the pulley a plain
,

d isc woul d impro v e essentially th e per

,

f o rm a n ce could such discs be m ade at

,

o nce strong enough to f ulll the required

f un cti o il and light enough n ot material

,

1y to increase th e friction .
 F ig n

9
I
I

a
n

0
0

e
 18

Fi g:2

in its rim as previousl y explained In

,
.

the early e xp eriments on the transmission

of power in this manner the rims were
,

made of wood with a leather belt as ll

ing ( see Figs 2 and
,
.

Fig .
3

This kind of rim has n o w gone entirely

out of use and has been replace d by a
,
 19

wheel cast s olid with an iron rim w h os e ,

e dge s in a a single groove d wheel are

, ,

inclined at about twenty v e degrees -

from the vertical ( Figs 1 and

,
. In
some in stances where the ropes were ex
posed to a high side wind the slope has
,

been made as great as but this a

very unusual case .

Fig 4
-

The an gle of if used in a do uble

grooved wheel would give an extre m ely
,
 20

heavy central rib on which account the

,

sides of th e l atter are usually m ade

steeper vi z about 1 5 from th e vertical
,
.
,

.

Wheel s from abou t nine feet in diameter

up are usually cast in halve s an d after
wa rd fastened together on th e shaft In .

order that the centrifugal force may not

become d angerous the perimetral v e l o ci J
,

ty should n o t exceed 9 0 t o 1 00 feet p er

second V elocities up to 9 0 feet h ave
.
.

b e en frequently used without any pre j u ,

d i ci al results wh atever .

SECTI O N III .

TH E D R IV IN G R O P E S .

Th e drivin g rope u sually employed in

this country consists of six strands with ,

sev en wire s to each s tran d ( se e Fig .

The strand s are spun aroun d a hempen

center or core thus obtaining the n e ce s
,

sary exibility .

When wire rop e IS referred to in this

thesis without special qualication it is ,

to b e un derstoo d to mean M essrs J A . . .

R o eblin g s S on s 42 wired roun d iro n
 Fig 5
.

wire rop e The .

diameter of this kind of
rop e is nine time s th e diameter of th e
wire of which it is composed That
.
is
to say if D ,
the diameter of th e rope ,

and d diameter of th e wire then D ,

9d .

The following table gives the weight ,

strength etc of M essrs

.
,
Roebling s .

,
 22

42 W IR ED R O P E
P 1
II I !

3 3 n

i s o
3 . . .
i
o . 0
0
25 % 23%
s

E
s
8 8 n d
e n s
r t

a s 8 u
t
e n
a
s 8 r o p e
o e p c

Es i 35
' e

i
p
8 s
~

s o
r
n
i
i
c
r
n

3
-1

E:
r 0

:1 P

25 3
. . 1 25 2 060 515
1 . 1 62 2 760 69 0
23 1 . 1 89 3300 8 25
22 1 . 23 42 60 1 065
21 1 . 3 5 660 1 41 5
20 1 . 41 8 200 2 05 0
19 g 1% . 5 1 1 600 290 0
18 it 2% . 68 6 1 5200 3 8 00
17 2 2% . 86 1 7600
16 g 2% 24600 61 50
15 1 3 320 00

In the m an af a cture of the rop e the ,

qu ality of the i ron wire must be in spect

e d very carefully i n order to insure d u
,

ra b i l i t
.
y The best wire is that made of
S wedish iron uniting great toughnes s
,

with great tensile strength S teel wire .

has not b een found well adapted for this

work P articul ar attention must b e paid
.

to getting each wire as long as p ossible ,

so as to lessen the numb er of j oints .

 23

In splici n g a wire ro pe the g reatest ,

ca re must be taken to leave no projecti n g

ends or thick parts in the rope O n this .

subject I can do n o better than giv e

,

M essrs Roebling s direction s for maki n g

.

a lo n g splice in an endless running rop e

!
of half inch diameter .

Tool s require d : O ne p air of nippers ,

for cutting o ff end s of strands ; a p air of

pliers to pull through an d straighten
,

ends of strands ; a po i n t to open strands ; ,

a knife for cutting the core ; and two

,

rope nippers with sticks to untwist th e

,

rope ; also a wooden mallet .

Fi rs t He m e the two ends taut with ,

block and fall until they overl ap each

,

other about twenty feet Next open .

,

th e strands of both ends of the rop e for

a distance of ten feet e ach ; cut o both
hemp cores as closely as p ossibl e ( see
Fig . an d then bring the open
bunches of strands face to face so tha t ,

the Opposite strands interlock regularly

with e a ch other .

Se eTr an s mi s s i o n o f P o we r by Wi r e R o pe s by ,

A R o ebli n g C E
.
, . .
 24

Seco n d ly U nlay .any stran d a and , ,

follow up with the strand 1 of the other

end laying it tightly into the op en
,

groove l eft upon unwinding a an d mak ,

ing the twist of the strand agree exactly

with the lay of the open groov e until ,

all but about s ix inches of 1 are laid in ,

an d a h as become twenty feet long .

Next cut o ff a within si x inches of th e

rope ( see Fig leaving two short en ds ,
.

which must b e tied temporar ily .

Th i rd ly U nl ay a stran d 4 of th e
.
, ,

O pposite end and follow up with th e

,

strand f laying it into the open groove

, , ,

as before and treating it p recisely as in

,

th e rst case ( se e Fig Next pursue .

,

the same course with b an d 2 stoppin g , ,

however within four feet of th e rst set ;

,

next with e an d 5 ; al so with c 3 an d ,

d 4
,
W e n o w have the stran ds all l aid
.

into e ach o th e r s pl a ce s with the resp ect

,

ive ends p assing each other at p oints

four feet ap art as shown in Fig 9 ,
. .

Fo u rth ly These end s must n o w be
.

se cure d and disposed of without i n cre as ,

ing the diameter of the rope in the fol ,

 26

lo wing manner : Nipper two rope sl ings -

aroun d the wire rope say six inch es on,

each side of the crossing point of two

strands Insert a stick through the loop
.

an d t wist them in op posite directions ,

thus opening the lay of the rop e ( see

Fig. No w cut out the core for si x
inches on the left and stick the en d of 1
un der a into the place occupied by th e
,

core Next cut out the core in the same

.
,

way on the right an d stick the end of a

,

i n the pl ace of the core The en ds of .

the strands must be straightene d before

th ey are stuck in .

No w loosen the rope nipp er an d l e t

the wire rope close A ny slight inequal
.

ity can b e t aken out by p ound ing the

rope with a wooden mallet .

Next sh i ft the rope nippers and re

, ,

p eat the operation s at the other ve

places .

A fter the rop e h as run for a d ay the ,

local ity of th e splice can be n o longer

detected There are n o en ds turned
.

under or sticking o u t as in ordinary ,

splices an d th e rop e is not increase d

,
 27

in size no r appreciably weak en ed in

,

strength .

I have dwelt so minutely on the pro

ces s of splicing b ecause practical e x
,

ri e n ce h as demonstrate d th at a man
p e

wh o can Splice a wire rope well is some ,

thing of a rarity S ome of the best

.

ship riggers are utterly non plussed when

- -

a wire rope is presented to them to be

spliced ; an d the splice they pro duce is
usually half again as thick as the rop e ,

and utterly u seless for the i ntende d p ur

pose.

When a ro pe has been well splice d an d

kept running its average life is about
,

three y ears .

U p to this p oint I have been speaking

,

of the common wire rope s as generally ,

made and u sed for the p urpose of trans

mitting power viz wire ropes with
,
.
,

hemp centers and also those with wire

,

centers The l atter have not gi ven sat

.

i s f a cto ry results as they wear out very

,

rapidly The only advantages to be

.

gained by using a wire center rat h er

than one of hemp are that the same ,
 28

amount of force may be transm itte d with

a relatively smaller rop e an d th at th e ,

rop e it self stretches less This latter .

d ifculty can be almost ent i rely obviated ,

as wil l b e expla i ned further on ; and as

the ropes with hemp centers are much
more durabl e they are n o w th e only
,

ones used Another d isadvantage foun d

.

in the use of rope s with wire centers is ,

that the splice must be made nearly

twice as long as when h emp is u sed for
th e center This mu st be don e to pre
.

vent th e two ends o f th e \rope from

slip ping out as the cc e i ci e n t of friction
,
-

is n ot so great betwe en iron and iron as ,

between iron and hemp .

A s in splicing the wire center is cut

,

o ff at the Splice and not spliced in it is

, ,

free to move in th e rop e in the direction

of least resistan ce It consequently hap
.

pens that th e wi re center frequently p ro

trudes through the strands of the rope .

This may b e p artly remedie d by sewing

with cord through th e center an d the
outside wires thus fastening them in the i r
,

prop er relative positions In a sh ort .

 29

tim e h owever the center will again pro

, ,

j ect ; we are then comp ell ed to cut off

th e proj ecting en d and repeat the op era
,

tion of sewing with cord ; which doe s

not by any means improve the durability
of the rop e Th e principal difculty
.
,

th e e x cessive wear of th e outer wires is ,

common to both k inds of ropes This .

wear is caused chiey by the friction of

th e wire on the side s of the wheel groove -

W hen the rope for any reason runs u n

, ,

steadily an d swings against the sides of

the groove . The rope s get at in
places an d nally the wires break .

We may keep a tran smission in as

thorough rep air as we will but we can ,

not prevent that at time s there will be

,

more or less oscill atin g an d swinging of

the ropes again st the wheel rim result -
,

ing in the wear above r e ferre d to This .

evil m ay b e greatly obviate d by m aking

th e section of the wheel rim more of the-

form shown in Fig 1 1 B ut this i s at

. .

te n de d with several disadvantages par ,

ti cu l a rl y in the case of double grooved -

wheel s ( co m pare Figs 1 2 an d.

 30

Fi g n

Fig l i z

This woul d i ncreas e the d ii cul ty an d

expense of maki ng the wheels an d woul d
,

h ave the gre at disadvantage that the dis

tance b etween th e rop es would be great
 31

r e sul ting in a considerabl e sid e press

e r,

ure on the bearings of the shafts .

Fig . 1
3

To prev e nt th e wear o f the wires an d ,

t hus to make the ropes more durable ,

h as been the obj ect of several i n v e n

tion s ; all of which were attempts at sur
rounding the wires with a exible an d
durable covering protecting the wire s
, ,

and at th e same time n o t increasin g th e

d ii cul ti e s of splicing It was also
.

thought that if this coul d be made a

,

practical success th e llin g in the wheels

,
 32
I

migh t b e ntirel y dispense d with In

e .

stead o f the rop e running on th e soft

lli ng of the wheel th e soft envelope of ,

the rop e might run directly on the cast

i ron rim Nearly all the e x periments in
.

this di rection h ave failed an d it is only ,

very recently th at the rm of M arti n

S tein Co M ulhausen S witzerland
.
, , ,

have solved this que stion They h ave .

for some time be en ma kin g ropes in

which coarse cotton y arn was spun about
the separate wires the latter being then ,

spun into rop e In this way they o h .

tain e d a soft body between the separate

wires an d also a soft envelop e for the
,

whole rope which when sa turate d with

, ,

a sp ecial resin o us compound is said to ,

b e very durable This kin d of covere d .

rop e stretche s much less than th e com

mon rop e Compari son s made indi cate a
.
,

stretch of only 06 per cent It also seem s

. .

les s subj ect to the v ariation of weather ,

being p artly protected again st sun and

rain by th e coverin g For the same .

reason rusting is not likely to occur

,
.

If in connection with these covered

,
 34

these covered ropes previously well ,

stretched we may doubtles s avoid the

,

various difculties which h ave opposed

and prevented the more general i n tro d u c
tion of the transmission of power by
wire ropes
-
.

S ECT I O N IV .

TH E TEN S I O N ON TH E R OPE .

I sh all rst present the demon stration

of th e friction of a simple band as given ,

in Rankin e s M llwo rk an d M achinery

A e x ible ban d m ay b e used either to

exert an e ffort or a resistance up on a
drum or pulley In either case the tan .
,

e n ti a l force whether e ff ort or re sist

g ,

ance e x erted b etween the ban d and

,

the pulley is th eir mutual friction

, ,

cause d by an d prop ortional to the nor

m al pressure b etween them .

In Fig 1 4 let C be the axis of a pul

.
,

l e y A B roun d an arc of which there is

,

wrapped a exible band T AB T ; let , , ,

th e outer arrow represent the direction

in which the ban d slides or ten ds to ,

slide relatively to the pulley an d the

, ,
 35

Fig . 1
4

inner arrow the direction in which th e

pulley slide s or ten ds to slide relatively
, ,

to the band Let T b e the ten sion of

.
!,
 36

the free part of the band at that side

to wa rd s which it tend s to draw th e pul
l ey or f ro m which the pulley tends to
,

draw it ; T the ten sion of the free part

2,

at the other side ; T the tension of the

,

b an d at any interme diate p oint of its

arc of contact with the pulley ; 6 the ,

ratio of the l ength of that arc to the

radius of the pulley ; d B the ratio of an
,

indenitely small element of that arc to

the radius ; R = T T = the total friction
, ,

b etween the b an d an d the pulley ; d R ,

th e elementary p ortion of the friction ,

due to the elementary arc d 6; f the co ,

e fcient of friction between the m ateri

al s of the band an d p ulley Then it is
.

known that the normal pressure at the

elementary arc d 9 is Td Q; T being the
mean tension of th e ban d at that elemen
tary arc ; consequently th e friction on
that arc is
d s Td e .

No w that friction is also th e di ff er

,

ence between the tension s of the ban d

at the t wo ends of the elementary arc ;
or
 37

'
cz rz
f da z r d e;

which equation being integrated through

o ut the entire arc of contact give s the ,

following formulae :

6
$
hyp log 3 6
0
T
T, 6 f

2
7 ;
-
. .
I
2

R
T T T (1 -
1)
. . . .

When a bel t connects a p air of pulleys

at rest the tension s of its two sides are
,

equal ; an d when the pulleys are set in

motion so that one of them drives the
,

other by mean s of the band it is foun d ,

that the advancing side of the b elt is

e x actly as much tightened as the re
turning side i s sl ackened so th at the ,

m ea n ten sion remains unchanged The .

ratio which it bears to the force R to , ,

be transmitted is given by this formula :

,

f 9
T1 + T2 e +1
6
( )
2
2 R f _1
2 ( e )
If the arc of contact b etween th e ban d
 38

and th e pulley e x pressed in fraction s

,

o f a turn be denoted by 72 then

, ,

f 6 2 72 8 8 f
. n
71 72
; 6 10

that is to say 6 is the a n ti lo g a rzth m

, ,

o r n atu ral number correspon d ing to th e

,

common logarithm f n .

The v alue of the coe f cient of friction ,

f,
depend s on the st ate a n d material of

the rubbing surfaces This coe fcient i s

.

about wh en wire rope is u sed run

ning on leather or gutta p ercha In wire .

rop e transmission 72 inserti n g thi s

v alue an d also the value of f in equa
, ,

tion we get

T T T T 1

R 2 R

In ordinary practice it is u sual ,

to as
sume
T +T
T, = R ; T1 = 2 R ; l 2

2 R
Th is h as been don e i n th e calculation s in
this thesis Th erefore if with a wire
.
,

rop e we wi sh to transmit a certain force

 39

P we must proportion the transverse

,

dimensions of the rope to bear the maxi

m u m strain that will come o n it This .

maxi m um strain will come on the d ri v

ing side of the rope a n d be equal to
twice the force tran smitted i equal ,
.

2 P .

In all the follo wing calculations the ,

strength of the h emp core is left entire

l y out of consideration as it is only used ,

for the pur pose of sec u ring exibility ,

and not for strength If it is an error .

to leave this out it is only a slight on e , ,

an d is on the safe side at that .

Let P = force to be tra n s m i ttte d .

a to ta l cross section al area o f wire s

z -

in rope in square inche s .

t= te n s i o n in pounds per square in ch

of cross sectional area of wires
-
.

Then ta = 2 P ; an d
n z th e number of wires in the rope
42 .

d z d i a m e te r of each wire th en
2 P
'
71
d _

n a
I t
 40

HP . : nu mb e r
of horse p ower to be -

transmitted .

R = ra d i u s of wheel in fe et .

N n um b e r of re v olution s p er mi nute
z .

Th en by the prop er substitutions we

, ,

get :
( )
4
2 3 3 000 P 3 3 000
n Ed a
X
.

4 t 2 7t R N t n RN
1 3 2 000 P
d _

( )
.

5
RN
2
tn 71

A fter substituting for 72 its value ,

42 , we
get :
6
tR N
To nd the value of d from the pre
ceding equ ation s we must know at th e ,

very outset what is the proper ten sion

,

to use in th e ropes The ten sion in th e .

rope is compose d of thre e p arts ; viz .

,

l s t the tension necessary to tran smit the

,

required amount of power with the

velocity of the wheel ; 2 d the tension ,

produce d by the bending of the rop e

around th e wh e el causing the outer ,
 42

bet ween the total ten s ion an d the sum

of the tensions produce d by ben d ing
a n d by centrifugal force .

We will therefore pass at on ce to th e

, ,

c on sideration of the ten sion c aused in

the rop e by ben ding the same aroun d

,

the wheels .

In Figure 1 5 let R
,
radius of th e
Fig . 1
5

wheel d
,
di ameter of a single wire ,

and E modulus of elasticity of wire .

Now it is app arent th at when the rope is

 43

compelled to b en d to th e curve of the

wheel the outer bres of each wire will
,

be extended and the inner one s co m

pressed while the center ( the neutral
,

axis ) will remain unchanged in length .

A s the strain varies with the size of th e

wheel becoming greater as the wheel is
,

made smaller an d vi ce v6rs a it is of i m

, ,

portance t o determine what should be

the relation b etween the diameters o f
the wire and of the wheel In ordinary
.

practice this ratio ranges bet ween

and
If in Fig 1 5 we con sider the arc
.
,

which subtends the angle 0C the length ,

71:
Of the neutral axis will b e R (I .

1 80
But the outer m ost ber subtends the
same angl e with a radius R
'
71
th erefore its length must be R+
,
1 80
OC. The amount by which the outer
wire has been e x tended is evidently the
difference between these t wo lengths ;
the extension
 44

7: d 7: d
A QC 0C ( )
7
2
'

180 1 80

If t = te n s i o n pro duce d in the rop e by

0

b en ding then from the d enition of the

, ,

modulu s of elasticity the q uotient o b ,

ta in e d by dividing the force which pro

duce s the displacement by th e amount Of

the extension w e get ,

7t
6 17..t
;


0

OC
1 80 2

Ed

R E
d 2 t
( 1 )
0

From these equation s th e ten sion may

be d etermined For the elasticity of
.

iron wire w e may take the mean of vari

ous experiments ; viz lb s .
, .

S ubstituting this value of E an d also .

D
i n tro d u cl n for l
c i ts value we have
g 9
f orthe ten sion p er square in ch cause d
by ben ding
 45

D D
t 2 8 000000 l 55555 5 ( )
1 1

IB R R

S ubstituting in equation ( 1 1 ) some of

th e p robable values of the ratio we

get the following table

1
.; to
3 to

40 3 8 88 8 1 20 1 2963
45 345 70 130 1 1 9 65
'
50 311 1 1 1 40 1 1 11 1
55 2 8282 1 50 1 073 0
60 2 5925 1 60 9 72 2
65 23 93 0 1 70 9150
70 2 2222 1 80 8 642
75 20740 1 90 8 187
80 19444 200 7777
85 1 83 00 210 7407
90 1 7284 22 0 71 61
95 1 6374 230 6763
1 00 1 55 5 5 240 648 1
1 10 1 41 41 250 6222

This table is somewhat interesting as ,

it shows clearly the cause of the rapid

wear of the ropes when running on small
f
pulleys . When the ratio
I ; is large the
,
 46

t e n sio n varie s but slightly with small ,

ch ange s in th is ratio ; while if the latter

i s belo w abou t 1 00 the ten sio n increase s
,

R
at a much faster rate than decreases .

D
R

O n the o n e hand a th e ratio
s ,
decrease s ,
ID
the wheels become smaller and l ess e x
pen sive ; but on the other hand we get
, ,

s o g reat a strain on the rop es that they

q uickly wear out We must therefore .

,

s eek to n d a point at which the com

b in e d re sultant economy may be as great

as possible This will be considered fur
.

ther on .

We will n o w take up the discussion of

the centrifugal tension using th e dia ,

gram i n Fig 1 5 . .

Let Rz ra d i u s of wheel in feet .

wz we i g h t of the rope per running

foot .

vz v e l o cit y of th e rope in fee t p er

second .

m c
2
w
Then th e centrifugal force
R g R
 47

But the ten sion in an are pressed n or

mally by any f o rce p i s 10R ; consequent
l y the cen tr if u g a l ten s i o n

20 NR
t 03 1 06 2021 12
g R

If we wish to express the velocity

d i e re n tl y we may write when N
, ,

numb e r of revolution s p er second

,

7: R N v R N introducing this
2 2
,
4
:

value of c we have ,

R N ( )
9
20 13

While the rope is passing aroun d th e

wheel it is subj ected to a tension T
, ,

which is equal to the s u m of these thre e

sep arate ten sion s But in any given
.

case we may evidently vary the com

,

ponent ten sions at pleasure provide d we ,

keep the total tension T constant .

We h ave previously (equation s ( 5 ) an d

determine d the diameter of the
wires in term s of the tension t But .

we n o w wish to introduce the total ten

sion T into this formula Bearing in
,
.

mind that t T t t an d multiply

:
o ,,
 48

n
g q uation
e
( )
5 by the value of d, in
e quation we get
1 3 2 000 2 to H P
d

x
7: n E T to t2 1\
T

2 64000H P . . t0

X C O

n n E N t

Having no w obtained an equ ation in

t9
t ro d u ci n g the ratio we must know
2 ,

how this i s to be deter m ined i e what ,

. .
,

con ditions control the magnitude of t o

an d t with re spect to T .

( In all the followin g calculation s the ,

centrifugal tension is not taken into

con sideration as it only amounts to 2 5 0
,

p ounds even i n an e x treme case This

,
.

i s a small quantity comp ared with the

other tensions on the rope and would ,

lead to a needless complication of for

mul ac) These conditions are two in
.

number ; l s t the size of wheel th at may

,

conveniently be employed ; 2 n d the re ,

s u l ti n g deection or sag in th e rop es the ,

l atter being again subj ect to various con

d i ti o n s such as the availabl e height etc
, ,
.
 50

This relation being in dependent of

,

the number of wire s and of th e shap e of

the rop e will of course hold good for
,

a rope of any size an d of any shape of

cross section This shows the adapt a
-

bili ty of this last formula to ropes of

at or rectangular cross section whic h -

have been used to a limited extent for

transmitting power From this formul a .
,

we see that in the case most favorable to

small size of whe el s the tension caused ,

by bending is twice as great as the d i rect

tensional strain The minimum value of
.

R is however rarely used in practice

, , ,

for a reason which will be shown pres

ently It may however be re marked
.
, ,

here that with a small working tension

,

t the dee ction or sag of the rope i s

,

greater than that with an increased ten

sion ; so that in determining the ratio i
t
we must take int o con sideration the
available height of the wheel s abo ve th e
ground This point will be considered
.

in the ne x t section .
 51

S ECTION V .

TH E C A TEN A R Y .

If a rop e or other exible continuous

line b e secured at t wo p oints and loaded
co ntinuously between them according to
any l a w it wil l assum e some denite
,

curvilinear form When the loa d is the

.

weight of the rope only the curve i s ,

calle d a catenary .

S uppose that th e rope is xed at the

points A an d B ( see Fig and that .

the only force in operation is the weight

o f the rope i e the load is a continuous
, . .

and direct function of the length of arc .

Take the origin of co ordinates at any -

point on the cur ve ( C ) the axis of Y o ,

being vertical and the axis of X horizon

tal All our forces being in on e plane
.
,

th e axis of Z is of course unnecessary .

Let t ten sion at any point as a
:
,
.

t0= te n s i o n at the origin C .

0
horizontal component of the ten
X o

dx
sion at Co = t
ds
Yo vertical component of the ten

dy
sion at Co z t
ds
 52

X = horizontal comp onent of applied

forces bet ween C and a 0
.

Y = v e rti cal component of applie d

forces between C and a o
.

( la: dy
, , WI11 b e th e cosm es of th e
d8 d8
angles which the curve makes
with i ts resp ective axes and re ,

solving t we h ave
la:
t
f z h o ri z o n ta l component of te n s w n ,
( ls

(l
th y -
v e rt1 cal component of tens i on ,

Consequently from the principles o f

,

M echanics we must have for equilibri um

, ,

d
x + xo + r
(Is

d,
( 18 )

Th ese equation s are perfectly general

for any case in which the applied force s
are I n one plane .

To get a more denite result for the

case under con sideration we will take ,

the origin at the lowest point C and th e ,

 54

axis of X tangent to the curve at that

'
or
and 12
0
point ; this will make _ 1 0,
d8 d8
as the weight acts vertically ,

With these sub stitutions we get

7
( 1 a:
+ to = 0

t
ds
d ( 19 )
y
Y+t
0
ds
Let w= we i g h t per running foot of rop e ,

an d s = l e n g th o f curve in feet ; th en 203

weight of the rope ; and as this is the
only vertical force we have ws = Y
, .

This reduces the above equations to

the following

d x
t 25
ds
d ( 2 0 )
y
ws
i
t
d8
E quation ( 2 0) shows that the horizon
tal component of the tension is equal to
the tension at the lowest point i the , .

ho rizontal component of the tension is

constant throughout the curve We also .

observe that the vertical component o f

the tension at any p o int is equal to the
 55

weight of so much of the rope as comes

between the origin and the p oint co n s i d
ered .

D ividing the rst of equations ( 2 0) by

the secon d we get ,

dx to

dy 3
1 8
( 2 1 )
which shows that th e tangent of the
angle varies inversely as the weight of
the rope .

D i e re n ti a ti n g equation ( 2 1 ) we have
dy w
) ( )
2 2
d s but d s d x d y
dw
,
t o

x 0

1 d oc
O

S ub sti tut i ng th i s value ,

o

.
,
dx
we have after transposing
,

3 d aze
:
0
( )
2 2

Integrating equ ation we obtain

20
2
t0 d 0:
was

be wrl tte n t0
V
Q

Th i s m ay
0

e
dm
 56

transp osing we get ,

was

6
dx
S quaring this equation we get
2 wx wm
t t
cly dy
6 2 6 1+ ( 2 3 )
Reducin g and clearing of fractions we ,

get
wm ww
( )
2 4
6

Integrating the above e quation we ,

oh

tain
ma: ma:
to to to o

y 6 +6
2 20 w

20% wx

m:
t t t t
e +e ( >
2 5

which is the equation of the catenary .

To bring this e quation into a simpler

an d more manageable form we will ,

tran sfer the origin of coordin ates to C l

,
 58

t t
-
2 +e

S: ! o
yo 2

E quation ( 2 8 ) give s us the length of

a re when the runni ng weight of the rop e ,

t
and the ratio are known . The weight
O f the rope is always known in any given
case .

I
t9
To nd the val 1 e of we proceed as
0 ,

follows
Let A = total deection or greatest ordi
n ate of the curve .

S sp an between supp orts

: .

Then for the lowest point the ordi

, ,

t
n ate is d the abscissa
yo A +
3 ; an at :

i s .S ubstituting these values in equa

tion ( 2 6) and re ducing we get ,
 to 2 a
w 20 S w S ( 2 9)

2 t 2 t0
6 2

The equation just foun d is not su s

ce ptib l e of a direct solution ; so that it

becomes necessary to nd the value of

t
by a method of approximation . This
20

will be done in the n ext sec t ion ( VI ) .

Let L = to ta l length of rope between

supports ; then from equation
( 0)
3

s V 2 A tO
t.,
L _ 2
A +
w w 20
2

To n d the tension at any point w e ,

know that from the parallelogram of

forces
2
dy
9
/2 d a;
t : t t
ds d3

We substitute in this equation the

values obtained from equation and
get
2
,
/2
w 8 + t0
2 2 2
w
2 2 2 2
t 2 :
+ to _ z0

t z wy o ( )
3 1
 60

The tension t is a maximum at the high
est points . The ordinates for these
t
points being A we have
+
j
7
,

The vertical component of the tension at

'

th e h i g h e s t poin t is of course ,

20

Th e tangent of the angle which the a

,

c urve at the highest point makes with

, ,

203 20L
the axis of X, i s tan a

t0 2 t0

2wA 5
2 3
2 t ii

( )

A + 34
20 to t0

We h ave n o w developed all the necessary

equation s of th e catenary ; but before
applying them a f e w remarks on the
,

peculiarities of the curve as shown by ,

its equations may not b e out o f place

,
.

E quation ( 2 6) sh o ws that the catenary

rises symmetrically o n both sides o f the
 61

axis of Y and becomes p arallel to the

,

sam e only at an innite distance .

The angle increases with the ordinate

a

y; when y becomes innite ,

a :

wh e n y o, a : 0
.

t
The line C C I, is called the para
meter of the curve ; and th e line BB
last used as the axis of abscissas is ,

called the directrix .

t
be
O O

The value of the vari es

13 11 0
1

n
to
t ween zero and i nn i ty . 0 when A
oo for in this case the two exponent s
t0
in equation ( 2 6) also become zero
w
oo wh e n A
,
0 because the two expo
,

n e n ts then each equal unity The value .

t
of is al ways v ery large when A is ,

small as i t al ways is in transmitting

,

power b y wire rope .

A s will be seen from e quation s ( 3 1 )

and the tension in the rope i s di
re ctl
y prop ortional to the weight of the
 62

latter The te n sion reach es its maximum

.

at A a n d B and h as its minimum at C

, ,
'
where t t 0

W hen A is small there is very little

'

difference between to an d t an d as is
w
a l wa v s very large the result s obtained
,

from equation s ( 2 9) an d ( 3 1 ) will n ot

differ greatly .

The tension t t 00 when A z
o ,

this shows the impossibility of stretching

a rope so as to b e perfectly horizontal
because even when it i s h au l ed as taut a s
may be there must always be a nit e
,

value of A existing .

SE CTI O N V I .

APP R O X I MA TE S O L U TI O N OF C A TE N A R Y .

In practically applying the preceding

equation s of the catenary we meet with ,

con siderable dif culty which is owin g t o ,

t
th e fact that th e p arameter can only
be obtained from a transcen d ental equa
tion.
 63

But in such work as forms th e subj e ct

O f this thesis we can pursue a frequen tly
,

used method of ap proximation which is

-

abund a ntly accurate for all our purp o ses .

The exact equations o f the ca te n a rv a s ,

we have deduced them are of co urse ,

applic a ble ; but as we have lef t the s t iff

,

n ess of the rope o ut of cons id eration a n d

,

assumed it to be perfectly exible th e ,

shape of the curve is n o t expressed with

m a th e m a tl ca l exactit u de by even these
equations For this reason alone it
.
,

might be permissible to use approximate

formul ae but we h ave a stil l gr e ater
right to use the m bec a use the d e e c ,

tion A is alway s a very small fraction of

the span S a n d there f ore the par a m e
, , ,

to
ter 13 always ver y large .

w
Con sequently in equation ,
the
20 S
ex ponent is a small f ra ctl o n ; and
2 t0
we can without committing any great
,

e rror express its value by the series

,

20 S
w 8
3 3
2 to 20 S 20
2
8

6 1+ 3 +
2 to
 64

MS
2
S
2
2 to 20 10 8
6 1 3
+
2 to 2 x 3 x s r,

Taking the rst four terms o f these

series an d substituting them i n equa
,

tion we get

to 2A 2A S
w 20
2
S
2
20
2
S
8 A (3 5)
2
4t
_2
4 to

,

S ub stituting the same terms of a simi

lar serie s in equation we get
w m

t t
2 +
yr
2 w 2 to w 4 150

to was
y
w 4 to
2
S
36
8A 4 25,

This is the equation of a parabola

2

h aving a p arameter of so th at our

4A

method of approximation has le d us to

con sider th e curve as a parabola

.

to S
S ubstituting the value 1n equa
20 8A
 66

SE CT I O N V II .

DE FL ECTI O N OF TH E R OP E .

In order that the rope may be sub

j e ct e d to a proper tension the deection
,

o r sag must be of a certain magnitude

while the rope is at rest ; we must also

know the sag of th e rop e wh i le in
motion in order to estimate the n e ce s
,

sary elevation of the wheels There are .

therefore three deection s which we

must determine l s t that O f the driving
,

side while in motion ; 2 n d that of the ,

following side while in motion ; 3 rd that ,

of both sides when the rope is at rest .

Let the deection at rest be calle d A 0 .

When we start one o f wh eels the d riv ,

ing side of the rope rise s an d the fol

l ow ing side is depressed until th e dif
,

ference of their tensions is equal to the

force to be transmitted when the d ri ven
,

wheel will begin to move ; in this con

dition we will call the deection o f the
d riving side A and that of the follow
,

ing side A ,
.

'

We must know the d e e cti o n at rest ,

 67

A in order to determin e the prop er

O, ,

length of rop e ; so th at when it is put

on and sp l iced we m ay feel certain that
, ,

there will be neithe r any slipping during

the motion n or any serious strain on the
,

rop e its elf The deection s A an d A

.
I ,,

as before stated must be known in , ,

order to determine in advance wh at ,

position the rop es will take while in

motion h o w near they will approach the
,

ground or other obstruction s an d h o w ,

many if any carrying she aves are re

, ,

quired .

By solving equation ( 3 8 ) for A we ,

get for the value Of the deection

A
2w 8

No w, we have seen in S ection I V , that

if the force at the circumference of the
wheel is P then to nd the deection A
,
1

of the driving side t 2 P To nd ,
.

the deection A of the follo win g side 2 ,

t P Lastly to nd the deections A

.
,

o f both sides while at rest t g P .

In ap plying equation ( 42 ) and all other

 68

equations containing t it is to be born e

,

in mind that t is not the tensi on per

square inch but is the whole tension on

,

the rope .

From this equation it is evident that ,

the tension has a great inuence on the

deection of the rope Thi s is best .

shown by an e x ample S uppose that .

,

with a span of 4 00 feet we are using ,

a i t inch rop e working under a tension

of pounds By making the proper
.

sub stitutions in equation (4 2 ) we get

3 000 2

A
3 000 ( 4 00) ft .

No w if we had the same rop e working

un der a ten sion of only pounds the ,

deection would b e
i

2 4 00 2 4 00
5 8 ft
1 -3 72 8

Th us a d i e re n ce in tension of only 6 00
,

poun d s causes a di ff erence in deection

,

of three feet .

In both these cases the rop e will work

,

equally well if the size of the wheel has

,

b een prop erly selected ; b u t in most

 69

cases it is not a matter of indi ff erence

,

whether the rop e has a deection of two

feet or of ve feet .

The small er deection is usually to b e

preferre d as it requires a less elevation
,

for the wheels O n the other h an d with

.
,

a very short Span the g reater deection

is generally preferable .

It is therefore evident that we cannot

, ,

decide on any denite ten sion to b e use d

in all cases but that we must select it
,

for every different case using a greater ,

tension as we want a less deection an d ,

vi ce vers a .

But in order that th e rop e may work

equally well in any case we must as , ,

previously explained keep the s u m of

,

the various tension s con stant , i e qual .

to the ultimate strength of the rop e di

v i d e d by th e factor of safety By a .

proper adj ustment of the tension we ,

can in nearly all cases bring th e d e e c

, ,

tion to any desired amount ; but there

is still another wa y to accomplish thi s
end as follows
,

G enerally we are not compelled to

,
 70

make the upper side of the driving rope

act as the driving si de but we can ofte n
,

use the lower side for this purpose In .

that case the greater deectio n of the

lo wer side takes place while the rope is
at re st ( S ee Fig
. When in motion ,

the lower side rises above this position ,

an d the upp er side sinks thus enabling u s

,

to avoid O bstructions which by the other

, ,

way would have to be removed O f '

course this expedient cannot always be

employed as the upper side of the rope
,

must not b e allowed to sink s o far as to

p ass below or even to touch the lower
side If this occurs the rop e begins to
.
,

sway and j erk in a serious manner wear ,

ing out very rapidly .

The shor te st distance between th e

ropes is 2 R ( A
,
We must ,

therefore always b e careful in using

, ,

this plan to see that 2 R > A

, A , ,
.

This result may often be obt ained by a

j udicious selection of the tension and of ,

the diameter of wheel .

By the application of the equations

gi ven in this and the preceding sections ;
 72

we may sol ve all the problems which

p resent themselves in designing a wire
rope tran smission The following table .

which is taken from M r W A Roebling s . . .

p amphlet previously referre d to will be

, ,

found of great value in designing giving ,

as it does the most suitable proportion

,

for general use Its u se is self evident

.
-

an d it need only be remarke d th at where ,

there is a ch oice betwe en a small wheel

with fast sp eed and a larger wheel with
,

slower sp eed it is u sually preferable to

,

t ake the larger wheel .

TA B L E OF T R A N S MI SS I ON OF P O W E R BY

W IR E R O P E S -
.

D i am e Num b er Tra d e D i am e
te r of of Ho rs e
No of of
Wh e el Re v o l u
. te r

in Fe e t . ti o n s . Ro p e . ROp e . P owe r .

80 23 3 p o
c

%
1 1 00 23 3

g H
1 20 23 3% g
k- 1 40 23 3
:
pm
mw
I

O 22 1
1 6
Y

O H8 22 1
1 6 ma
M l

t
22 7
16
'
h o
U 22 1
1 6 H w
Q 21 It Ho
D i am e Nu m b er Trad e D iame
te r of of N0 of te r o f
Hors e
Wh e e l Re v o l u
.

in Fe e t . ti o n s . Ro pe . Ro p e . P owe r .

11 1 20 19 8 +3
18
11 140 19 g 44
18
12 80 18 4% 3
17
12 1 00 18 4%
17
12 1 20 18 1% 3
17
12 1 40 18 H ,

17
13 80 18 H; 1 12 .

17
13 100 18 as g 1 40 .

17
13 1 20 18 H; 1 68 .

17
14 80 17 1 48 .

16 1 41 .

14 1 00 17 1 85 .

16 1 76 .

14 120 17 222 .

16 21 1 .

15 80 17 {i 4 21 7 .

16 2 17 .

15 100 17 3 g 2 59 .

16 2 59 .

15 1 20 17 g 3 00 .

16
 p.
( 0

S E CTI ON VIII .

L I MIT S O F SPA N .

It becomes interesting to know b e

t ween what limits the span may vary ,

without giving impracticable results .

The least practicable span is that in

which the deection of the rope becomes
so small th at the latter cannot b e hung
,

freely on the driving wh eels so that ,

spec ial tightening devices must be used .

A s such may be mentioned tightening

sheaves and moveable pillow blocks O f -
.

course it cannot be claimed that such de

vices make the transmission to o compli
ca te d but this merely changes th e i n v e s
,

ti g ati o n for the lower limit of the span

into on e for th e l i mit at which such
special devices become n ecessary To .

nd the minimum value of the span we

proc e e d as follows : From e quation
we get an expressi on for the sp an in .

t erms of t w an d A

,

V (:
S 8 A

By placing the minimum allowable


t
values of A an d in th i s equati on we
;
I
,

will get an expression for the smallest

value of S We will the refore assum e
.

that th e deection sh all never be les s

than 8 inches foot an d th at the ratio
2
,
/
t
shall n ever go below 5 00. Introducing
70

these values we get S 4/ 8 X g ( 5 00

fe et We thu s se e th at the limit
.

Fig . 1 8
 77

is very l o w allowing u s to use a free

,

transmission for so short a distance as

5 1 feet .Below this shafting will usual ly
,

be fo und preferable an d le ss trouble

so m e
.

Fig . 1
9
 78

When the distance of transmis sion

m aterial ly excee ds three or four hundred
feet or when there is n ot su f cient height
,

a vailable for the sag of the rop e the ,

latter must b e supp orted at intermediate

p oints by ca rry i n g s h ea ves S ometimes
.

it is su f cient to s u pport only the lower

following side of the rope and gene ,

rally whatever th e number o f sh eaves

, ,

the driving side is supported at one less

point than th e following side The sam e .

number of sheaves may however be

, ,

u sed placing one over the other Th e

,
.

sh eaves mu st never be placed side by

side as has been som etimes do ne to th e
,

great detriment of th e transmission To .

save still more room we may where

, ,

practicable make the lower rope the

,

drivin g side as previously expl ain ed

,
.

The mann er of arranging carrying

sh eav es and intermediate station s is
shown in Figures 1 8 2 9 in clusive The
-
.

s heaves supporting the driving side of

the rope must in al l cases be of equal

diameter with the driving wheels ; and
this for th e sam e reason that the l atter
 79

a re u s ually made of so large a diameter .

For whether the rope laps half wa y round

o n the driving wheels or only quarter
,

way roun d on the carrying sheaves ,

makes no di ff eren ce the tension due to

bending is the same in both cases With .

the following sid e however a somewhat

, ,

s m aller wheel may be used owing to the

,

fact th at there is less strain on this side ,

a n d it is th erefore better able to st and

t h e additional tens i on due to bending .

The system of carrying sh e aves may

generally be replaced by that of inter
mediate stations Wh en this is u sed we
.
,

have at each station in stead of two car

,

r in
y g sheaves one
,
double grooved wheel .

The rope instead of runni n g the whole

,

length of the transmissio n runs only ,

from one station to the other It is a d .

visable to make th e station s equidistant ,

so that a rope may be kept on hand ,

ready spliced to put on the wheels of

,

any sp an shoul d i ts rope give out This

,
.

method is greatly to be preferred where

there is sometimes a jerking motion to
the rope as it prevents the rop e from
,
 82

tran smitting any sudden movements of

this kind .

The supports for th e station s are

variou s Th ey range in dimen sion s an d
.

Fig 2 2
 83

style from the sim ple wooden frame

shown in Fig 1 8 an d the iron one of
.
,

Fig 1 9 to the more ornamental form of

.
,

masonry ( Figs 2 0 and 2 1 ) an d then to

.
,

such immen se masses of masonry as are

shown in Figures 2 2 2 9 In E urope the.
,

supports are usually built of mas onry ,

while in this country wood is chiey used

, ,

b e i n g b o l te d to a masonry foun dation b e

l o w the reach of frost (.In conn ection
with Figures 2 0 and 2 1 I may say that ,

the wheel there sh own is one that is j ust

Fig 23
 84

coming into us e It consists of a cast

.

iron hub and a rim which are unite d by

,

sixteen tension rods ) When a wooden

.

frame is made to support the whe el it

,

24.
 85

must be rmly braced side ways to keep

-
,

the wheel in the proper pl ane but end ,

bracing is n o t required as there is no

,

tendency to push it in either direction .

To nd the press ure on th e bearings of

one of the double grooved wheels the
-
,

simplest method is by construction .

M ake A B : and IIT B C,

and IIT
,

C D and t D E _ and IIt E F ver

, n

Fig 12 5

Compagnie G n rale de B elle g arde .

Carrying S heaves Horse P ower) -

.
 86

tical an d th e weight of the pulley and

shaft then th e line connecting A an d E
,

is the intensity and direction o f the re

s ul ti n
g pressure .
( Se e Figures 3 0 a n d

When the rope is put on the W h eels it is ,

best to use an arrangement similar to

that shown in Figures 3 2 and 3 3 It is .

bolted to the rim of the W heel as shown .

If it is required to change the d ire c

tion of the rope at some s tation it can ,

be done by the interpolation of horizon

tal sheaves or by connecting the vertical
,

driving wheels by bevel gear The lat

-
.

ter is more usually employed ( S.ee

Fig ures 3 4 and

S ECTI ON IX .

SP E C I AL C AS E S .

It sometimes h appens that the two

,

Wheel s are not at the same height as , .

has been hitherto supposed but that on e ,

is at a higher level than the other This .

frequently h appens W here it is desired to

u se the power of waterfalls in a ravine ,

or in con ducting power up or down the

 87

si d e of a hill The rop e then takes a

.

position similar to that shown in Fig 3 6 . .

If the di ff erence in height is slight ,

we can m a ke u se of the formul ae already

found without any serious error But
, .

if it is great we must take a different

,

wa y for in this case the tension s at the

,

points of suppor t are not the same the ,

lower on e having a less ten sion th an the

one above This somewhat complicat es

the problem causing us to proceed as

,

follows : We rst make all the calcula

tions for the lower wheel with the d e e c
tion A and th e span 2 S ; we then nd
, ,

the tension in the rope at the upper

wheel an d proportion the diameter of
,

the latter according to rules previously

given so that the total tension shall not
,

excee d the ultimate strength divi de d by

the factor of safety To d o this we
.

must rst determine S this can easilyI

be done from the property of the para

bol a th at
 91

a proper deection is obtai ned It then .

becomes a matte r; of ease to m easure S t

and S and to make all the necessary cal cu

2,

l a ti o n s We can in this wa y try di ff erent

.
, ,

deection s and observe their suitability

to the design but must alway s bear in
,

mind wh ether we are getting th e d e e c

,

Fig . 2 9

I n t ermediate S tation H o rse

P ower) .

Compagnie G n ral e d e Bellegard e .

( See E ngi neer, vo l . 3 7,

 92

tion of the d ri ving or of the follo wing

side or that of both si de s at rest This .

method though not giving as grea t ao

,

curacy as the solution o f the above equa

tion is neverthel ess largely used in prac
,

tice owing to its grea t convenience It

,
.

may be used when the pulleys are on

the same level sho wing between what
,

limits we can work .

Another peculiar case is when the rope

rises nearly in a vertical direction Thi s .

is the limi ting case of the inclin ed trans

mission The rope prod uces n o t ension
.

whatever on the lower wheel while at ,

the upper wheel th e tension is only

equal to the weight of the rope E ve n .

this last ten sion is such a small quantity

as to be left entirely out of con side ra
tion and we are consequently obliged to
,

use some device for producing the re

q u i s i te ten sion
. Figures 3 7 3 8 and
,
3 9
show various ways of accomplishing this
obj ect by means of tightening sheaves .

In Fig 3 8 as the rope passes around

.
,

the wheel twice the same mus t be pro

,

vi d e d with t wo grooves Instead of

.
 93

the se tightening sheaves we may when , ,

practicable put up two carryin g sheave s

, .

as shown in Fig 3 9 so as to have hori

.
,

z o n ta l stretch enough to obtain the te n

sion necessary .

S ECT I O N X .

P R A CTI C AL D I FFI C U LT I E S .

In the transmission of power by w ire

ropes the greatest attention must b e
,

paid to keeping the ropes an d the linin g

of the wheels in thorough repair E ven .

when th e ropes are exceedingly taut on

th e wheel at rst it has been found by
,

e x perience that after a short time th e

, ,

ropes stretch considerably This cause s .

th e ropes particularly in summer to sag

, ,

so much as to incapacitate them from

transmitting the whole force causing ,

them to slip on the wheels ; or the ropes

begin to drag on th e groun d or othe r
obstructions This evil may be p artiall y
.

remedie d by shortening an d again spl i

cing the rope which however should be
, , ,

avoided as long as possible as th e rop e ,

 94

is ruined more rapidly by several re

splicings than by long running un der
,

th e regular working tension . I m ust

remark that a wire rope stretches more
as the wires make a greater angle wi th
the axis of the rope ; but as a rop e hav
ing its wires parallel to the axis would

H
g
.
3o
 95

be useless we must strive to keep the

,

angle at its minimum value .

E xperiments made with a view to

st retching the ropes before putting them
use not been very successful .

Fig .

3 !

.
.
u
r

o
 96

It i s only lately that the problem has

been partially solved by a method o f
compressing the rop es while subj ectin g
them at the same time to a great ten
, ,

sio u al strain Wire ropes

. wire

Fig .

32

ce n te i s as sol d in the market are stretch

, ,

ed in this m anner from 2 2 to . p er cent .

Wire ropes with hemp cente rs as gen ,

e ra l l y employed for the transmission of

power are stretched from 71 to

,
.
 98

sion an d deection in the rop e and we ,

are often comp elled to use other means

to restore to the same its original tension .

The simplest and most e ff ective way

of attaining this end is by re ll in g the -

rims of the wheels i e by increasing

, . .
,

their respective diameters to the proper

amount which is done in the followin g
,

manner ( S ee
. Figs 4 0 . Fig 4 0 .

shows the cross section of a wheel with

leather lling an d Fig 4 1 the same
,
.

wheel with its diameter enlarged by the

superposition of the n e w lling which is ,

be st made of poplar or willow wood It -

.

is made by taking straight pieces of

about 1 3; i nches in thickness planing ,

them into th e necessary sh ap e to t the

rim of th e wheel or merely cutting them
,

into th at shape b y means of a circular

saw and providing their upper surfaces
,

with grooves for the ropes Th ese pieces .

are made from 4 5 70 inch es in length

-

an d are p rovided on their in side s with

s a w cuts going half way th rough the
-

wood When we wish to put on this

.

lling th e pieces are steepe d in wate r

,
 99

for a d ay or two to ren der them more,

e x ible . They are th en n ailed to the

leather lling by mean s of suitable
wrought n ails which should be some
,

what longer than the thicknes s of both

llings together so that after passing
,

through th e l e a th e r they may strike the

iron below and be clinched thus a ff ord ,

'
ing a better hold The n ails must b e .

driven as shown in Figs 4 1 an d 4 2 an d .

,

especial care must be taken that there

are n o proj ecting ends within reach of
the rope .The whole operation can
easily be performed in an hour Without ,

throwing o ff the rope In case the l l .

ing of one wheel in this manner is not

sufcient to accomplish the desired
result we perform the same operation
,

on the other wheel If this is still i n .

s u f ci e n t the whole process is repeated

,

with a secon d layer When the rope .

has nally become of a con stant length ,

which usually takes place in th e course

of a year we m ay carefully remove all
,

b ut the leather lling and then shorten ,

the rope to th e p roper length allowing ,

 1 02

source but t h ere are some other d ifcul

,

ties which must be guarded against .

Wh en the tran smission is in good run

ning order the rop es should ru n very
,

steadily and without swaying l aterall y .

If the latter does occur it is due to one ,

or more of th e following causes ( leaving ,

out of con sideration the slight swaying

m otion produced by the wind or by an ,

ex cessive velocity ) ;
1 When the wheels are not p erfectly
.

balanced or are n ot true circles .

2 When the wheels are not in the

.

p roper plane .

3 When the lling is i n bad condi

.

tion .

4 When the rope is too much worn

. .

5 If the rope has been badly spliced

. .

6 If the rope touche s the groun d o r

.

other obstructions .

1 / It is ab solutely nece ssary to balan ce

th e wheels perfectly ; as if they are not ,

well bal anced the centrifugal force at

, ,

th e velocity with which they are driven ,

e x ercises a very prej udicial e ff ect on the

b earings of the shaft as well as o n the
,
 1 03

r o pe Th e bearings wear out faster and

.

waste more power in useless friction ,

while th e rope begins to swing some ,

times to such an e xtent as to be thrown

violently against the side of the wheel
groove thus we arin g out very ra pidly .

2 / In mounting a transmission the ,

greatest care should be taken to get the

wheels in th e same vertical plane and ,

th e shafts perfectly horizontal inasmuch,

a s any deviation from this position i m

m ediately shows itself in the rope .

3 / In case th e lling is in bad condi

tion and worn unequally it causes th e
,

rope to swing in a vertical plane The .

remedy is to cut the lling so as to m ake

it equally thick all around .

4 / If there are ends of wires proj ect

ing from the rope then every time that
,

one of these proj ection s p asses over the

wheel the rope receives a slight shock
, ,

causing it to swing The same action

.

t a ke s pl ace if torn or loose strand s occur

in the rope .

5 / If the rope h as been badly spliced ,

or given a fal se turn it will n o t run

,

steadily .
 1 06

A nother cause ofswingi ng is fo und in

v ery powerful tran smission s where it ,

becomes n ece ssary to use two rope s to

t ransmit the p ower conn ecting the t wo
,

wheels by a differential gear The o h .

j ect of this gear is to equalize the tension

h 8 37
-

in th e two rope s as neither this nor the

,

diameter of the wheel can be e x actly

maintaine d in two wheels runnin g side
by side A s the cross head of the diff er
.
-

e n ti al gear is rml y connecte d with th e

sh aft while the wheels with their b evel

,
 1 07

gear ru n loose on the same the result is ,

that when the ten sions or the eff ective

diameters of the wheels are not the same
i n both there is an additional rotatio n
,

of one or the other caused by the differ

,

Fig .

38

gear Thi s produce s slight verti

e n ti al .

cal o scillations which however have no

, , ,

prejudicial inuence on the work ing of

the ropes .

Wire ropes are sometimes used to

 1 08

tran smit th e p ower of a steam engine to

-

a distant building or to combine its

,
 110

a cotto n spinning establ ishment i n

Alsace causing the complete destruction
,

of a large steam engine .

Fig .

4 :

SECTI O N XI .

FILLI N G FO R THE W HE E LS .

The lling rst employe d by Mr A . .

Hirn consiste d of a strong le ather belt

, ,

covering the whole rim and fasten e d to

the same by wooden wedges With .

wheels o f large d iameter he was o h ,

l i g e d t o make this belt of several pieces ,



111

thereby weakening it considerably This .

style of lling however rarely lasted

, ,

longer than a f e w months Hirn wa s.

then i nduced to try rubber which has ,

remained in considerable use up to the

present day B ut with very large wheel s
.
,

the rubber was found to be un suitable

Fig 42

for the following reasons : Rubbe r ex

p ands greatly with heat and when ,

wheels lled with it are exposed to the

direct and strong rays of the sun the ,

rubber becomes soft and is cut by the

rope or it expands over the edge of the
,

wheel causing the rope to be thrown O E

,
.

In some cases where the lling expanded

,
 1 12

greatly at noon it returned to its origi

,

n a l position during the night

. O n the
 1 14

thus rendering it less subj ect to the action

of the air In spite of these precautions
.
,

a wooden l lin g rarely lasted more than

six or nine months when the wood wa s
,

most carefully selecte d ; w hile if knots

or unsoun d spots were present in th e
lling it wore out in a still shorter
,

p eriod V arious other woods were the n

.

tried b u t will ow and popl ar were foun d

,

to be the most durable as well as the

cheapest A s wood wears le ss when
.

subj ected to strain an d pressure across

th e direction of the grain this method ,

was al so tried notably at the immen se

,

Sch a h a u s e n water works In this case .

,

sm all pieces were o ut having the bre ,

ru nning f rom side to side of the rim of

the wh eel The se pieces were then dried
.

thoroughly and frequently i mmersed in

,

lin se ed varnish unt il they were complete

l y sat urated with the l atter thus b e co m ,

ing more durabl e and air tight No t -

.

withstan ding these precaution s some of ,

the piece s became loose and although , ,

more durable than th e plain wood llin g

previo u sly described they did not l ast
,
 1 15

longer than about one year A further .

l trial was made with woo d lling in ,

which the bres ran radially but with ,

no better results But this l ast metho d

.

has the advantage that when the rope

wears a groove into the wood the sides ,

do not split o ff as easily as in the two

other styles Cork has also b een tried
.

to some extent but it wa s found of little

,

value to transmit any con siderable force ,

as it wore out very rapidly .

A gain by wedging the groove full of

,

tarred oakum a cheap lling is obtained

, ,

nearly as good as le ather and not so ,

te dious to insert .

A nother pl an is to revolve the wheel

slowly an d let a lot of small sized ratlin
,

or jute yarn s wind up on themselve s in

-

th e groove ; then secure the en d s A fter .

a day or two of running the pressure of

,

the rope together with the tar wi ll h ave

, ,

m ade the lling compact .

The rst attempt s with the radial

leather lling were made about 1 8 65 ;
an d it was soon found that this metho d
of lling was so decidedly superior to al l
 1 16

others that it has n o w come into almost

,

exclusive use It is easily inserted by

.

any ordinary mechanic The sep arate

.

p ieces of leather are driven h ard against

e ach other in the groove of th e wheel .

Th e k ey or closing piece is made of indi a

rubber which is rst soften ed in h o t
,

water an d then driven into its proper

place The greatest wear of th e lling
.

occurs not as might be expe cted in the

, ,

driving wheel s b u t in the carrying

,

sheave s of an interme diate station and ,

there princip ally in the smaller pulley .

This is due partly to the great speed and ,

p artly to the fact th at the p erimetral

velocity of the pulley is often greater
than that of the rope itself .

The life o f leather lli ng depends o n

the quality of leather used an d on the ,

radial thickness of the pieces It is also .

aff ecte d by the tension and gen eral con

,
.

di tion of the ropes It may usually

.

be e stimated at about three years .

S ECT I ON XII .

E FFICI ENC Y .

The losses in the transmission of power

 118
0

t
3 4 14 2 34
0

02 5 02 4 02 2 02 0 01 6
The greatest loss . 02 5 takes place
I
t
when as might have been expected ;
t
for we previously found this to be the
condition for obtaining th e smallest
wheel B ut even this maximum loss is
.

a trie If we consider that with favor

.
,

able conditions we can l ead a wire rope

,

from 5 009 00 feet without any i n te rm e

diate support while shafting of th i s
,

length woul d cost an i mmense sum ,

besides being exceedingly inefcient we ,

can well appreciate the convenience an d

value of this method of transmitting
p ower .

For th e carrying sheaves the loss is as

follows : when
/
t
i i 3 1 1} 2 3%
t
lo ss
. 001 2 001 3 001 2 001 1 001 0 008 0

S o that th e e fciency in the most nu

t
favorable Ci rcumstances ,
when
may be arrive d at thus :
 1 19

l . O vercoming the axle friction of

the d riving and follow ing main
pulleys
2 . O vercoming a x le fric tion of each
intermediate sheave . 001 3

Hence the e i ci e n cy is E = 9 75 .

N where N is the number of carr y ing

,

sheaves .

SECT I O N XIII .

E S T I MA TE S .

It
is impossible to give any denite
idea as to the cost of erecting and main
taining a transmission In France where .
,

by far the greater number of applications

a re made the cost of the machinery and
,

its erection is estima ted at francs

per kilometer e x clusive of the necessary
,

cons tructions at the termi ni which are ,

said to require an addition al exp endi ture

of twenty ve francs per horse power
-
.

The average cost is about one f th -

that of bel ting an d about one twenty

,
-

f th that of shafting .

But th e number of carrying sheaves ,

 1 20

distance height of columns etc vary

, ,
.
,

s o exceedingly that n o more than a very

,

vague idea can b e given of the cost e x

cept by maki ng an estimate for every
special case To make this a mat ter of
.

ease I h ave appended a list of th e cur

,

rent price s of several articles th e rst ,

being the price of Wheel s bored to t

shaft and lin ed with rubber or leather :

D i am ete r . P ri c e .

1 4 f e et e ac h .

2
3
4
5

7
8
9 ca s t i n h al ve s
10
11
12
Spe c i al pri ces
for l arge r wh e el s .

When the linin g is worn out in these

wheel s , n e w lli ng ei ther of rubber o r
,

leather may be bought at 60 cen ts per

pound .

The price of the ropes will be foun d in

the wir e rope table previously given
- -
.
 1 22

to be done before the wire rope and the

rubb er or leather lin ed driving wheel -

solved a ll dif culty an d brought the ,

p rinciple to be a practical reality .

The numb er of applications of this

method of transmitting po wer has i n
crease d very rapidly A t the end of '

1 8 5 9 there were but f e w a ppli ca ti o n s in

, .

use In 1 8 6 2 there are known to have

.
,

been about 4 00 and i n 1 8 6 7 ab out 8 00

, .

A t the present time there are several

thousand i n successful O pera tion In .

1 8 64 a terrible explosion destroyed a l

,

most all o f the great powder mill at

O ckh ta situa ted about six miles from S t
,
.

P etersburg The whole establishment

.

was rebuilt After studying many com

.

b i n a ti o n s an artillery o fcer proposed to

,

prot by th e resources which the telo

dyn amic ca bles Off ered to engineers and ,

thus to realize the only combination

which could prove successful in a po w
der mill ; namely a great distance b e
-
,

tween the buil di ngs so that the explosion,

of one should not entai l the ruin of the

rest . The n e w establishment which ,
 1 23

went into operation in 1 8 6 7 is compose d ,

of thirty four d iff erent workshops or

-

laboratories to which motive p ower is

,

transmitte d by means of wire rop es

driven by three turbines thus d i s trib ,

n ting a total of 2 74 horse power along a -

li ne nearly a mile in length .

The largest transmission is that em

ployed to utilize the falls of the Rhine ,

near Sch a h a u s e n in S witzerland A d

,
.

vantage was taken of the rapids at one

si de to put in a number of turbines
, ,

a ggregating in all 600 horse power -

.

S ince the steep rocky banks forbad e the

erection of any fac tories in the imme
diate vicinity the entire power was
,

transferred diagonally across th e stream

to th e town about a mile further down
, ,

and there distributed certain rocks in ,

the water being made use of to set up the

required intermediate stations In the .

industries we frequently meet with a

similar case M any valuabl e sites for
.

water power are lying idle in this coun

-

try for want of building room in their

,

immediate vicinity New E ngl an d espe

.
 1 24

ci a l laboun ds with them Coal being

y .

so dear there their value is all the

,

greater S ince the wa ter can only be

.

led down hill in certain directions the ,

cost of a canal or u m e would in most

cases come too high and so the power
,

remains unimproved By ropes h o w .

,

ever we can convey the power of a tur

,

bine or water wheel in any direction

-
,

both up stream an d down stream ; up an

ascent of 1 in 8 or 1 0 or down a moder
,

ate slope as well The power need not

.

be conned to one factory but may be ,

distribute d among a dozen if necessary , ,

locate d so as to suit their p articular

business and not to suit the oftentimes
,

inconvenient location o f a can al .

Thus by mean s of the tran smission of

,

po wer by wire ropes we may ut ili ze all

,

this power that is n o w being wasted and ,

devote it to a useful purpose .

 St e l W rks wi th n u mer u s engravi g s
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C O LL IN S The P i a t e B k f Usef l All y s an d

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President f C olumb ia C oll ege N ew Y ork S econd

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 D . V AN NO STR A N D S PU B L I C ATI O NS
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nearly 3 woodc u ts Crown 8 cl oth

00 . vo , 5 oo

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